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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Systemic_arterial_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Systemic arterial pressure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Systemic_arterial_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Systemic_arterial_pressure_and_age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Systemic_arterial_pressure_and_age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Systemic arterial pressure and age </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Systemic_arterial_pressure_and_age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fetal_blood_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fetal_blood_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.1 Fetal blood pressure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fetal_blood_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Childhood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Childhood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2 Childhood </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Childhood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aging_adults" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aging_adults"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.3 Aging adults </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aging_adults-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Systemic_venous_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Systemic_venous_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Systemic venous pressure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Systemic_venous_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pulmonary_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pulmonary_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Pulmonary pressure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pulmonary_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aortic_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aortic_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Aortic pressure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aortic_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mean_systemic_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mean_systemic_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Mean systemic pressure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mean_systemic_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disorders_of_blood_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disorders_of_blood_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Disorders of blood pressure </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Disorders_of_blood_pressure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Disorders of blood pressure subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Disorders_of_blood_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-High_blood_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_blood_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 High blood pressure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High_blood_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Low_blood_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low_blood_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Low blood pressure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low_blood_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Orthostatic_hypotension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthostatic_hypotension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Orthostatic hypotension </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthostatic_hypotension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variable_or_fluctuating_blood_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variable_or_fluctuating_blood_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Variable or fluctuating blood pressure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variable_or_fluctuating_blood_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Physiology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Physiology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hemodynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hemodynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Hemodynamics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hemodynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pulse_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pulse_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Pulse pressure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pulse_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Clinical_significance_of_pulse_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_significance_of_pulse_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 Clinical significance of pulse pressure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clinical_significance_of_pulse_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mean_arterial_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mean_arterial_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Mean arterial pressure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mean_arterial_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulation_of_blood_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation_of_blood_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Regulation of blood pressure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation_of_blood_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Measurement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measurement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 In animals </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_animals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle In animals subsection </button> <ul id="toc-In_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hypertension_in_cats_and_dogs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypertension_in_cats_and_dogs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Hypertension in cats and dogs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypertension_in_cats_and_dogs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Blood pressure</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 88 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-88" aria-hidden="true" > 88 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloeddruk" title="Bloeddruk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Bloeddruk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B6%D8%BA%D8%B7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%85" title="ضغط الدم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ضغط الدم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presi%C3%B3n_sanguinia" title="Presión sanguinia – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Presión sanguinia" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA" title="ৰক্তচাপ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ৰক্তচাপ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presi%C3%B3n_sangu%C3%ADnea" title="Presión sanguínea – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Presión