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id="toc-Gross_anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gross_anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Gross anatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gross_anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blood_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blood_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Blood supply</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blood_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nerve_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nerve_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Nerve supply</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nerve_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microanatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microanatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Microanatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microanatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gene_and_protein_expression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gene_and_protein_expression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Gene and protein expression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gene_and_protein_expression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Function</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Function-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Function subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Formation_of_urine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_of_urine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Formation of urine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_of_urine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Filtration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Filtration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Filtration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Filtration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reabsorption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reabsorption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Reabsorption</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reabsorption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secretion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secretion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>Secretion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secretion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Excretion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Excretion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.4</span> <span>Excretion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Excretion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hormone_secretion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hormone_secretion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Hormone secretion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hormone_secretion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blood_pressure_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blood_pressure_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Blood pressure regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blood_pressure_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acid–base_balance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acid–base_balance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Acid–base balance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acid–base_balance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulation_of_osmolality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation_of_osmolality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Regulation of osmolality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation_of_osmolality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measuring_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measuring_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Measuring function</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measuring_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Clinical significance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Clinical significance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Acquired_Disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acquired_Disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Acquired Disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acquired_Disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kidney_injury_and_failure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kidney_injury_and_failure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Kidney injury and failure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kidney_injury_and_failure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Dialysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Congenital_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congenital_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Congenital disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congenital_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Diagnosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Imaging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imaging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5.1</span> <span>Imaging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imaging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biopsy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biopsy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5.2</span> <span>Biopsy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biopsy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Other animals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other animals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_adaptation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_adaptation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Evolutionary adaptation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_adaptation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Society and culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Society and culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Significance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Egyptian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egyptian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Egyptian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egyptian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hebrew" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hebrew"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>Hebrew</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hebrew-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India:_Ayurvedic_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India:_Ayurvedic_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.3</span> <span>India: Ayurvedic system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India:_Ayurvedic_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.4</span> <span>Medieval Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_images" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_images"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Additional images</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_images-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>General and cited references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Kidney</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 150 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-150" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">150 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nier" title="Nier – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Nier" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A9%E1%88%8B%E1%88%8A%E1%89%B5" title="ኩላሊት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ኩላሊት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="كلية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كلية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riny%C3%B3n" title="Rinyón – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Rinyón" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%9F%DC%98%DC%A0%DC%9D%DC%AC%DC%90" title="ܟܘܠܝܬܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܟܘܠܝܬܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B4" title="Երիկամ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Երիկամ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95" title="বৃক্ক – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="বৃক্ক" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re%C3%B1%C3%B3n" title="Reñón – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Reñón" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-atj mw-list-item"><a href="https://atj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otetikosiw" title="Otetikosiw – Atikamekw" lang="atj" hreflang="atj" data-title="Otetikosiw" data-language-autonym="Atikamekw" data-language-local-name="Atikamekw" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Atikamekw</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitikiri%27i" title="Pitikiri'i – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Pitikiri'i" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%8C%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Ургьисала – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Ургьисала" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6yr%C9%99k" title="Böyrək – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Böyrək" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A4%DB%8C%D8%B1%DA%A9_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85%DB%8C" title="بؤیرک سیستمی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بؤیرک سیستمی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95" title="বৃক্ক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বৃক্ক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Нырка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Нырка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Нырка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Нырка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bato_(anatomiya)" title="Bato (anatomiya) – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Bato (anatomiya)" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8A%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Бъбрек – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бъбрек" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%81%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%98%E0%BC%8B" title="མཁལ་མ་ – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="མཁལ་མ་" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubreg" title="Bubreg – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Bubreg" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lounezh" title="Lounezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Lounezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rony%C3%B3" title="Ronyó – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ronyó" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D3%B3%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Пӳре – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Пӳре" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ledvina" title="Ledvina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ledvina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsvo" title="Itsvo – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Itsvo" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aren" title="Aren – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Aren" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyre" title="Nyre – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nyre" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niere" title="Niere – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Niere" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%8E%DE%AA%DE%83%DE%AA%DE%8B%DE%A7" title="ގުރުދާ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ގުރުދާ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neerud" title="Neerud – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Neerud" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B5%CF%86%CF%81%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Νεφρός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νεφρός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5_(%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%81)" title="Пиче (рунгонь пелькс) – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Пиче (рунгонь пелькс)" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ri%C3%B1%C3%B3n" title="Riñón – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Riñón" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reno" title="Reno – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Reno" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giltzurrun" title="Giltzurrun – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Giltzurrun" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%87" title="کلیه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کلیه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rein" title="Rein – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Rein" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C3%A1n" title="Duán – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Duán" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ril" title="Ril – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ril" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C3%ACn" title="Shìn – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Shìn" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BD%A9%ED%8C%A5" title="콩팥 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="콩팥" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B4" title="Երիկամ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Երիկամ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE" title="गुर्दा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गुर्दा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubreg" title="Bubreg – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Bubreg" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reno" title="Reno – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Reno" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginjal" title="Ginjal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ginjal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren_(organo)" title="Ren (organo) – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Ren (organo)" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izintso" title="Izintso – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Izintso" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izinso" title="Izinso – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Izinso" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BDra" title="Nýra – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Nýra" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rene" title="Rene – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rene" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%94" title="כליה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כליה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginjel" title="Ginjel – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Ginjel" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladibiye" title="Ladibiye – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Ladibiye" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A1" title="ಮೂತ್ರಪಿಂಡ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮೂತ್ರಪಿಂಡ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batu" title="Batu – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Batu" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%99%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="თირკმელი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="თირკმელი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%84%DA%A9%D8%A4%D9%B9" title="بۄکؤٹ – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="بۄکؤٹ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D2%AF%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Бүйрек – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бүйрек" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figo" title="Figo – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Figo" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren" title="Ren – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Ren" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren" title="Ren – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Ren" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gur%C3%A7ik" title="Gurçik – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Gurçik" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D3%A9%D0%B9%D1%80%D3%A9%D0%BA" title="Бөйрөк – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Бөйрөк" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D3%93%D1%80%D0%B3%D3%B9" title="Вӓргӹ – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Вӓргӹ" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кырык мары</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%83" title="Ччарлу – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="Ччарлу" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лакку</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%9D%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%81%E0%BB%84%E0%BA%82%E0%BB%88%E0%BA%AB%E0%BA%BC%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%87" title="ໝາກໄຂ່ຫຼັງ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ໝາກໄຂ່ຫຼັງ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren" title="Ren – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ren" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieres" title="Nieres – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Nieres" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nier" title="Nier – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Nier" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inkstas" title="Inkstas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Inkstas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bua" title="Bua – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Bua" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Li Niha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neer_(orgaan)" title="Neer (orgaan) – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Neer (orgaan)" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren" title="Ren – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Ren" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vese" title="Vese – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Vese" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3" title="Бубрег – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Бубрег" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voa_(taovam-biby)" title="Voa (taovam-biby) – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Voa (taovam-biby)" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%83%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95" title="വൃക്ക – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വൃക്ക" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilwa" title="Kilwa – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Kilwa" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1" title="मूत्रपिंड – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मूत्रपिंड" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AD%E1%83%90%E1%83%AD%E1%83%90_(%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90)" title="ჭაჭა (ბიოლოგია) – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჭაჭა (ბიოლოგია)" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%87" title="وکه – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="وکه" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buah_pinggang" title="Buah pinggang – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Buah pinggang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D3%A9%D3%A9%D1%80" title="Бөөр – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Бөөр" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA" title="ကျောက်ကပ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကျောက်ကပ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nier_(biologie)" title="Nier (biologie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nier (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE" title="मृगौला – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="मृगौला" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82" title="जलासें – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="जलासें" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%85%8E%E8%87%93" title="腎臓 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="腎臓" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyre" title="Nyre – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nyre" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyre" title="Nyre – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Nyre" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren_(anatomia)" title="Ren (anatomia) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ren (anatomia)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AC%E0%AD%83%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%AC%95" title="ବୃକ୍‌କ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ବୃକ୍‌କ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalee" title="Kalee – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Kalee" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buyrak" title="Buyrak – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Buyrak" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE" title="ਗੁਰਦਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗੁਰਦਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pag mw-list-item"><a href="https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batok" title="Batok – Pangasinan" lang="pag" hreflang="pag" data-title="Batok" data-language-autonym="Pangasinan" data-language-local-name="Pangasinan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pangasinan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%92" title="گردے – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="گردے" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%BD%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9D%E1%80%BD%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B7%E1%80%90%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%82%8F%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA" title="ပွိုင်းဝွို့တောမ်ႏကျောက်ကပ် – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ပွိုင်းဝွို့တောမ်ႏကျောက်ကပ်" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DA%9A%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%A9%D9%8A" title="پښتورکي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پښتورکي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerka" title="Nerka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nerka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rim" title="Rim – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Rim" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rinichi" title="Rinichi – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Rinichi" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasa_ruru" title="Wasa ruru – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Wasa ruru" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Почка – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Почка" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE" title="वृक्का – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="वृक्का" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rene" title="Rene – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Rene" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neer" title="Neer – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Neer" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphio" title="Diphio – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Diphio" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="Southern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veshka" title="Veshka – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Veshka" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rini" title="Rini – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Rini" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%A9%E0%B7%94" title="වකුගඩු – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වකුගඩු" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Kidney" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%AA%D9%8A" title="بڪي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="بڪي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obli%C4%8Dka" title="Oblička – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Oblička" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ledvica" title="Ledvica – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ledvica" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%95" title="گورچیلە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گورچیلە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3" title="Бубрег – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Бубрег" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubreg" title="Bubreg – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Bubreg" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabubuahan" title="Kabubuahan – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kabubuahan" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munuainen" title="Munuainen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Munuainen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Njure" title="Njure – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Njure" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bato_(anatomiya)" title="Bato (anatomiya) – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Bato (anatomiya)" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="சிறுநீரகம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சிறுநீரகம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tig%E1%BA%93%E1%BA%93lt" title="Tigẓẓlt – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tigẓẓlt" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tig%E1%BA%93elt" title="Tigẓelt – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tigẓelt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D3%A9%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Бөер – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Бөер" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81" title="మూత్రపిండము – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మూత్రపిండము" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%95" title="ไต – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ไต" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Гурда – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Гурда" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6brek" title="Böbrek – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Böbrek" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D2%AF%D2%AF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Бүүрек – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Бүүрек" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Нирки – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нирки" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%81" title="گردہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="گردہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%95%D9%83" title="بۆرەك – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="بۆرەك" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mak_(Iucij)" title="Mak (Iucij) – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Mak (Iucij)" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rene" title="Rene – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Rene" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BA%ADn" title="Thận – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thận" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roin" title="Roin – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Roin" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rauh" title="Rauh – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Rauh" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rno" title="Rno – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Rno" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rinyon" title="Rinyon – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Rinyon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Organ of the urinary system</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about human kidneys. For kidneys of other mammals, see <a href="/wiki/Mammalian_kidney" title="Mammalian kidney">mammalian kidney</a>. For kidneys of other vertebrates, see <a href="/wiki/Kidney_(vertebrates)" title="Kidney (vertebrates)">kidney (vertebrates)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Kidney_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Kidney (disambiguation)">Kidney (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white">Kidneys</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Blausen_0592_KidneyAnatomy_01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Blausen_0592_KidneyAnatomy_01.png/250px-Blausen_0592_KidneyAnatomy_01.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Blausen_0592_KidneyAnatomy_01.png/375px-Blausen_0592_KidneyAnatomy_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Blausen_0592_KidneyAnatomy_01.png/500px-Blausen_0592_KidneyAnatomy_01.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The kidneys lie in the <a href="/wiki/Retroperitoneal_space" title="Retroperitoneal space">retroperitoneal space</a> behind the abdomen, and act to filter blood to create <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagram_showing_the_position_of_the_adrenal_glands_CRUK_343.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Diagram_showing_the_position_of_the_adrenal_glands_CRUK_343.svg/250px-Diagram_showing_the_position_of_the_adrenal_glands_CRUK_343.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Diagram_showing_the_position_of_the_adrenal_glands_CRUK_343.svg/375px-Diagram_showing_the_position_of_the_adrenal_glands_CRUK_343.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Diagram_showing_the_position_of_the_adrenal_glands_CRUK_343.svg/500px-Diagram_showing_the_position_of_the_adrenal_glands_CRUK_343.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="316" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Location of kidneys with associated organs (adrenal glands and bladder)</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Organ_system" title="Organ system">System</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Urinary_system" title="Urinary system">Urinary system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine system</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">Artery</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Renal_artery" title="Renal artery">Renal artery</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">Vein</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Renal_vein" title="Renal vein">Renal vein</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">Nerve</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Renal_plexus" title="Renal plexus">Renal plexus</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>ren</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>νεφρός (nephros)</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007668">D007668</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA98</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/08.1.01.001%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A08.1.01.001</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA2</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=3358">3358</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma7203">7203</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9377" class="extiw" title="d:Q9377">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In humans, the <b>kidneys</b> are two reddish-brown bean-shaped blood-filtering <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that are a multilobar, multipapillary form of <a href="/wiki/Mammalian_kidney" title="Mammalian kidney">mammalian kidneys</a>, usually without signs of external lobulation.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are located on the left and right in the <a href="/wiki/Retroperitoneal_space" title="Retroperitoneal space">retroperitoneal space</a>, and in adult humans are about <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>12 centimetres (<span class="frac">4<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> inches) in length.<sup id="cite_ref-lote_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lote-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-junqueiras_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-junqueiras-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They receive blood from the paired <a href="/wiki/Renal_artery" title="Renal artery">renal arteries</a>; blood exits into the paired <a href="/wiki/Renal_vein" title="Renal vein">renal veins</a>. Each kidney is attached to a <a href="/wiki/Ureter" title="Ureter">ureter</a>, a tube that carries excreted <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Urinary_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary bladder">bladder</a>. </p><p>The kidney participates in the control of the volume of various <a href="/wiki/Body_fluid" title="Body fluid">body fluids</a>, fluid <a href="/wiki/Osmolality" class="mw-redirect" title="Osmolality">osmolality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acid-base_homeostasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid-base homeostasis">acid-base balance</a>, various <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> concentrations, and removal of <a href="/wiki/Toxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxins">toxins</a>. Filtration occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Glomerulus_(kidney)" title="Glomerulus (kidney)">glomerulus</a>: one-fifth of the blood volume that enters the kidneys is filtered. Examples of substances reabsorbed are solute-free <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">bicarbonate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>. Examples of substances secreted are <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ammonium" title="Ammonium">ammonium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uric_acid" title="Uric acid">uric acid</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Nephron" title="Nephron">nephron</a> is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. Each adult human kidney contains around 1 million nephrons, while a mouse kidney contains only about 12,500 nephrons. The kidneys also carry out functions independent of the nephrons. For example, they convert a precursor of <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">vitamin D</a> to its active form, <a href="/wiki/Calcitriol" title="Calcitriol">calcitriol</a>; and synthesize the <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</a> <a href="/wiki/Erythropoietin" title="Erythropoietin">erythropoietin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Renin" title="Renin">renin</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Chronic_kidney_disease" title="Chronic kidney disease">Chronic kidney disease</a> (CKD) has been recognized as a leading public health problem worldwide. The global estimated prevalence of CKD is 13.4%, and patients with <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney failure</a> needing <a href="/wiki/Renal_replacement_therapy" title="Renal replacement therapy">renal replacement therapy</a> are estimated between 5 and 7 million.