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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indigenous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Indigenous </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indigenous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contact_with_Europeans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contact_with_Europeans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Contact with Europeans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contact_with_Europeans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_18th_century:_Missions_and_decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_18th_century:_Missions_and_decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Late 18th century: Missions and decline </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_18th_century:_Missions_and_decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century:_Genocide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century:_Genocide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 19th century: Genocide </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century:_Genocide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Russian_contacts_(1812–1841)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_contacts_(1812–1841)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.1 Russian contacts (1812–1841) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian_contacts_(1812–1841)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mexican_secularization_(1833–1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mexican_secularization_(1833–1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.2 Mexican secularization (1833–1848) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mexican_secularization_(1833–1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_settler_colonialism_(1848–)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_settler_colonialism_(1848–)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.3 American settler colonialism (1848–) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_settler_colonialism_(1848–)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-California_Gold_Rush_and_forced_labor_(1848–1855)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#California_Gold_Rush_and_forced_labor_(1848–1855)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.4 California Gold Rush and forced labor (1848–1855) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-California_Gold_Rush_and_forced_labor_(1848–1855)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_unratified_treaties_(1851–1852)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_unratified_treaties_(1851–1852)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.5 American unratified treaties (1851–1852) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_unratified_treaties_(1851–1852)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-California_genocide_(1846–1873)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#California_genocide_(1846–1873)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.6 California genocide (1846–1873) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-California_genocide_(1846–1873)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century:_Forced_assimilation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century:_Forced_assimilation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 20th century: Forced assimilation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century:_Forced_assimilation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indian_removal_in_California_(1903)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_removal_in_California_(1903)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.1 Indian removal in California (1903) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_removal_in_California_(1903)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_boarding_schools_in_California_(1892–1935)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_boarding_schools_in_California_(1892–1935)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.2 Indian boarding schools in California (1892–1935) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_boarding_schools_in_California_(1892–1935)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unratified_treaties_reimbursement_(1944–1946)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unratified_treaties_reimbursement_(1944–1946)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.3 Unratified treaties reimbursement (1944–1946) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unratified_treaties_reimbursement_(1944–1946)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_Freedom_Act_in_California_(1978–)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_Freedom_Act_in_California_(1978–)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.4 Religious Freedom Act in California (1978–) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_Freedom_Act_in_California_(1978–)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 21st century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Recognition_as_genocide_(2019)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recognition_as_genocide_(2019)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.1 Recognition as genocide (2019) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recognition_as_genocide_(2019)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_reawakening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_reawakening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.2 Language reawakening </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_reawakening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prison-industrial_complex" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prison-industrial_complex"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.3 Prison-industrial complex </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prison-industrial_complex-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burial_sites,_remains,_and_cultural_items" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burial_sites,_remains,_and_cultural_items"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.4 Burial sites, remains, and cultural items </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burial_sites,_remains,_and_cultural_items-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Land_Back_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_Back_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.5 Land Back movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_Back_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Material_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Material_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Material culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Material_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Material culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Material_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Basket_weaving" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basket_weaving"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Basket weaving </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basket_weaving-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Foods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Plant-based_foods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant-based_foods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Plant-based foods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant-based_foods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Marine life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anadromous_fish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anadromous_fish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Anadromous fish </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anadromous_fish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Society and culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reservations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reservations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Reservations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reservations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_peoples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_peoples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 List of peoples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_peoples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Indigenous peoples of California</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 13 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-13" aria-hidden="true" > 13 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Коренно население на Калифорния – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Коренно население на Калифорния" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerindis_de_Calif%C3%B2rnia" title="Amerindis de Califòrnia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Amerindis de Califòrnia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblos_ind%C3%ADgenas_de_California" title="Pueblos indígenas de California – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pueblos indígenas de California" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peuples_autochtones_de_Californie" title="Peuples autochtones de Californie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Peuples autochtones de Californie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D6%86%D5%B8%D5%BC%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%B0%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Կալիֆոռնիայի հնդկացիներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կալիֆոռնիայի հնդկացիներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifornijski_Indijanci" title="Kalifornijski Indijanci – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kalifornijski Indijanci" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaliforniai_indi%C3%A1nok" title="Kaliforniai indiánok – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kaliforniai indiánok" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inheemse_volken_van_Californi%C3%AB" title="Inheemse volken van Californië – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Inheemse volken van Californië" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%86%D1%8B_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Индейцы Калифорнии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Индейцы Калифорнии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifornsk%C3%AD_Indi%C3%A1ni" title="Kalifornskí Indiáni – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kalifornskí Indiáni" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifornian_intiaanit" title="Kalifornian intiaanit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kalifornian intiaanit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaliforniya_K%C4%B1z%C4%B1lderilileri" title="Kaliforniya Kızılderilileri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kaliforniya Kızılderilileri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Native Californians</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Winnemem_Wintu_Chief_(3812027389).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/The_Winnemem_Wintu_Chief_%283812027389%29.jpg/218px-The_Winnemem_Wintu_Chief_%283812027389%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="218" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/The_Winnemem_Wintu_Chief_%283812027389%29.jpg/327px-The_Winnemem_Wintu_Chief_%283812027389%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/The_Winnemem_Wintu_Chief_%283812027389%29.jpg/436px-The_Winnemem_Wintu_Chief_%283812027389%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="844" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Winnemem_Wintu" title="Winnemem Wintu">Winnemem Wintu</a> chief Caleen Sisk in 2009</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Pomo_Dancer_(Kal-si-wa,_Rosa_Peters)_by_Grace_Hudson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting of a Pomo woman with long black hair, wearing a feathered headdress and patterned poncho" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/A_Pomo_Dancer_%28Kal-si-wa%2C_Rosa_Peters%29_by_Grace_Hudson.jpg/218px-A_Pomo_Dancer_%28Kal-si-wa%2C_Rosa_Peters%29_by_Grace_Hudson.jpg" decoding="async" width="218" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/A_Pomo_Dancer_%28Kal-si-wa%2C_Rosa_Peters%29_by_Grace_Hudson.jpg/327px-A_Pomo_Dancer_%28Kal-si-wa%2C_Rosa_Peters%29_by_Grace_Hudson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/A_Pomo_Dancer_%28Kal-si-wa%2C_Rosa_Peters%29_by_Grace_Hudson.jpg/436px-A_Pomo_Dancer_%28Kal-si-wa%2C_Rosa_Peters%29_by_Grace_Hudson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="688" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>A representation of a <a href="/wiki/Pomo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pomo people">Pomo</a> dancer, painting by Grace Hudson</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous people">Indigenous peoples</a> of <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, commonly known as Indigenous Californians or Native Californians, are a diverse group of nations and peoples that are indigenous to the geographic area within the current boundaries of California before and after <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a>. There are currently 109 <a href="/wiki/Federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Federally recognized tribes">federally recognized tribes</a> in the state and over forty self-identified tribes or tribal bands that have applied for <a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">federal recognition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> California has the second-largest <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> population in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-sdsu-2">[2]</a> Most tribes practiced <a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">forest gardening</a> or <a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">permaculture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Controlled_burning" class="mw-redirect" title="Controlled burning">controlled burning</a> to ensure the availability of food and <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_plants" title="Medicinal plants">medicinal plants</a> as well as ecosystem balance.<a href="#cite_note-Cunningham2010-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Blackburn-1993-4">[4]</a> Archeological sites indicate human occupation of California for thousands of years. <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European settlers</a> began exploring their homelands in the late 18th century. This began with the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a> soldiers and missionaries who established <a href="/wiki/Franciscans" title="Franciscans">Franciscan</a> missions that instituted an <a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_California#Death_rate_at_the_missions" title="Spanish missions in California">immense rate of death</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">cultural genocide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Snow-2002-5">[5]</a> Following <a href="/wiki/California_statehood" class="mw-redirect" title="California statehood">California statehood</a>, a state-enabled policy of elimination was carried out against its aboriginal people known as the <a href="/wiki/California_genocide" title="California genocide">California genocide</a> in the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Americans" title="Anglo-Americans">Anglo-American</a> <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonialism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Risling_Baldy-2018-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Blakemore-2022-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-8">[8]</a> The Native population reached its lowest in the early 20th century while <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">cultural assimilation</a> into white society became imposed through <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">Indian boarding schools</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ACLU_NorCal-2018-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-CBS-2022-10">[10]</a> Native Californian peoples continue to advocate for their cultures, homelands, sacred sites, and their right to live.<a href="#cite_note-Loewe-2016-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Uyeda-2021-12">[12]</a> In the 21st century, <a href="/wiki/Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">language revitalization</a> began among some California tribes.<a href="#cite_note-KCET-2022-13">[13]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a> movement has taken shape in the state with more support to return land to tribes.<a href="#cite_note-Reynoso-2022-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> There is a growing recognition by California of Native peoples' environmental knowledge to improve ecosystems and mitigate <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfires</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> The traditional homelands of many tribal nations may not conform exactly to the state of California's boundaries. Many tribes on the eastern border with <a href="/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a> have been classified as <a href="/wiki/Great_Basin_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Basin tribes">Great Basin tribes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> while some tribes on the <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a> border are classified as <a href="/wiki/Plateau_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Plateau tribes">Plateau tribes</a>. Tribes in <a href="/wiki/Baja_California" title="Baja California">Baja California</a> who do not cross into California are classified as <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Mexico" title="Indigenous peoples of Mexico">indigenous peoples of Mexico</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pritzker-19">[19]</a>: 112  The <a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay" title="Kumeyaay">Kumeyaay</a> nation is split by the <a href="/wiki/Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_border" title="Mexico–United States border">Mexico-United States border</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Luna-Firebaugh-2002-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">History of the west coast of North America</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indigenous">Indigenous</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Indigenous">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coso_petroglyphs_(5).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Coso_petroglyphs_%285%29.JPG/218px-Coso_petroglyphs_%285%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="218" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Coso_petroglyphs_%285%29.JPG/327px-Coso_petroglyphs_%285%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Coso_petroglyphs_%285%29.JPG/436px-Coso_petroglyphs_%285%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2336" data-file-height="1824" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Coso_Rock_Art_District" title="Coso Rock Art District">Coso Rock Art District</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mojave_Desert" title="Mojave Desert">Mojave Desert</a> contains about 100,000 <a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">petroglyphs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lat_list-21">[21]</a></figcaption></figure> Evidence of human occupation of California dates from at least 19,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Archeological sites with dates that support human settlement in period 12,000 -7,000 ybp are: <a href="/wiki/Borax_Lake_Site" title="Borax Lake Site">Borax Lake</a>, the Cross Creek Site, <a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands_(California)" title="Channel Islands (California)">Santa Barbara Channel Islands</a>, Santa Barbara Coast's Sudden Flats, and <a href="/wiki/CA-SCR-177" class="mw-redirect" title="CA-SCR-177">the Scotts Valley site, CA-SCR-177</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Arlington_Springs_Man" title="Arlington Springs Man">Arlington Springs Man</a> is an excavation of 10,000-year-old human remains in the Channel Islands. Marine shellfish remains associated with Kelp Forests were recovered in the Channel Island sites and at other sites such as Daisy Cave and Cardwell Bluffs dated between 12,000 and 9000 cal BP. Prior to European contact, indigenous Californians had 500 distinct sub-tribes or groups, each consisting of 50 to 500 individual members.<a href="#cite_note-Pritzker-19">[19]</a>: 112  The size of California tribes today are small compared to tribes in other regions of the United States. Prior to contact with Europeans, the California region contained the highest Native American population density north of what is now <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pritzker-19">[19]</a>: 112  Because of the temperate climate and easy access to food sources, approximately one-third of all <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a> were living in the area of California.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Early Native Californians were <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a>, with seed collection becoming widespread around 9,000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-Pritzker-19">[19]</a>: 112  Two early southern California cultural traditions include the <a href="/wiki/La_Jolla_complex" title="La Jolla complex">La Jolla complex</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pauma_Complex" title="Pauma Complex">Pauma Complex</a>, both dating from c. 6050–1000 BCE. From 3000 to 2000 BCE, regional diversity developed, with the peoples making fine-tuned adaptations to local environments. Traits recognizable to historic tribes were developed by approximately 500 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-Pritzker-19">[19]</a>: 113  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yurok_plankhouse03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Yurok_plankhouse03.jpg/220px-Yurok_plankhouse03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Yurok_plankhouse03.jpg/330px-Yurok_plankhouse03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Yurok_plankhouse03.jpg/440px-Yurok_plankhouse03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3613" data-file-height="2464" /></a><figcaption>A reconstruction of a traditional <a href="/wiki/Yurok" title="Yurok">Yurok</a> <a href="/wiki/Plank_house" title="Plank house">plank house</a>.</figcaption></figure> The indigenous people practiced various forms of sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">forest gardening</a> in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands to ensure availability of food and medicine plants. They <a href="/wiki/Native_American_use_of_fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American use of fire">controlled fire</a> on a regional scale to create a low-intensity <a href="/wiki/Fire_ecology" title="Fire ecology">fire ecology</a>; this prevented larger, catastrophic fires and <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">sustained a low-density "wild" agriculture</a> in loose rotation.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Blackburn-1993-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cunningham2010-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> By burning underbrush and grass, the natives revitalized patches of land and provided fresh shoots to attract food animals. A form of <a href="/wiki/Fire-stick_farming" title="Fire-stick farming">fire-stick farming</a> was used to clear areas of old growth to encourage new in a repeated cycle; a <a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">permaculture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cunningham2010-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contact_with_Europeans">Contact with Europeans</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Contact with Europeans">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a></div> Different tribes encountered non-Native European explorers and settlers at widely different times. The southern and central coastal tribes encountered European explorers in the mid-16th century. Tribes such as the <a href="/wiki/Quechan" title="Quechan">Quechan</a> or <a href="/wiki/Yuman_Indians" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuman Indians">Yuman Indians</a> in present-day southeast California and southwest Arizona first encountered Spanish explorers in the 1760s and 1770s. Tribes on the coast of northwest California, like the <a href="/wiki/Miwok" title="Miwok">Miwok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yurok_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Yurok people">Yurok</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yokut_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Yokut people">Yokut</a>, had contact with Russian explorers and seafarers in the late 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> In remote interior regions, some tribes did not meet non-natives until the mid-19th century.<a href="#cite_note-Pritzker-19">[19]</a>: 114  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_18th_century:_Missions_and_decline">Late 18th century: Missions and decline</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Late 18th century: Missions and decline">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mission_Indians" title="Mission Indians">Mission Indians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_California" title="Spanish missions in California">Spanish missions in California</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:San_Gabriel_Mission_circa_1832.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/San_Gabriel_Mission_circa_1832.jpg/225px-San_Gabriel_Mission_circa_1832.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/San_Gabriel_Mission_circa_1832.jpg/338px-San_Gabriel_Mission_circa_1832.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/San_Gabriel_Mission_circa_1832.jpg/450px-San_Gabriel_Mission_circa_1832.jpg 2x" data-file-width="782" data-file-height="580" /></a><figcaption>A painting representing <a href="/wiki/Mission_San_Gabriel_Arc%C3%A1ngel" title="Mission San Gabriel Arcángel">Mission San Gabriel Arcángel</a> with <a href="/wiki/Tongva" title="Tongva">Tongva</a> dwellings in the foreground. The mission recorded 7,854 baptisms and 5,656 deaths.<a href="#cite_note-Guinn-1907-27">[27]</a> A clerk of <a href="/wiki/Jedediah_Smith" title="Jedediah Smith">Jedidiah Smith</a> described the conditions of native people as "they are complete slaves in every sense of the word."<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></figcaption></figure> At the time of the establishment of the first Spanish Mission in 1769, the most widely accepted estimates say that California's indigenous population was around 340,000 people and possibly more. The indigenous peoples of California were extremely diverse and made up of ten different linguistic families with at least 78 distinct languages. These are further broken down into many dialects, while the people were organized into sedentary and semi-sedentary villages of 400-500 micro-tribes.