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</li> <li id="toc-Magnocellular_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnocellular_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Magnocellular theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnocellular_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Naming_speed_deficit_and_double_deficit_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naming_speed_deficit_and_double_deficit_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Naming speed deficit and double deficit theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naming_speed_deficit_and_double_deficit_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perceptual_visual-noise_exclusion_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perceptual_visual-noise_exclusion_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Perceptual visual-noise exclusion hypothesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perceptual_visual-noise_exclusion_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonological_deficit_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonological_deficit_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Phonological deficit theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonological_deficit_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rapid_auditory_processing_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rapid_auditory_processing_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Rapid auditory processing theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rapid_auditory_processing_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visual_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Visual theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div 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class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Language processing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_processing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Working_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Working_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Working memory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Working_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limitations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limitations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Limitations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limitations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" 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Individuals with dyslexia have normal levels of intelligence but can exhibit difficulties with spelling, reading fluency, <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation" title="Pronunciation">pronunciation</a>, "sounding out" words, writing out words, and <a href="/wiki/Reading_comprehension" title="Reading comprehension">reading comprehension</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Neurological" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurological">neurological</a> nature and underlying causes of dyslexia are an active area of research. However, some experts believe that the distinction of dyslexia as a separate reading disorder and therefore recognized disability is a topic of some <a href="/wiki/Controversy" title="Controversy">controversy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_dyslexia_research" title="History of dyslexia research">History of dyslexia research</a></div> <p>Dyslexia was first identified by <a href="/wiki/Oswald_Berkhan" title="Oswald Berkhan">Oswald Berkhan</a> in 1881,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the term 'dyslexia' later coined in 1887 by <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Berlin" title="Rudolf Berlin">Rudolf Berlin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an <a href="/wiki/Ophthalmologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophthalmologist">ophthalmologist</a> practicing in <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>, Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the twentieth century, dyslexia was primarily seen as a <a href="/wiki/Phonological_deficit" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological deficit">phonological deficit</a> (specifically phonological awareness) that resulted in a reading deficit.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dyslexia was seen as an issue with reading achievement specifically, caused by deficits in discrimination of written word sounds as opposed to a broader disorder of brain function. However, much research from the 1990s onward has focused on the potential biological bases of dyslexia and understanding dyslexia as a disorder of brain function. One of the first weaknesses of the strictly <a href="/wiki/Phonological" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological">phonological</a> deficit hypothesis for dyslexia was its inability to account for the genetic link of dyslexia.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, it's been shown that "Relatively high <a href="/wiki/Heritability" title="Heritability">heritabilities</a> were observed for both reading ability and dyslexia indicating substantial genetic influences."<sup id="cite_ref-PractHandbook_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PractHandbook-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a large twin study (sample 1031 twins), Gayan and Olson established that dyslexia was highly heritable, while a family study by Pennington (sample 1698 individuals) showed familial risk rates of 35–45%.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Without a biological explanation for dyslexia, this heritability went unexplained. Not only must the <a href="/wiki/Heritability" title="Heritability">heritability</a> be explained, but also the environmental factors that protected at-risk children from developing dyslexia. Research began to focus on potential biological causes and to center the study of dyslexia in a developmental framework. A second major weakness of the strictly phonological deficit hypothesis was its strict definition of dyslexia as a reading disorder. Consequently, the various secondary symptoms were unable to be explained, including automatization deficits of both skill and knowledge acquisition, balance impairments, motor skill/writing deficits, and muscle tone underdevelopment.