<sup id="cite_ref-Ji_Cheng_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ji_Cheng-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Procedures used in the management of kidney disease include chemical and microscopic examination of the urine (<a href="/wiki/Urinalysis" title="Urinalysis">urinalysis</a>), measurement of <a href="/wiki/Kidney_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidney function">kidney function</a> by calculating the estimated <a href="/wiki/Glomerular_filtration_rate" title="Glomerular filtration rate">glomerular filtration rate</a> (eGFR) using the <a href="/wiki/Serum_creatinine" class="mw-redirect" title="Serum creatinine">serum creatinine</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Kidney_biopsy" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidney biopsy">kidney biopsy</a> and <a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scan</a> to evaluate for abnormal anatomy. <a href="/wiki/Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">Dialysis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kidney_transplantation" title="Kidney transplantation">kidney transplantation</a> are used to treat <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney failure</a>; one (or both sequentially) of these are almost always used when renal function drops below 15%. <a href="/wiki/Nephrectomy" title="Nephrectomy">Nephrectomy</a> is frequently used to cure <a href="/wiki/Renal_cell_carcinoma" title="Renal cell carcinoma">renal cell carcinoma</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Renal_physiology" title="Renal physiology">Renal physiology</a> is the study of <a href="/wiki/Kidney_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidney function">kidney function</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nephrology" title="Nephrology">Nephrology</a> is the medical specialty which addresses diseases of kidney <i>function</i>: these include CKD, <a href="/wiki/Nephritic_syndrome" title="Nephritic syndrome">nephritic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nephrotic_syndrome" title="Nephrotic syndrome">nephrotic syndromes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acute_kidney_injury" title="Acute kidney injury">acute kidney injury</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pyelonephritis" title="Pyelonephritis">pyelonephritis</a>. <a href="/wiki/Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a> addresses diseases of kidney (and urinary tract) <i>anatomy</i>: these include <a href="/wiki/Kidney_cancer" title="Kidney cancer">cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renal_cyst" title="Renal cyst">renal cysts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kidney_stones" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidney stones">kidney stones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ureteral_stones" class="mw-redirect" title="Ureteral stones">ureteral stones</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Urinary_tract_obstruction" title="Urinary tract obstruction">urinary tract obstruction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-robbins_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-robbins-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word “<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/renal" class="extiw" title="wikt:renal">renal</a>” is an adjective meaning “relating to the kidneys”, and its roots are French or late Latin. Whereas according to some opinions, "renal" should be replaced with "kidney" in scientific writings such as "kidney artery", other experts have advocated preserving the use of "renal" as appropriate including in "renal artery".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Surface_projections_of_the_organs_of_the_trunk.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Surface_projections_of_the_organs_of_the_trunk.png/300px-Surface_projections_of_the_organs_of_the_trunk.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="480" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Surface_projections_of_the_organs_of_the_trunk.png/450px-Surface_projections_of_the_organs_of_the_trunk.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Surface_projections_of_the_organs_of_the_trunk.png/600px-Surface_projections_of_the_organs_of_the_trunk.png 2x" data-file-width="1583" data-file-height="2533" /></a><figcaption>Image showing the human <a href="/wiki/Trunk_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trunk (anatomy)">trunk</a> with positions of the organs. The kidneys are at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebral_level&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vertebral level (page does not exist)">vertebral level</a> of T12 to L3. </figcaption></figure> <p>In humans, the kidneys are located high in the <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_cavity" title="Abdominal cavity">abdominal cavity</a>, one on each side of the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">spine</a>, and lie in a <a href="/wiki/Retroperitoneal" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroperitoneal">retroperitoneal</a> position at a slightly oblique angle.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The asymmetry within the abdominal cavity, caused by the position of the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>, typically results in the right kidney being slightly lower and smaller than the left, and being placed slightly more to the middle than the left kidney.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid20030823_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20030823-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The left kidney is approximately at the vertebral level <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_vertebrae" title="Thoracic vertebrae">T12</a> to <a href="/wiki/Lumbar_vertebrae" title="Lumbar vertebrae">L3</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the right is slightly lower. The right kidney sits just below the <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">diaphragm</a> and posterior to the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>. The left kidney sits below the diaphragm and posterior to the <a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">spleen</a>. On top of each kidney is an <a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">adrenal gland</a>. The upper parts of the kidneys are partially protected by the 11th and 12th <a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">ribs</a>. Each kidney, with its adrenal gland is surrounded by two layers of fat: the <a href="/wiki/Adipose_capsule_of_kidney" class="mw-redirect" title="Adipose capsule of kidney">perirenal fat</a> present between renal fascia and renal capsule and <a href="/wiki/Pararenal_fat" class="mw-redirect" title="Pararenal fat">pararenal fat</a> superior to the <a href="/wiki/Renal_fascia" title="Renal fascia">renal fascia</a>. </p><p>The human kidney is a bean-shaped structure with a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/convex" class="extiw" title="wikt:convex">convex</a> and a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/concave" class="extiw" title="wikt:concave">concave</a> border.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A recessed area on the concave border is the <a href="/wiki/Renal_hilum" title="Renal hilum">renal hilum</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Renal_artery" title="Renal artery">renal artery</a> enters the kidney and the <a href="/wiki/Renal_vein" title="Renal vein">renal vein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ureter" title="Ureter">ureter</a> leave. The kidney is surrounded by tough fibrous tissue, the <a href="/wiki/Renal_capsule" title="Renal capsule">renal capsule</a>, which is itself surrounded by <a href="/wiki/Adipose_capsule_of_kidney" class="mw-redirect" title="Adipose capsule of kidney">perirenal fat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renal_fascia" title="Renal fascia">renal fascia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pararenal_fat" class="mw-redirect" title="Pararenal fat">pararenal fat</a>. The anterior (front) surface of these tissues is the <a href="/wiki/Peritoneum" title="Peritoneum">peritoneum</a>, while the posterior (rear) surface is the <a href="/wiki/Transversalis_fascia" title="Transversalis fascia">transversalis fascia</a>. </p><p>The superior pole of the right kidney is adjacent to the liver. For the left kidney, it is next to the <a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">spleen</a>. Both, therefore, move down upon inhalation. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="2"><b>Sex</b></td> <td colspan="2" align="center"><b>Weight</b>, standard <a href="/wiki/Reference_range" title="Reference range">reference range</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><b>Right kidney</b></td> <td align="center"><b>Left kidney</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Male<sup id="cite_ref-MolinaDiMaio2012_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MolinaDiMaio2012-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">80–160 g (<span class="frac">2<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span>–<span class="frac">5<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> oz)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">80–175 g (<span class="frac">2<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span>–<span class="frac">6<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> oz) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Female<sup id="cite_ref-MolinaDiMaio2015_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MolinaDiMaio2015-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">40–175 g (<span class="frac">1<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>–<span class="frac">6<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> oz)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">35–190 g (<span class="frac">1<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span>–<span class="frac">6<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> oz) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A Danish study measured the median renal length to be <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">11.2 cm (<span class="frac">4<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">7</span>⁄<span class="den">16</span></span> in) on the left side and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">10.9 cm (<span class="frac">4<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">16</span></span> in) on the right side in adults. Median renal volumes were <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">146 cm<sup>3</sup> (<span class="frac">8<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">15</span>⁄<span class="den">16</span></span> cu in) on the left and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">134 cm<sup>3</sup> (<span class="frac">8<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">16</span></span> cu in) on the right.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gross_anatomy">Gross anatomy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KidneyStructures_PioM.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/KidneyStructures_PioM.svg/300px-KidneyStructures_PioM.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/KidneyStructures_PioM.svg/450px-KidneyStructures_PioM.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/KidneyStructures_PioM.svg/600px-KidneyStructures_PioM.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="2640" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center"> 1. <a href="/wiki/Renal_pyramid" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal pyramid">Renal pyramid</a> • 2. <a href="/wiki/Interlobular_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Interlobular artery">Interlobular artery</a> • 3. <a href="/wiki/Renal_artery" title="Renal artery">Renal artery</a> • 4. <a href="/wiki/Renal_vein" title="Renal vein">Renal vein</a> 5. <a href="/wiki/Renal_hilum" title="Renal hilum">Renal hilum</a> • 6. <a href="/wiki/Renal_pelvis" title="Renal pelvis">Renal pelvis</a> • 7. <a href="/wiki/Ureter" title="Ureter">Ureter</a> • 8. <a href="/wiki/Minor_calyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Minor calyx">Minor calyx</a> • 9. <a href="/wiki/Renal_capsule" title="Renal capsule">Renal capsule</a> • 10. <a href="/wiki/Inferior_renal_capsule" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferior renal capsule">Inferior renal capsule</a> • 11. <a href="/wiki/Superior_renal_capsule" class="mw-redirect" title="Superior renal capsule">Superior renal capsule</a> • 12. <a href="/wiki/Interlobular_vein" class="mw-redirect" title="Interlobular vein">Interlobular vein</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> • 13. <a href="/wiki/Nephron" title="Nephron">Nephron</a> • 14. <a href="/wiki/Renal_sinus" title="Renal sinus">Renal sinus</a> • 15. <a href="/wiki/Major_calyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Major calyx">Major calyx</a> • 16. <a href="/wiki/Renal_papilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal papilla">Renal papilla</a> • 17. <a href="/wiki/Renal_column" title="Renal column">Renal column</a> </div></figcaption></figure> <p>The functional substance, or <a href="/wiki/Parenchyma#Renal_parenchyma" title="Parenchyma">parenchyma</a>, of the human kidney is divided into two major structures: the outer <a href="/wiki/Renal_cortex" title="Renal cortex">renal cortex</a> and the inner <a href="/wiki/Renal_medulla" title="Renal medulla">renal medulla</a>. Grossly, these structures take the shape of eight to 18 cone-shaped <a href="/wiki/Renal_lobe" title="Renal lobe">renal lobes</a>, each containing renal cortex surrounding a portion of medulla called a <a href="/wiki/Renal_pyramid" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal pyramid">renal pyramid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-boron_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boron-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between the renal pyramids are projections of cortex called <a href="/wiki/Renal_column" title="Renal column">renal columns</a>. </p><p>The tip, or <a href="/wiki/Renal_papilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal papilla">papilla</a>, of each pyramid empties urine into a <a href="/wiki/Minor_calyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Minor calyx">minor calyx</a>; minor calyces empty into <a href="/wiki/Major_calyces" class="mw-redirect" title="Major calyces">major calyces</a>, and major calyces empty into the <a href="/wiki/Renal_pelvis" title="Renal pelvis">renal pelvis</a>. This becomes the ureter. At the hilum, the ureter and renal vein exit the kidney and the renal artery enters. Hilar fat and lymphatic tissue with lymph nodes surround these structures. The hilar fat is contiguous with a fat-filled cavity called the <a href="/wiki/Renal_sinus" title="Renal sinus">renal sinus</a>. The renal sinus collectively contains the renal pelvis and calyces and separates these structures from the renal medullary tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The kidneys possess no overtly moving structures. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 208px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 206px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Right_kidney_seen_on_abdominal_ultrasound.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Normal adult right kidney as seen on abdominal ultrasound with a pole to pole measurement of 9.34 cm"><img alt="Normal adult right kidney as seen on abdominal ultrasound with a pole to pole measurement of 9.34 cm" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Right_kidney_seen_on_abdominal_ultrasound.jpg/309px-Right_kidney_seen_on_abdominal_ultrasound.jpg" decoding="async" width="206" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Right_kidney_seen_on_abdominal_ultrasound.jpg/464px-Right_kidney_seen_on_abdominal_ultrasound.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Right_kidney_seen_on_abdominal_ultrasound.jpg/618px-Right_kidney_seen_on_abdominal_ultrasound.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1552" data-file-height="904" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Normal adult right kidney as seen on <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_ultrasound" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdominal ultrasound">abdominal ultrasound</a> with a pole to pole measurement of 9.34 cm</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 267.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 265.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CTscankidney.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A CT scan of the abdomen showing the position of the kidneys. The left cross-section in the upper abdomen shows the liver on the left side of scan (right side of body). Center: cross-section showing the kidneys below the liver and spleen. Right: further cross-section through the left kidney."><img alt="A CT scan of the abdomen showing the position of the kidneys. The left cross-section in the upper abdomen shows the liver on the left side of scan (right side of body). Center: cross-section showing the kidneys below the liver and spleen. Right: further cross-section through the left kidney." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/CTscankidney.jpg/398px-CTscankidney.jpg" decoding="async" width="266" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/CTscankidney.jpg/596px-CTscankidney.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/CTscankidney.jpg/795px-CTscankidney.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="580" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scan</a> of the abdomen showing the position of the kidneys. The left cross-section in the upper abdomen shows the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> on the left side of scan (right side of body). Center: cross-section showing the kidneys below the liver and spleen. Right: further cross-section through the left kidney.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Slide42222.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Image showing the structures that the kidney lies near"><img alt="Image showing the structures that the kidney lies near" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Slide42222.JPG/240px-Slide42222.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Slide42222.JPG/360px-Slide42222.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Slide42222.JPG/480px-Slide42222.JPG 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Image showing the structures that the kidney lies near</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Left_kidney.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cross-section through a cadaveric specimen showing the position of the kidneys"><img alt="Cross-section through a cadaveric specimen showing the position of the kidneys" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Left_kidney.jpg/240px-Left_kidney.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Left_kidney.jpg/360px-Left_kidney.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Left_kidney.jpg/480px-Left_kidney.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cross-section through a <a href="/wiki/Cadaver" title="Cadaver">cadaveric</a> specimen showing the position of the kidneys</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blood_supply">Blood supply</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Renal_circulation" title="Renal circulation">Renal circulation</a></div> <p>The kidneys receive blood from the <a href="/wiki/Renal_artery" title="Renal artery">renal arteries</a>, left and right, which branch directly from the <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_aorta" title="Abdominal aorta">abdominal aorta</a>. The kidneys receive approximately 20–25% of <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_output" title="Cardiac output">cardiac output</a> in adult human.<sup id="cite_ref-boron_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boron-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each renal artery branches into segmental arteries, dividing further into <a href="/wiki/Interlobar_arteries" title="Interlobar arteries">interlobar arteries</a>, which penetrate the renal capsule and extend through the renal columns between the renal pyramids. The interlobar arteries then supply blood to the <a href="/wiki/Arcuate_arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Arcuate arteries">arcuate arteries</a> that run through the boundary of the cortex and the medulla. Each arcuate artery supplies several <a href="/wiki/Interlobular" class="mw-redirect" title="Interlobular">interlobular</a> arteries that feed into the <a href="/wiki/Afferent_arteriole" class="mw-redirect" title="Afferent arteriole">afferent arterioles</a> that supply the glomeruli. </p><p>Blood drains from the kidneys, ultimately into the <a href="/wiki/Inferior_vena_cava" title="Inferior vena cava">inferior vena cava</a>. After filtration occurs, the blood moves through a small network of small veins (<a href="/wiki/Venules" class="mw-redirect" title="Venules">venules</a>) that converge into <a href="/wiki/Interlobular_veins" title="Interlobular veins">interlobular veins</a>. As with the arteriole distribution, the veins follow the same pattern: the interlobular provide blood to the <a href="/wiki/Arcuate_veins" class="mw-redirect" title="Arcuate veins">arcuate veins</a> then back to the <a href="/wiki/Interlobar_veins" title="Interlobar veins">interlobar veins</a>, which come to form the <a href="/wiki/Renal_vein" title="Renal vein">renal veins</a> which exit the kidney. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nerve_supply">Nerve supply</h3></div> <p>The kidney and <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> communicate via the <a href="/wiki/Renal_plexus" title="Renal plexus">renal plexus</a>, whose fibers course along the renal arteries to reach each kidney.<sup id="cite_ref-Bard_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bard-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Input from the <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic nervous system</a> triggers <a href="/wiki/Vasoconstriction" title="Vasoconstriction">vasoconstriction</a> in the kidney, thereby reducing <a href="/wiki/Renal_blood_flow" title="Renal blood flow">renal blood flow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bard_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bard-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kidney also receives input from the <a href="/wiki/Parasympathetic_nervous_system" title="Parasympathetic nervous system">parasympathetic nervous system</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by way of the renal branches of the <a href="/wiki/Vagus_nerve" title="Vagus nerve">vagus nerve</a>; the function of this is yet unclear.<sup id="cite_ref-Bard_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bard-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sensory input from the kidney travels to the T10–11 levels of the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a> and is sensed in the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Dermatome_(anatomy)" title="Dermatome (anatomy)">dermatome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bard_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bard-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, pain in the flank region may be referred from corresponding kidney.<sup id="cite_ref-Bard_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bard-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microanatomy">Microanatomy</h3></div> <p><span class="citation-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);"><a href="/wiki/Nephron" title="Nephron">Nephrons</a>, the urine-producing functional structures of the kidney, span the cortex and medulla. The initial filtering portion of a nephron is the <a href="/wiki/Renal_corpuscle" title="Renal corpuscle">renal corpuscle</a>, which is located in the cortex. This is followed by a <a href="/wiki/Renal_tubule" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal tubule">renal tubule</a> that passes from the cortex deep into the medullary pyramids. Part of the renal cortex, a <a href="/wiki/Medullary_ray_(anatomy)" title="Medullary ray (anatomy)">medullary ray</a> is a collection of renal tubules that drain into a single <a href="/wiki/Collecting_duct" class="mw-redirect" title="Collecting duct">collecting duct</a>.</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Renal <a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">histology</a> is the study of the <a href="/wiki/Microscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Microscopic">microscopic</a> structure of the kidney. The adult human kidney contains at least 26 distinct <a href="/wiki/Cell_type" title="Cell type">cell types</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Distinct cell types include: </p> <ul><li>Kidney glomerulus parietal cell</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney_glomerulus_podocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidney glomerulus podocyte">Kidney glomerulus podocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney_proximal_tubule_brush_border_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidney proximal tubule brush border cell">Kidney proximal tubule brush border cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_of_Henle_thin_segment_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Loop of Henle thin segment cell">Loop of Henle thin segment cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thick_ascending_limb" class="mw-redirect" title="Thick ascending limb">Thick ascending limb</a> cell</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney_distal_tubule_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidney distal tubule cell">Kidney distal tubule cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collecting_duct_system#Principal_cell" title="Collecting duct system">Collecting duct principal cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collecting_duct_system#Intercalated_cell" title="Collecting duct system">Collecting duct intercalated cell</a></li> <li>Interstitial kidney cells</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gene_and_protein_expression">Gene and protein expression</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics#Gene_and_protein_expression" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics § Gene and protein expression</a></div> <p>In humans, about 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and almost 70% of these genes are expressed in normal, adult kidneys.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Just over 300 genes are more specifically expressed in the kidney, with only some 50 genes being highly specific for the kidney. Many of the corresponding kidney specific proteins are expressed in the cell membrane and function as transporter proteins. The highest expressed kidney specific protein is <a href="/wiki/Tamm%E2%80%93Horsfall_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamm–Horsfall protein">uromodulin</a>, the most abundant protein in urine with functions that prevent calcification and growth of bacteria. Specific proteins are expressed in the different compartments of the kidney with <a href="/wiki/Podocin" title="Podocin">podocin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nephrin" title="Nephrin">nephrin</a> expressed in glomeruli, Solute carrier family protein <a href="/wiki/SLC22A8" title="SLC22A8">SLC22A8</a> expressed in proximal tubules, <a href="/wiki/Calbindin" title="Calbindin">calbindin</a> expressed in distal tubules and <a href="/wiki/Aquaporin_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquaporin 2">aquaporin 2</a> expressed in the collecting duct cells.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kidney_development" title="Kidney development">Kidney development</a></div> <p>The mammalian kidney develops from <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_mesoderm" title="Intermediate mesoderm">intermediate mesoderm</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kidney_development" title="Kidney development">Kidney development</a>, also called <i>nephrogenesis</i>, proceeds through a series of three successive developmental phases: the pronephros, mesonephros, and metanephros. The metanephros are primordia of the permanent kidney.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kidney_Nephron.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Kidney_Nephron.png/220px-Kidney_Nephron.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="351" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Kidney_Nephron.png/330px-Kidney_Nephron.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Kidney_Nephron.png/440px-Kidney_Nephron.png 2x" data-file-width="706" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Nephron" title="Nephron">nephron</a>, shown here, is the functional unit of the kidneys. Its parts are labelled except the (gray) <i>connecting tubule</i> located after the (dark red) distal convoluted tubule and before the large (gray) collecting duct (mislabeled <i>collection</i> duct).</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Renal_physiology" title="Renal physiology">Renal physiology</a></div> <p>The kidneys excrete a variety of waste products produced by <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> into the urine. The microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney is the <a href="/wiki/Nephron" title="Nephron">nephron</a>. It processes the blood supplied to it via filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion; the consequence of those processes is the production of <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a>. These include the nitrogenous wastes <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a>, from protein <a href="/wiki/Catabolism" title="Catabolism">catabolism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Uric_acid" title="Uric acid">uric acid</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acid</a> metabolism. The ability of mammals and some birds to concentrate wastes into a volume of urine much smaller than the volume of blood from which the wastes were extracted is dependent on an elaborate <a href="/wiki/Countercurrent_multiplication" title="Countercurrent multiplication">countercurrent multiplication</a> mechanism. This requires several independent nephron characteristics to operate: a tight hairpin configuration of the tubules, water and ion permeability in the descending limb of the loop, water impermeability in the ascending loop, and active ion transport out of most of the ascending limb. In addition, passive <a href="/wiki/Countercurrent_exchange" title="Countercurrent exchange">countercurrent exchange</a> by the vessels carrying the blood supply to the nephron is essential for enabling this function. </p><p>The kidney participates in whole-body <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a>, regulating <a href="/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid–base balance">acid–base balance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> concentrations, <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_fluid_volume" class="mw-redirect" title="Extracellular fluid volume">extracellular fluid volume</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a>. The kidney accomplishes these homeostatic functions both independently and in concert with other organs, particularly those of the <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine system</a>. Various endocrine hormones coordinate these endocrine functions; these include <a href="/wiki/Renin" title="Renin">renin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Angiotensin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiotensin II">angiotensin II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aldosterone" title="Aldosterone">aldosterone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antidiuretic_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Antidiuretic hormone">antidiuretic hormone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Atrial_natriuretic_peptide" title="Atrial natriuretic peptide">atrial natriuretic peptide</a>, among others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation_of_urine">Formation of urine</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Physiology_of_Nephron.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Physiology_of_Nephron.png/260px-Physiology_of_Nephron.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Physiology_of_Nephron.png/390px-Physiology_of_Nephron.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Physiology_of_Nephron.png/520px-Physiology_of_Nephron.png 2x" data-file-width="1046" data-file-height="1221" /></a><figcaption>Four main processes are involved in the creation of <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Filtration">Filtration</h4></div> <p>Filtration, which takes place at the <a href="/wiki/Renal_corpuscle" title="Renal corpuscle">renal corpuscle</a>, is the process by which cells and large proteins are retained while materials of smaller molecular weights are<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> filtered from the blood to make an <a href="/wiki/Ultrafiltration_(kidney)" title="Ultrafiltration (kidney)">ultrafiltrate</a> that eventually becomes urine. The adult human kidney generates approximately 180 liters of filtrate a day, most of which is reabsorbed.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The normal range for a twenty four hour urine volume collection is 800 to 2,000 milliliters per day.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process is also known as hydrostatic filtration due to the hydrostatic pressure exerted on the capillary walls. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reabsorption">Reabsorption</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2618_Nephron_Secretion_Reabsorption.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/2618_Nephron_Secretion_Reabsorption.jpg/220px-2618_Nephron_Secretion_Reabsorption.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="420" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/2618_Nephron_Secretion_Reabsorption.jpg/330px-2618_Nephron_Secretion_Reabsorption.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/2618_Nephron_Secretion_Reabsorption.jpg/440px-2618_Nephron_Secretion_Reabsorption.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1138" data-file-height="2171" /></a><figcaption>Secretion and reabsorption of various substances throughout the nephron</figcaption></figure> <p>Reabsorption is the transport of molecules from this ultrafiltrate and into the peritubular capillary network that surrounds the nephron tubules.