<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2019-29">[29]</a> The Spanish began their long-term occupation in California in 1769 with the founding of <a href="/wiki/Mission_San_Diego_de_Alcal%C3%A1" title="Mission San Diego de Alcalá">Mission San Diego de Alcalá</a> in <a href="/wiki/San_Diego,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="San Diego, California">San Diego</a>. The Spanish built 20 additional missions in California, most of which were constructed in the late 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-castillo-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> From 1769 to 1832, an estimated total of 87,787 baptisms and 24,529 marriages had been conducted at the missions. In that same period, 63,789 deaths at the missions were recorded, indicating <a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_California#Death_rate_at_the_missions" title="Spanish missions in California">the immense death rate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Snow-2002-5">[5]</a> This massive drop in population has been attributed to the introduction of diseases, which rapidly spread while native people were forced into close quarters at the missions, as well as torture, overworking, and malnourishment at the missions.<a href="#cite_note-Pritzker-2000-32">[32]</a> The missions also introduced European <a href="/wiki/Invasive_plant_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasive plant species">invasive plant species</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Cattle_grazing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cattle grazing">cattle grazing</a> practices that significantly transformed the California landscape, altering native people's relationship to the land as well as key plant and animal species that had been integral to their ways of life and worldviews for thousands of years.<a href="#cite_note-Pritzker-2000-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Agnew-2016-33">[33]</a> The missions further perpetuated <a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">cultural genocide</a> against native people through enforced <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Christianity" title="Conversion to Christianity">conversion to Christianity</a> and the prohibition of numerous cultural practices under threat of violence and torture, which were commonplace at the missions.<a href="#cite_note-Pritzker-2000-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century:_Genocide">19th century: Genocide</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 19th century: Genocide">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Population_of_Native_California" title="Population of Native California">population of Native California</a> was reduced by 90% during the 19th century—from more than 200,000 in the early 19th century to approximately 15,000 at the end of the century.<a href="#cite_note-Pritzker-19">[19]</a>: 113  The majority of this population decline occurred in the latter half of the century, under American occupation. While in 1848, the population of native people was about 150,000, by 1870 it fell to 30,000, and fell further to 16,000 by the end of the century.<a href="#cite_note-Madley-2016-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Krell,_Dorothy_1979_p._316-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-PBS-38">[38]</a> The mass decline in population has been attributed to disease and epidemics that swept through Spanish missions in the early part of the century, such as an 1833 malaria epidemic,<a href="#cite_note-Pritzker-19">[19]</a>: 113-14  among other factors including state-enabled massacres that accelerated under <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Americans" title="Anglo-Americans">Anglo-American</a> rule.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer-2016-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russian_contacts_(1812–1841)">Russian contacts (1812–1841)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Russian contacts (1812–1841)">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tikhanov_-_Balthazar_Inhabitant_of_Northern_California_(1818).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Tikhanov_-_Balthazar_Inhabitant_of_Northern_California_%281818%29.png/218px-Tikhanov_-_Balthazar_Inhabitant_of_Northern_California_%281818%29.png" decoding="async" width="218" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Tikhanov_-_Balthazar_Inhabitant_of_Northern_California_%281818%29.png/327px-Tikhanov_-_Balthazar_Inhabitant_of_Northern_California_%281818%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Tikhanov_-_Balthazar_Inhabitant_of_Northern_California_%281818%29.png/436px-Tikhanov_-_Balthazar_Inhabitant_of_Northern_California_%281818%29.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption>A painting representing Balthazar, Inhabitant of Northern California (1818), by <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Tikhanov" title="Mikhail Tikhanov">Mikhail Tikhanov</a>.</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_North_America#California" title="Russian colonization of North America">Russian colonization of North America § California</a></div> In the early 19th century, Russian exploration of California and contacts with indigenous people were usually associated with the activity of the <a href="/wiki/Russian-American_Company" title="Russian-American Company">Russian-American Company</a>. A Russian explorer, Baron <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_von_Wrangell" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand von Wrangell">Ferdinand von Wrangell</a>, visited California in 1818, 1833, and 1835.<a href="#cite_note-Hudson-40">[40]</a>: 10  Looking for a potential site for a new outpost of the company in California in place of <a href="/wiki/Fort_Ross" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Ross">Fort Ross</a>, Wrangell's expedition encountered the native people north of <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay" title="San Francisco Bay">San Francisco Bay</a>. He noted that local women, who were used to physical labor, seemed to be of stronger constitution than men, whose main activity was hunting. He summarized his impressions of the California Indians as a people with a natural propensity for independence, inventive spirit, and a unique sense of the beautiful.<a href="#cite_note-Hudson-40">[40]</a>: 11  Another notable Russian expedition to California was the 13-month-long visit of the scientist <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Voznesensky" title="Ilya Voznesensky">Ilya Voznesensky</a> in 1840–1841. Voznesensky's goal was to gather some ethnographic, biological, and geological materials for the collection of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Imperial Academy of Sciences</a>. He described the locals that he met on his trip to Cape Mendocino as "the untamed Indian tribes of <a href="/wiki/New_Albion" title="New Albion">New Albion</a>, who roam like animals and, protected by impenetrable vegetation, keep from being enslaved by the Spanish".<a href="#cite_note-Hudson-40">[40]</a>: 12  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mexican_secularization_(1833–1848)">Mexican secularization (1833–1848)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mexican secularization (1833–1848)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ranchos_of_California" title="Ranchos of California">Ranchos of California</a></div> After about a decade of conservative rule in the <a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Republic" title="First Mexican Republic">First Mexican Republic</a>, which formed in 1824 after Mexico gained independence from the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> in 1821, a liberal sect of the First Mexican Republic passed an act to <a href="/wiki/Mexican_secularization_act_of_1833" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican secularization act of 1833">secularize the missions</a>, which effectively ended religious authority over native people in <a href="/wiki/Alta_California" title="Alta California">Alta California</a>. The legislation was primarily passed from liberal sects in the Mexican government, including <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Luis_Mora" title="José María Luis Mora">José María Luis Mora</a>, who believed that the missions prevented native people from accessing "the value of individual property."<a href="#cite_note-Jackson-1997-41">[41]</a> The Mexican government did not return the lands to tribes, but made land grants to settlers of at least partial European ancestry, transforming the remaining parts of mission land into large land grants or ranchos. Secularization provided native people with the opportunity to leave the mission system,<a href="#cite_note-Jackson-1997-41">[41]</a> yet left many people <a href="/wiki/Landlessness" title="Landlessness">landless</a>, who were thus pressured into <a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">wage labor</a> at the ranchos.<a href="#cite_note-Pritzker-19">[19]</a>: 114  The few Indigenous people who acquired land grants were those who have proven their <a href="/wiki/Hispanicization" title="Hispanicization">Hispanicization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a>. This was noted in the land acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Victoria_Reid" title="Victoria Reid">Victoria Reid</a>, an Indigenous woman born at the village of <a href="/wiki/Comicranga" title="Comicranga">Comicranga</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Raquel_Casas-2005-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="American_settler_colonialism_(1848–)">American settler colonialism (1848–)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: American settler colonialism (1848–)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22Protecting_The_Settlers%22_Illustration_by_JR_Browne_for_his_work_%22The_Indians_Of_California%22_1864.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%22Protecting_The_Settlers%22_Illustration_by_JR_Browne_for_his_work_%22The_Indians_Of_California%22_1864.jpg/220px-%22Protecting_The_Settlers%22_Illustration_by_JR_Browne_for_his_work_%22The_Indians_Of_California%22_1864.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="391" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%22Protecting_The_Settlers%22_Illustration_by_JR_Browne_for_his_work_%22The_Indians_Of_California%22_1864.jpg/330px-%22Protecting_The_Settlers%22_Illustration_by_JR_Browne_for_his_work_%22The_Indians_Of_California%22_1864.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%22Protecting_The_Settlers%22_Illustration_by_JR_Browne_for_his_work_%22The_Indians_Of_California%22_1864.jpg/440px-%22Protecting_The_Settlers%22_Illustration_by_JR_Browne_for_his_work_%22The_Indians_Of_California%22_1864.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="3029" /></a><figcaption>"Protecting the Settlers," illustration by <a href="/wiki/John_Ross_Browne" title="John Ross Browne">John Ross Browne</a> (1864)</figcaption></figure> The first governor of <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> as a U.S. state was <a href="/wiki/Peter_Hardeman_Burnett" title="Peter Hardeman Burnett">Peter Hardenman Burnett</a>, who came to power in 1848 following the United States victory in the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Blakemore-2022-7">[7]</a> As American settlers came in control of California with the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Guadalupe_Hidalgo" title="Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo">Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo</a>, its administrators honored some Mexican land grant titles, but did not honor <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_land_title" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal land title">aboriginal land title</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pritzker-19">[19]</a>: 114  With this shift in power, the American settlers embraced a policy of elimination toward indigenous people in California. In his second state address in 1851, Burnett framed an eliminatory outlook toward native people as one of defense for the property of <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">white settlers</a>:<a href="#cite_note-Senate-1851-43">[43]</a><blockquote>The white man, to whom time is money, and who labors hard all day to create the comforts of life, cannot sit up all night to watch his property; and after being robbed a few times, he becomes desperate, and resolve upon a war of extermination. This is a common feeling among our people who have lived upon the Indian frontier ... That a war of extermination will continue to be waged between the races until the Indian race becomes extinct must be expected. While we cannot anticipate this result but with painful regret, the inevitable destiny of the race is beyond the power or wisdom of man to avert.<a href="#cite_note-Senate-1851-43">[43]</a></blockquote>Some local communities like the city of <a href="/wiki/Shasta,_California" title="Shasta, California">Shasta</a> authorized "five dollars for every Indian head."<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> In this period, 303 volunteer militia groups of 35,000 men were formed by the settlers.<a href="#cite_note-Risling_Baldy-2018-6">[6]</a> In the fiscal year of 1851–1852, California reimbursed approximately $1 million of expenses for militia groups engaged in "the suppression of Indian hostilities", although in fact, they were massacring native people.<a href="#cite_note-:0-8">[8]</a> Volunteer militia groups were also indirectly <a href="/wiki/Subsidized" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsidized">subsidized</a> by the U.S. federal government, who reimbursed money to the state for the militias.<a href="#cite_note-Risling_Baldy-2018-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="California_Gold_Rush_and_forced_labor_(1848–1855)">California Gold Rush and forced labor (1848–1855)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: California Gold Rush and forced labor (1848–1855)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush#Effect_on_Native_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush § Effect on Native Americans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_in_California" title="Forced labor in California">Forced labor in California</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gold_Rush_Indian_Woman_Panning.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Gold_Rush_Indian_Woman_Panning.jpg/218px-Gold_Rush_Indian_Woman_Panning.jpg" decoding="async" width="218" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Gold_Rush_Indian_Woman_Panning.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="323" /></a><figcaption>1850 depiction of a native woman panning for gold in the <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a>. <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_in_California" title="Forced labor in California">Forced labor of native people in California</a> was common during the gold rush, permitted by the 1850 <a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Government_and_Protection_of_Indians" title="Act for the Government and Protection of Indians">Act for the Government and Protection of Indians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Magliari-2004-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Madley-46">[46]</a></figcaption></figure> Most of inland California including <a href="/wiki/Deserts_of_California" title="Deserts of California">California deserts</a> and the <a href="/wiki/California_Central_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="California Central Valley">Central Valley</a> was in possession of native people until the acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Alta_California" title="Alta California">Alta California</a> by the United States. The discovery of gold at <a href="/wiki/Sutter%27s_Mill" title="Sutter's Mill">Sutter's Mill</a> in 1848 inspired a mass migration of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Americans" title="Anglo-Americans">Anglo-American</a> settlers into areas where native people had avoided sustained encounters with invaders. The <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a> involved a series of massacres and conflicts between settlers and the indigenous peoples of California lasting from about 1846 to 1873 that is generally referred to as the <a href="/wiki/California_genocide" title="California genocide">California genocide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Blakemore-2022-7">[7]</a> The negative impact of the <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a> on both the local indigenous inhabitants and the environment were substantial, decimating the people still remaining.<a href="#cite_note-Indian_Country_Today-2014-47">[47]</a> 100,000 native people died during the first two years of the gold rush alone.<a href="#cite_note-Blakemore-2022-7">[7]</a> Settlers took land both for their camps and to farm and supply food for their camps. The surging mining population resulted in the disappearance of many food sources. Toxic waste from their operations killed fish and destroyed habitats. Settlers viewed indigenous people as obstacles for gold, so they actively went into villages where they raped the women and killed the men.<a href="#cite_note-Indian_Country_Today-2014-47">[47]</a> Sexual violence against native women and young girls was a normal part of white settler life, who were often forced into prostitution or <a href="/wiki/Sex_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex slavery">sex slavery</a>. Kidnappings and rape of native women and girls was reported as occurring "daily and nightly." This <a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">violence against women</a> often provoked attacks on white settlers by native men.<a href="#cite_note-Risling_Baldy-2018-6">[6]</a> Forced labor was also common during the Gold Rush, permitted by the 1850 <a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Government_and_Protection_of_Indians" title="Act for the Government and Protection of Indians">Act for the Government and Protection of Indians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Magliari-2004-45">[45]</a> Part of this law instituted the following as a legal practice:<a href="#cite_note-Johnston-Dodds-2002a-48">[48]</a><blockquote>Any person could go before a Justice of Peace to obtain Indian children for indenture. The Justice determined whether or not compulsory means were used to obtain the child. If the Justice was satisfied that no coercion occurred, the person obtain a certificate that authorized him to have the care, custody, control and earnings of an Indian until their age of majority (for males, eighteen years, for females, fifteen years).<a href="#cite_note-Johnston-Dodds-2002a-48">[48]</a></blockquote>Raids on native villages were common, where adults and children were threatened with fatal consequence for refusing what was essentially <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a>. Although this was in legal terms illegal, the law was established not to help protect indigenous people, so there were rarely interventions to stop <a href="/wiki/Kidnapping" title="Kidnapping">kidnappings</a> and the circulation of stolen children into the market by law enforcement.<a href="#cite_note-Johnston-Dodds-2002a-48">[48]</a> What were effectively <a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">slave auctions</a> occurred where laborers could be "purchased" for as low as 35 dollars.<a href="#cite_note-Madley2-49">[49]</a> A central location for auctions was <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>, where an 1850 city ordinance passed by the <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_City_Council" title="Los Angeles City Council">Los Angeles City Council</a> allowed prisoners to be "auctioned off to the highest bidder for private service."<a href="#cite_note-KCET-2016-50">[50]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Robert_Heizer" title="Robert Heizer">Robert Heizer</a> referred to this as "a thinly disguised substitute for slavery."<a href="#cite_note-KCET-2016-50">[50]</a> Auctions continued as a weekly practice for nearly twenty years until there were no California native people left to sell.<a href="#cite_note-KCET-2016-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="American_unratified_treaties_(1851–1852)">American unratified treaties (1851–1852)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: American unratified treaties (1851–1852)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/California_Indian_Reservations_and_Cessions" title="California Indian Reservations and Cessions">California Indian Reservations and Cessions</a></div> The United States Senate sent a group of consultants, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wozencraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Oliver Wozencraft">Oliver Wozencraft</a>, George Barbour, and <a href="/wiki/Redick_McKee" title="Redick McKee">Redick McKee</a> to make treaties with the indigenous peoples of California in 1851. Leaders throughout the state signed 18 treaties with the government officials that guaranteed 7.5 million acres of land (or about 1/7th of California)<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> in an attempt to ensure the future of their peoples amid encroaching <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonialism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Americans" title="Anglo-Americans">Anglo-American</a> settlers in California responded with dissatisfaction and contempt at the treaties, believing the native people were being reserved too much land. Despite making agreements, the U.S. government sided with the settlers and tabled the treaties without informing the signees. They remained shelved and were never ratified.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer-2016-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="California_genocide_(1846–1873)">California genocide (1846–1873)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: California genocide (1846–1873)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/California_genocide" title="California genocide">California genocide</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Modocs_at_Stronghold_450.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Modocs_at_Stronghold_450.jpg/218px-Modocs_at_Stronghold_450.jpg" decoding="async" width="218" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Modocs_at_Stronghold_450.jpg/327px-Modocs_at_Stronghold_450.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Modocs_at_Stronghold_450.jpg/436px-Modocs_at_Stronghold_450.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="289" /></a><figcaption>1873 sketch by <a href="/wiki/William_Simpson_(Scottish_artist)" title="William Simpson (Scottish artist)">William Simpson</a> of <a href="/wiki/Modoc_people" title="Modoc people">Modoc</a> fighters at <a href="/wiki/Captain_Jack%27s_Stronghold" title="Captain Jack's Stronghold">Captain Jack's Stronghold</a>.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/California_genocide" title="California genocide">California genocide</a> continued after the <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a> period. By the late 1850s, Anglo-American militias were invading the homelands of native people in the northern and mountainous areas of the state, which had avoided some earlier waves of violence due to their more remote locations.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Near the end of the period associated with the California genocide, the final stage of the <a href="/wiki/Modoc_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Modoc Campaign">Modoc Campaign</a> was triggered when Modoc men led by Kintpuash (AKA Captain Jack) murdered <a href="/wiki/Edward_Canby" title="Edward Canby">General Canby</a> at the peace tent in 1873. However, it's not widely known that between 1851 and 1872 the Modoc population decreased by 75 to 88% as a result of seven anti-Modoc campaigns started by the whites.<a href="#cite_note-Woolford-53">[53]</a>: 95  There is evidence that the first massacre of the Modocs by non-natives took place as early as 1840. According to the story told by a chief of the <a href="/wiki/Achomawi" title="Achomawi">Achumawi</a> tribe (neighboring to Modocs), a group of trappers from the north stopped by the <a href="/wiki/Tule_lake" class="mw-redirect" title="Tule lake">Tule lake</a> around the year 1840 and invited the Modocs to a feast. As they sat down to eat, the cannon was fired and many Indians were killed. The father of Captain Jack was among the survivors of that attack. Since then the Modocs resisted the intruders notoriously. Additionally, when in 1846 the <a href="/wiki/Applegate_Trail" title="Applegate Trail">Applegate Trail</a> cut through the <a href="/wiki/Modoc_people" title="Modoc people">Modoc</a> territory, the migrants and their livestock damaged and depleted the ecosystem that the Modoc depended on to survive.<a href="#cite_note-Woolford-53">[53]</a>: 95-96  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century:_Forced_assimilation">20th century: Forced assimilation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 20th century: Forced assimilation">edit</a>]</div> By 1900, the population of native people who survived the eliminatory policies and acts carried out in the 19th century was estimated at 16,000 people.<a href="#cite_note-Madley-2016-36">[36]</a> Remaining native people continued to be the recipients of the U.S. policies of cultural genocide throughout the 20th century. Many other native people would experience false claims that they were "extinct" as a people throughout the century.<a href="#cite_note-ACLU_NorCal-2018-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indian_removal_in_California_(1903)">Indian removal in California (1903)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Indian removal in California (1903)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Warner%27s_Ranch_to_Pala_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Warner%27s_Ranch_to_Pala_2.png/220px-Warner%27s_Ranch_to_Pala_2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Warner%27s_Ranch_to_Pala_2.png/330px-Warner%27s_Ranch_to_Pala_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Warner%27s_Ranch_to_Pala_2.png/440px-Warner%27s_Ranch_to_Pala_2.png 2x" data-file-width="2422" data-file-height="1562" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cupe%C3%B1o#Cupeño_trail_of_tears" title="Cupeño">Cupeño trail of tears</a> (1903)</figcaption></figure> Although the American <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">policy of Indian removal</a> to force indigenous peoples off of their homelands had begun much earlier in the United States in 1813, it was still being implemented as late as 1903 in Southern California.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> The last native removal in U.S. history occurred in what has been referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Cupe%C3%B1o#Cupeño_trail_of_tears" title="Cupeño">Cupeño trail of tears</a>, when the people were forced off of their homeland by white settlers, who sought ownership of what is now <a href="/wiki/Warner_Springs,_California" title="Warner Springs, California">Warner Springs</a>. The people were forced to move 75 miles from their home village of Cupa to <a href="/wiki/Pala,_California" title="Pala, California">Pala, California</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brigandi-2018-55">[55]</a> The forced removal under threat of violence also included <a href="/wiki/Luise%C3%B1o" title="Luiseño">Luiseño</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay" title="Kumeyaay">Kumeyaay</a> villages in the area.<a href="#cite_note-Brigandi-2018-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indian_boarding_schools_in_California_(1892–1935)">Indian boarding schools in California (1892–1935)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Indian boarding schools in California (1892–1935)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Domestic_Science_class_at_Sherman_Institute.