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New theories of dyslexia began to be a focus of research, with the most well established being the <a href="/wiki/Biological_theories_of_dyslexia" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological theories of dyslexia">magnocellular deficit theory</a> the <a href="/wiki/Biological_theories_of_dyslexia" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological theories of dyslexia">automatization deficit theory</a>, and the double-deficit hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-PractHandbook_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PractHandbook-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2018)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories">Theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Theories of the <a href="/wiki/Etiology" title="Etiology">etiology</a> of dyslexia have and are evolving with each new generation of dyslexia researchers, and the more recent theories of dyslexia tend to enhance one or more of the older theories as understanding of the nature of dyslexia evolves. </p><p>Theories should not be viewed as competing, but as attempting to explain the underlying causes of a similar set of symptoms from a variety of research perspectives and background.<sup id="cite_ref-theories_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theories-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cerebellar_theory">Cerebellar theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cerebellar theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <b>cerebellar theory of dyslexia</b> asserts that the cause of dyslexia is an abnormality in the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a> (a region in the back of the brain), which in turn cause disruption in normal development, which causes issues with motor control, balance, working memory, attention, automatization, and ultimately, reading.<sup id="cite_ref-Mody2008_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mody2008-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2018)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This theory was initially proposed by <a href="/wiki/Harold_Levinson" title="Harold Levinson">Harold Levinson</a> and Jan Frank in 1973 and further developed by Levinson and other researchers. Angela Fawcett and Rod Nicolson later proposed that the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a> contributes to motor control during the <a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">articulation of speech</a>, and that articulation problems can contribute to the <a href="/wiki/Phonological" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological">phonological</a> processing deficits that can cause dyslexia. They also reasoned that the cerebellum contributes to the automatisation of learned behaviors, which may include learning the <a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">grapheme</a>-<a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a> relationships when reading text.<sup id="cite_ref-Stoodley2009_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoodley2009-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FNSage_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FNSage-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 84">: 84 </span></sup> </p><p>In attempting to explain all the many known reading and non-reading dyslexic symptoms, therapies and theories as well as the presence of only cerebellar and related vestibular neurophysiological signs in dyslexics, the cerebellum was postulated to coordinate in time and space all signals (visual, auditory, tactile, proprioceptive, motion) entering and leaving the brain as well as signal interconnections. The quality and severity of the many symptoms characterizing each dyslexic was reasoned to depend on the diverse cerebral cortical and other brain processors receiving scrambled signals due to a cerebellar dysfunction. Helpful therapies were reasoned to enhance cerebellar fine tuning (e.g., the use of cerebellar-vestibular stabilizing antimotion sickness medications) and/or improve descrambling and other compensatory cognitive capabilities (e.g., tutoring, biofeedback). Most other theories equate the dyslexia disorder with impaired reading comprehension and so attempt to only explain the latter. Another cerebellar proposal indicated that articulation problems can contribute to the phonological deficits that can cause dyslexia. The cerebellum also contributes to the automatisation of learned behaviors, which can include learning the grapheme-phoneme relationships when reading texts.<sup id="cite_ref-Stoodley2009_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoodley2009-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-theories_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theories-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, some have suggested that cerebellar dysfunction alone may not be a primary cause of dyslexia and that dysarticulation and phonological deficits appear unrelated.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionary_hypothesis">Evolutionary hypothesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Evolutionary hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This theory considers that reading is an unnatural act carried out for a very brief period in human evolutionary history. It has only been in the last hundred years that reading a visual form of speech has been promoted as a major form of communication, and subsequently a lack of time for reading behaviors to evolve. In many societies around the world the majority of the population do not use the visual notation of speech as a form of communication and do not use reading skills, and therefore have no dyslexia.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many developmental dyslexics significantly compensate for their cerebellar-vestibula determined symptoms and signs over time and most normal young children evidence age-appropriate "dyslexic-like" symptoms and cerebellar-vestibular (CV) "immaturities." It was thus hypothesized that genetic dyslexia may represent an <a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontogenetic">ontogenetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Recapitulation_theory" title="Recapitulation theory">recapitulation</a> of a pre-reading state in <a href="/wiki/Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">phylogeny</a> and that <a href="/wiki/Ontogeny" title="Ontogeny">ontogeny</a> extended beyond the embryo into childhood and occasionally beyond, thus perhaps explaining late and even late-late blooming.