sanguínea" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qan_t%C9%99zyiqi" title="Qan təzyiqi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qan təzyiqi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA" title="রক্তচাপ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রক্তচাপ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiat-ap" title="Hiat-ap – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hiat-ap" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%86%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BA" title="Крывяны ціск – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Крывяны ціск" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%86%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BA" title="Крывяны ціск – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Крывяны ціск" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0" title="ब्लड प्रेशर – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="ब्लड प्रेशर" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8A%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Кръвно налягане – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Кръвно налягане" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krvni_pritisak" title="Krvni pritisak – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Krvni pritisak" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressi%C3%B3_sangu%C3%ADnia" title="Pressió sanguínia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pressió sanguínia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasaysayan_sa_pagsukod_sa_presyon_sa_dugo" title="Kasaysayan sa pagsukod sa presyon sa dugo – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Kasaysayan sa pagsukod sa presyon sa dugo" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krevn%C3%AD_tlak" title="Krevní tlak – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Krevní tlak" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pwysedd_gwaed" title="Pwysedd gwaed – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Pwysedd gwaed" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blodtryk" title="Blodtryk – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Blodtryk" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%88" title="طونسيو – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="طونسيو" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blutdruck" title="Blutdruck – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Blutdruck" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%8D%DE%AD%DE%8E%DE%AC_%DE%95%DE%B0%DE%83%DE%AC%DE%9D%DE%A6%DE%83%DE%AA" title="ލޭގެ ޕްރެޝަރު – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ލޭގެ ޕްރެޝަރު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verer%C3%B5hk" title="Vererõhk – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vererõhk" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%AF%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B7_%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Πίεση αίματος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πίεση αίματος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presi%C3%B3n_sangu%C3%ADnea" title="Presión sanguínea – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Presión sanguínea" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangopremo" title="Sangopremo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sangopremo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odol-presio" title="Odol-presio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Odol-presio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%88%D9%86" title="فشار خون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فشار خون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pression_sanguine" title="Pression sanguine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pression sanguine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%BA_fola" title="Brú fola – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Brú fola" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presi%C3%B3n_arterial" title="Presión arterial – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Presión arterial" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%98%88%EC%95%95" title="혈압 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="혈압" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B3%D5%B6%D5%B7%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Արյան ճնշում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արյան ճնշում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA" title="रक्तचाप – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रक्तचाप" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krvni_tlak" title="Krvni tlak – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Krvni tlak" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obara_Mgbali_elu" title="Obara Mgbali elu – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Obara Mgbali elu" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekanan_darah" title="Tekanan darah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tekanan darah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pression_arterial" title="Pression arterial – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Pression arterial" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%B3%C3%B0%C3%BEr%C3%BDstingur" title="Blóðþrýstingur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Blóðþrýstingur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressione_del_sangue" title="Pressione del sangue – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Pressione del sangue" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%A5_%D7%93%D7%9D" title="לחץ דם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לחץ דם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8A%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%A1" title="ರಕ್ತದೊತ್ತಡ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ರಕ್ತದೊತ್ತಡ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisyun_ning_daya" title="Prisyun ning daya – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Prisyun ning daya" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%88%D9%97%D9%86%D9%8F%DA%A9_%D8%AF%D9%8E%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%88" title="خوٗنُک دَباو – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="خوٗنُک دَباو" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D2%9B%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%8B" title="Қан қысымы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қан қысымы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%8B" title="Кан басымы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кан басымы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressio_sanguinis" title="Pressio sanguinis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Pressio sanguinis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asinsspiediens" title="Asinsspiediens – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Asinsspiediens" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraujosp%C5%ABdis" title="Kraujospūdis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kraujospūdis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9rnyom%C3%A1s" title="Vérnyomás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Vérnyomás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BA" title="Крвен