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Domestic_Science_class_at_Sherman_Institute.jpg/220px-Domestic_Science_class_at_Sherman_Institute.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Domestic_Science_class_at_Sherman_Institute.jpg/330px-Domestic_Science_class_at_Sherman_Institute.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Domestic_Science_class_at_Sherman_Institute.jpg/440px-Domestic_Science_class_at_Sherman_Institute.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="636" /></a><figcaption>Native girls in a domestic class at the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Indian_High_School" title="Sherman Indian High School">Sherman Boarding School</a> in <a href="/wiki/Riverside,_California" title="Riverside, California">Riverside, California</a> (1915)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sherman_Institute_Tailor_Shop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Sherman_Institute_Tailor_Shop.jpg/220px-Sherman_Institute_Tailor_Shop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Sherman_Institute_Tailor_Shop.jpg/330px-Sherman_Institute_Tailor_Shop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Sherman_Institute_Tailor_Shop.jpg/440px-Sherman_Institute_Tailor_Shop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="660" /></a><figcaption>Native boys in tailor class at the Sherman Institute (1915)</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a></div> During the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the government attempted to force indigenous peoples to further break the ties with their native culture and assimilate into white society. In California, the federal government established such forms of education as the reservation day schools and <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cabrillo.edu-56">[56]</a> Three of the twenty-five off-reservation Indian boarding schools were in California,<a href="#cite_note-ACLU_NorCal-2018-9">[9]</a> and ten schools total.<a href="#cite_note-CBS-2022-10">[10]</a> New students were customarily bathed in <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a> and their hair was cut upon arrival.<a href="#cite_note-ACLU_NorCal-2018-9">[9]</a> Poor ventilation and nutrition and diseases were typical problems at schools. In addition to that, most parents disagreed with the idea of their children being raised as whites, with students being forced to wear European style clothes and haircuts, given European names, and strictly forbidden to speak indigenous languages.<a href="#cite_note-cabrillo.edu-56">[56]</a> Sexual and physical abuse at the schools was common.<a href="#cite_note-ACLU_NorCal-2018-9">[9]</a> By 1926, 83% of all <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> children attended the boarding schools.<a href="#cite_note-CBS-2022-10">[10]</a> Native people recognized the American Indian boarding schools as institutionalized forces of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">elimination toward their native culture</a>. They demanded the right for their children to access public schools. In 1935, restrictions that forbid native people from attending public schools were removed.<a href="#cite_note-cabrillo.edu-56">[56]</a> It was not until 1978 that native people won the legal right to prevent <a href="/wiki/Family_separation" title="Family separation">familial separation</a> that was integral to native children being brought to the boarding schools.<a href="#cite_note-ACLU_NorCal-2018-9">[9]</a> This separation often occurred without knowledge by parents, or under white claims that native children were "unsupervised" and were thus obligated to the school, and sometimes under threatening circumstances to families.<a href="#cite_note-CBS-2022-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unratified_treaties_reimbursement_(1944–1946)">Unratified treaties reimbursement (1944–1946)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Unratified treaties reimbursement (1944–1946)">edit</a>]</div> Since the 1920s, various Indian activist groups were demanding that the federal government fulfill the conditions of the 18 treaties of 1851–1852 that were never ratified and were classified.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> In 1944 and in 1946, native peoples brought claims for reimbursements asking for compensations for the lands affected by treaties and Mexican land grants. They won $17.5 million and $46 million, respectively. Yet, the land agreed to in the treaties was not returned.<a href="#cite_note-cabrillo.edu-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Religious_Freedom_Act_in_California_(1978–)">Religious Freedom Act in California (1978–)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Religious Freedom Act in California (1978–)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stanislaus_National_Forest,_2017_(38181223864).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Stanislaus_National_Forest%2C_2017_%2838181223864%29.jpg/220px-Stanislaus_National_Forest%2C_2017_%2838181223864%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Stanislaus_National_Forest%2C_2017_%2838181223864%29.jpg/330px-Stanislaus_National_Forest%2C_2017_%2838181223864%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Stanislaus_National_Forest%2C_2017_%2838181223864%29.jpg/440px-Stanislaus_National_Forest%2C_2017_%2838181223864%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="429" /></a><figcaption>Native people's relationship to forests, gathering, and species protection remains largely prohibited and obstructed despite the <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a> (1978)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a> was passed by the U.S. government in 1978, which gave indigenous people some rights toward practicing their religion. In practice, this did not extend or include religious freedom in regard to indigenous people's religious relationship to environmental sites or their relationship with ecosystems. Religion tends to be understood as separate from the land in American <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian" title="Judeo-Christian">Judeo-Christian</a> terms, which differs from indigenous terms. While in theory religious freedom was protected, in practice, religious or ceremonial sites and practices were not protected.<a href="#cite_note-LeBeau-1998-58">[58]</a> In 1988, <a href="/wiki/Lyng_v._Northwest_Indian_Cemetery_Protective_Ass%27n" title="Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Ass'n">Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Ass'n</a> the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a> sided with the U.S. Forest Service to build a road through a forest used for religious purposes by three nearby tribal nations in northwestern California. This was despite the recommendations of the expert witness on the matter, who stated that the construction of the road would destroy the religions of the three tribes. However, no protection was provided through the Religious Freedom Act.<a href="#cite_note-LeBeau-1998-58">[58]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> mandates a no-gathering policy for cultural or religious purposes and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service" title="United States Forest Service">United States Forest Service</a> (USFS) requires a special permit and fee, which prohibits native people's religious freedom. A 1995 mandate that would have provided conditional opportunities for gathering for this purpose failed to pass. Pesticide use in forests, such as the dropping of 11,000 pounds of <a href="/wiki/Hexazinone" title="Hexazinone">granular hexazinone</a> on 3,075 acres of the <a href="/wiki/Stanislaus_National_Forest" title="Stanislaus National Forest">Stanislaus National Forest</a> in 1996 by the USFS, deformed plants and sickened wildlife that are culturally and religiously significant to native people.<a href="#cite_note-LeBeau-1998-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 21st century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CINMS_-_Tomol_Crossing_Sunrise_.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/CINMS_-_Tomol_Crossing_Sunrise_.jpg/220px-CINMS_-_Tomol_Crossing_Sunrise_.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/CINMS_-_Tomol_Crossing_Sunrise_.jpg/330px-CINMS_-_Tomol_Crossing_Sunrise_.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/CINMS_-_Tomol_Crossing_Sunrise_.jpg/440px-CINMS_-_Tomol_Crossing_Sunrise_.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1063" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chumash_people" title="Chumash people">Chumash</a> paddlers navigate a <a href="/wiki/Tomol" title="Tomol">tomol</a> near <a href="/wiki/Santa_Cruz_Island" title="Santa Cruz Island">Santa Cruz Island</a> (2015)</figcaption></figure> California has the largest population of Native Americans out of any state, with 1,252,083 identifying an "American Indian or Alaska Native" tribe as a component of their race (14.6% of the nation-wide total).<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> This population grew by 15% between 2000 and 2010, much less than the nation-wide growth rate of 27%, but higher than the population growth rate for all races, which was about 10% in California over that decade. Over 50,000 indigenous people live in Los Angeles alone.<a href="#cite_note-USCB-AIAN-2010-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> However, the majority of Indigenous people in California today do not identify with the tribes indigenous to the state, rather they are of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Mexico" title="Indigenous peoples of Mexico">Indigenous Mexican</a> or Central American ancestry, or of tribes from other parts of the United States, such as the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> or <a href="/wiki/Navajo" title="Navajo">Navajo</a>. Of the state's 934,970 indigenous people who specified a <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> tribe, 297,708 identified as "<a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Mexico" title="Indigenous peoples of Mexico">Mexican American Indian"</a>, 125,344 identified as <a href="/wiki/Central_american_indians" class="mw-redirect" title="Central american indians">"Central American Indian"</a>, and 125,019 identified as Cherokee. 108,319 identified with "all other tribes," which includes all of the Indigenous Californian tribes except for the <a href="/wiki/Quechan" title="Quechan">Yuman/Quechan</a>, who numbered 2,759 in the state.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, there are currently over one hundred <a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state#California" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">federally recognized native groups or tribes in California</a> including those that spread to several states.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Federal recognition officially grants the Indian tribes access to services and funding from the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a>, and Federal and State funding for <a href="/wiki/CalWORKs#First_Nations_and_CalWORKs" title="CalWORKs">Tribal TANF/CalWORKs</a> programs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Recognition_as_genocide_(2019)">Recognition as genocide (2019)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Recognition as genocide (2019)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Gavin_Newsom_apologizing_to_California_Native_Americans.ogv/220px--Gavin_Newsom_apologizing_to_California_Native_Americans.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="91" data-mwtitle="Gavin_Newsom_apologizing_to_California_Native_Americans.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Gavin_Newsom_apologizing_to_California_Native_Americans.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/Gavin_Newsom_apologizing_to_California_Native_Americans.ogv/Gavin_Newsom_apologizing_to_California_Native_Americans.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/Gavin_Newsom_apologizing_to_California_Native_Americans.ogv/Gavin_Newsom_apologizing_to_California_Native_Americans.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Gavin_Newsom_apologizing_to_California_Native_Americans.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/Gavin_Newsom_apologizing_to_California_Native_Americans.ogv/Gavin_Newsom_apologizing_to_California_Native_Americans.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/Gavin_Newsom_apologizing_to_California_Native_Americans.ogv/Gavin_Newsom_apologizing_to_California_Native_Americans.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/Gavin_Newsom_apologizing_to_California_Native_Americans.ogv/Gavin_Newsom_apologizing_to_California_Native_Americans.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/Gavin_Newsom_apologizing_to_California_Native_Americans.ogv/Gavin_Newsom_apologizing_to_California_Native_Americans.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gavin_Newsom" title="Gavin Newsom">Gavin Newsom</a>'s apology to California native people (2019)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/California_genocide" title="California genocide">California genocide</a> was not acknowledged as a genocide by non-native people for over a century in California.<a href="#cite_note-Lindsay-2014-64">[64]</a> In the 2010s, denial among politicians, academics, historians, and institutions such as public schools was commonplace. This has been credited to a lingering unwillingness of settler descendants who are "beneficiaries of genocidal policies (similar to throughout the United States generally)."<a href="#cite_note-Fenelon-2014-65">[65]</a> This meant that the genocide was largely dismissed, distorted, and denied,<a href="#cite_note-Fenelon-2014-65">[65]</a> sometimes through trivialization or even humor to create a self-positive image of settlers.<a href="#cite_note-Lindsay-2014-64">[64]</a> In 2019, 40th governor of California, <a href="/wiki/Gavin_Newsom" title="Gavin Newsom">Gavin Newsom</a> signed an executive order formally apologizing to native people and for the formation of a Truth and Healing Council that would be "aimed at reporting on the historical relationships between the state and its Indigenous people."<a href="#cite_note-Hitchcock-2020-66">[66]</a> Of this history, Newsom stated: "Genocide. No other way to describe it, and that's the way it needs to be described in the history books."<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> This was a significant event in reducing the dismissal of the California genocide.<a href="#cite_note-Hitchcock-2020-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Language_reawakening">Language reawakening</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Language reawakening">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">Language revitalization</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Instructor_teaching_the_Yurok_Language.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Instructor_teaching_the_Yurok_Language.jpg/220px-Instructor_teaching_the_Yurok_Language.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Instructor_teaching_the_Yurok_Language.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="201" /></a><figcaption>Instructor teaching the <a href="/wiki/Yurok_language" title="Yurok language">Yurok language</a> (2014)</figcaption></figure> After a long decline of Indigenous language speakers as a result of violent punitive measures for speaking Indigenous languages at <a href="/wiki/Indian_boarding_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian boarding schools">Indian boarding schools</a> and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">cultural genocide</a>, some Indigenous languages are being reawakened. Indigenous language revitalization in California has gained momentum among several tribes. There are some obstacles that remain, such as <a href="/wiki/Intergenerational_trauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergenerational trauma">intergenerational trauma</a>, funding, lack of access to records, and conversational regularity.<a href="#cite_note-KCET-2022-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Some languages with the most success are <a href="/wiki/Chumashan_languages" title="Chumashan languages">Chumash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay_language" title="Kumeyaay language">Kumeyaay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tolowa_Dee-ni%27_Nation" title="Tolowa Dee-ni' Nation">Tolowa Dee-ni'</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yurok_language" title="Yurok language">Yurok</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hupa_language" title="Hupa language">Hoopa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-KCET-2022-13">[13]</a> Cheryl Tuttle, a <a href="/wiki/Native_American_studies" title="Native American studies">Native American Studies Director</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wailaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Wailaki">Wailaki</a> teacher, commented that language revitalization can be both important for speakers themselves and for the homelands:<a href="#cite_note-KCET-2022-13">[13]</a><blockquote>For tens of thousands of years, the land had been prayed to and became accustomed to the Yuki and Wailaki languages. Not only do the people need the wisdom contained in the language, but the land misses hearing the people and needs to hear those healing songs and prayers again.<a href="#cite_note-KCET-2022-13">[13]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prison-industrial_complex">Prison-industrial complex</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Prison-industrial complex">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prison-industrial_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison-industrial complex">Prison-industrial complex</a></div> Native people, and particularly native women, are disproportionately <a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_California" title="Incarceration in California">incarcerated in California</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Some native people identify the modern <a href="/wiki/Prison-industrial_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison-industrial complex">prison-industrial complex</a> as another reproduction of the "punishing institutions" that have been imposed onto them and built on their homelands since the arrival of European settlers, including military forts, ranchos, Spanish missions, Indian reservations, boarding schools, and prisons, each of which exploited native people as a source of labor for the economic interests of settlers. <a href="/wiki/Prison_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison labor">Prison labor</a> in California has also been compared to <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_in_California" title="Forced labor in California">California's history of forced labor</a> of indigenous people.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Burial_sites,_remains,_and_cultural_items">Burial sites, remains, and cultural items</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Burial sites, remains, and cultural items">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Occupy_(decolonize)_Oakland_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Occupy_%28decolonize%29_Oakland_03.jpg/220px-Occupy_%28decolonize%29_Oakland_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Occupy_%28decolonize%29_Oakland_03.jpg/330px-Occupy_%28decolonize%29_Oakland_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Occupy_%28decolonize%29_Oakland_03.jpg/440px-Occupy_%28decolonize%29_Oakland_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Corrina_Gould" title="Corrina Gould">Corrina Gould</a> (2011), a <a href="/wiki/Chochenyo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Chochenyo people">Chochenyo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karkin_people" title="Karkin people">Karkin</a> woman who advocates to stop the destruction of the site of the <a href="/wiki/West_Berkeley_Shellmound" title="West Berkeley Shellmound">West Berkeley Shellmound</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Berkeleyside-2019-73">[73]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1990, federally recognized tribes gained some rights to ancestral remains with the <a href="/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Echo-Hawk-2010-74">[74]</a> The similar California Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act is an act that requires all state agencies and museums that receive state funding and that have possession or control over collections of humans remains or cultural items to provide a process for identification and repatriates of these items to appropriate tribes.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> This protection to ancestral remains does not prevent development on indigenous burial grounds, just a temporary consultation and return of remains or artifacts found.<a href="#cite_note-Echo-Hawk-2010-74">[74]</a> Tribes and tribal bands in urbanized or high-development areas, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tongva" title="Tongva">Tongva</a> (<a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_County,_California" title="Los Angeles County, California">Los Angeles</a>), <a href="/wiki/Acjachemen" title="Acjachemen">Acjachemen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Orange_County,_California" title="Orange County, California">Orange County</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Ohlone" title="Ohlone">Ohlone</a> (<a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area" title="San Francisco Bay Area">San Francisco Bay Area</a>) struggle to protect burial grounds, village sites, and artifacts from disturbance and desecration, usually from residential and commercial developments, which has been a feature of daily life for native people in California since the arrival of European settlers.<a href="#cite_note-Uyeda-2021-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Loewe-2016-11">[11]</a> Along the middle reaches of Marsh Creek near the modern day city of Brentwood lies land that was once occupied by the Bay Miwok speaking peoples more specifically the Volvon tribelet. Radiocarbon dates at the burial site estimate that the individuals were interred around 5,000 to 3,000 BP (3,000 to 1,000 BCE). In the earliest periods of the Black Marsh occupation, individuals were buried in an extended position facing north if on the east side of the site and south if on the west side. Observations by researchers suggest that individuals were not interned based on their sex or age, leading some archaeologists to assume a more culturally significant reason.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> In 1982, the California court case <a href="/wiki/Wana_the_Bear_v._Community_Construction" title="Wana the Bear v. Community Construction">Wana the Bear v. Community Construction</a> sided with developers in the destruction of a <a href="/wiki/Miwok" title="Miwok">Miwok</a> burial ground in <a href="/wiki/Stockton,_California" title="Stockton, California">Stockton, California</a>. Over 600 burial remains were removed for a residential development and the Miwok had no power to stop development or to the remains of their ancestors, since Native American burial grounds were not legally considered cemeteries. The has been referred to as <a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">ethnocentrism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonial</a> law.<a href="#cite_note-Wunder-1996-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-Echo-Hawk-2010-74">[74]</a> The paved site of the <a href="/wiki/West_Berkeley_Shellmound" title="West Berkeley Shellmound">West Berkeley Shellmound</a> continues to be threatened by housing developments and has become a significant site of contention in the San Francisco Bay Area.<a href="#cite_note-Uyeda-2021-12">[12]</a> Numerous <a href="/wiki/Tongva" title="Tongva">Tongva</a> village sites and burial grounds continue to be desecrated from developments in the <a href="/wiki/Greater_Los_Angeles_Area" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Los Angeles Area">greater Los Angeles area</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Loewe-2016-11">[11]</a> such as the unearthing of 400 burials at <a href="/wiki/Guashna" title="Guashna">Guashna</a> for a development in <a href="/wiki/Playa_Vista,_Los_Angeles" title="Playa Vista, Los Angeles">Playa Vista</a> in 2004.<a href="#cite_note-Lin-2004-78">[78]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Acjachemen" title="Acjachemen">Acjachemen</a> sacred village site of <a href="/wiki/Putiidhem" class="mw-redirect" title="Putiidhem">Putiidhem</a> was desecrated and buried underneath <a href="/wiki/JSerra_Catholic_High_School" title="JSerra Catholic High School">JSerra Catholic High School</a> in 2003 despite protests from the people.<a href="#cite_note-Gottlieb-2012-79">[79]</a> A recurring issue that biological archaeologists face is, during the prehistoric/historic period and late period, Malibu was a common burial site for Indigenous Californians. This makes it nearly impossible to separate the remains of individuals who lived during the historic period and those who were buried before the Europeans arrived.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Land_Back_movement">Land Back movement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Land Back movement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_Land,_Nicholas_Galanin,_Palm_Springs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Indian_Land%2C_Nicholas_Galanin%2C_Palm_Springs.jpg/220px-Indian_Land%2C_Nicholas_Galanin%2C_Palm_Springs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Indian_Land%2C_Nicholas_Galanin%2C_Palm_Springs.jpg/330px-Indian_Land%2C_Nicholas_Galanin%2C_Palm_Springs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Indian_Land%2C_Nicholas_Galanin%2C_Palm_Springs.jpg/440px-Indian_Land%2C_Nicholas_Galanin%2C_Palm_Springs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1803" data-file-height="1014" /></a><figcaption>"Never Forget," an installation by <a href="/wiki/Tlingit" title="Tlingit">Tlingit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unangax%CC%82" class="mw-redirect" title="Unangax̂">Unangax̂</a> artist <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Galanin" title="Nicholas Galanin">Nicholas Galanin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Palm_Springs,_California" title="Palm Springs, California">Palm Springs</a> (2021)<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a> movement in California has gained visibility and action in various places throughout the state.<a href="#cite_note-Reynoso-2022-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tuluwat_Island" title="Tuluwat Island">Tuluwat Island</a> was the site of the <a href="/wiki/1860_Wiyot_massacre" title="1860 Wiyot massacre">1860 Wiyot massacre</a>. The return began in 2000 with a purchase by the <a href="/wiki/Wiyot" title="Wiyot">Wiyot</a> tribe for 1.5 acres (0.61 ha) of the site, which was contaminated and abandoned as a <a href="/wiki/Shipyard" title="Shipyard">shipyard</a>. In 2015, the <a href="/wiki/Eureka,_California" title="Eureka, California">Eureka City Council</a> voted to return the island. An article for CNN stated that this return is perhaps "the first time that a US municipality repatriated land to an indigenous tribe without strings attached." The official transfer occurred in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Tribes excluded from <a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">federal recognition</a> do not have a land base, which makes tribal identity more invisible. Land back movements have formed to return land to these tribes. This includes the <a href="/wiki/Sogorea_Te_Land_Trust" title="Sogorea Te Land Trust">Sogorea Te' Land Trust</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tongva_Taraxat_Paxaavxa_Conservancy" title="Tongva Taraxat Paxaavxa Conservancy">Tongva Taraxat Paxaavxa Conservancy</a>, which established the Shuumi Land Tax and the kuuyam nahwá'a ("guest exchange") respectively as a way for people living on their traditional homelands to pay a form of contribution for living on the land.