<sup id="cite_ref-Levinson2_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levinson2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The development of reading and related writing and spelling functioning, as well as the corresponding ontogenetic CV-cerebral developmental lag hypothesis of dyslexia, is indirectly supported by studies suggesting that "the cerebellum has enlarged between three and fourfold in [only] the past million years of evolution [together with a corresponding spurt of the cerebrum]."<sup id="cite_ref-Linas_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linas-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Palay_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palay-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnocellular_theory">Magnocellular theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Magnocellular theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The magnocellular theory attempts to unify the cerebellar theory, the phonological theory, the rapid auditory processing theory, and the visual theory. The magnocellular theory proposes that the <a href="/wiki/Magnocellular_part" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnocellular part">magnocellular</a> dysfunction is not only restricted to the visual pathways but also includes auditory and tactile <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_modality" title="Stimulus modality">modalities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-theories_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theories-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historically, studies of contrast sensitivity were held to be in conflict with magnocellular theory,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but as of 2010, studies of <a href="/wiki/Evoked_potential#Visual_evoked_potential" title="Evoked potential">visual evoked potentials</a> have generally supported it. Subjects' age (10-46), differences in experimental design, small sample sizes (<10 dyslexic subjects in prominent studies), and the presence, absence, or failure to assess for comorbid ADHD might explain these contradictory findings.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Naming_speed_deficit_and_double_deficit_theories">Naming speed deficit and double deficit theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Naming speed deficit and double deficit theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The speed with which an individual can engage in the <a href="/wiki/Rapid_automatized_naming" title="Rapid automatized naming">rapid automatized naming</a> of familiar objects or letters is a strong predictor of dyslexia.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slow naming speed can be identified as early as <a href="/wiki/Kindergarten" title="Kindergarten">kindergarten</a> and persists in adults with dyslexia. </p><p>A deficit in naming speed is hypothesized to represent a deficit that is separate from phonological processing deficit. Wolf<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2021)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> identified four types of readers: readers with no deficits, readers with phonological processing deficit, readers with naming speed deficit, and readers with double deficit (that is, problems both with phonological processing and naming speed).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Students with double deficits are most likely to have some sort of severe reading impairment. </p><p>Distinguishing among these deficits has important implications for instructional intervention. If students with double deficits receive instruction only in phonological processing, they are only receiving part of what they need.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perceptual_visual-noise_exclusion_hypothesis">Perceptual visual-noise exclusion hypothesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Perceptual visual-noise exclusion hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Perceptual_noise_exclusion_hypothesis" title="Perceptual noise exclusion hypothesis">Perceptual noise exclusion hypothesis</a></div> <p>The concept of a <a href="/wiki/Perceptual_noise_exclusion_hypothesis" title="Perceptual noise exclusion hypothesis">perceptual noise exclusion</a> deficit (impaired filtering of behaviorally irrelevant visual information in dyslexia or visual-noise) is an emerging hypothesis, supported by research showing that subjects with dyslexia experience difficulty in performing visual tasks (such as motion detection in the presence of perceptual distractions) but do not show the same impairment when the distracting factors are removed in an experimental setting.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The researchers have analogized their findings concerning visual discrimination tasks to findings in other research related to auditory discrimination tasks. They assert that dyslexic symptoms arise because of an impaired ability to filter out both visual and auditory distractions, and to categorize information so as to distinguish the important sensory data from the irrelevant.<sup id="cite_ref-Sperling2005_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sperling2005-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonological_deficit_theory">Phonological deficit theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Phonological deficit theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Phonological_deficit" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological deficit">phonological deficit</a> theory proposes that people with dyslexia have a specific sound manipulation impairment, which affects their auditory memory, word recall, and sound association skills when processing speech. The phonological theory explains a reading impairment when using an <a href="/wiki/Alphabetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Alphabetic">alphabetic</a> writing system which requires learning the <a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">grapheme</a>/<a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a> correspondence, the relationship between the graphic letter symbols and speech sounds which they represent.