<sup id="cite_ref-2024-Kumaran_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2024-Kumaran-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is accomplished via selective <a href="/wiki/Cell_surface_receptor" title="Cell surface receptor">receptors</a> on the luminal cell membrane. Water is 55% reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. Glucose at normal plasma levels is completely reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. The mechanism for this is the Na<sup>+</sup>/glucose cotransporter. A plasma level of 350 mg/dL will fully saturate the transporters and glucose will be lost in the urine. A plasma glucose level of approximately 160 is sufficient to allow glucosuria, which is an important clinical clue to diabetes mellitus. </p><p>Amino acids are reabsorbed by sodium dependent transporters in the proximal tubule. <a href="/wiki/Hartnup_disease" title="Hartnup disease">Hartnup disease</a> is a deficiency of the tryptophan amino acid transporter, which results in <a href="/wiki/Pellagra" title="Pellagra">pellagra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tao_p_1_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tao_p_1-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Location of Reabsorption</th> <th>Reabsorbed nutrient</th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>Early proximal tubule</td> <td>Glucose (100%), amino acids (100%), bicarbonate (90%), Na<sup>+</sup> (65%), Cl<sup>−</sup> (65%), phosphate (65%) and H<sub>2</sub>O (65%)</td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone" title="Parathyroid hormone">PTH</a> will inhibit phosphate reabsorption.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiotensin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiotensin II">AT II</a> stimulates Na<sup>+</sup>, H<sub>2</sub>O and HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> reabsorption.</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Thin descending loop of Henle</td> <td>H<sub>2</sub>O</td> <td> <ul><li>Reabsorbs via medullary hypertonicity and makes urine hypertonic.</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Thick ascending loop of Henle</td> <td>Na<sup>+</sup> (10–20%), K<sup>+</sup>, Cl<sup>−</sup>; indirectly induces para cellular reabsorption of Mg<sup>2+</sup>, Ca<sup>2+</sup></td> <td> <ul><li>This region is impermeable to H<sub>2</sub>O and the urine becomes less concentrated as it ascends.</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Early distal convoluted tubule</td> <td>Na<sup>+</sup>, Cl<sup>−</sup></td> <td> <ul><li>PTH causes Ca<sup>2+</sup> reabsorption.</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Collecting tubules</td> <td>Na<sup>+</sup>(3–5%), H<sub>2</sub>O</td> <td> <ul><li>Na<sup>+</sup> is reabsorbed in exchange for K<sup>+</sup>, and H<sup>+</sup>, which is regulated by aldosterone.</li> <li>ADH acts on the V2 receptor and inserts <a href="/wiki/Aquaporins" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquaporins">aquaporins</a> on the luminal side</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Examples of substances that are reabsorbed in the kidneys, and the hormones that influence those processes.<sup id="cite_ref-Tao_p_1_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tao_p_1-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Secretion">Secretion</h4></div> <p>Secretion is the reverse of reabsorption: molecules are transported from the peritubular capillary through the interstitial fluid, then through the renal tubular cell and into the ultrafiltrate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Excretion">Excretion</h4></div> <p>The last step in the processing of the ultrafiltrate is <i>excretion</i>: the ultrafiltrate passes out of the nephron and travels through a tube called the <i>collecting duct</i>, which is part of the <a href="/wiki/Collecting_duct_system" title="Collecting duct system">collecting duct system</a>, and then to the ureters where it is renamed <i>urine</i>. In addition to transporting the ultrafiltrate, the collecting duct also takes part in reabsorption. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hormone_secretion">Hormone secretion</h3></div> <p>The kidneys secrete a variety of <a href="/wiki/Hormones" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormones">hormones</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Erythropoietin" title="Erythropoietin">erythropoietin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcitriol" title="Calcitriol">calcitriol</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Renin" title="Renin">renin</a>. <a href="/wiki/Erythropoietin" title="Erythropoietin">Erythropoietin</a> is released in response to <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">hypoxia</a> (low levels of oxygen at tissue level) in the renal circulation. It stimulates <a href="/wiki/Erythropoiesis" title="Erythropoiesis">erythropoiesis</a> (production of red blood cells) in the <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a>. <a href="/wiki/Calcitriol" title="Calcitriol">Calcitriol</a>, the activated form of <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">vitamin D</a>, promotes intestinal absorption of <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> and the renal <a href="/wiki/Reabsorption" title="Reabsorption">reabsorption</a> of <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a>. Renin is an <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> which regulates <a href="/wiki/Angiotensin" title="Angiotensin">angiotensin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aldosterone" title="Aldosterone">aldosterone</a> levels. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blood_pressure_regulation">Blood pressure regulation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood pressure regulation">Blood pressure regulation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Renin%E2%80%93angiotensin_system" title="Renin–angiotensin system">Renin–angiotensin system</a></div> <p>Although the kidney cannot directly sense blood, long-term regulation of <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a> predominantly depends upon the kidney. This primarily occurs through maintenance of the <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_fluid" title="Extracellular fluid">extracellular fluid</a> compartment, the size of which depends on the plasma <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> concentration. Renin is the first in a series of important chemical messengers that make up the <a href="/wiki/Renin%E2%80%93angiotensin_system" title="Renin–angiotensin system">renin–angiotensin system</a>. Changes in renin ultimately alter the output of this system, principally the hormones <a href="/wiki/Angiotensin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiotensin II">angiotensin II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aldosterone" title="Aldosterone">aldosterone</a>. Each hormone acts via multiple mechanisms, but both increase the kidney's absorption of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a>, thereby expanding the extracellular fluid compartment and raising blood pressure. When renin levels are elevated, the concentrations of angiotensin II and aldosterone increase, leading to increased sodium chloride reabsorption, expansion of the extracellular fluid compartment, and an increase in blood pressure. Conversely, when renin levels are low, angiotensin II and aldosterone levels decrease, contracting the extracellular fluid compartment, and decreasing blood pressure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acid–base_balance"><span id="Acid.E2.80.93base_balance"></span>Acid–base balance</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_homeostasis" title="Acid–base homeostasis">Acid–base homeostasis</a></div> <p>The two organ systems that help regulate the body's acid–base balance are the kidneys and lungs. <a href="/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_homeostasis" title="Acid–base homeostasis">Acid–base homeostasis</a> is the maintenance of <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> around a value of 7.4. The lungs are the part of respiratory system which helps to maintain acid–base homeostasis by regulating <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sub>2</sub>) concentration in the blood. The respiratory system is the first line of defense when the body experiences and acid–base problem. It attempts to return the body pH to a value of 7.4 by controlling the respiratory rate. When the body is experiencing acidic conditions, it will increase the respiratory rate which in turn drives off CO<sub>2</sub> and decreases the H<sup>+</sup> concentration, therefore increasing the pH. In basic conditions, the respiratory rate will slow down so that the body holds onto more CO<sub>2</sub> and increases the H<sup>+</sup> concentration and decreases the pH.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The kidneys have two cells that help to maintain acid-base homeostasis: intercalated A and B cells. The intercalated A cells are stimulated when the body is experiencing acidic conditions. Under acidic conditions, the high concentration of CO<sub>2</sub> in the blood creates a gradient for CO<sub>2</sub> to move into the cell and push the reaction HCO<sub>3</sub> + H ↔ H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> ↔ CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O to the left. On the luminal side of the cell there is a H<sup>+</sup> pump and a H/K exchanger. These pumps move H<sup>+</sup> against their gradient and therefore require ATP. These cells will remove H<sup>+</sup> from the blood and move it to the filtrate which helps to increase the pH of the blood. On the basal side of the cell there is a HCO<sub>3</sub>/Cl exchanger and a Cl/K co-transporter (facilitated diffusion). When the reaction is pushed to the left it also increases the HCO<sub>3</sub> concentration in the cell and HCO<sub>3</sub> is then able to move out into the blood which additionally raises the pH. The intercalated B cell responds very similarly, however, the membrane proteins are flipped from the intercalated A cells: the proton pumps are on the basal side and the HCO<sub>3</sub>/Cl exchanger and K/Cl co-transporter are on the luminal side. They function the same, but now release protons into the blood to decrease the pH.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulation_of_osmolality">Regulation of osmolality</h3></div> <p>The kidneys help maintain the water and salt level of the body. Any significant rise in <a href="/wiki/Plasma_osmolality" title="Plasma osmolality">plasma osmolality</a> is detected by the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>, which communicates directly with the <a href="/wiki/Posterior_pituitary_gland" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior pituitary gland">posterior pituitary gland</a>. An increase in osmolality causes the gland to secrete <a href="/wiki/Antidiuretic_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Antidiuretic hormone">antidiuretic hormone</a> (ADH), resulting in water reabsorption by the kidney and an increase in urine concentration. The two factors work together to return the plasma osmolality to its normal levels. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Measuring_function">Measuring function</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kidney_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidney function">Kidney function</a></div> <p>Various calculations and methods are used to try to measure kidney function. <a href="/wiki/Renal_clearance" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal clearance">Renal clearance</a> is the volume of plasma from which the substance is completely cleared from the blood per unit time. The <a href="/wiki/Filtration_fraction" title="Filtration fraction">filtration fraction</a> is the amount of plasma that is actually filtered through the kidney. This can be defined using the equation. The kidney is a very complex organ and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical modelling</a> has been used to better understand kidney function at several scales, including fluid uptake and secretion.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SRT_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SRT-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kidney_disease" title="Kidney disease">Kidney disease</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nephrology" title="Nephrology">Nephrology</a> is the subspeciality under <a href="/wiki/Internal_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal Medicine">Internal Medicine</a> that deals with kidney function and disease states related to renal malfunction and their management including <a href="/wiki/Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">dialysis</a> and kidney <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">transplantation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a> is the specialty under <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">Surgery</a> that deals with kidney structure abnormalities such as kidney <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cysts" class="mw-redirect" title="Cysts">cysts</a> and problems with <a href="/wiki/Urinary_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary tract">urinary tract</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nephrologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Nephrologists">Nephrologists</a> are <a href="/wiki/Internists" class="mw-redirect" title="Internists">internists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Urologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Urologists">urologists</a> are <a href="/wiki/Surgeons" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgeons">surgeons</a>, whereas both are often called "kidney doctors". There are overlapping areas that both <a href="/wiki/Nephrologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Nephrologists">nephrologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Urologists">urologists</a> can provide care such as <a href="/wiki/Kidney_stones" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidney stones">kidney stones</a> and kidney related <a href="/wiki/Infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Infections">infections</a>. </p><p>There are many causes of <a href="/wiki/Kidney_disease" title="Kidney disease">kidney disease</a>. Some causes are acquired over the course of life, such as <a href="/wiki/Diabetic_nephropathy" title="Diabetic nephropathy">diabetic nephropathy</a> whereas others are <a href="/wiki/Congenital" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital">congenital</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Polycystic_kidney_disease" title="Polycystic kidney disease">polycystic kidney disease</a>. </p><p>Medical terms related to the kidneys commonly use terms such as <i>renal</i> and the prefix <i>nephro-</i>. The <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjective</a> <i>renal</i>, meaning related to the kidney, is from the <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> <i>rēnēs</i>, meaning kidneys; the prefix <i>nephro-</i> is from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> word for kidney, <i>nephros (νεφρός)</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, surgical removal of the kidney is a <i><a href="/wiki/Nephrectomy" title="Nephrectomy">nephrectomy</a></i>, while a reduction in kidney function is called <i>renal dysfunction</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acquired_Disease">Acquired Disease</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diabetic_nephropathy" title="Diabetic nephropathy">Diabetic nephropathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glomerulonephritis" title="Glomerulonephritis">Glomerulonephritis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydronephrosis" title="Hydronephrosis">Hydronephrosis</a> is the enlargement of one or both of the kidneys caused by obstruction of the flow of urine.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstitial_nephritis" title="Interstitial nephritis">Interstitial nephritis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidney stone">Kidney stones</a> (nephrolithiasis) are a relatively common and particularly painful disorder. A chronic condition can result in scars to the kidneys. The removal of kidney stones involves <a href="/wiki/Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasound</a> treatment to break up the stones into smaller pieces, which are then passed through the urinary tract. One common symptom of kidney stones is a sharp to disabling pain in the middle and sides of the lower back or groin.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney_tumour" title="Kidney tumour">Kidney tumour</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilms_tumor" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilms tumor">Wilms tumor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renal_cell_carcinoma" title="Renal cell carcinoma">Renal cell carcinoma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lupus_nephritis" title="Lupus nephritis">Lupus nephritis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_change_disease" title="Minimal change disease">Minimal change disease</a></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Nephrotic_syndrome" title="Nephrotic syndrome">nephrotic syndrome</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Glomerulus_(kidney)" title="Glomerulus (kidney)">glomerulus</a> has been damaged so that a large amount of <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> in the blood enters the <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a>. Other frequent features of the nephrotic syndrome include swelling, low serum albumin, and high cholesterol.