<a href="#cite_note-Reynoso-2022-14">[14]</a> In 2021, the <a href="/wiki/Alameda,_California" title="Alameda, California">Alameda City Council</a> voted to pay in Shuumi Tax $11,000 for two years, becoming the first city to pay the tax.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> In 2024, 2,820 acres of ancestral homeland were returned to the Shasta Indian Nation by <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_California" title="Governor of California">California governor</a> <a href="/wiki/Gavin_Newsom" title="Gavin Newsom">Gavin Newsom</a>. This included tribally significant lands that were drowned by the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Copco_No_1_Dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Copco No 1 Dam">Copco I dam</a> in 1922.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Material_culture">Material culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Material culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basket_weaving">Basket weaving</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Basket weaving">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Pomo#Basket_weaving_tradition" title="Pomo">Pomo § Basket weaving tradition</a></div> Basket making was an important part of Native American Californian culture.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Baskets were both beautiful and functional, made of <a href="/wiki/Twine" title="Twine">twine</a>, woven tight enough that they could hold water for cooking.<a href="#cite_note-Cramblit-2021-88">[88]</a> Tribes made baskets in a wide variety of shapes and sizes to fulfill different daily functions, including "baby baskets, collecting vessels, food bowls, cooking items, ceremonial items"<a href="#cite_note-Cramblit-2021-88">[88]</a> and wearable basket caps for both men and women. The watertight cooking baskets were often used for making acorn soup by placing fire-heated stones in the baskets with food mixtures, which were then stirred until cooked.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Baskets were generally made by women. Girls learned about the process from an early age, not just the act of weaving, but also how to tend, harvest, and prepare the plants for weaving.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 138.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 136.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Yokut_Indian_woman_basket_maker,_Tule_River_Reservation_near_Porterville,_California,_ca.1900_(CHS-3803).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Yokuts woman basket maker, Tule River Reservation ca. 1900"><img alt="Woman weaving a wide, shallow, patterned basket while sitting on the ground" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Yokut_Indian_woman_basket_maker%2C_Tule_River_Reservation_near_Porterville%2C_California%2C_ca.1900_%28CHS-3803%29.jpg/205px-Yokut_Indian_woman_basket_maker%2C_Tule_River_Reservation_near_Porterville%2C_California%2C_ca.1900_%28CHS-3803%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="137" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Yokut_Indian_woman_basket_maker%2C_Tule_River_Reservation_near_Porterville%2C_California%2C_ca.1900_%28CHS-3803%29.jpg/307px-Yokut_Indian_woman_basket_maker%2C_Tule_River_Reservation_near_Porterville%2C_California%2C_ca.1900_%28CHS-3803%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Yokut_Indian_woman_basket_maker%2C_Tule_River_Reservation_near_Porterville%2C_California%2C_ca.1900_%28CHS-3803%29.jpg/409px-Yokut_Indian_woman_basket_maker%2C_Tule_River_Reservation_near_Porterville%2C_California%2C_ca.1900_%28CHS-3803%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1919" data-file-height="2532" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Yokuts" title="Yokuts">Yokuts</a> woman basket maker, <a href="/wiki/Tule_River_Indian_Tribe_of_the_Tule_River_Reservation" title="Tule River Indian Tribe of the Tule River Reservation">Tule River Reservation</a> ca. 1900</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 260px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 258px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pomo_Indian_baskets_and_their_makers_(1902)_(14595874320).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pomo baskets, chuset weave"><img alt="Stack of four baskets with zigzag pattern and conical shape" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Pomo_Indian_baskets_and_their_makers_%281902%29_%2814595874320%29.jpg/387px-Pomo_Indian_baskets_and_their_makers_%281902%29_%2814595874320%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="258" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Pomo_Indian_baskets_and_their_makers_%281902%29_%2814595874320%29.jpg/580px-Pomo_Indian_baskets_and_their_makers_%281902%29_%2814595874320%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Pomo_Indian_baskets_and_their_makers_%281902%29_%2814595874320%29.jpg/773px-Pomo_Indian_baskets_and_their_makers_%281902%29_%2814595874320%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1976" data-file-height="1380" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Pomo" title="Pomo">Pomo</a> baskets, chuset weave</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 243.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 241.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pomo_Indian_baskets_and_their_makers_(1902)_(14596080597).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Basket materials and foundations[91]"><img alt="Five baskets in various states of completeness" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Pomo_Indian_baskets_and_their_makers_%281902%29_%2814596080597%29.jpg/362px-Pomo_Indian_baskets_and_their_makers_%281902%29_%2814596080597%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="242" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Pomo_Indian_baskets_and_their_makers_%281902%29_%2814596080597%29.jpg/543px-Pomo_Indian_baskets_and_their_makers_%281902%29_%2814596080597%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Pomo_Indian_baskets_and_their_makers_%281902%29_%2814596080597%29.jpg/724px-Pomo_Indian_baskets_and_their_makers_%281902%29_%2814596080597%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1432" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Basket materials and foundations<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 241.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 239.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Collection_of_19_Indian_baskets_on_display,_ca.1900_(CHS-3297).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Indigenous baskets of California, photographed ca. 1900"><img alt="A collection of 19 unidentified Indian baskets on display, photographed ca.1900. They are displayed on two tiers covered with a cloth and displayed hanging from a blanket backdrop. They mostly have the shape of a round bowl with a narrow neck and mouth. They have differing woven patterns including stripes, zig-zags, diamonds, steps, human figures and more. Many of them have tassels around the widest part of their bulge." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Collection_of_19_Indian_baskets_on_display%2C_ca.1900_%28CHS-3297%29.jpg/359px-Collection_of_19_Indian_baskets_on_display%2C_ca.1900_%28CHS-3297%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Collection_of_19_Indian_baskets_on_display%2C_ca.1900_%28CHS-3297%29.jpg/539px-Collection_of_19_Indian_baskets_on_display%2C_ca.1900_%28CHS-3297%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Collection_of_19_Indian_baskets_on_display%2C_ca.1900_%28CHS-3297%29.jpg/718px-Collection_of_19_Indian_baskets_on_display%2C_ca.1900_%28CHS-3297%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5676" data-file-height="4269" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Indigenous baskets of California, photographed ca. 1900</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foods">Foods</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Foods">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Native_American_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American cuisine">Native American cuisine</a></div> The indigenous peoples of California had a rich and diverse resource base, with access to hundreds of types of edible plants, both terrestrial and marine mammals, birds and insects. The diversity of the food supply was particularly important and sets California apart from other areas, where if the primary food supply diminished for any reason it could be devastating for the people in that region. In California, the variety meant that if one supply failed there were hundreds of others to fall back on. Despite this abundance, there were still 20-30 primary food resources which native peoples were dependent on.<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2019-29">[29]</a> Different tribes' diets included fish, shellfish, insects, deer, elk, antelope, and plants such as buckeye, sage seed, and <a href="/wiki/Yampah" class="mw-redirect" title="Yampah">yampah</a> (<a href="/wiki/Perideridia_gairdneri" title="Perideridia gairdneri">Perideridia gairdneri</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Pritzker-19">[19]</a>: 112  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plant-based_foods">Plant-based foods</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Plant-based foods">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photograph_with_text_of_acorn_cache_of_the_Mono_Indians,_California._This_is_from_a_survey_report_of_Fresno_and..._-_NARA_-_296296_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A man and woman of the Mono tribe stand in front of an acorn cache, similar to a large woven basket held up by thick wooden sticks" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Photograph_with_text_of_acorn_cache_of_the_Mono_Indians%2C_California._This_is_from_a_survey_report_of_Fresno_and..._-_NARA_-_296296_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Photograph_with_text_of_acorn_cache_of_the_Mono_Indians%2C_California._This_is_from_a_survey_report_of_Fresno_and..._-_NARA_-_296296_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Photograph_with_text_of_acorn_cache_of_the_Mono_Indians%2C_California._This_is_from_a_survey_report_of_Fresno_and..._-_NARA_-_296296_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Photograph_with_text_of_acorn_cache_of_the_Mono_Indians%2C_California._This_is_from_a_survey_report_of_Fresno_and..._-_NARA_-_296296_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Photograph_with_text_of_acorn_cache_of_the_Mono_Indians%2C_California._This_is_from_a_survey_report_of_Fresno_and..._-_NARA_-_296296_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Photograph_with_text_of_acorn_cache_of_the_Mono_Indians%2C_California._This_is_from_a_survey_report_of_Fresno_and..._-_NARA_-_296296_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="957" data-file-height="902" /></a><figcaption>Acorn cache of the <a href="/wiki/Mono_people" title="Mono people">Mono people</a>, California. Circa 1920.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Acorn" title="Acorn">Acorns</a> of the California Live Oak, <a href="/wiki/Quercus_agrifolia" title="Quercus agrifolia">Quercus agrifolia</a>, were a primary traditional food throughout much of California.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> The acorns were ground into meal, and then either boiled into mush or baked in ashes to make bread.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Acorns contain large amounts of tannic acid, so turning them into a food source required a discovery of how to remove this acid and significant amounts of labor to process them. Grinding in the mortal and pestle, then boiling allows for the tannins to be leached out in the water. There was also the need to harvest and store acorns like crops since they were only available in the fall. Acorns were stored in large granaries within villages, "providing a reliable food source through the winter and spring."<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2019-29">[29]</a> Native American tribes also used the berries of the <a href="/wiki/Manzanita" title="Manzanita">Manzanita</a> as a staple food source.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The ripe berries were eaten raw, cooked or made into jellies. The pulp of the berries could also be dried and crushed to make a cider, while the dry seeds were sometimes ground to make flour. The bark was also used to make a tea, which would help the bladder and kidneys.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Native Americans also made extensive use of the <a href="/wiki/Juniperus_californica" title="Juniperus californica">California juniper</a> for medicinal purposes and as a food. <a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ohlone" title="Ohlone">Ohlone</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kumeyaay people">Kumeyaay</a> brewed a tea made from juniper leaves to use as a painkiller and to help remedy a hangover. They also picked the berries for eating, either fresh or dried and pulverised. The ripe berries of the <a href="/wiki/Vaccinium_ovatum" title="Vaccinium ovatum">California huckleberry</a> were also collected and eaten by many peoples in the region.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marine_life">Marine life</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Marine life">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fish_trap,_Pomo_-_Oakland_Museum_of_California_-_DSC04982.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Large basket with very loose weaving" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Fish_trap%2C_Pomo_-_Oakland_Museum_of_California_-_DSC04982.JPG/220px-Fish_trap%2C_Pomo_-_Oakland_Museum_of_California_-_DSC04982.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Fish_trap%2C_Pomo_-_Oakland_Museum_of_California_-_DSC04982.JPG/330px-Fish_trap%2C_Pomo_-_Oakland_Museum_of_California_-_DSC04982.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Fish_trap%2C_Pomo_-_Oakland_Museum_of_California_-_DSC04982.JPG/440px-Fish_trap%2C_Pomo_-_Oakland_Museum_of_California_-_DSC04982.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="4142" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pomo" title="Pomo">Pomo</a> fish trap</figcaption></figure> There were two types of marine mammals important as food sources, large migratory species such as <a href="/wiki/Northern_elephant_seal" title="Northern elephant seal">northern elephant seals</a> and <a href="/wiki/California_sea_lion" title="California sea lion">California sea lions</a> and non-migratory, such as <a href="/wiki/Harbor_seal" title="Harbor seal">harbor seals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sea_otter" title="Sea otter">sea otters</a>. Marine mammals were hunted for their meat and blubber, but even more importantly for their furs. Otter pelts in particular were important both for trade and as symbols of status.<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2019-29">[29]</a> A large quantity and variety of marine fish lived along the west coast of California, providing shoreline communities with food. Tribes living along the coast did mostly shore-based fishing.<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2019-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anadromous_fish">Anadromous fish</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Anadromous fish">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yurok_harvesting_Chinook.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Five people from the Yurok tribe on a shore, a few are holding nets used to catch salmon while others are cleaning the fish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Yurok_harvesting_Chinook.JPG/220px-Yurok_harvesting_Chinook.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Yurok_harvesting_Chinook.JPG/330px-Yurok_harvesting_Chinook.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Yurok_harvesting_Chinook.JPG 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="266" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yurok" title="Yurok">Yurok</a> harvesting <a href="/wiki/Chinook_salmon" title="Chinook salmon">Chinook Salmon</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Klamath_River" title="Klamath River">Klamath River</a>'s mouth in 2013</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Fish_migration" title="Fish migration">Anadromous fish</a> live half their life in the sea and the other half in the river where they come to <a href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">spawn</a>. Large rivers such as the <a href="/wiki/Klamath_River" title="Klamath River">Klamath</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sacramento_River" title="Sacramento River">Sacramento</a> "provided abundant fish along hundreds of miles during the spawning season."<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2019-29">[29]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pacific_salmon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific salmon">Pacific salmon</a> in particular were very important in the Californian Native American diet. Pacific salmon ran in Californian coastal rivers and streams from the Oregon line down to Baja California.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> For northwestern groups like <a href="/wiki/Yurok" title="Yurok">Yurok</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karuk" title="Karuk">Karuk</a>, Salmon was the defining food.<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2019-29">[29]</a> For example, more than half of the diet of the Karuk people consisted of acorns and salmon from the Klamath River.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] This combination of fish with acorns distinguished them from some societies in the north which focused solely on fishing.<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2019-29">[29]</a> In contrast to acorns, fish required sophisticated equipment such as <a href="/wiki/Hand_net" title="Hand net">dip nets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoons</a> and they could only be caught during a brief seasonal window. During this time, salmon would be harvested, dried and stored in large quantities for later consumption.<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2019-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> in the United States</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0.7em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Native America"><img alt="Native America" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png/55px-Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png/83px-Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png/110px-Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="593" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_stage" title="Lithic stage">Lithic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic period in the Americas">Archaic period in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formative_stage" title="Formative stage">Formative stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide#Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American slaves">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_slave_ownership" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American slave ownership">Native American slave ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Cultural assimilation of Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Racism against Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Integrity_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial Integrity Act">Racial Integrity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act_of_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reorganization Act of 1934">Indian Reorganization Act of 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_movement" title="Red Power movement">Red Power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American rights">Native American rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">Alcohol and Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_temperance_activists" title="Native American temperance activists">Native American temperance activists</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_cultures_in_the_United_States" title="Native American cultures in the United States">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam"> Hohokam culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_cuisine_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous cuisine of the Americas">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Pow wow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Film_and_Video_Festival" title="Native American Film and Video Festival">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples%27_Day_(United_States)" title="Indigenous Peoples' Day (United States)">Indigenous Peoples' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_literature" title="Mesoamerican literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_fashion" title="Native American fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal sovereignty">Tribal sovereignty</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">Wars</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Anglo-Powhatan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kieft%27s_War" title="Kieft's War">Kieft's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peach_Tree_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Peach Tree War">Peach Tree War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esopus_Wars" title="Esopus Wars">Esopus Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara_War" title="Arikara War">Arikara War</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Osage Indian War">Osage Indian War </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Wars" title="Comanche Wars">Comanche Wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_expedition" title="Antelope Hills expedition">(1858)|Antelope Hills expedition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Comanche Campaign">Comanche Campaign (1867–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_River_War" title="Red River War">Red River War (1874–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Hunters%27_War" title="Buffalo Hunters' War">Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars (1849–1924)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_War" title="Jicarilla War">Jicarilla War (1849–1855)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Chiricahua_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavapai War">Tonto War (1871–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Victorio%27s_War" title="Victorio's War">Victorio's War (1879–1880)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Geronimo's_War" title="Apache Wars">Geronimo's War (1881–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Post_1887_Apache_Wars_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Post 1887 Apache Wars period">Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuma_War" title="Yuma War">Yuma War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars(1850–1923)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_at_Fort_Utah" title="Battle at Fort Utah">Battle at Fort Utah (1850)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walkara#Walker_War" title="Walkara">Walker War (1853–1854)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tintic_War" title="Tintic War">Tintic War (1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%9372)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hawk War (1865–72)">Black Hawk War (1865–1872)</a> / <a href="/wiki/White_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="White River War">White River War (1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute War (1887)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bluff_War" title="Bluff War">Bluff War (1914–1915)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Bluff Skirmish (1921)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War (1923)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars" title="Sioux Wars">Sioux Wars (1854–1891)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars#First_Sioux_War" title="Sioux Wars">First Sioux War (1854-1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War (1862)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War (1863–1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition_(1865)" title="Powder River Expedition (1865)">Powder River War (1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War (1866–1868)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War (1876–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance_War" title="Ghost Dance War">Ghost Dance War (1890–1891)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakima_War" title="Yakima War">Yakima War (1855–1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_War" title="Puget Sound War">Puget Sound War (1855–1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_War" title="Coeur d'Alene War">Coeur d'Alene War (1858)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_War" title="Mohave War"> Mohave War(1858–1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Wars#American_period" title="Navajo Wars">Navajo Wars (1849–1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiute_War" title="Paiute War">Paiute War(1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars(1861–1875)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War (1864–1869)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualapai_War_(1865%E2%80%9370)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hualapai War (1865–70)">Hualapai War (1865–1870)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War (1872–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War (1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War (1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_War" title="Crow War">Crow War (1887)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War_of_1895" title="Bannock War of 1895">Bannock Uprising (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Uprising" title="Yaqui Uprising">Yaqui Uprising (1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sugar_Point" title="Battle of Sugar Point">Battle of Sugar Point (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek#Last_Massacre" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Last Massacre (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Battle of Kelley Creek (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bear_Valley" title="Battle of Bear Valley">Battle of Bear Valley (1918)</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Political movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_women_in_politics" title="Native American women in politics">Women in politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement (AIM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Power Movement">Red Power Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Alcatraz" title="Occupation of Alcatraz">Occupation of Alcatraz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Broken_Treaties" title="Trail of Broken Treaties">Trail of Broken Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Wounded_Knee" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Wounded Knee">Occupation of Wounded Knee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">MMIW</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red_handprint" title="Red handprint">Red