<sup id="cite_ref-theories_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theories-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rapid_auditory_processing_theory">Rapid auditory processing theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Rapid auditory processing theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The rapid auditory processing theory is an alternative to the phonological deficit theory, which specifies that the primary deficit lies in the perception of short or rapidly varying sounds. Support for this theory arises from evidence that people with dyslexia show poor performance on a number of auditory tasks, including frequency discrimination and temporal order judgment.<sup id="cite_ref-theories_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theories-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual_theory">Visual theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Visual theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The visual theory represents a traditional perspective of dyslexia, as being the result of a visual impairment creating problems when processing information from letters and words from a written text. This includes visual processing problems such as <a href="/wiki/Binocular_vision" title="Binocular vision">binocular</a>, poor <a href="/wiki/Vergence" title="Vergence">vergence</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Visual_crowding" title="Visual crowding">visual crowding</a>. The visual theory does not deny the possibility of alternative causes of dyslexia.<sup id="cite_ref-theories_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theories-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various methods and models have been used to study dyslexia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics">Genetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>High genetic concordance found in <a href="/wiki/Twin_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Twin studies">twin studies</a> suggest a significant genetic influence on reading ability, although the degree depends on the definition of dyslexia.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Linkage_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Linkage analysis">Linkage analysis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_association" title="Genetic association">genetic association</a> studies (typically <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_trait_locus" title="Quantitative trait locus">quantitative trait locus</a> association studies, which use <a href="/wiki/Microarrays" class="mw-redirect" title="Microarrays">microarrays</a> to look at <a href="/wiki/Single_nucleotide_polymorphisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Single nucleotide polymorphisms">single nucleotide polymorphisms</a> of multiple genes at once) have been used to identify <a href="/wiki/Candidate_gene" title="Candidate gene">candidate genes</a> that may be implicated in dyslexia, which have then been confirmed in various <a href="/wiki/Knockout_mouse" title="Knockout mouse">knockout models</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Guidi2018_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guidi2018-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2018<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> the leading candidate genes included <a href="/wiki/DYX1C1" title="DYX1C1">DYX1C1</a> on <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_15" title="Chromosome 15">chromosome 15</a>, <a href="/wiki/DCDC2" title="DCDC2">DCDC2</a> and <a href="/wiki/KIAA0319" class="mw-redirect" title="KIAA0319">KIAA0319</a> on <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_6" title="Chromosome 6">chromosome 6</a>, and <a href="/wiki/ROBO1" title="ROBO1">ROBO1</a> on <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_3" title="Chromosome 3">chromosome 3</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Guidi2018_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guidi2018-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shastry_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shastry-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bishop2009_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bishop2009-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-geneticlexicon_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geneticlexicon-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These genes appear to be involved in <a href="/wiki/Neuronal_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuronal migration">neuronal migration</a>, which has led to a theory of impaired migration during <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system_in_humans" title="Development of the nervous system in humans">development of the nervous system in humans</a> as a cause for developmental dyslexia.<sup id="cite_ref-Guidi2018_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guidi2018-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other genes associated with dyslexia have included <a href="/wiki/RBFOX2" class="mw-redirect" title="RBFOX2">RBFOX2</a>, <a href="/wiki/ABCC13" title="ABCC13">ABCC13</a>, <a href="/wiki/ZNF385D" title="ZNF385D">ZNF385D</a>, <a href="/wiki/COL4A2" class="mw-redirect" title="COL4A2">COL4A2</a> and <a href="/wiki/FGF18" title="FGF18">FGF18</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Guidi2018_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guidi2018-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, these genes account for a small proportion of variance in reading disability, often less than 0.5%.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)"><span title="Material near this tag needs references to reliable medical sources. (November 2018)">medical citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Additionally, the findings are not always replicated nor consistently supported by genome-wide association studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Guidi2018_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guidi2018-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, no single gene is definitively implicated in dyslexia. A 2007 review reported that no specific cognitive processes are known to be influenced by the proposed genes and that scientists had begun to include <a href="/wiki/Neurophysiological" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurophysiological">neurophysiological</a> (e.g., event-related potential) and imaging (e.g., functional <a href="/wiki/MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">MRI</a>) procedures in their <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a> characterisation of people with dyslexia.