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyelonephritis" title="Pyelonephritis">Pyelonephritis</a> is infection of the kidneys and is frequently caused by complication of a <a href="/wiki/Urinary_tract_infection" title="Urinary tract infection">urinary tract infection</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">Kidney failure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_kidney_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Acute kidney failure">Acute kidney failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_kidney_disease" title="Chronic kidney disease">Stage 5 Chronic Kidney Disease</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renal_artery_stenosis" title="Renal artery stenosis">Renal artery stenosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renovascular_hypertension" title="Renovascular hypertension">Renovascular hypertension</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kidney_injury_and_failure">Kidney injury and failure</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Acute_kidney_injury" title="Acute kidney injury">Acute kidney injury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chronic_kidney_disease" title="Chronic kidney disease">Chronic kidney disease</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">Kidney failure</a></div> <p>Generally, humans can live normally with just one kidney, as one has more functioning renal tissue than is needed to survive. Only when the amount of functioning kidney tissue is greatly diminished does one develop <a href="/wiki/Chronic_kidney_disease" title="Chronic kidney disease">chronic kidney disease</a>. <a href="/wiki/Renal_replacement_therapy" title="Renal replacement therapy">Renal replacement therapy</a>, in the form of <a href="/wiki/Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">dialysis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kidney_transplantation" title="Kidney transplantation">kidney transplantation</a>, is indicated when the <a href="/wiki/Glomerular_filtration_rate" title="Glomerular filtration rate">glomerular filtration rate</a> has fallen very low or if the renal dysfunction leads to severe symptoms.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dialysis">Dialysis</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peritoneal_dialysis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Peritoneal_dialysis.jpg/258px-Peritoneal_dialysis.jpg" decoding="async" width="258" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Peritoneal_dialysis.jpg/387px-Peritoneal_dialysis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Peritoneal_dialysis.jpg/516px-Peritoneal_dialysis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>A depiction of <a href="/wiki/Peritoneal_dialysis" title="Peritoneal dialysis">peritoneal dialysis</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">Kidney dialysis</a></div> <p>Dialysis is a treatment that substitutes for the function of normal kidneys. Dialysis may be instituted when approximately 85%–90% of kidney function is lost, as indicated by a glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of less than 15. Dialysis removes metabolic waste products as well as excess water and sodium (thereby contributing to regulating blood pressure); and maintains many chemical levels within the body. Life expectancy is 5–10 years for those on dialysis; some live up to 30 years. Dialysis can occur via the blood (through a <a href="/wiki/Central_venous_catheter" title="Central venous catheter">catheter</a> or <a href="/wiki/Arteriovenous_fistula" title="Arteriovenous fistula">arteriovenous fistula</a>), or through the <a href="/wiki/Peritoneum" title="Peritoneum">peritoneum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Peritoneal_dialysis" title="Peritoneal dialysis">peritoneal dialysis</a>) Dialysis is typically administered three times a week for several hours at free-standing dialysis centers, allowing recipients to lead an otherwise essentially normal life.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congenital_disease">Congenital disease</h3></div> <ul><li>Congenital <a href="/wiki/Hydronephrosis" title="Hydronephrosis">hydronephrosis</a></li> <li>Congenital obstruction of urinary tract</li> <li>Duplex kidneys, or double kidneys, occur in approximately 1% of the population. This occurrence normally causes no complications, but can occasionally cause urinary tract infections.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duplicated_ureter" title="Duplicated ureter">Duplicated ureter</a> occurs in approximately one in 100 live births</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horseshoe_kidney" title="Horseshoe kidney">Horseshoe kidney</a> occurs in approximately one in 400 live births</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephroblastoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Nephroblastoma">Nephroblastoma</a> (Syndromic Wilm's tumour)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutcracker_syndrome" title="Nutcracker syndrome">Nutcracker syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycystic_kidney_disease" title="Polycystic kidney disease">Polycystic kidney disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autosomal_dominant_polycystic_kidney_disease" title="Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease">Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease</a> affects patients later in life. Approximately one in 1000 people will develop this condition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autosomal_recessive_polycystic_kidney_disease" title="Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease">Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease</a> is far less common, but more severe, than the dominant condition. It is apparent <i>in utero</i> or at birth.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renal_agenesis" title="Renal agenesis">Renal agenesis</a>. Failure of one kidney to form occurs in approximately one in 750 live births. Failure of both kidneys to form used to be fatal; however, medical advances such as amnioinfusion therapy during pregnancy and peritoneal dialysis have made it possible to stay alive until a transplant can occur.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renal_dysplasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal dysplasia">Renal dysplasia</a></li> <li>Unilateral small kidney</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicystic_dysplastic_kidney" title="Multicystic dysplastic kidney">Multicystic dysplastic kidney</a> occurs in approximately one in every 2400 live births</li> <li>Ureteropelvic Junction Obstruction or UPJO; although most cases are congenital, some are acquired.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h3></div> <p>Many renal diseases are diagnosed on the basis of a detailed <a href="/wiki/Medical_history" title="Medical history">medical history</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Physical_examination" title="Physical examination">physical examination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The medical history takes into account present and past symptoms, especially those of kidney disease; recent infections; exposure to substances toxic to the kidney; and family history of kidney disease. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Renal_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal function">Kidney function</a> is tested by using <a href="/wiki/Blood_test" title="Blood test">blood tests</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clinical_urine_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical urine tests">urine tests</a>. The most common blood tests are <a href="/wiki/Creatinine" title="Creatinine">creatinine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolytes</a>. Urine tests such as <a href="/wiki/Urinalysis" title="Urinalysis">urinalysis</a> can evaluate for pH, protein, glucose, and the presence of blood. Microscopic analysis can also identify the presence of <a href="/wiki/Urinary_cast" title="Urinary cast">urinary casts</a> and crystals.<sup id="cite_ref-uptodate.com_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uptodate.com-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Glomerular_filtration_rate" title="Glomerular filtration rate">glomerular filtration rate</a> (GFR) can be directly measured ("measured GFR", or mGFR) but this rarely done in everyday practice. Instead, special equations are used to calculate GFR ("estimated GFR", or eGFR).<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-uptodate.com_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uptodate.com-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Imaging">Imaging</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Renal_ultrasonography" title="Renal ultrasonography">Renal ultrasonography</a> is essential in the diagnosis and management of kidney-related diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-Hansen2015_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansen2015-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other modalities, such as <a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">MRI</a>, should always be considered as supplementary imaging modalities in the assessment of renal disease.<sup id="cite_ref-Hansen2015_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansen2015-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biopsy">Biopsy</h4></div> <p>The role of the renal biopsy is to diagnose renal disease in which the etiology is not clear based upon noninvasive means (clinical history, past medical history, medication history, physical exam, laboratory studies, imaging studies). In general, a renal pathologist will perform a detailed morphological evaluation and integrate the morphologic findings with the clinical history and laboratory data, ultimately arriving at a pathological diagnosis. A renal <a href="/wiki/Pathologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathologist">pathologist</a> is a physician who has undergone general training in anatomic pathology and additional specially training in the interpretation of renal biopsy specimens. </p><p>Ideally, multiple core sections are obtained and evaluated for adequacy (presence of glomeruli) intraoperatively. A pathologist/pathology assistant divides the specimen(s) for submission for light microscopy, immunofluorescence microscopy and electron microscopy. </p><p>The pathologist will examine the specimen using light microscopy with multiple staining techniques (hematoxylin and eosin/H&E, PAS, trichrome, silver stain) on multiple level sections. Multiple immunofluorescence stains are performed to evaluate for antibody, protein and complement deposition. Finally, ultra-structural examination is performed with electron microscopy and may reveal the presence of electron-dense deposits or other characteristic abnormalities that may suggest an etiology for the patient's renal disease. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kidney_(vertebrates)" title="Kidney (vertebrates)">Kidney (vertebrates)</a></div> <p>In the majority of vertebrates, the <a href="/wiki/Mesonephros" title="Mesonephros">mesonephros</a> persists into the adult, albeit usually fused with the more advanced <a href="/wiki/Metanephros" class="mw-redirect" title="Metanephros">metanephros</a>; only in <a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">amniotes</a> is the mesonephros restricted to the embryo. The kidneys of <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a> are typically narrow, elongated organs, occupying a significant portion of the trunk. The collecting ducts from each cluster of nephrons usually drain into an <i>archinephric duct</i>, which is <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Vas_deferens" title="Vas deferens">vas deferens</a> of amniotes. However, the situation is not always so simple; in <a href="/wiki/Cartilaginous_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartilaginous fish">cartilaginous fish</a> and some amphibians, there is also a shorter duct, similar to the amniote ureter, which drains the posterior (metanephric) parts of the kidney, and joins with the archinephric duct at the <a href="/wiki/Bladder" title="Bladder">bladder</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cloaca" title="Cloaca">cloaca</a>. Indeed, in many cartilaginous fish, the anterior portion of the kidney may degenerate or cease to function altogether in the adult.<sup id="cite_ref-VB_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VB-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the most primitive vertebrates, the <a href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">hagfish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lampreys</a>, the kidney is unusually simple: it consists of a row of nephrons, each emptying directly into the archinephric duct. Invertebrates may possess excretory organs that are sometimes referred to as "kidneys", but, even in <i><a href="/wiki/Amphioxus" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphioxus">Amphioxus</a></i>, these are never homologous with the kidneys of vertebrates, and are more accurately referred to by other names, such as <a href="/wiki/Nephridia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nephridia">nephridia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-VB_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VB-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>, kidneys and the <a href="/wiki/Urinary_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary bladder">urinary bladder</a> harbour specialized <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monogenea" title="Monogenea">monogeneans</a> of the family Polystomatidae.<sup id="cite_ref-Theunissen_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Theunissen-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The kidneys of <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> consist of a number of lobules arranged in a broadly linear pattern. Each lobule contains a single branch of the ureter in its centre, into which the collecting ducts empty. Reptiles have relatively few nephrons compared with other amniotes of a similar size, possibly because of their lower <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabolic rate">metabolic rate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-VB_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VB-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Birds</a> have relatively large, elongated kidneys, each of which is divided into three or more distinct lobes. The lobes consists of several small, irregularly arranged, lobules, each centred on a branch of the ureter. Birds have small glomeruli, but about twice as many nephrons as similarly sized mammals.<sup id="cite_ref-VB_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VB-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The human kidney is fairly typical of that of <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>. Distinctive features of the mammalian kidney, in comparison with that of other vertebrates, include the presence of the renal pelvis and renal pyramids and a clearly distinguishable cortex and medulla. The latter feature is due to the presence of elongated <a href="/wiki/Loop_of_Henle" title="Loop of Henle">loops of Henle</a>; these are much shorter in birds, and not truly present in other vertebrates (although the nephron often has a short <i>intermediate segment</i> between the convoluted tubules). It is only in mammals that the kidney takes on its classical "kidney" shape, although there are some exceptions, such as the multilobed <a href="/wiki/Reniculate_kidney" title="Reniculate kidney">reniculate kidneys</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pinniped" title="Pinniped">pinnipeds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cetacea" title="Cetacea">cetaceans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-VB_47-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VB-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionary_adaptation">Evolutionary adaptation</h3></div> <p>Kidneys of various animals show evidence of evolutionary <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a> and have long been studied in <a href="/wiki/Ecophysiology" title="Ecophysiology">ecophysiology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Comparative_physiology" title="Comparative physiology">comparative physiology</a>. Kidney morphology, often indexed as the relative medullary thickness, is associated with habitat <a href="/wiki/Aridity" title="Aridity">aridity</a> among species of mammals<sup id="cite_ref-Al-kahtani2004_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Al-kahtani2004-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and diet (e.g., carnivores have only long loops of Henle).<sup id="cite_ref-SRT_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SRT-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Significance">Significance</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Egyptian">Egyptian</h4></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, the kidneys, like the heart, were left inside the mummified bodies, unlike other organs which were removed. Comparing this to the biblical statements, and to drawings of human body with the heart and two kidneys portraying a set of scales for weighing justice, it seems that the Egyptian beliefs had also connected the kidneys with judgement and perhaps with moral decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-zzz_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zzz-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hebrew">Hebrew</h4></div> <p>According to studies in modern and ancient Hebrew, various body organs in humans and animals served also an emotional or logical role, today mostly attributed to the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine system</a>. The kidney is mentioned in several biblical verses in conjunction with the heart, much as the <a href="/wiki/Bowels" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowels">bowels</a> were understood to be the "seat" of emotion – grief, joy and pain.