handprint</a>)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Religion</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_Feather_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Eagle Feather law">Eagle Feather law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_people_and_Mormonism" title="Native American people and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Traditional religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">Midewiwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabunowin" title="Wabunowin">Wabunowin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wocekiye" title="Wocekiye">Wocekiye</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund (NARF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Youth_Council" title="National Indian Youth Council">National Indian Youth Council (NIYC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_All_Red_Nations" title="Women of All Red Nations">Women of All Red Nations (WARN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Indian_Treaty_Council" title="International Indian Treaty Council">The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC)</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Ethnic subdivisions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Languages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American languages</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Demographics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Societal statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reservation">Reservations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_disenrollment" title="Tribal disenrollment">Tribal disenrollment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_poverty" title="Reservation poverty">Reservation poverty</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Geography</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> by region</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Great_Basin" title="Indigenous peoples of the Great Basin">Great Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northeastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands">Northeastern Woodlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northwest_Plateau" title="Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau">Northwest Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast" title="Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast">Pacific Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">The Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Southeastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands">Southeastern Woodlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_North_American_Southwest" title="Indigenous peoples of the North American Southwest">Southwest</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> by state</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Arizona" title="Indigenous peoples of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_People_of_Colorado" title="Template:Indigenous People of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Florida" title="Indigenous peoples of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Iowa" title="Native American tribes in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Americans_in_Maryland" title="Template:Native Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Michigan" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Nebraska" title="Native American tribes in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_North_Carolina" title="Template:Native American Tribes in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Native American Tribes in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_peoples_of_Oregon" title="Native American peoples of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Virginia" title="Native American tribes in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Wisconsin" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_of_the_United_States" title="List of Native Americans of the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_artists" title="List of Native American artists">artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_actors" title="List of Native American actors">actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_leaders_of_the_Indian_Wars" title="List of Native American leaders of the Indian Wars">war leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_musicians" title="List of Native American musicians">musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Native Americans in the United States Congress">congressional politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients">Native American Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">List of federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">List of federally recognized tribes by state </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">List of Indian reservations in the United States</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template:Native American topics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Native American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_topics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Tribes lived in societies where men and women had different roles. Women were generally responsible for weaving, harvesting, processing, and preparing food, while men were generally responsible for hunting and other forms of labor. It was also noted by <a href="/wiki/Juan_Cresp%C3%AD" title="Juan Crespí">Juan Crespi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Fages" title="Pedro Fages">Pedro Fages</a> of "men who dressed as women" being an integral part of native society. The Spanish generally detested these people, who they referred to as joyas in mission records. With colonialism "joyas were driven from their communities by tribal members at the instigation of priests and made homeless." The joyas traditionally were responsible for <a href="/wiki/Death_rituals" class="mw-redirect" title="Death rituals">death</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burial" title="Burial">burial</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mourning_rituals" class="mw-redirect" title="Mourning rituals">mourning rituals</a> and performed women's roles.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Many tribes in <a href="/wiki/Central_California" title="Central California">Central California</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_California" title="Northern California">Northern California</a> practised the <a href="/wiki/Kuksu_(religion)" title="Kuksu (religion)">Kuksu religion</a>, especially the Nisenan, <a href="/wiki/Maidu" title="Maidu">Maidu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pomo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pomo people">Pomo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patwin" title="Patwin">Patwin</a> tribes.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The practice of Kuksu included elaborate narrative ceremonial dances and specific regalia. A male <a href="/wiki/Secret_society" title="Secret society">secret society</a> met in underground dance rooms and danced in disguises at the public dances.<a href="#cite_note-Kroeber07-101">[101]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Southern_California" title="Southern California">Southern California</a> the Toloache religion was dominant among tribes such as the <a href="/wiki/Luise%C3%B1o" title="Luiseño">Luiseño</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diegue%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Diegueño">Diegueño</a>.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Ceremonies were performed after consuming a hallucinogenic drink made of the jimsonweed or Toloache plant (<a href="/wiki/Datura_meteloides" class="mw-redirect" title="Datura meteloides">Datura meteloides</a>), which put devotees in a trance and gave them access to supernatural knowledge. Native American culture in California was also noted for its <a href="/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">rock art</a>, especially among the <a href="/wiki/Rock_art_of_the_Chumash_people" title="Rock art of the Chumash people">Chumash</a> of southern California.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The rock art, or <a href="/wiki/Pictograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictograph">pictographs</a> were brightly colored paintings of humans, animals and abstract designs, and were thought to have had religious significance. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reservations">Reservations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Reservations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state#California" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">List of federally recognized tribes by state § California</a></div> Reservations with over 500 people: <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Most Populated Reservations in California </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Legal/Statistical Area Description<a href="#cite_note-AF2010-104">[104]</a> </th> <th rowspan="2">Tribe(s) </th> <th rowspan="2">Population (2010)<a href="#cite_note-AF2010-104">[104]</a> </th> <th colspan="3">Area in mi2 (km2)<a href="#cite_note-AF2010-104">[104]</a> </th> <th rowspan="2">Includes <a href="/wiki/Off-reservation_trust_land" title="Off-reservation trust land">ORTL</a>?<a href="#cite_note-AF2010-104">[104]</a> </th> <th>Seat of Government/Capital </th></tr> <tr> <th>Land </th> <th>Water </th> <th>Total </th> <th>Tribal Council Address Location </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Agua_Caliente_Band_of_Cahuilla_Indians" title="Agua Caliente Band of Cahuilla Indians">Agua Caliente Indian Reservation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cahuilla" title="Cahuilla">Cahuilla (Ivilyuqaletem)</a> </td> <td>24,781 </td> <td>53.32 (138.090) </td> <td>0.36 (0.94) </td> <td>53.68 (139.04) </td> <td>yes </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Palm_Springs,_California" title="Palm Springs, California">Se-Khi (Palm Springs)</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River_Indian_Tribes" title="Colorado River Indian Tribes">Colorado River Indian Reservation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chemehuevi" title="Chemehuevi">Chemehuevi</a> <a href="/wiki/Mohave_people" title="Mohave people">Mohave</a> <a href="/wiki/Hopi" title="Hopi">Hopi</a> <a href="/wiki/Navajo" title="Navajo">Navajo</a> </td> <td>8,764 </td> <td>457.31 (1,184.44) </td> <td>6.83 (17.68) </td> <td>464.14 (1,202.13) </td> <td>no </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Parker,_Arizona" title="Parker, Arizona">'Amat Kuhwely (Parker, Arizona)</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Torres-Martinez_Desert_Cahuilla_Indians" class="mw-redirect" title="Torres-Martinez Desert Cahuilla Indians">Torres-Martinez Reservation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cahuilla" title="Cahuilla">Cahuilla (Ivilyuqaletem)</a> </td> <td>5,594 </td> <td>34.22 (88.62) </td> <td>15.04 (38.96) </td> <td>49.26 (127.58) </td> <td>no </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thermal,_California" title="Thermal, California">Kokell (Thermal)</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hupa" title="Hupa">Hoopa Valley Reservation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hupa" title="Hupa">Hupa</a> </td> <td>3,041 </td> <td>140.77 (364.59) </td> <td>0.92 (2.38) </td> <td>141.68 (366.96) </td> <td>no </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hoopa,_California" title="Hoopa, California">Hoopa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Washoe_Tribe_of_Nevada_and_California" title="Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California">Washoe Ranches Trust Land</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Washoe_people" title="Washoe people">Washoe</a> </td> <td>2,916 </td> <td>144.99 (375.53) </td> <td>1.05 (2.71) </td> <td>146.04 (378.24) </td> <td>no </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gardnerville,_Nevada" title="Gardnerville, Nevada">Gardnerville, Nevada</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fort_Yuma_Indian_Reservation" title="Fort Yuma Indian Reservation">Fort Yuma Indian Reservation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Quechan" title="Quechan">Quechan</a> </td> <td>2,197 </td> <td>68.93 (178.53) </td> <td>1.39 (3.61) </td> <td>70.32 (182.14) </td> <td>no </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yuma,_Arizona" title="Yuma, Arizona">Yuma, Arizona</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bishop_Paiute_Tribe" title="Bishop Paiute Tribe">Bishop Reservation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mono_people" title="Mono people">Mono</a> <a href="/wiki/Timbisha" title="Timbisha">Timbisha</a> </td> <td>1,588 </td> <td>1.35 (3.50) </td> <td>0.014 (0.035) </td> <td>1.37 (3.54) </td> <td>no </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bishop,_California" title="Bishop, California">Bishop</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fort_Mojave_Indian_Reservation" title="Fort Mojave Indian Reservation">Fort Mojave Reservation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mohave_people" title="Mohave people">Mohave</a> </td> <td>1,477 </td> <td>51.58 (133.58) </td> <td>1.15 (2.99) </td> <td>52.73 (136.57) </td> <td>yes </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Needles,_California" title="Needles, California">ʼAha Kuloh (Needles, California)</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pala_Indian_Reservation" title="Pala Indian Reservation">Pala Reservation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Luise%C3%B1o" title="Luiseño">Luiseño (Payómkawichum)</a> <a href="/wiki/Cupe%C3%B1o" title="Cupeño">Cupeño (Kuupangaxwichem)</a> </td> <td>1,315 </td> <td>20.35 (52.71) </td> <td>0 </td> <td>20.35 (52.71) </td> <td>no </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pala,_California" title="Pala, California">Pala, California</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Yurok_Indian_Reservation" title="Yurok Indian Reservation">Yurok Reservation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yurok" title="Yurok">Yurok</a> </td> <td>1,238 </td> <td>84.73 (219.46) </td> <td>3.35 (8.67) </td> <td>88.08 (228.13) </td> <td>no </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Klamath,_California" title="Klamath, California">Klamath</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rincon_Band_of_Luise%C3%B1o_Indians" title="Rincon Band of Luiseño Indians">Rincon Reservation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Luise%C3%B1o" title="Luiseño">Luiseño (Payómkawichum)</a> </td> <td>1,215 </td> <td>6.16 (15.96) </td> <td>0 </td> <td>6.16 (15.96) </td> <td>yes </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Valley_Center,_California" title="Valley Center, California">Sówmy/Kuutpamay</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <a href="/wiki/Valley_Center,_California" title="Valley Center, California">(Valley Center)</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tejon_Indian_Tribe_of_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Tejon Indian Tribe of California">Tejon Indian Tribe of California</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kitanemuk" title="Kitanemuk">Kitanemuk</a> <a href="/wiki/Yokuts" title="Yokuts">Yokuts</a> <a href="/wiki/Chumash_people" title="Chumash people">Chumash</a> </td> <td>1,111 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>South of <a href="/wiki/Bakersfield,_California" title="Bakersfield, California">Woilo</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wikimedia-2021-107">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bakersfield,_California" title="Bakersfield, California">(Bakersfield)</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/San_Pasqual_Band_of_Diegueno_Mission_Indians" title="San Pasqual Band of Diegueno Mission Indians">San Pasqual Reservation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay" title="Kumeyaay">Kumeyaay</a> </td> <td>1,097 </td> <td>2.24 (5.79) </td> <td>0 </td> <td>2.24 (5.79) </td> <td>no </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Valley_Center,_California" title="Valley Center, California">Valley Center</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tule_River_Indian_Tribe_of_the_Tule_River_Reservation" title="Tule River Indian Tribe of the Tule River Reservation">Tule River Reservation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yokuts" title="Yokuts">Yokuts</a> <a href="/wiki/Mono_people" title="Mono people">Mono</a> </td> <td>1,049 </td> <td>84.29 (218.32) </td> <td>0 </td> <td>84.29 (218.32) </td> <td>yes </td> <td>Uchiyingetau(indigenous name of area)<a href="#cite_note-Wikimedia-2021-107">[107]</a> (address in <a href="/wiki/Porterville,_California" title="Porterville, California">Porterville</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Morongo_Band_of_Mission_Indians" title="Morongo Band of Mission Indians">Morongo Reservation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cahuilla" title="Cahuilla">Cahuilla (Ivilyuqaletem)</a> <a href="/wiki/Serrano_people" title="Serrano people">Serrano (Taaqtam)</a> </td> <td>913 </td> <td>53.48 (138.50) </td> <td>0.13 (0.33) </td> <td>53.60 (138.83) </td> <td>yes </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Banning,_California" title="Banning, California">Banning</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cabazon_Band_of_Mission_Indians" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabazon Band of Mission Indians">Cabazon Reservation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cahuilla" title="Cahuilla">Cahuilla (Ivilyuqaletem)</a> </td> <td>835 </td> <td>3.00 (7.77) </td> <td>0 </td> <td>3.00 (7.77) </td> <td>no </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Indio,_California" title="Indio, California">Indio</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Santa_Rosa_Rancheria" title="Santa Rosa Rancheria">Santa Rosa Rancheria</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yokuts" title="Yokuts">Yokuts</a> </td> <td>652 </td> <td>0.63 (1.62) </td> <td>0 </td> <td>0.63 (1.62) </td> <td>no </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lemoore,_California" title="Lemoore, California">Walu(indigenous name of area)</a><a href="#cite_note-Wikimedia-2021-107">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lemoore,_California" title="Lemoore, California">(Lemoore)</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Barona_Group_of_Capitan_Grande_Band_of_Mission_Indians" title="Barona Group of Capitan Grande Band of Mission Indians">Barona Reservation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay" title="Kumeyaay">Kumeyaay</a> </td> <td>640 </td> <td>9.31 (24.12) </td> <td>0 </td> <td>9.31 (24.12) </td> <td>no </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lakeside,_California" title="Lakeside, California">Lakeside</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Susanville_Indian_Rancheria" title="Susanville Indian Rancheria">Susanville Indian Rancheria</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Washoe_people" title="Washoe people">Washoe</a> <a href="/wiki/Achomawi" title="Achomawi">Achomawi</a> <a href="/wiki/Northern_Paiute_people" title="Northern Paiute people">Northern Paiute</a> <a href="/wiki/Atsugewi" title="Atsugewi">Atsugewi</a> </td> <td>549 </td> <td>1.67 (4.33) </td> <td>0 </td> <td>1.67 (4.33) </td> <td>yes </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Susanville,_California" title="Susanville, California">Susanville</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Viejas_Group_of_Capitan_Grande_Band_of_Mission_Indians" title="Viejas Group of Capitan Grande Band of Mission Indians">Viejas Reservation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay" title="Kumeyaay">Kumeyaay</a> </td> <td>520 </td> <td>2.51 (6.50) </td> <td>0 </td> <td>2.51 (6.50) </td> <td>no </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Alpine,_California" title="Alpine, California">Alpine</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Karuk_Tribe" title="Karuk Tribe">Karuk Reservation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Karuk" title="Karuk">Karuk</a> </td> <td>506 </td> <td>1.49 (3.85) </td> <td>0.035 (0.091) </td> <td>1.52 (3.94) </td> <td>yes </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Happy_Camp,_California" title="Happy Camp, California">Athithúf-vuunupma (Happy Camp)</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_peoples">List of peoples</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: List of peoples">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples_in_California" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples in California">List of indigenous peoples in California</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classification_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas">Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achomawi" title="Achomawi">Achomawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Achumawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Achumawi">Achumawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pit_River_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Pit River tribe">Pit River tribe</a>, northeastern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atsugewi" title="Atsugewi">Atsugewi</a>, northeastern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemehuevi" title="Chemehuevi">Chemehuevi</a>, eastern California</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chumash_people" title="Chumash people">Chumash</a>, coastal southern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix  <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Barbare%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbareño">Barbareño</a>", Coast Central Chumash</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Cruze%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Cruzeño">Cruzeño</a>, Isleño", Island Chumash</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Emigdiano&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Emigdiano (page does not exist)">Emigdiano</a>", Tecuya, Interior Central Chumash</li> <li>"Interior", Cuyama, Interior Northwestern Chumash</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Ineze%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Inezeño">Inezeño</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Inese%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Ineseño">Ineseño</a>", Samala, Inland Central Chumash</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Obispe%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Obispeño">Obispeño</a>", <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yak-tityu-tityu-yak-tilhini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yak-tityu-tityu-yak-tilhini (page does not exist)">Yak-tityu-tityu-yak-tilhini</a>, Northern Chumash</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Purisime%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Purisimeño">Purisimeño</a>", <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kagismuwas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kagismuwas (page does not exist)">Kagismuwas</a>, Northern Chumash</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Venture%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventureño">Ventureño</a>", <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alliklik_%E2%80%93_Castac&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alliklik – Castac (page does not exist)">Alliklik – Castac</a>, Southern Chumash</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilula" title="Chilula">Chilula</a>, northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimariko_people" title="Chimariko people">Chimariko</a>, extinct, northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: 205–07 </li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kuneste&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kuneste (page does not exist)">Kuneste</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Eel_River_Athapaskan_peoples" title="Eel River Athapaskan peoples">Eel River Athapaskan peoples</a>" <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lassik_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Lassik people">Lassik</a>, northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mattole" title="Mattole">Mattole</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bear_River_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Bear River people">Bear River</a>), northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nongatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Nongatl">Nongatl</a>, northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: 190 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinkyone" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinkyone">Sinkyone</a>, northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eel_River_Athapaskans" class="mw-redirect" title="Eel River Athapaskans">Wailaki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wai-lakki" class="mw-redirect" title="Wai-lakki">Wai-lakki</a>, northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esselen" title="Esselen">Esselen</a>, west-central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hupa" title="Hupa">Hupa</a>, northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix  <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsnungwe" title="Tsnungwe">Tsnungwe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karok" class="mw-redirect" title="Karok">Karok</a>, northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kato_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kato (tribe)">Kato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cahto" title="Cahto">Cahto</a>, northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawaiisu" title="Kawaiisu">Kawaiisu</a>, southeast-central California</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkow" class="mw-redirect" title="Konkow">Konkow</a>, northern-central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay" title="Kumeyaay">Kumeyaay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diegue%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Diegueño">Diegueño</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kumiai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kumiai">Kumiai</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ipai" class="mw-redirect" title="Ipai">Ipai</a>, southwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix  <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jamul_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamul tribe">Jamul</a>, southwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: 593 </li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipai" class="mw-redirect" title="Tipai">Tipai</a>, southwestern California and northwestern Mexico<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Jolla_complex" title="La Jolla complex">La Jolla complex</a>, southern California, c. 6050–1000 BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maidu" title="Maidu">Maidu</a>, northeastern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix  <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Konkow_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Konkow people">Konkow</a>, northern California</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yamani_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yamani people (page does not exist)">Yamani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechoopda" title="Mechoopda">Mechoopda</a>, northern California</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisenan" title="Nisenan">Nisenan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Maidu" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Maidu">Southern Maidu</a>, northern