<sup id="cite_ref-Schumacher2007_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schumacher2007-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is likely that multiple genes, as well as the environment, interact to influence reading ability. The <a href="/wiki/Generalist_Genes_hypothesis" title="Generalist Genes hypothesis">Generalist Genes hypothesis</a> proposes that many of the same genes are implicated within different aspects of a learning disability as well as between different learning disabilities. Indeed, there also appear to be a large genetic influence on other learning abilities, such as language skills.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Generalist Genes hypothesis supports the findings that many learning disabilities are <a href="/wiki/Comorbid" class="mw-redirect" title="Comorbid">comorbid</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Speech_sound_disorder" title="Speech sound disorder">speech sound disorder</a>, language impairment, and reading disability, although this is also influenced by diagnostic overlap.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Neuroimaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">Magnetic resonance imaging</a> (MRI) and <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_tensor_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion tensor imaging">diffusion tensor imaging</a> (DTI) are the main <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimaging</a> methods used to study brain structure in people with dyslexia, and <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (fMRI) along with <a href="/wiki/EEG" class="mw-redirect" title="EEG">EEG</a> are used to study brain function.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual_processing">Visual processing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Visual processing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Visual processes constitute an important part of higher cortical functioning.<sup id="cite_ref-Vellutino_2–40_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vellutino_2–40-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The encoding and interpretation of retinal stimulation occur at the neurological level upon reception of afferent input from the eyes. Reading, for example, requires the possession of both adequate vision and the neurological ability to process what is seen. In the past, many researchers have associated anomalies in the visual system as the main cause of dyslexia. While acknowledging that most such theories are untenable, visual system deficits have been shown to contribute to symptoms of dyslexia, such as word reversal and skipping words.<sup id="cite_ref-Vellutino_2–40_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vellutino_2–40-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A small subset of dyslexic individuals have been demonstrated to have deficits in the magnocellular visual system.<sup id="cite_ref-Stein_12–36_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stein_12–36-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A compromised magnocellular system, responsible for the processing of images with high temporal frequencies and high degree of movement, might be the main contributing factor to the reported "masking" of words reported among dyslexic individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-Stein_12–36_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stein_12–36-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers posit that such a "masking" effect is due to the abnormal longevity of the visual trace produced in the magnocellular system, resulting in a lapse in acuity as effected individuals attempt to process connected text.<sup id="cite_ref-Vellutino_2–40_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vellutino_2–40-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anomalies in saccadic movement, which are instantaneous, fast, oscillating eye movements essential for unimpaired reading have been observed in people with dyslexia. When corrected for reading ability, dyslexic individuals demonstrate below normal saccadic eye movements, suggesting that the severity reading disorders may be due to <a href="/wiki/Oculomotor_nerve" title="Oculomotor nerve">oculo-motor</a> deficits.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, further examination of the phenomenon shows that saccadic patterns in dyslexics seem to be a result and not the cause of the disorder, as decoding and comprehension failure were isolated as the antecedent for impairments in both the speed and accuracy with which dyslexics read. Also, there is no evidence that children with oculomotor impairments are at risk of developing dyslexia.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also suspected are convergence insufficiency and poor accommodation, both of which are uncommon in children, can interfere with the physical act of reading but not with decoding.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_processing">Language processing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Language processing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Brain activation studies using PET to study language have found that people with dyslexia have a deficit in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved in reading, which includes the <a href="/wiki/Inferior_frontal_gyrus" title="Inferior frontal gyrus">inferior frontal gyrus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inferior_parietal_lobule" title="Inferior parietal lobule">inferior parietal lobule</a>, and middle and <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_20" title="Brodmann area 20">ventral temporal cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A neural basis for the visual <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a> and for auditory verbal <a href="/wiki/Short_term_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Short term memory">short term memory</a> components have been proposed. <a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_area" title="Wernicke's area">Wernicke's</a> and <a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's areas</a> are being recast in terms of localized components of <a href="/wiki/Phonological" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological">phonological</a> input and output. Some classical regions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Arcuate_fasciculus" title="Arcuate fasciculus">arcuate fasciculus</a>, are having their "classical" roles questioned, while other regions, such as the basal temporal language zone, are growing progressively in terms of their recognized importance.