притисок – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Крвен притисок" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%82" title="രക്തസമ്മർദ്ദം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="രക്തസമ്മർദ്ദം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressjoni_tad-demm" title="Pressjoni tad-demm – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Pressjoni tad-demm" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AC" title="रक्तदाब – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="रक्तदाब" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekanan_darah" title="Tekanan darah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tekanan darah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Цусны даралт – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Цусны даралт" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloeddruk" title="Bloeddruk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bloeddruk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA" title="रक्तचाप – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="रक्तचाप" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A1%80%E5%9C%A7" title="血圧 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="血圧" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blodtrykk" title="Blodtrykk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Blodtrykk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blodtrykk" title="Blodtrykk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Blodtrykk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qon_bosimi" title="Qon bosimi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Qon bosimi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%B9%E0%A9%82_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%85" title="ਲਹੂ ਦਾ ਦਬਾਅ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਲਹੂ ਦਾ ਦਬਾਅ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blooddruck" title="Blooddruck – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Blooddruck" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C5%9Bnienie_t%C4%99tnicze" title="Ciśnienie tętnicze – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ciśnienie tętnicze" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Press%C3%A3o_arterial" title="Pressão arterial – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pressão arterial" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensiune_arterial%C4%83" title="Tensiune arterială – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Tensiune arterială" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Кровяное давление – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кровяное давление" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presioni_i_gjakut" title="Presioni i gjakut – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Presioni i gjakut" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Blood pressure" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krvn%C3%BD_tlak" title="Krvný tlak – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Krvný tlak" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krvni_tlak" title="Krvni tlak – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Krvni tlak" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%95%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D9%88%DB%8E%D9%86" title="پەستانی خوێن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پەستانی خوێن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Крвни притисак – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Крвни притисак" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krvni_pritisak" title="Krvni pritisak – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Krvni pritisak" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verenpaine" title="Verenpaine – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Verenpaine" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blodtryck" title="Blodtryck – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Blodtryck" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presyon_ng_dugo" title="Presyon ng dugo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Presyon ng dugo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="குருதி அழுத்தம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="குருதி அழுத்தம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%81" title="రక్తపోటు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="రక్తపోటు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%94" title="ความดันเลือด – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ความดันเลือด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kan_bas%C4%B1nc%C4%B1" title="Kan basıncı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kan basıncı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%27%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA" title="Кров'яний тиск – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кров'яний тиск" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%88%D9%86" title="فشار خون – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فشار خون" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huy%E1%BA%BFt_%C3%A1p" title="Huyết áp – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Huyết áp" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A1%80%E5%8E%8B" title="血压 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="血压" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%98_%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A7" title="בלוט דרוק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="בלוט דרוק" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Pressure exerted by circulating blood upon the walls of arteries</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Blood pressure (disambiguation)">Blood pressure (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical diagnostic method </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: lightblue">Blood pressure</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Blood_pressure_monitoring.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Blood_pressure_monitoring.jpg/290px-Blood_pressure_monitoring.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Blood_pressure_monitoring.jpg/435px-Blood_pressure_monitoring.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Blood_pressure_monitoring.jpg/580px-Blood_pressure_monitoring.