California</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miwok" title="Miwok">Miwok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Me-wuk" class="mw-redirect" title="Me-wuk">Me-wuk</a>, central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix  <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bay_Miwok" title="Bay Miwok">Bay Miwok</a>, west-central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Miwok" title="Coast Miwok">Coast Miwok</a>, west-central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Miwok" title="Lake Miwok">Lake Miwok</a>, west-central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_and_Sierra_Miwok" class="mw-redirect" title="Valley and Sierra Miwok">Valley and Sierra Miwok</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monache" class="mw-redirect" title="Monache">Monache</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Mono" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Mono">Western Mono</a>, central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_people" title="Mohave people">Mohave</a>, southeastern California</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisenan" title="Nisenan">Nisenan</a>, eastern-central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomlaki" title="Nomlaki">Nomlaki</a>, northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohlone_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Ohlone people">Ohlone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Costanoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Costanoan">Costanoan</a>, west-central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix  <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Awaswas" title="Awaswas">Awaswas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalon_people" title="Chalon people">Chalon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chochenyo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Chochenyo people">Chochenyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karkin_people" title="Karkin people">Karkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutsun_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutsun people">Mutsun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramaytush" title="Ramaytush">Ramaytush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumsen_people" title="Rumsen people">Rumsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamyen" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamyen">Tamyen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yelamu" title="Yelamu">Yelamu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patwin" title="Patwin">Patwin</a>, central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix  <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suisun_people" title="Suisun people">Suisun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Patwin" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Patwin">Southern Patwin</a>, central California</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauma_Complex" title="Pauma Complex">Pauma Complex</a>, southern California, c. 6050–1000 BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pomo people">Pomo</a>, northwestern and central-western California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quechan" title="Quechan">Quechan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yuman" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuman">Yuman</a>, southeastern California</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Te%27po%27ta%27ahl&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Te'po'ta'ahl (page does not exist)">Te'po'ta'ahl</a>, ("<a href="/wiki/Salinan" title="Salinan">Salinan</a>"), coastal central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix  <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Antonia%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Antoniaño">Antoniaño</a>"<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: 769 </li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Miguele%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Migueleño">Migueleño</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Playano&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Playano (page does not exist)">Playano</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shasta_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shasta (tribe)">Shasta</a> northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix  <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Konomihu" class="mw-redirect" title="Konomihu">Konomihu</a>, northwestern California</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okwanuchu_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Okwanuchu people">Okwanuchu</a>, northwestern California</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolowa" title="Tolowa">Tolowa</a>, northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takic" class="mw-redirect" title="Takic">Takic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acjachemem" class="mw-redirect" title="Acjachemem">Acjachemem</a>, ("<a href="/wiki/Juane%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Juaneño">Juaneño</a>"), Takic, southwestern California</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=I%C3%ADvil%CC%83uqaletem&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iívil̃uqaletem (page does not exist)">Iívil̃uqaletem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iviatim" class="mw-redirect" title="Iviatim">Iviatim</a>, ("<a href="/wiki/Cahuilla_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Cahuilla people">Cahuilla</a>"), Takic southern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitanemuk" title="Kitanemuk">Kitanemuk</a>, ("<a href="/wiki/Tejon_Indian_Tribe_of_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Tejon Indian Tribe of California">Tejon</a>") Takic, south-central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuupangaxwichem" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuupangaxwichem">Kuupangaxwichem</a>, ("<a href="/wiki/Cupe%C3%B1o_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Cupeño people">Cupeño</a>"), southern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pay%C3%B3mkawichum" class="mw-redirect" title="Payómkawichum">Payómkawichum</a>, ("<a href="/wiki/Luise%C3%B1o_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Luiseño people">Luiseño</a>"), Takic, southwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tataviam_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tataviam people">Tataviam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tataviam_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tataviam people">Allilik</a> Takic ("<a href="/wiki/Fernande%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Fernandeño">Fernandeño</a>"), southern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongva_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tongva people">Tongva</a>, ("<a href="/wiki/Gabriele%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabrieleño">Gabrieleño</a>"), ("<a href="/wiki/Fernande%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Fernandeño">Fernandeño</a>"), ("<a href="/wiki/Nicole%C3%B1o" title="Nicoleño">Nicoleño</a>"), "<a href="/wiki/San_Clemente_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="San Clemente tribe">San Clemente tribe</a>" Takic, coastal southern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuhaviatam" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuhaviatam">Yuhaviatam</a> <a href="/wiki/Morongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Morongo">Morongo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanyume" title="Vanyume">Vanyume</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mohineyam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mohineyam (page does not exist)">Mohineyam</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Serrano_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Serrano (people)">Serrano</a>"), southern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCbatulabal_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tübatulabal people">Tubatulabal</a>, south-central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix  <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bankalachi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bankalachi (page does not exist)">Bankalachi</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Toloim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Toloim (page does not exist)">Toloim</a>, south-central California</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahkanapil" class="mw-redirect" title="Pahkanapil">Pahkanapil</a>, south-central California</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palagewan" class="mw-redirect" title="Palagewan">Palagewan</a>, south-central California</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wappo" title="Wappo">Wappo</a>, north-central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whilkut" title="Whilkut">Whilkut</a>, northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wintu" title="Wintu">Wintu</a>, northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiyot_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Wiyot people">Wiyot</a>, northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yana_people" title="Yana people">Yana</a>, northern-central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix  <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yahi" class="mw-redirect" title="Yahi">Yahi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yokuts" title="Yokuts">Yokuts</a>, central and southern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix  <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chukchansi" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukchansi">Chukchansi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foothill_Yokuts" class="mw-redirect" title="Foothill Yokuts">Foothill Yokuts</a>, central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Valley_Yokuts" title="Northern Valley Yokuts">Northern Valley Yokuts</a>, central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachi_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Tachi tribe">Tachi tribe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Valley_Yokuts" title="Southern Valley Yokuts">Southern Valley Yokuts</a>, south-central California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timbisha" title="Timbisha">Timbisha</a>, eastern California</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuki_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuki tribe">Yuki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukomno%27m" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukomno'm">Ukomno'm</a>, northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix  <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huchnom" class="mw-redirect" title="Huchnom">Huchnom</a>, northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: 249 </li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yurok_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Yurok tribe">Yurok</a>, northwestern California<a href="#cite_note-heizer-108">[108]</a>: ix </li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Languages">Languages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Languages">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:California_tribes_%26_languages_at_contact.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two maps of California. One is color-coded and labeled to show the boundaries of different tribal groups and the other shows the boundaries of languages" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/California_tribes_%26_languages_at_contact.png/250px-California_tribes_%26_languages_at_contact.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/California_tribes_%26_languages_at_contact.png/375px-California_tribes_%26_languages_at_contact.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/California_tribes_%26_languages_at_contact.png/500px-California_tribes_%26_languages_at_contact.png 2x" data-file-width="5304" data-file-height="5853" /></a><figcaption>A map of California tribal groups and languages at the time of European contact.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages of the Americas</a></div> Before European contact, native Californians spoke over 300 dialects of approximately 100 distinct languages.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hinton-1994-110">[110]</a> The large number of languages has been related to the <a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_California" title="Ecology of California">ecological diversity of California</a>,<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> and to a sociopolitical organization into small tribelets (usually 100 individuals or fewer) with a shared "ideology that defined language boundaries as unalterable natural features inherent in the land".<a href="#cite_note-Golla-112">[112]</a>: 1  Together, the area had more linguistic diversity than all of Europe combined.<a href="#cite_note-Hinton-1994-110">[110]</a> "The majority of California Indian languages belong either to highly localized language families with two or three members (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Yukian" class="mw-redirect" title="Yukian">Yukian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maiduan" class="mw-redirect" title="Maiduan">Maiduan</a>) or are language isolates (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Karuk" title="Karuk">Karuk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Esselen" title="Esselen">Esselen</a>)."<a href="#cite_note-Golla-112">[112]</a>: 8  Of the remainder, most are <a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a> or <a href="/wiki/Athapaskan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Athapaskan languages">Athapaskan languages</a>. Larger groupings have been proposed. The <a href="/wiki/Hokan_languages" title="Hokan languages">Hokan</a> superstock has the greatest time depth and has been most difficult to demonstrate; <a href="/wiki/Penutian_languages" title="Penutian languages">Penutian</a> is somewhat less controversial. There is evidence suggestive that speakers of the <a href="/wiki/Chumashan_languages" title="Chumashan languages">Chumashan languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yukian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yukian languages">Yukian languages</a>, and possibly languages of southern Baja California such as <a href="/wiki/Waikuri_language" title="Waikuri language">Waikuri</a>, were in California prior to the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Penutian" class="mw-redirect" title="Penutian">Penutian</a> languages from the north and <a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uto-Aztecan">Uto-Aztecan</a> from the east, perhaps predating even the <a href="/wiki/Hokan_languages" title="Hokan languages">Hokan</a> languages.<a href="#cite_note-Golla-112">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Wiyot_language" title="Wiyot language">Wiyot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yurok_language" title="Yurok language">Yurok</a> are distantly related to <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian languages</a> in a larger grouping called <a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a>. The several <a href="/wiki/Athapaskan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Athapaskan languages">Athapaskan languages</a> are relatively recent arrivals, having arrived about 2000 years ago. <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"> <caption>Existing Indigenous Languages of California </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Language </th> <th>Language Family </th> <th>Tribe(s) </th> <th>Number of Speakers </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Karuk_language" title="Karuk language">Karuk</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hokan_languages" title="Hokan languages">Hokan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Karok" class="mw-redirect" title="Karok">Karok</a> </td> <td>700 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay_language" title="Kumeyaay language">Kumeyaay</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yuman_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuman languages">Yuman</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay" title="Kumeyaay">Kumeyaay</a> </td> <td>427 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Yurok_language" title="Yurok language">Yurok</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yurok" title="Yurok">Yurok</a> </td> <td>414 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mono_language_(Native_American)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mono language (Native American)">Mono</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uto-Aztecan">Uto-Aztecan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mono_people" title="Mono people">Mono</a> <a href="/wiki/Mono_people" title="Mono people">Owens Valley Paiute</a> </td> <td>349 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mojave_language" title="Mojave language">Mojave</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yuman_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuman languages">Yuman</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mohave_people" title="Mohave people">Mohave</a> </td> <td>330 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Luise%C3%B1o_language" title="Luiseño language">Luiseño</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uto-Aztecan">Uto-Aztecan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pay%C3%B3mkawichum" class="mw-redirect" title="Payómkawichum">Payómkawichum/Luiseño</a> <a href="/wiki/Acjachemen" title="Acjachemen">Acjachemen/Juaneño</a> </td> <td>327 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Quechan_language" title="Quechan language">Quechan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yuman_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuman languages">Yuman</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Quechan_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Quechan people">Quechan</a> </td> <td>290 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cahuilla_language" title="Cahuilla language">Cahuilla</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uto-Aztecan">Uto-Aztecan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cahuilla_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Cahuilla people">Cahuilla</a> </td> <td>139 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tiipai_language" title="Tiipai language">Tiipai-Kumeyaay</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yuman_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuman languages">Yuman</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay" title="Kumeyaay">Kumeyaay</a> </td> <td>100 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Achumawi_language" title="Achumawi language">Achumawi</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shastan_languages" title="Shastan languages">Shasta</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Achomawi" title="Achomawi">Achomawi</a> </td> <td>68 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tachi_Yokuts" title="Tachi Yokuts">Tachi</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yok-Utian" class="mw-redirect" title="Yok-Utian">Yok-Utian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Santa_Rosa_Rancheria" title="Santa Rosa Rancheria">Santa Rosa Rancheria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yokut_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Yokut people">Yokut</a>) </td> <td>45 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chumashan_languages" title="Chumashan languages">Chumash (any Chumash)</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chumashan_languages" title="Chumashan languages">Chumashan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chumash_people" title="Chumash people">Chumash</a> </td> <td>39 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nomlaki_language" title="Nomlaki language">Nomlaki</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wintuan_languages" title="Wintuan languages">Wintuan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nomlaki" title="Nomlaki">Nomlaki</a> </td> <td>38 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Konkow_language" title="Konkow language">Konkow</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Maiduan_languages" title="Maiduan languages">Maiduan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mechoopda" title="Mechoopda">Mechoopda</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maidu_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Maidu people">Maidu</a>) </td> <td>32 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Yawelmani" class="mw-redirect" title="Yawelmani">Yawelmani</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yok-Utian" class="mw-redirect" title="Yok-Utian">Yok-Utian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tule_River_Indian_Tribe_of_the_Tule_River_Reservation" title="Tule River Indian Tribe of the Tule River Reservation">Tule River Reservation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Southern_Valley_Yokuts" title="Southern Valley Yokuts">Southern Valley Yokuts</a>) </td> <td>25 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kashaya_language" title="Kashaya language">Kashaya</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hokan_languages" title="Hokan languages">Hokan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kashia_Band_of_Pomo_Indians_of_the_Stewarts_Point_Rancheria" title="Kashia Band of Pomo Indians of the Stewarts Point Rancheria">Kashia</a> </td> <td>24 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Wintu_language" title="Wintu language">Wintu</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wintuan_languages" title="Wintuan languages">Wintuan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wintu_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Wintu people">Wintu</a> </td> <td>24 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Timbisha_language" title="Timbisha language">Timbisha</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uto-Aztecan">Uto-Aztecan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Timbisha" title="Timbisha">Timbisha</a> </td> <td>20 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Washo_language" title="Washo language">Washo</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hokan_languages" title="Hokan languages">Hokan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Washoe_people" title="Washoe people">Washoe</a> </td> <td>20 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Atsugewi_language" title="Atsugewi language">Atsugewi</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shastan_languages" title="Shastan languages">Shasta</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Atsugewi_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Atsugewi people">Atsugewi</a> </td> <td>15 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Central_Sierra_Miwok" title="Central Sierra Miwok">Central Sierra Miwok</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Utian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utian">Utian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chicken_Ranch_Rancheria_of_Me-Wuk_Indians_of_California" title="Chicken Ranch Rancheria of Me-Wuk Indians of California">Chicken Ranch Rancheria of Me-Wuk Indians of California</a> (<a href="/wiki/Miwok" title="Miwok">Miwok</a>) </td> <td>12 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cupe%C3%B1o_language" title="Cupeño language">Cupeño</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uto-Aztecan">Uto-Aztecan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cupe%C3%B1o" title="Cupeño">Cupeño</a> </td> <td>11 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chukchansi_dialect" title="Chukchansi dialect">Chukchansi</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yok-Utian" class="mw-redirect" title="Yok-Utian">Yok-Utian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Picayune_Rancheria_of_Chukchansi_Indians" title="Picayune Rancheria of Chukchansi Indians">Picayune Rancheria of Chukchansi Indians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yokut_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Yokut people">Yokut</a>) </td> <td>8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Southern_Sierra_Miwok_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Sierra Miwok language">Southern Sierra Miwok</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Utian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utian">Utian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plains_and_Sierra_Miwok" title="Plains and Sierra Miwok">Plains and Sierra Miwok</a> </td> <td>7 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Pomo_language" title="Southeastern Pomo language">Southeastern Pomo</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hokan_languages" title="Hokan languages">Hokan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pomo" title="Pomo">Pomo</a> </td> <td>7 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Serrano_language" title="Serrano language">Serrano</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uto-Aztecan">Uto-Aztecan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Serrano_people" title="Serrano people">Serrano</a> </td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ipai_language" title="Ipai language">Ipai-Kumeyaay</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yuman_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuman languages">Yuman</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay" title="Kumeyaay">Kumeyaay</a> </td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kawaiisu_language" title="Kawaiisu language">Kawaiisu</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uto-Aztecan">Uto-Aztecan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kawaiisu" title="Kawaiisu">Kawaiisu</a> </td> <td>5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCbatulabal_language" title="Tübatulabal language">Tübatulabal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCbatulabal_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tübatulabal people">Tübatulabal</a> </td> <td>5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tolowa_language" title="Tolowa language">Tolowa</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tolowa_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolowa people">Tolowa</a> <a href="/wiki/Chetco_people" title="Chetco people">Chetco</a> </td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hupa_language" title="Hupa language">Hupa</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hupa" title="Hupa">Hupa</a> <a href="/wiki/Tsnungwe" title="Tsnungwe">Tsnungwe</a> </td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chemehuevi#language" title="Chemehuevi">Chemehuevi</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uto-Aztecan">Uto-Aztecan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chemehuevi" title="Chemehuevi">Chemehuevi</a> </td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shasta_language" title="Shasta language">Shasta</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shastan_languages" title="Shastan languages">Shastan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shasta_people" title="Shasta people">Shasta</a> </td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Patwin_language" title="Patwin language">Patwin</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wintuan_languages" title="Wintuan languages">Wintuan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Patwin_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Patwin people">Patwin</a> </td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Wikchamni" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikchamni">Wikchamni</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yok-Utian" class="mw-redirect" title="Yok-Utian">Yok-Utian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wukchumni" title="Wukchumni">Wukchumni</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yokut_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Yokut people">Yokut</a>) </td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chochenyo_language" title="Chochenyo language">Chochenyo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ohlone_languages" title="Ohlone languages">Ohlone</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Utian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utian">Utian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chochenyo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Chochenyo people">Chochenyo</a>; within the <a href="/wiki/Ohlone#Present_day" title="Ohlone">Muwekma Ohlone Tribe</a> </td> <td>1 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/30px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/45px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/60px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="319" data-file-height="299" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/32px-Flag_of_California.