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (November 2018)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Working_memory">Working memory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Working memory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>People with dyslexia have been commonly associated with working memory deficits, along with reduced activity in the pre-frontal and parietal cortex.<sup id="cite_ref-Berninger2008_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berninger2008-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Observed differences in the neural pattern of people with dyslexia, namely decreased activation in the left<sup id="cite_ref-Wager_255–74_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wager_255–74-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and posterior<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> midfrontal gyrus (LMG, PMG) and superior parietial regions of the brain further supports the view that deficits in working memory contribute to dyslexia. LMG and PMG are commonly associated with working memory processes such as memory updating and temporal order memory.<sup id="cite_ref-Wager_255–74_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wager_255–74-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Behavioral experiments in dyslexia have largely been supportive of the mediating role assumed by working memory between neurological abnormalities and dyslexic behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicolson_508–11_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicolson_508–11-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Limitations">Limitations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Limitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is difficult to control for <a href="/wiki/Confounder" class="mw-redirect" title="Confounder">confounders</a> when attempting to isolate specific causes; for example, the response to instructions by children is itself confounded by a subjects' environments, genetics and <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">socio-economic status</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Berninger2008_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berninger2008-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversy">Controversy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In recent years there has been significant debate on the categorization of dyslexia. In particular, Elliot and Gibbs argue that "attempts to distinguish between categories of 'dyslexia' and 'poor reader' or 'reading disabled' are scientifically unsupportable, arbitrary and thus potentially <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discriminatory</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Elliot1_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elliot1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While acknowledging that reading disability is a valid scientific curiosity, and that "seeking greater understanding of the relationship between visual symbols and spoken language is crucial" and that while there was "potential of genetics and neuroscience for guiding assessment and educational practice at some stage in the future", they conclude that "there is a mistaken belief that current knowledge in these fields is sufficient to justify a category of dyslexia as a subset of those who encounter reading difficulties". </p><p><i>The Dyslexia Myth</i> is a documentary that first aired in September 2005 as part of the <i><a href="/wiki/Dispatches_(TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dispatches (TV series)">Dispatches</a></i> series produced by British broadcaster <a href="/wiki/Channel_4" title="Channel 4">Channel 4</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Focusing only on the reading difficulties that people with dyslexia encounter the documentary says that myths and misconceptions surround dyslexia. It argues that the common understanding of dyslexia is not only false but makes it more difficult to provide the reading help that hundreds of thousands of children desperately need. Drawing on years of intensive academic research on both sides of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a>, it challenged the existence of dyslexia as a separate condition, and highlighted the many different forms of reading styles. </p><p>Julian Elliot, an educational psychologist at <a href="/wiki/Durham_University" title="Durham University">Durham University</a> in the United Kingdom, disputes the characterization of dyslexia as a medical condition, and believes it should be treated simply as a reading difficulty.<sup id="cite_ref-Elliot1_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elliot1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Elliot, "Parents don't want their child to be considered lazy, thick or stupid. If they get called this medically diagnosed term, dyslexic, then it is a signal to all that it's not to do with intelligence."<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elliot believes that children of all levels of intelligence may struggle with learning to read, and that all can be helped by educational strategies appropriate to their needs. He feels that resources are wasted on diagnosis and testing, and favors early intervention programs for all struggling readers.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently Julian Elliot has also made reference to the 28 Definitions of Dyslexia which were documented in the Appendices of the National Research and Development Centre for Adult Literacy and Numeracy report on Developmental dyslexia in adults: a research review by Michael Rice with Greg Brooks May 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-NRDC_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRDC-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>John Everatt of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Surrey" title="University of Surrey">University of Surrey</a> 2007, has suggested that: </p> <ul><li>dyslexic students can be distinguished from other children with low reading achievement by testing geared to assessing their strengths as well as weaknesses</li> <li>dyslexic children tend to score significantly better than other children, including non-impaired children, on tests of creativity, <a href="/wiki/Spatial_memory" title="Spatial memory">spatial memory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spatial_reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Spatial reasoning">spatial reasoning</a></li> <li>dyslexic children also perform better than other reading-impaired children on tests of vocabulary and listening comprehension</li> <li>dyslexic children may be better served by educational intervention which includes strategies geared to their unique strengths in addition to skill remediation</li></ul> <p>and thus recommends more comprehensive evaluation and targeted interventions.