<sup id="cite_ref-adath_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adath-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> (<i>Berakhoth</i> 61.a) states that one of the two kidneys counsels what is good, and the other evil. </p><p>In the sacrifices offered at the biblical <a href="/wiki/Tabernacle" title="Tabernacle">Tabernacle</a> and later on at the temple in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, the priests were instructed<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to remove the kidneys and the adrenal gland covering the kidneys of the sheep, goat and cattle offerings, and to burn them on the altar, as the holy part of the "offering for God" never to be eaten.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="India:_Ayurvedic_system">India: Ayurvedic system</h4></div> <p>In ancient India, according to the <a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurvedic medical systems</a>, the kidneys were considered the beginning of the excursion channels system, the 'head' of the <i>Mutra Srota</i>s, receiving from all other systems, and therefore important in determining a person's health balance and temperament by the balance and mixture of the three 'Dosha's – the three health elements: Vatha (or Vata) – air, Pitta – <a href="/wiki/Bile" title="Bile">bile</a>, and Kapha – <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a>. The temperament and health of a person can then be seen in the resulting color of the urine.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern Ayurveda practitioners, a practice which is characterized as pseudoscience,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have attempted to revive these methods in medical procedures as part of Ayurveda <a href="/wiki/Urine_therapy" title="Urine therapy">Urine therapy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These procedures have been called "nonsensical" by skeptics.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medieval_Christianity">Medieval Christianity</h4></div> <p>The Latin term <i>renes</i> is related to the English word "reins", a synonym for the kidneys in <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Shakespearean English">Shakespearean English</a> (e.g. <i><a href="/wiki/Merry_Wives_of_Windsor" class="mw-redirect" title="Merry Wives of Windsor">Merry Wives of Windsor</a></i> 3.5), which was also the time when the <a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> was translated. Kidneys were once popularly regarded as the seat of the <a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">conscience</a> and reflection,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a number of verses in the Bible (e.g. Ps. 7:9, Rev. 2:23) state that God searches out and inspects the kidneys, or "reins", of humans, together with the heart.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <p>Kidney stones have been identified and recorded about as long as written historical records exist.<sup id="cite_ref-Tefekli2013_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tefekli2013-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The urinary tract including the ureters, as well as their function to drain urine from the kidneys, has been described by <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> in the second century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-Nahon2011_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nahon2011-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first to examine the ureter through an internal approach, called ureteroscopy, rather than surgery was <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hampton_Young&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hampton Young (page does not exist)">Hampton Young</a> in 1929.<sup id="cite_ref-Tefekli2013_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tefekli2013-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was improved on by <a href="/w/index.php?title=VF_Marshall&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="VF Marshall (page does not exist)">VF Marshall</a> who is the first published use of a flexible <a href="/wiki/Endoscope" title="Endoscope">endoscope</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Fiber_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber optics">fiber optics</a>, which occurred in 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-Tefekli2013_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tefekli2013-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The insertion of a drainage tube into the <a href="/wiki/Renal_pelvis" title="Renal pelvis">renal pelvis</a>, bypassing the uterers and urinary tract, called <a href="/wiki/Nephrostomy" title="Nephrostomy">nephrostomy</a>, was first described in 1941. Such an approach differed greatly from the <a href="/wiki/Open_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Open surgery">open surgical</a> approaches within the urinary system employed during the preceding two millennia.<sup id="cite_ref-Tefekli2013_61-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tefekli2013-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_images">Additional images</h2></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Slide4nn.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Right kidney"><img alt="Right kidney" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Slide4nn.JPG/120px-Slide4nn.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Slide4nn.JPG/180px-Slide4nn.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Slide4nn.JPG/240px-Slide4nn.JPG 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Right kidney</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Slide5pp.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Kidney"><img alt="Kidney" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Slide5pp.JPG/120px-Slide5pp.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Slide5pp.JPG/180px-Slide5pp.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Slide5pp.JPG/240px-Slide5pp.JPG 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Kidney</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Slide3ppp.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Right kidney"><img alt="Right kidney" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Slide3ppp.JPG/120px-Slide3ppp.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Slide3ppp.JPG/180px-Slide3ppp.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Slide3ppp.JPG/240px-Slide3ppp.JPG 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Right kidney</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Right_kidney.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Right kidney"><img alt="Right kidney" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Right_kidney.jpg/120px-Right_kidney.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Right_kidney.jpg/180px-Right_kidney.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Right_kidney.jpg/240px-Right_kidney.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Right kidney</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Left_kidneys.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Left kidney"><img alt="Left kidney" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Left_kidneys.jpg/120px-Left_kidneys.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Left_kidneys.jpg/180px-Left_kidneys.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Left_kidneys.jpg/240px-Left_kidneys.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Left kidney</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kidneys.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kidneys"><img alt="Kidneys" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Kidneys.jpg/120px-Kidneys.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Kidneys.jpg/180px-Kidneys.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Kidneys.jpg/240px-Kidneys.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Kidneys</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Left_kidney.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Left kidney"><img alt="Left kidney" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Left_kidney.jpg/120px-Left_kidney.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Left_kidney.jpg/180px-Left_kidney.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Left_kidney.jpg/240px-Left_kidney.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Left kidney</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_kidney" title="Artificial kidney">Artificial kidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holonephros" title="Holonephros">Holonephros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephromegaly" title="Nephromegaly">Nephromegaly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_donation" title="Organ donation">Organ donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_harvesting" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ harvesting">Organ harvesting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_kidney" title="Pelvic kidney">Pelvic kidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Kidney_Day" title="World Kidney Day">World Kidney Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_distinct_cell_types_in_the_adult_human_body" class="mw-redirect" title="List of distinct cell types in the adult human body">List of distinct cell types in the adult human body</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and 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London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160817203659/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2008/feb/19/health">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-08-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Curhan GC, Sheridan AM (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uptodate.com/contents/diagnostic-approach-to-the-patient-with-acute-kidney-injury-acute-renal-failure-or-chronic-kidney-disease">"Diagnostic Approach to the Patient With Acute Kidney Injury (Acute Kidney Failure) or Chronic Kidney Disease"</a>. <i>www.uptodate.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151110144346/http://www.uptodate.com/contents/diagnostic-approach-to-the-patient-with-acute-kidney-injury-acute-renal-failure-or-chronic-kidney-disease">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-11-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-12-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.uptodate.com&rft.atitle=Diagnostic+Approach+to+the+Patient+With+Acute+Kidney+Injury+%28Acute+Kidney+Failure%29+or+Chronic+Kidney+Disease&rft.date=2012-12&rft.aulast=Post&rft.aufirst=TW&rft.au=Rose%2C+BD&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uptodate.com%2Fcontents%2Fdiagnostic-approach-to-the-patient-with-acute-kidney-injury-acute-renal-failure-or-chronic-kidney-disease&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKidney" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kdigo.org/guidelines/ckd-evaluation-and-management/">"KDIGO 2012 Clinical Practice Guideline for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Kidney Disease"</a>. <i>Kidney Int Suppl</i>. <b>3</b>: 1–150. 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190501124111/https://kdigo.org/guidelines/ckd-evaluation-and-management/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-05-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-01-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kidney+Int+Suppl&rft.atitle=KDIGO+2012+Clinical+Practice+Guideline+for+the+Evaluation+and+Management+of+Chronic+Kidney+Disease&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=1-150&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkdigo.org%2Fguidelines%2Fckd-evaluation-and-management%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKidney" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hansen2015-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hansen2015_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hansen2015_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Content initially copied from: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansenNielsenEwertsen2015" class="citation journal cs1">Hansen KL, Nielsen MB, Ewertsen C (December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4808817">"Ultrasonography of the Kidney: A Pictorial Review"</a>. <i>Diagnostics</i>. <b>6</b> (1): 2. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fdiagnostics6010002">10.3390/diagnostics6010002</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4808817">4808817</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26838799">26838799</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diagnostics&rft.atitle=Ultrasonography+of+the+Kidney%3A+A+Pictorial+Review&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2&rft.date=2015-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4808817%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26838799&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fdiagnostics6010002&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=KL&rft.au=Nielsen%2C+MB&rft.au=Ewertsen%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4808817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKidney" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">(CC-BY 4.0)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Archived</a> 2017-10-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VB-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-VB_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VB_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VB_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VB_47-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VB_47-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomerParsons1977" class="citation book cs1">Romer AS, Parsons TS (1977). <i>The Vertebrate Body</i>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biology.ucr.edu/people/faculty/Garland/Al-kahtaniEA2004.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2010-06-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-03-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physiological+and+Biochemical+Zoology&rft.atitle=Kidney+mass+and+relative+medullary+thickness+of+rodents+in+relation+to+habitat%2C+body+size%2C+and+phylogeny&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=346-365&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.407.8690%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12420368%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15286910&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F420941&rft.aulast=al-Kahtani&rft.aufirst=MA&rft.au=Zuleta%2C+C&rft.au=Caviedes-Vidal%2C+E&rft.au=Garland%2C+T&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biology.ucr.edu%2Fpeople%2Ffaculty%2FGarland%2FAl-kahtaniEA2004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKidney" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zzz-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-zzz_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalemEknoyan1999" class="citation journal cs1">Salem ME, Eknoyan G (1999). "The kidney in ancient Egyptian medicine: where does it stand?". <i>American Journal of Nephrology</i>. <b>19</b> (2): 140–147. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1159%2F000013440">10.1159/000013440</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10213808">10213808</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:35305403">35305403</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Nephrology&rft.atitle=The+kidney+in+ancient+Egyptian+medicine%3A+where+does+it+stand%3F&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=140-147&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A35305403%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10213808&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1159%2F000013440&rft.aulast=Salem&rft.aufirst=ME&rft.au=Eknoyan%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKidney" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-adath-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-adath_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030322082801/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/body_metaphors_bib_hebrew.htm">"Body Part Metaphors in Biblical Hebrew by David Steinberg"</a>. March 22, 2003. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adath-shalom.ca/body_metaphors_bib_hebrew.htm">the original</a> on March 22, 2003<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 21,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Body+Part+Metaphors+in+Biblical+Hebrew+by+David+Steinberg&rft.date=2003-03-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adath-shalom.ca%2Fbody_metaphors_bib_hebrew.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKidney" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leviticus 3: 4, 10 and 15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ie Deut 3:4,9,10,15... or the Babylonian Talmud, Bechorot (39a) Ch6:Tr2...</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ayurvedacollege.com/articles/drhalpern/Vata_Doshas">"What is Vata Dosha? Tips and diet for balancing vata | CA College of Ayurveda"</a>. <i>www.ayurvedacollege.com</i>. 