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/48px-Flag_of_California.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/64px-Flag_of_California.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:California" title="Portal:California">California portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_California" title="Aboriginal title in California">Aboriginal title in California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_State_Indian_Museum" title="California State Indian Museum">California State Indian Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Mexico" title="Indigenous peoples of Mexico">Indigenous peoples of Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state#California" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">List of federally recognized tribes by state#California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martis_people" title="Martis people">Martis people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_Indians" title="Mission Indians">Mission Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_of_Native_California" title="Population of Native California">Population of Native California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_of_California_and_Other_Indian_Languages" title="Survey of California and Other Indian Languages">Survey of California and Other Indian Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_narratives_of_Indigenous_Californians" title="Traditional narratives of Indigenous Californians">Traditional narratives of Indigenous Californians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_California_history" title="Bibliography of California history">Bibliography of California history</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBlakemore" class="citation web cs1">Blakemore, Erin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/news/californias-little-known-genocide">"California's Little-Known Genocide"</a>. HISTORY. Retrieved December 29, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HISTORY&rft.atitle=California%27s+Little-Known+Genocide&rft.aulast=Blakemore&rft.aufirst=Erin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fnews%2Fcalifornias-little-known-genocide&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+of+California" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sdsu-2"><a href="#cite_ref-sdsu_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100613042909/http://infodome.sdsu.edu/research/guides/calindians/calind.shtml">"American Indians"</a>. SDSU Library and Information Access. Archived from the original on June 13, 2010 – via Wayback Machine.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Indians&rft.pub=SDSU+Library+and+Information+Access&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finfodome.sdsu.edu%2Fresearch%2Fguides%2Fcalindians%2Fcalind.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+of+California" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Cunningham2010-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cunningham2010_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cunningham2010_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cunningham2010_3-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunningham2010" class="citation book cs1">Cunningham, Laura (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nuYuYGHwCygC&pg=PA135">State of Change: Forgotten Landscapes of California</a>. Berkeley, California: Heyday. pp. 135, 173–202. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1597141369" title="Special:BookSources/978-1597141369"><bdi>978-1597141369</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160427074202/https://books.google.com/books?id=nuYuYGHwCygC&pg=PA135">Archived</a> from the original on April 27, 2016. 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Menlo Park, California: Ballena Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0879191260" title="Special:BookSources/0879191260"><bdi>0879191260</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+the+Wilderness%3A+Environmental+Management+by+Native+Californians&rft.place=Menlo+Park%2C+California&rft.pub=Ballena+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0879191260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+of+California" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Snow-2002-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Snow-2002_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Snow-2002_5-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37418391">Encomium musicae : essays in memory of Robert J. Snow</a>. Robert J. 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Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press. 2002. p. 129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-945193-83-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-945193-83-1"><bdi>0-945193-83-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/37418391">37418391</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encomium+musicae+%3A+essays+in+memory+of+Robert+J.+Snow&rft.place=Hillsdale%2C+NY&rft.pages=129&rft.pub=Pendragon+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F37418391&rft.isbn=0-945193-83-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F37418391&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+of+California" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Risling_Baldy-2018-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Risling_Baldy-2018_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Risling_Baldy-2018_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Risling_Baldy-2018_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Risling_Baldy-2018_6-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRisling_Baldy2018" class="citation book cs1">Risling Baldy, Cutcha (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1032289446">We are dancing for you : native feminisms and the revitalization of women's coming-of-age ceremonies</a>. Seattle. pp. 61–63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-74345-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-74345-5"><bdi>978-0-295-74345-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1032289446">1032289446</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=We+are+dancing+for+you+%3A+native+feminisms+and+the+revitalization+of+women%27s+coming-of-age+ceremonies&rft.place=Seattle&rft.pages=61-63&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1032289446&rft.isbn=978-0-295-74345-5&rft.aulast=Risling+Baldy&rft.aufirst=Cutcha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1032289446&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+of+California" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Blakemore-2022-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blakemore-2022_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blakemore-2022_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blakemore-2022_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blakemore-2022_7-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlakemore" class="citation web cs1">Blakemore, Erin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/news/californias-little-known-genocide">"California's Little-Known Genocide"</a>. 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Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Pr. p. 185. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2020-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2020-1"><bdi>978-0-8061-2020-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indians+of+California%3A+The+changing+image&rft.place=Norman&rft.pages=185&rft.edition=2.+printing&rft.pub=Univ.+of+Oklahoma+Pr&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-2020-1&rft.aulast=Rawls&rft.aufirst=James+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+of+California" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ACLU_NorCal-2018-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ACLU_NorCal-2018_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ACLU_NorCal-2018_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ACLU_NorCal-2018_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ACLU_NorCal-2018_9-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ACLU_NorCal-2018_9-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ACLU_NorCal-2018_9-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclunc.org/sites/goldchains/explore/indian-boarding-schools.html">"Indian Boarding Schools"</a>. 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Lanham, MD. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-2162-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-2162-1"><bdi>978-0-7591-2162-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/950751182">950751182</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Of+sacred+lands+and+strip+malls+%3A+the+battle+for+Puvungna&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F950751182&rft.isbn=978-0-7591-2162-1&rft.aulast=Loewe&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F950751182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+of+California" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Uyeda-2021-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Uyeda-2021_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Uyeda-2021_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Uyeda-2021_12-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUyedaMartinMartinRosenthal2021" class="citation magazine cs1">Uyeda, Ray Levy; Martin, Nick; Martin, Nick; Rosenthal, Tracy; Rosenthal, Tracy; Pandell, Lexi; Pandell, Lexi; O'Donnell, James; O'Donnell, James (December 9, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newrepublic.com/article/164675/shellmound-berkeley-housing-indigenous-rights">"When California's Housing Push Clashes With Indigenous Rights"</a>. 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Retrieved June 1, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Issuu&rft.atitle=Escape+Fall%2FWinter+2015&rft.date=2015-11-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fissuu.com%2Fdwaynecarter%2Fdocs%2Fhr_1_all_10_1%2F15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+of+California" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bsahighadventure.org/indian_lore/woilo.html">"The Wolf People and the Village of Woilo"</a>. www.bsahighadventure.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210201205857/http://www.bsahighadventure.org/indian_lore/woilo.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 1, 2021. 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Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 8: California. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-004574-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-16-004574-5">978-0-16-004574-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLane" class="citation web cs1">Lane, Beverly. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://museumsrv.org/the-bay-miwok-language-and-land/">"The Bay Miwok Language and Land"</a>. Museum of the San Ramon Valley. Retrieved December 5, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Museum+of+the+San+Ramon+Valley&rft.atitle=The+Bay+Miwok+Language+and+Land&rft.aulast=Lane&rft.aufirst=Beverly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuseumsrv.org%2Fthe-bay-miwok-language-and-land%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+of+California" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hinton-1994-110">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hinton-1994_110-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hinton-1994_110-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinton1994" class="citation book cs1">Hinton, Leanne (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QZ5kAAAAMAAJ">Flutes of Fire: Essays on California Indian Languages</a>. Heyday Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-930588-62-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-930588-62-5"><bdi>978-0-930588-62-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Flutes+of+Fire%3A+Essays+on+California+Indian+Languages&rft.pub=Heyday+Books&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-930588-62-5&rft.aulast=Hinton&rft.aufirst=Leanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQZ5kAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+of+California" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoddingJones2013" class="citation journal cs1">Codding, B. F.; Jones, T. L. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3767520">"Environmental productivity predicts migration, demographic, and linguistic patterns in prehistoric California"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (36): 14569–14573. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PNAS..11014569C">2013PNAS..11014569C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1302008110">10.1073/pnas.1302008110</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3767520">3767520</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23959871">23959871</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Environmental+productivity+predicts+migration%2C+demographic%2C+and+linguistic+patterns+in+prehistoric+California&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=36&rft.pages=14569-14573&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3767520%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23959871&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1302008110&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013PNAS..11014569C&rft.aulast=Codding&rft.aufirst=B.+F.&rft.au=Jones%2C+T.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3767520&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+of+California" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Golla-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Golla_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Golla_112-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Golla_112-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/Victor_Golla" title="Victor Golla">Golla, Victor</a> (2011). California Indian Languages. Berkeley: University of California Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26667-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26667-4">978-0-520-26667-4</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_California_history" title="Bibliography of California history">Bibliography of California history</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leanne_Hinton" title="Leanne Hinton">Hinton, Leanne</a> (1994). Flutes of Fire: Essays on California Indian Languages. Berkeley: Heyday Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-930588-62-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-930588-62-2">0-930588-62-2</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurtado1988" class="citation book cs1">Hurtado, Albert L. (1988). Indian Survival on the California Frontier. Yale Western Americana series. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300041470" title="Special:BookSources/0300041470"><bdi>0300041470</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Survival+on+the+California+Frontier&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.series=Yale+Western+Americana+series&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0300041470&rft.aulast=Hurtado&rft.aufirst=Albert+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+of+California" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lightfoot, Kent G. and Otis Parrish (2009). California Indians and Their Environment: An Introduction. Berkeley: University of California Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24471-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24471-9">978-0-520-24471-9</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_California&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link 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Northern California Indian Development Council</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aicls.org/">Advocates for Indigenous California Language Survival</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cimcc.org/">California Indian Museum and Cultural Center</a>, Santa Rosa</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010507133004/http://www.nahc.ca.gov/califindian.html">"California Indian History,"</a> California Native American Heritage Association</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100613042909/http://infodome.sdsu.edu/research/guides/calindians/calind.shtml">"California Indians,"</a> SDSU Library and Information Access</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mip.berkeley.edu/cilc/bibs/toc.html">Bibliographies of Northern and Central California Indians</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scahome.org/about_ca_archaeology/chrono.html">"A Glossary of Proper Names in California Prehistory"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121228021200/http://www.scahome.org/about_ca_archaeology/chrono.html">Archived</a> December 28, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Society for California Archaeology</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120924001237/http://www.csusm.edu/air/californiaindianconference/index.html">27th Annual California Indian Conference</a>, California State University San Marcos, Oct. 5–6, 2012</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShea1879" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Gilmary_Shea" title="John Gilmary Shea">Shea, John G.</a> (1879). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_American_Cyclop%C3%A6dia_(1879)/California,_Indians_of">"California, Indians of" </a>. <a href="/wiki/The_American_Cyclop%C3%A6dia" class="mw-redirect" title="The American Cyclopædia">The American Cyclopædia</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=California%2C+Indians+of&rft.btitle=The+American+Cyclop%C3%A6dia&rft.date=1879&rft.aulast=Shea&rft.aufirst=John+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+of+California" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output 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style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#deb887;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Template:Indigenous peoples of California"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Template talk:Indigenous peoples of California"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous peoples of California"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=California&#124;link=California_Indigenous_peoples_of_California" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/California" title="California"><img alt="California" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/23px-Flag_of_California.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/35px-Flag_of_California.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/45px-Flag_of_California.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indigenous peoples of California</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achomawi" title="Achomawi">Achomawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acjachemen" title="Acjachemen">Acjachemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahwahnechee" title="Ahwahnechee">Ahwahnechee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atsugewi" title="Atsugewi">Atsugewi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_Miwok" title="Bay Miwok">Bay Miwok</a> (<a href="/wiki/Saklan_tribe" title="Saklan tribe">Saklan</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cahuilla" title="Cahuilla">Cahuilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemehuevi" title="Chemehuevi">Chemehuevi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimariko_people" title="Chimariko people">Chimariko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chumash_people" title="Chumash people">Chumash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Miwok" title="Coast Miwok">Coast Miwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupe%C3%B1o" title="Cupeño">Cupeño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eel_River_Athapaskan_peoples" title="Eel River Athapaskan peoples">Eel River Athapaskans</a> (Lassik, Nongatl, Sinkyone, Wailaki)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esselen" title="Esselen">Esselen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halchidhoma" title="Halchidhoma">Halchidhoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hupa" title="Hupa">Hupa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chilula" title="Chilula">Chilula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Whilkut" title="Whilkut">Whilkut</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karuk" title="Karuk">Karuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cahto" title="Cahto">Cahto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawaiisu" title="Kawaiisu">Kawaiisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitanemuk" title="Kitanemuk">Kitanemuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kizh" title="Kizh">Kizh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay" title="Kumeyaay">Kumeyaay</a> (Diegueño, Ipai, Tipai)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Miwok" title="Lake Miwok">Lake Miwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luise%C3%B1o" title="Luiseño">Luiseño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maidu" title="Maidu">Maidu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mattole" title="Mattole">Mattole</a> (Bear River)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechoopda" title="Mechoopda">Mechoopda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_people" title="Modoc people">Modoc</a> (Klamath)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_people" title="Mohave people">Mohave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mono_people" title="Mono people">Mono</a> (Monache, Owens Valley Paiute)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisenan" title="Nisenan">Nisenan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomlaki" title="Nomlaki">Nomlaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Paiute" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Paiute">Northern Paiute</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kucadikadi" title="Kucadikadi">Kucadikadi</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohlone" title="Ohlone">Ohlone</a> <ul><li>Costanoan</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramaytush" title="Ramaytush">Ramaytush</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patwin" title="Patwin">Patwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomo" title="Pomo">Pomo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quechan" title="Quechan">Quechan</a> (Yuma)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salinan" title="Salinan">Salinan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serrano_people" title="Serrano people">Serrano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shasta_people" title="Shasta people">Shasta</a> (Konomihu, Okwanuchu)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tataviam" title="Tataviam">Tataviam</a> (Fernandeño)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timbisha" title="Timbisha">Timbisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolowa" title="Tolowa">Tolowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongva" title="Tongva">Tongva</a> (Gabrieliño)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCbatulabal" title="Tübatulabal">Tübatulabal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_and_Sierra_Miwok" title="Plains and Sierra Miwok">Plains and Sierra Miwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanyume" title="Vanyume">Vanyume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wappo" title="Wappo">Wappo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washoe_people" title="Washoe people">Washoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wintu" title="Wintu">Wintu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiyot" title="Wiyot">Wiyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wukchumni" title="Wukchumni">Wukchumni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yana_people" title="Yana people">Yana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yokuts" title="Yokuts">Yokuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuki_people" title="Yuki people">Yuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yurok" title="Yurok">Yurok</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cultural_areas_of_Indigenous_North_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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North Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circumpolar_peoples" title="Circumpolar peoples">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Subarctic" title="Indigenous peoples of the Subarctic">Subarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast" title="Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast">Northwest Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northwest_Plateau" title="Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau">Plateau</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Great_Basin" title="Indigenous peoples of the Great Basin">Great Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Eastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the 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title="Template:Native American Tribes in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Americans_in_Ohio" title="Template:Native Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Native American Tribes in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_peoples_of_Oregon" title="Native American peoples of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Texas" title="Native American tribes in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_Utah" title="Native Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Virginia" title="Native American tribes in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Native Americans in Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Wisconsin" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_California" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #FCC200"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:California_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:California history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:California_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:California history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:California_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:California history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_California" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">History