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthographies_and_dyslexia" title="Orthographies and dyslexia">Orthographies and dyslexia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFElliottGibbs2008" class="citation journal cs1">Elliott JG, Gibbs S (2008). "Does Dyslexia Exist?". <i>Journal of Philosophy of Education</i>. <b>42</b> (3–4): 475–491. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9752.2008.00653.x">10.1111/j.1467-9752.2008.00653.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Philosophy+of+Education&rft.atitle=Does+Dyslexia+Exist%3F&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=475-491&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9752.2008.00653.x&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=JG&rft.au=Gibbs%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResearch+in+dyslexia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">BERKHAN O. Neur. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Children&rft.atitle=Use+of+Virtual+Reality+in+Children+with+Dyslexia&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1621&rft.date=2022-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9688381%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36360349&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fchildren9111621&rft.aulast=Maresca&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Leonardi%2C+S&rft.au=De+Cola%2C+MC&rft.au=Giliberto%2C+S&rft.au=Di+Cara%2C+M&rft.au=Corallo%2C+F&rft.au=Quartarone%2C+A&rft.au=Pidal%C3%A0%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9688381&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResearch+in+dyslexia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_dyslexia&action=edit&section=21" 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0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speech_and_language_impairment" title="Speech and language impairment">Speech, language</a>, and <br /><a href="/wiki/Communication_disorder" title="Communication disorder">communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_language_disorder" title="Expressive language disorder">Expressive language disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantile_speech" title="Infantile speech">Infantile speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landau%E2%80%93Kleffner_syndrome" title="Landau–Kleffner syndrome">Landau–Kleffner syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_disorder" title="Language disorder">Language disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisp" title="Lisp">Lisp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_receptive-expressive_language_disorder" title="Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder">Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_language_impairment" title="Specific language impairment">Specific language impairment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_and_language_impairment" title="Speech and language impairment">Speech and language impairment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_disorder" title="Speech disorder">Speech disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_error" title="Speech error">Speech error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_sound_disorder" title="Speech sound disorder">Speech sound disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuttering" title="Stuttering">Stuttering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">Tip of the tongue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Learning_disability" title="Learning disability">Learning disability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">Dyslexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyscalculia" title="Dyscalculia">Dyscalculia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgraphia" title="Dysgraphia">Dysgraphia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disorder_of_written_expression" title="Disorder of written expression">Disorder of written expression</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Motor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_coordination_disorder" title="Developmental coordination disorder">Developmental coordination disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_verbal_dyspraxia" title="Developmental verbal dyspraxia">Developmental verbal dyspraxia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sensory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder" title="Auditory processing disorder">Auditory processing disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_processing_disorder" title="Sensory processing disorder">Sensory processing disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dyslexia_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyslexia research">Dyslexia research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_Ally" title="Learning Ally">Learning Ally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_problems_in_childhood_cancer" title="Learning problems in childhood cancer">Learning problems in childhood cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">Literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_dyslexia" title="Management of dyslexia">Management of dyslexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multisensory_integration" title="Multisensory integration">Multisensory integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuropsychology" title="Clinical neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_to_read" class="mw-redirect" title="Learning to read">Reading acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spelling" title="Spelling">Spelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 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