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1478" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">A healthcare worker measuring blood pressure using a <a href="/wiki/Sphygmomanometer" title="Sphygmomanometer">sphygmomanometer</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001794">D001794</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/MedlinePlus" title="MedlinePlus">MedlinePlus</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/007490.htm">007490</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/LOINC" title="LOINC">LOINC</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://s.details.loinc.org/LOINC/35094-2.html?sections=Comprehensive">35094-2</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Blood pressure (BP) is the <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> of <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulating blood</a> against the walls of <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a>. Most of this pressure results from the <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> pumping blood through the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory system</a>. When used without qualification, the term "blood pressure" refers to the pressure in a <a href="/wiki/Brachial_artery" title="Brachial artery">brachial artery</a>, where it is most commonly measured. Blood pressure is usually expressed in terms of the systolic pressure (maximum pressure during one <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_cycle" title="Cardiac cycle">heartbeat</a>) over diastolic pressure (minimum pressure between two heartbeats) in the <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_cycle" title="Cardiac cycle">cardiac cycle</a>. It is measured in <a href="/wiki/Millimetre_of_mercury" title="Millimetre of mercury">millimeters of mercury (mmHg)</a> above the surrounding <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">atmospheric pressure</a>, or in <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">kilopascals</a> (kPa). The difference between the systolic and diastolic pressures is known as <a href="/wiki/Pulse_pressure" title="Pulse pressure">pulse pressure</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Homan_Cichowski_2019-1">[1]</a> while the average pressure during a cardiac cycle is known as <a href="/wiki/Mean_arterial_pressure" title="Mean arterial pressure">mean arterial pressure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mayet_Hughes_2003_pp._1104–9-2">[2]</a> Blood pressure is one of the <a href="/wiki/Vital_signs" title="Vital signs">vital signs</a>—together with <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_rate" title="Respiratory rate">respiratory rate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">heart rate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_saturation_(medicine)" title="Oxygen saturation (medicine)">oxygen saturation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Body_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Body temperature">body temperature</a>—that healthcare professionals use in evaluating a patient's health. Normal resting blood pressure in an adult is approximately 120 millimetres of mercury (16 kPa) systolic over 80 millimetres of mercury (11 kPa) diastolic, denoted as "120/80 mmHg". Globally, the average blood pressure, age standardized, has remained about the same since 1975 to the present,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] at approximately 127/79 mmHg in men and 122/77 mmHg in women, although these average data mask significantly diverging regional trends.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Traditionally, a health-care worker measured blood pressure non-invasively by <a href="/wiki/Auscultation" title="Auscultation">auscultation</a> (listening) through a <a href="/wiki/Stethoscope" title="Stethoscope">stethoscope</a> for sounds in one arm's <a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">artery</a> as the artery is squeezed, closer to the heart, by an <a href="/wiki/Aneroid_gauge" class="mw-redirect" title="Aneroid gauge">aneroid gauge</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury-tube</a> <a href="/wiki/Sphygmomanometer" title="Sphygmomanometer">sphygmomanometer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Booth1977-4">[4]</a> Auscultation is still generally considered to be the gold standard of accuracy for non-invasive blood pressure readings in clinic.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> However, semi-automated methods have become common, largely due to concerns about potential mercury toxicity,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> although cost, ease of use and applicability to <a href="/wiki/Ambulatory_blood_pressure" title="Ambulatory blood pressure">ambulatory blood pressure</a> or home blood pressure measurements have also influenced this trend.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[7]</a> Early automated alternatives to mercury-tube sphygmomanometers were often seriously inaccurate, but modern devices validated to international standards achieve an average difference between two standardized reading methods of 5 mm Hg or less, and a <a href="/wiki/Standard_deviation" title="Standard deviation">standard deviation</a> of less than 8 mm Hg.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[7]</a> Most of these semi-automated methods measure blood pressure using oscillometry (measurement by a pressure transducer in the cuff of the device of small oscillations of intra-cuff pressure accompanying heartbeat-induced changes in the volume of each pulse).<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Blood pressure is influenced by <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_output" title="Cardiac output">cardiac output</a>, <a href="/wiki/Systemic_vascular_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic vascular resistance">systemic vascular resistance</a>, blood volume and <a href="/wiki/Arterial_stiffness" title="Arterial stiffness">arterial stiffness</a>, and varies depending on person's situation, emotional state, activity and relative health or disease state. In the short term, blood pressure is <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis#Arterial_blood_pressure" title="Homeostasis">regulated</a> by <a href="/wiki/Baroreceptor" title="Baroreceptor">baroreceptors</a>, which act via the brain to influence the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine</a> systems. Blood pressure that is too low is called <a href="/wiki/Hypotension" title="Hypotension">hypotension</a>, pressure that is consistently too high is called <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a>, and normal pressure is called normotension.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Both hypertension and hypotension have many causes and may be of sudden onset or of long duration. Long-term hypertension is a risk factor for many diseases, including <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart disease">heart disease</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney failure</a>. Long-term hypertension is more common than long-term hypotension. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification,_normal_and_abnormal_values">Classification, normal and abnormal values</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification, normal and abnormal values">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Systemic_arterial_pressure">Systemic arterial pressure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Systemic arterial pressure">edit</a>]</div> Blood pressure measurements can be influenced by circumstances of measurement.<a href="#cite_note-ESC2024-10">[10]</a> Guidelines use different thresholds for office (also known as clinic), home (when the person measures their own blood pressure at home), and <a href="/wiki/Ambulatory_blood_pressure" title="Ambulatory blood pressure">ambulatory blood pressure</a> (using an automated device over a 24-hour period).