of California </a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FCC200;width:7em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_California_before_1900" title="History of California before 1900">Before 1900</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Native Californian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California_before_1900#Pre_European_settlement" title="History of California before 1900">Precontact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California_before_1900#European_exploration_(1530–1765)" title="History of California before 1900">First explorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California_before_1900#European_exploration_(1765–1821)" title="History of California before 1900">Later explorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_genocide" title="California genocide">Genocide of indigenous population</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California_before_1900#Spanish_colonization_and_governance_(1697–1821)" title="History of California before 1900">Spanish colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California_before_1900#California_under_Mexican_rule_(1821–1846)" title="History of California before 1900">Mexican rule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/California_Trail" title="California Trail">California Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War#California_Campaign" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Californios" title="Californios">Californios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Republic" title="California Republic">California Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_California" title="Conquest of California">Conquest of California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_government_of_California" title="Interim government of California">Interim government of California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California_before_1900#California_under_American_rule_(beginning_1846)" title="History of California before 1900">United States rule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="California in the American Civil War">Civil War</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FCC200;width:7em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_California_(1900%E2%80%93present)" title="History of California (1900–present)">Since 1900</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California_(1900%E2%80%93present)#Organized_labor" title="History of California (1900–present)">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California_(1900%E2%80%93present)#Examples_of_engineering" title="History of California (1900–present)">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_water_wars" title="California water wars">Water wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California_(1900%E2%80%93present)#Oil,_movies,_and_the_military" title="History of California (1900–present)">Industrial growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California_(1900%E2%80%93present)#Baby_boomers_and_free_spirits" title="History of California (1900–present)">Postwar culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California_(1900%E2%80%93present)#Economic_power_house" title="History of California (1900–present)">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California_(1900%E2%80%93present)#The_California_legal_revolution" title="History of California (1900–present)">Legal revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California_(1900%E2%80%93present)#High-tech_expansion" title="History of California (1900–present)">Tech boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California_(1900%E2%80%93present)#2000.E2.80.93present" title="History of California (1900–present)">Present day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FCC200;width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_California" title="Category:History of California">By topic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etymology_of_California" title="Etymology of California">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California%27s_state_highway_system" title="History of California's state highway system">Highways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_California" title="Maritime history of California">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_California" title="Spanish missions in California">Missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_California" title="History of rail transportation in California">Railroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranchos_of_California" title="Ranchos of California">Ranchos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_California" title="History of slavery in California">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_California" title="Territorial evolution of California">Territorial evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FCC200;width:7em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_California" title="List of regions of California">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_San_Francisco_Bay_Area" title="Timeline of the San Francisco Bay Area">Bay Area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_San_Fernando_Valley" title="History of the San Fernando Valley">San Fernando Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Santa_Catalina_Island" title="History of Santa Catalina Island">Santa Catalina Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Yosemite_area" title="History of the Yosemite area">Yosemite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FCC200;width:7em">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0;background: transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_San_Fernando_Valley" title="History of the San Fernando Valley">San Fernando Valley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FCC200;width:7em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_counties_in_California" title="List of counties in California">By county</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alameda_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Alameda County, California">Alameda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alpine_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Alpine County, California">Alpine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Amador_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Amador County, California">Amador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Butte_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Butte County, California">Butte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Calaveras_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Calaveras County, California">Calaveras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colusa_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Colusa County, California">Colusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Contra_Costa_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Contra Costa County, California">Contra Costa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Del_Norte_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Del Norte County, California">Del Norte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_El_Dorado_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of El Dorado County, California">El Dorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Fresno_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Fresno County, California">Fresno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Glenn_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Glenn County, California">Glenn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Humboldt_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Humboldt County, California">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Imperial_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Imperial County, California">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Inyo_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Inyo County, California">Inyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kern_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kern County, California">Kern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kings_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kings County, California">Kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lake_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lake County, California">Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lassen_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lassen County, California">Lassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Los_Angeles_County,_California" title="History of Los Angeles County, California">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Madera_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Madera County, California">Madera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marin_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Marin County, California">Marin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mariposa_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Mariposa County, California">Mariposa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mendocino_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Mendocino County, California">Mendocino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Merced_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Merced County, California">Merced</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Modoc_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Modoc County, California">Modoc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mono_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Mono County, California">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Monterey_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Monterey County, California">Monterey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Napa_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Napa County, California">Napa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Nevada County, California">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Orange_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Orange County, California">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Placer_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Placer County, California">Placer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Plumas_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Plumas County, California">Plumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Riverside_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Riverside County, California">Riverside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sacramento_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Sacramento County, California">Sacramento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Benito_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of San Benito County, California">San Benito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Bernardino_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of San Bernardino County, California">San Bernardino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Diego_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of San Diego County, California">San Diego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Francisco" title="History of San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Joaquin_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of San Joaquin County, California">San Joaquin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Luis_Obispo_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of San Luis Obispo County, California">San Luis Obispo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Mateo_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of San Mateo County, California">San Mateo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Santa_Barbara_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Santa Barbara County, California">Santa Barbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Santa_Clara_County,_California" title="History of Santa Clara County, California">Santa Clara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Santa_Cruz_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Santa Cruz County, California">Santa Cruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Shasta_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Shasta County, California">Shasta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sierra_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Sierra County, California">Sierra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Siskiyou_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Siskiyou County, California">Siskiyou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Solano_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Solano County, California">Solano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sonoma_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Sonoma County, California">Sonoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Stanislaus_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Stanislaus County, California">Stanislaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sutter_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Sutter County, California">Sutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tehama_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Tehama County, California">Tehama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Trinity_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Trinity County, California">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tulare_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Tulare County, California">Tulare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tuolumne_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Tuolumne County, California">Tuolumne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ventura_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ventura County, California">Ventura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yolo_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Yolo County, California">Yolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yuba_County,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Yuba County, California">Yuba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FCC200;width:7em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_municipalities_in_California" title="List of municipalities in California">By city</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0;background: transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Los_Angeles" title="History of Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Diego" title="History of San Diego">San Diego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Jose,_California" title="History of San Jose, California">San Jose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Francisco" title="History of San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Fresno,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Fresno, California">Fresno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sacramento,_California" title="History of Sacramento, California">Sacramento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Long_Beach,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Long Beach, California">Long Beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oakland,_California" title="History of Oakland, California">Oakland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bakersfield,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Bakersfield, California">Bakersfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anaheim,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Anaheim, California">Anaheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Santa_Ana,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Santa Ana, California">Santa Ana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Riverside,_California" title="History of Riverside, California">Riverside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Stockton,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Stockton, California">Stockton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chula_Vista,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Chula Vista, California">Chula Vista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Fremont,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Fremont, California">Fremont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Irvine,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Irvine, California">Irvine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Bernardino,_California" title="History of San Bernardino, California">San Bernardino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Modesto,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Modesto, California">Modesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oxnard,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Oxnard, California">Oxnard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Fontana,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Fontana, California">Fontana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Moreno_Valley,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Moreno Valley, California">Moreno Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Glendale,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Glendale, California">Glendale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Huntington_Beach,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Huntington Beach, California">Huntington Beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Santa_Clarita,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Santa Clarita, California">Santa Clarita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Garden_Grove,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Garden Grove, California">Garden Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Santa_Rosa,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Santa Rosa, California">Santa Rosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceanside,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Oceanside, California">Oceanside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rancho_Cucamonga,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Rancho Cucamonga, California">Rancho Cucamonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ontario,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ontario, California">Ontario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lancaster,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lancaster, California">Lancaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Elk_Grove,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Elk Grove, California">Elk Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palmdale,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palmdale, California">Palmdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Corona,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Corona, California">Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Salinas,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Salinas, California">Salinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pomona,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Pomona, California">Pomona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Torrance,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Torrance, California">Torrance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hayward,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hayward, California">Hayward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Escondido,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Escondido, California">Escondido</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sunnyvale,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Sunnyvale, California">Sunnyvale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pasadena,_California" title="History of Pasadena, California">Pasadena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Fullerton,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Fullerton, California">Fullerton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Orange,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Orange, California">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thousand_Oaks,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thousand Oaks, California">Thousand Oaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Visalia,_California" title="History of Visalia, California">Visalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Simi_Valley,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Simi Valley, California">Simi Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Concord,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Concord, California">Concord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roseville,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Roseville, California">Roseville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Santa_Clara,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Santa Clara, California">Santa Clara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vallejo,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vallejo, California">Vallejo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Victorville,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Victorville, California">Victorville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_El_Monte,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of El Monte, California">El Monte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Berkeley,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Berkeley, California">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Downey,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Downey, California">Downey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Costa_Mesa,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Costa Mesa, California">Costa Mesa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Inglewood,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Inglewood, California">Inglewood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ventura,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ventura, California">Ventura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Fairfield,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Fairfield, California">Fairfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Santa_Maria,_California" title="History of Santa Maria, California">Santa Maria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Redding,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Redding, California">Redding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Santa_Monica,_California" title="History of Santa Monica, California">Santa Monica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Santa_Barbara,_California" title="History of Santa Barbara, California">Santa Barbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chico,_California" title="History of Chico, California">Chico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Merced,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Merced, California">Merced</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Napa,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Napa, California">Napa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Redwood_City,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Redwood City, California">Redwood City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yuba_City,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Yuba City, California">Yuba City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Madera,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Madera, California">Madera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Santa_Cruz,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Santa Cruz, California">Santa Cruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Rafael,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of San Rafael, California">San Rafael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Woodland,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Woodland, California">Woodland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hanford,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hanford, California">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Luis_Obispo,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of San Luis Obispo, California">San Luis Obispo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_El_Centro,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of El Centro, California">El Centro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lompoc,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lompoc, California">Lompoc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Martinez,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Martinez, California">Martinez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hollister,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hollister, California">Hollister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eureka,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Eureka, California">Eureka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Susanville,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Susanville, California">Susanville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukiah,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ukiah, California">Ukiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oroville,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Oroville, California">Oroville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Red_Bluff,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Red Bluff, California">Red Bluff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Auburn,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Auburn, California">Auburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marysville,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Marysville, California">Marysville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Piedmont,_California" title="History of Piedmont, California">Piedmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Placerville,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Placerville, California">Placerville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yreka,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Yreka, California">Yreka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Crescent_City,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Crescent City, California">Crescent City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Willows,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Willows, California">Willows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colusa,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Colusa, California">Colusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sonora,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Sonora, California">Sonora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lakeport,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lakeport, California">Lakeport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jackson,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jackson, California">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada_City,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Nevada City, California">Nevada City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alturas,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Alturas, California">Alturas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" 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