7 April 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191109092730/http://www.ayurvedacollege.com/articles/drhalpern/Vata_Doshas">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 21,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ayurvedacollege.com&rft.atitle=What+is+Vata+Dosha%3F+Tips+and+diet+for+balancing+vata+%26%23124%3B+CA+College+of+Ayurveda&rft.date=2010-04-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ayurvedacollege.com%2Farticles%2Fdrhalpern%2FVata_Doshas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKidney" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">List of topics characterized as pseudoscience</a>, according to the <a href="/wiki/American_Medical_Association" title="American Medical Association">American Medical Association</a>'s Report 12 of the Council of Scientific Affairs (A-97) and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skepdic.com/ayurvedic.html">claims by skeptics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160810061129/http://skepdic.com/ayurvedic.html">Archived</a> 2016-08-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> ('The Skeptics Dictionary' website)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanguKumarShekharChagam2011" class="citation journal cs1">Sangu PK, Kumar VM, Shekhar MS, Chagam MK, Goli PP, Tirupati PK (January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3215423">"A study on Tailabindu pariksha – An ancient Ayurvedic method of urine examination as a diagnostic and prognostic tool"</a>. <i>AYU</i>. <b>32</b> (1): 76–81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4103%2F0974-8520.85735">10.4103/0974-8520.85735</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3215423">3215423</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22131762">22131762</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AYU&rft.atitle=A+study+on+Tailabindu+pariksha+%E2%80%93+An+ancient+Ayurvedic+method+of+urine+examination+as+a+diagnostic+and+prognostic+tool&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=76-81&rft.date=2011-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3215423%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22131762&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4103%2F0974-8520.85735&rft.aulast=Sangu&rft.aufirst=PK&rft.au=Kumar%2C+VM&rft.au=Shekhar%2C+MS&rft.au=Chagam%2C+MK&rft.au=Goli%2C+PP&rft.au=Tirupati%2C+PK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3215423&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKidney" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrett" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Barrett" title="Stephen Barrett">Barrett S</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.old.quackwatch.org/04ConsumerEducation/chopra.html">"A Few Thoughts on Ayurvedic Mumbo-Jumbo"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200929051141/https://www.old.quackwatch.org/04ConsumerEducation/chopra.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-09-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-09396-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-09396-4"><bdi>978-0-300-09396-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Patient+as+Person%3A+Explorations+in+Medical+Ethics&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=60&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-300-09396-4&rft.aulast=Ramsey&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Jonsen%2C+AR&rft.au=May%2C+WF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKidney" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEknoyanMarketosDe_Santo1997" class="citation book cs1">Eknoyan G, Marketos SG, De Santo NG, eds. (January 1997). <i>History of Nephrology 2</i>. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers. p. 235. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8055-6499-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8055-6499-1"><bdi>978-3-8055-6499-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Nephrology+2&rft.pages=235&rft.pub=Karger+Medical+and+Scientific+Publishers&rft.date=1997-01&rft.isbn=978-3-8055-6499-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKidney" class="Z3988"></span> International Association for the History of Nephrology Congress, Reprint of <i>American Journal of Nephrology</i>; v. 14, no. 4–6, 1994.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://intertextual.bible/text/revelation-2.23-berakhot-119.29"><i>intertextual.bible/text/revelation-2.23-berakhot-119.29</i></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221215081525/https://intertextual.bible/text/revelation-2.23-berakhot-119.29">archived</a> from the original on 2022-12-15<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-12-15</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=intertextual.bible%2Ftext%2Frevelation-2.23-berakhot-119.29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fintertextual.bible%2Ftext%2Frevelation-2.23-berakhot-119.29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKidney" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tefekli2013-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tefekli2013_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tefekli2013_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tefekli2013_61-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tefekli2013_61-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTefekliCezayirli2013" class="citation journal cs1">Tefekli A, Cezayirli F (November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3856162">"The history of urinary stones: in parallel with civilization"</a>. <i>TheScientificWorldJournal</i>. <b>2013</b>: 423964. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2013%2F423964">10.1155/2013/423964</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3856162">3856162</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24348156">24348156</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TheScientificWorldJournal&rft.atitle=The+history+of+urinary+stones%3A+in+parallel+with+civilization&rft.volume=2013&rft.pages=423964&rft.date=2013-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3856162%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24348156&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2013%2F423964&rft.aulast=Tefekli&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Cezayirli%2C+F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3856162&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKidney" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nahon2011-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nahon2011_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNahonWaddingtonDoreyAdams2011" class="citation journal cs1">Nahon I, Waddington G, Dorey G, Adams R (2011). "The history of urologic surgery: from reeds to robotics". <i>Urologic Nursing</i>. <b>31</b> (3): 173–180. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7257%2F1053-816X.2011.31.3.173">10.7257/1053-816X.2011.31.3.173</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21805756">21805756</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Urologic+Nursing&rft.atitle=The+history+of+urologic+surgery%3A+from+reeds+to+robotics&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=173-180&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7257%2F1053-816X.2011.31.3.173&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21805756&rft.aulast=Nahon&rft.aufirst=I&rft.au=Waddington%2C+G&rft.au=Dorey%2C+G&rft.au=Adams%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKidney" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_and_cited_references">General and cited references</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGanong's_Physiology2019" class="citation book cs1">Barrett KE, Barman SM, Yuan JX, Brooks H (2019). <i>Ganong's review of medical physiology</i> (26th ed.). New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781260122404" title="Special:BookSources/9781260122404"><bdi>9781260122404</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1076268769">1076268769</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ganong%27s+review+of+medical+physiology&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=26th&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1076268769&rft.isbn=9781260122404&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.aufirst=KE&rft.au=Barman%2C+SM&rft.au=Yuan%2C+JX&rft.au=Brooks%2C+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKidney" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Urinary_system" title="Urinary system">urinary system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kidneys</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Layers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renal_fascia" title="Renal fascia">Fascia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renal_capsule" title="Renal capsule">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renal_cortex" title="Renal cortex">Cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renal_column" title="Renal column">column</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renal_medulla" title="Renal medulla">Medulla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renal_pyramids" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal pyramids">pyramids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medullary_interstitium" class="mw-redirect" title="Medullary interstitium">medullary interstitium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renal_sinus" title="Renal sinus">Sinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renal_lobe" title="Renal lobe">Lobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cortical_lobule" title="Cortical lobule">Cortical lobule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medullary_ray_(anatomy)" title="Medullary ray (anatomy)">Medullary ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephron" title="Nephron">Nephron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Renal_circulation" title="Renal circulation">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Arteries <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renal_artery" title="Renal artery">Renal artery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segmental_arteries_of_kidney" class="mw-redirect" title="Segmental arteries of kidney">segmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlobar_arteries" title="Interlobar arteries">interlobar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcuate_arteries_of_the_kidney" title="Arcuate arteries of the kidney">arcuate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlobular_arteries" title="Interlobular arteries">interlobular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afferent_arterioles" title="Afferent arterioles">afferent</a></li></ul></li> <li>Veins <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renal_vein" title="Renal vein">Renal vein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peritubular_capillaries" title="Peritubular capillaries">Peritubular capillaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_arterioles_of_kidney" class="mw-redirect" title="Straight arterioles of kidney">Vasa recta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcuate_vein" title="Arcuate vein">arcuate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlobar_veins" title="Interlobar veins">interlobar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efferent_arteriole" title="Efferent arteriole">efferent</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nephron" title="Nephron">Nephron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Renal_corpuscle" title="Renal corpuscle">Renal corpuscle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glomerulus_(kidney)" title="Glomerulus (kidney)">Glomerulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowman%27s_capsule" title="Bowman's capsule">Bowman's capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glomerular_basement_membrane" title="Glomerular basement membrane">Glomerular basement membrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podocyte" title="Podocyte">Podocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filtration_slits" class="mw-redirect" title="Filtration slits">Filtration slits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesangium" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesangium">Mesangium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraglomerular_mesangial_cell" title="Intraglomerular mesangial cell">Intraglomerular mesangial cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Renal_tubule" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal tubule">Renal tubule</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proximal_convoluted_tubule" class="mw-redirect" title="Proximal convoluted tubule">Proximal convoluted tubule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_of_Henle" title="Loop of Henle">Loop of Henle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Descending_limb_of_loop_of_Henle" title="Descending limb of loop of Henle">Descending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascending_limb_of_loop_of_Henle" title="Ascending limb of loop of Henle">Thin ascending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascending_limb_of_loop_of_Henle" title="Ascending limb of loop of Henle">Thick ascending</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distal_convoluted_tubule" title="Distal convoluted tubule">Distal convoluted tubule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collecting_duct_system" title="Collecting duct system">Collecting duct system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Connecting_tubule" class="mw-redirect" title="Connecting tubule">Connecting tubule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papillary_duct" class="mw-redirect" title="Papillary duct">Papillary duct</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubular_fluid" title="Tubular fluid">Tubular fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renal_papilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal papilla">Renal papilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renal_calyx" title="Renal calyx">Minor calyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renal_calyx" title="Renal calyx">Major calyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renal_pelvis" title="Renal pelvis">Renal pelvis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Juxtaglomerular_apparatus" title="Juxtaglomerular apparatus">Juxtaglomerular apparatus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macula_densa" title="Macula densa">Macula densa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juxtaglomerular_cell" title="Juxtaglomerular cell">Juxtaglomerular cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesangium" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesangium">Mesangium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraglomerular_mesangial_cell" title="Extraglomerular mesangial cell">Extraglomerular mesangial cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ureter" title="Ureter">Ureters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ureteropelvic_junction" class="mw-redirect" title="Ureteropelvic junction">Ureteropelvic junction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Urinary_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary bladder">Bladder</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Circulation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesical_arteries" title="Vesical arteries">Vesical arteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesical_veins" title="Vesical veins">Vesical veins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_artery" title="Vaginal artery">Vaginal artery</a> (female)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detrusor_muscle" title="Detrusor muscle">Detrusor muscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_umbilical_ligament" title="Median umbilical ligament">Median umbilical ligament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigone_of_the_urinary_bladder" title="Trigone of the urinary bladder">Trigone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Urethra" title="Urethra">Urethra</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internal_urethral_orifice" title="Internal urethral orifice">Internal urethral orifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urethral_sphincters" title="Urethral sphincters">Urethral sphincters</a> <ul><li>External <ul><li><a href="/wiki/External_sphincter_muscle_of_male_urethra" title="External sphincter muscle of male urethra">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_sphincter_muscle_of_female_urethra" title="External sphincter muscle of female urethra">female</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_urethral_sphincter" title="Internal urethral sphincter">Internal</a></li></ul></li> <li>Male urethra <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-prostatic_urethra" title="Pre-prostatic urethra">pre-prostatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostatic_urethra" title="Prostatic urethra">prostatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Membranous_urethra" title="Membranous urethra">intermediate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spongy_urethra" title="Spongy urethra">spongy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navicular_fossa_of_male_urethra" title="Navicular fossa of male urethra">navicular fossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacunae_of_Morgagni" title="Lacunae of Morgagni">Lacunae of Morgagni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urethral_gland" title="Urethral gland">urethral gland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_meatus" title="Urinary meatus">Urinary meatus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9377#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9377#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9377#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932741g">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Rein"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932741g">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00574833">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="ledviny"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph122225&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007543430905171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group 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