<a href="#cite_note-ESC2024-10">[10]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Blood pressure classifications </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Categories </th> <th colspan="3">Systolic blood pressure, <a href="/wiki/MmHg" class="mw-redirect" title="MmHg">mmHg</a> </th> <th rowspan="2">and/or </th> <th colspan="3">Diastolic blood pressure, mmHg </th></tr> <tr> <th>Method </th> <th>Office </th> <th>Home </th> <th>24h <a href="/wiki/Ambulatory_blood_pressure" title="Ambulatory blood pressure">ambulatory</a> </th> <th>Office </th> <th>Home </th> <th>24h ambulatory </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/American_College_of_Cardiology" title="American College of Cardiology">American College of Cardiology</a>/<a href="/wiki/American_Heart_Association" title="American Heart Association">American Heart Association</a> (2017)<a href="#cite_note-Whelton2022-11">[11]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Normal </td> <td><120 </td> <td><120 </td> <td><115 </td> <td>and </td> <td><80 </td> <td><80 </td> <td><75 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Elevated </td> <td>120–129 </td> <td>120–129 </td> <td>115–124 </td> <td>and </td> <td><80 </td> <td><80 </td> <td><75 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hypertension, stage 1 </td> <td>130–139 </td> <td>130–134 </td> <td>125–129 </td> <td>or </td> <td>80–89 </td> <td>80–84 </td> <td>75–79 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hypertension, stage 2 </td> <td>≥140 </td> <td>≥135 </td> <td>≥130 </td> <td>or </td> <td>≥90 </td> <td>≥85 </td> <td>≥80 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/European_Society_of_Cardiology" title="European Society of Cardiology">European Society of Cardiology</a> (2024)<a href="#cite_note-ESC2024-10">[10]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Non-elevated </td> <td><120 </td> <td><120 </td> <td><115 </td> <td>and </td> <td><70 </td> <td><70 </td> <td><65 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Elevated </td> <td>120–139 </td> <td>120–134 </td> <td>115–129 </td> <td>and </td> <td>70–89 </td> <td>70–84 </td> <td>65–79 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hypertension </td> <td>≥140 </td> <td>≥135 </td> <td>≥130 </td> <td>or </td> <td>≥90 </td> <td>≥85 </td> <td>≥80 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="8"><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_Society_of_Hypertension&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European Society of Hypertension (page does not exist)">European Society of Hypertension</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Society_of_Hypertension&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Society of Hypertension (page does not exist)">International Society of Hypertension</a> (2023)<a href="#cite_note-ESH2023-12">[12]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Optimal </td> <td><120 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>and </td> <td><80 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td></tr> <tr> <td>Normal </td> <td>120–129 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>and/or </td> <td>80–84 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td></tr> <tr> <td>High normal </td> <td>130–139 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>and/or </td> <td>85–89 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hypertension, grade 1 </td> <td>140–159 </td> <td>≥135 </td> <td>≥130 </td> <td>and/or </td> <td>90–99 </td> <td>≥85 </td> <td>≥80 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hypertension, grade 2 </td> <td>160–179 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>and/or </td> <td>100–109 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hypertension, grade 3 </td> <td>≥180 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>and/or </td> <td>≥110 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td></tr></tbody></table> The risk of cardiovascular disease increases progressively above 90 mmHg, especially among women.<a href="#cite_note-ESC2024-10">[10]</a> Observational studies demonstrate that people who maintain arterial pressures at the low end of these pressure ranges have much better long-term cardiovascular health. There is an ongoing medical debate over what is the optimal level of blood pressure to target when using drugs to lower blood pressure with hypertension, particularly in older people.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Blood pressure fluctuates from minute to minute and normally shows a circadian rhythm over a 24-hour period,<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> with highest readings in the early morning and evenings and lowest readings at night.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Loss of the normal fall in blood pressure at night is associated with a greater future risk of cardiovascular disease and there is evidence that night-time blood pressure is a stronger predictor of cardiovascular events than day-time blood pressure.<a href="#cite_note-HansenLi2010-17">[17]</a> Blood pressure varies over longer time periods (months to years) and this variability predicts adverse outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Blood pressure also changes in response to temperature, noise, emotional <a href="/wiki/Stress_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (medicine)">stress</a>, consumption of food or liquid, dietary factors, physical activity, changes in posture (such as <a href="/wiki/Orthostatic_hypotension" title="Orthostatic hypotension">standing-up</a>), <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">drugs</a>, and disease.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The variability in blood pressure and the better predictive value of ambulatory blood pressure measurements has led some authorities, such as the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) in the UK, to advocate for the use of ambulatory blood pressure as the preferred method for diagnosis of hypertension.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blutdruck.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Blutdruck.jpg/220px-Blutdruck.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Blutdruck.jpg/330px-Blutdruck.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Blutdruck.jpg/440px-Blutdruck.jpg 2x" data-file-width="527" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>A digital <a href="/wiki/Sphygmomanometer" title="Sphygmomanometer">sphygmomanometer</a> used for measuring blood pressure</figcaption></figure> Various other factors, such as age and <a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">sex</a>, also influence a person's blood pressure. Differences between left-arm and right-arm blood pressure measurements tend to be small. However, occasionally there is a consistent difference greater than 10 mmHg which may need further investigation, e.g. for <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_artery_disease" title="Peripheral artery disease">peripheral arterial disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">obstructive arterial disease</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aortic_dissection" title="Aortic dissection">aortic dissection</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> There is no accepted diagnostic standard for hypotension, although pressures less than 90/60 are commonly regarded as hypotensive.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> In practice blood pressure is considered too low only if <a href="/wiki/Hypotension#Signs_and_symptoms" title="Hypotension">symptoms</a> are present.<a href="#cite_note-Mayo2009causes-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Systemic_arterial_pressure_and_age">Systemic arterial pressure and age</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Systemic arterial pressure and age">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fetal_blood_pressure">Fetal blood pressure</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Fetal blood pressure">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Fetal_circulation#Blood_pressure" title="Fetal circulation">Fetal circulation § Blood pressure</a></div> In <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a>, it is the fetal heart and not the mother's heart that builds up the fetal blood pressure to drive blood through the fetal circulation. The blood pressure in the fetal aorta is approximately 30 mmHg at 20 weeks of gestation, and increases to approximately 45 mmHg at 40 weeks of gestation.<a href="#cite_note-Struijk-27">[27]</a> The average blood pressure for full-term infants:<a href="#cite_note-SharonSmithMurray-28">[28]</a> <ul><li>Systolic 65–95 mmHg</li> <li>Diastolic 30–60 mmHg</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Childhood">Childhood</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Childhood">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 15px; text-align: center;"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Reference_range" title="Reference range">Reference ranges</a> for blood pressure (BP) in children<a href="#cite_note-ucla-29">[29]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Stage </th> <th scope="col">Approximate age </th> <th scope="col">Systolic BP, mmHg </th> <th scope="col">Diastolic BP, mmHg </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Infants </th> <td>0–12 months</td> <td>75–100</td> <td>50–70 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Toddlers and preschoolers </th> <td>1–5 years</td> <td>80–110</td> <td>50–80 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">School age </th> <td>6–12 years</td> <td>85–120</td> <td>50–80 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Adolescents </th> <td>13–18 years</td> <td>95–140</td> <td>60–90 </td></tr></tbody></table> In children the normal ranges for blood pressure are lower than for adults and depend on height.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Reference blood pressure values have been developed for children in different countries, based on the distribution of blood pressure in children of these countries.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aging_adults">Aging adults</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Aging adults">edit</a>]</div> In adults in most societies, systolic blood pressure tends to rise from early adulthood onward, up to at least age 70;<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-33">[33]</a> diastolic pressure tends to begin to rise at the same time but start to fall earlier in mid-life, approximately age 55.<a href="#cite_note-:3-33">[33]</a> Mean blood pressure rises from early adulthood, plateauing in mid-life, while pulse pressure rises quite markedly after the age of 40. Consequently, in many older people, systolic blood pressure often exceeds the normal adult range,<a href="#cite_note-:3-33">[33]</a> if the diastolic pressure is in the normal range this is termed <a href="/wiki/Isolated_systolic_hypertension" class="mw-redirect" title="Isolated systolic hypertension">isolated systolic hypertension</a>. The rise in pulse pressure with age is attributed to increased <a href="/wiki/Arterial_stiffness" title="Arterial stiffness">stiffness of the arteries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> An age-related rise in blood pressure is not considered healthy and is not observed in some isolated unacculturated communities.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Systemic_venous_pressure">Systemic venous pressure</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Systemic venous pressure">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Site</th> <th>Normal pressure range (in <a href="/wiki/Millimeter_of_mercury" class="mw-redirect" title="Millimeter of mercury">mmHg</a>)<a href="#cite_note-WashingtonSurgery2008-36">[36]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_venous_pressure" title="Central venous pressure">Central venous pressure</a></td> <td>3–8 </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ventricular_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventricular pressure">Right ventricular pressure</a></td> <td>systolic</td> <td>15–30 </td></tr> <tr> <td>diastolic</td> <td>3–8 </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_artery" title="Pulmonary artery">Pulmonary artery pressure</a></td> <td>systolic</td> <td>15–30 </td></tr> <tr> <td>diastolic</td> <td>4–12 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Pulmonary vein/ <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_wedge_pressure" title="Pulmonary wedge pressure">Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure</a> </td> <td>2–15 </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ventricular_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventricular pressure">Left ventricular pressure</a></td> <td>systolic</td> <td>100–140 </td></tr> <tr> <td>diastolic</td> <td>3–12 </td></tr></tbody></table> Blood pressure generally refers to the arterial pressure in the <a href="/wiki/Systemic_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic circulation">systemic circulation</a>. However, measurement of pressures in the venous system and the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">pulmonary vessels</a> plays an important role in <a href="/wiki/Intensive_care_medicine" title="Intensive care medicine">intensive care medicine</a> but requires invasive measurement of pressure using a <a href="/wiki/Catheter" title="Catheter">catheter</a>. Venous pressure is the vascular pressure in a <a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">vein</a> or in the <a href="/wiki/Atrium_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atrium (anatomy)">atria of the heart</a>. It is much lower than arterial pressure, with common values of 5 mmHg in the <a href="/wiki/Right_atrium" class="mw-redirect" title="Right atrium">right atrium</a> and 8 mmHg in the left atrium. Variants of venous pressure include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_venous_pressure" title="Central venous pressure">Central venous pressure</a>, which is a good approximation of right atrial pressure,<a href="#cite_note-urlCentral_Venous_Catheter_Physiology-37">[37]</a> which is a major determinant of right ventricular end diastolic volume. (However, there can be exceptions in some cases.)<a href="#cite_note-pmid12533747-38">[38]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Jugular_venous_pressure" title="Jugular venous pressure">jugular venous pressure</a> (JVP) is the indirectly observed pressure over the venous system. It can be useful in the differentiation of different forms of <a href="/wiki/Heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart disease">heart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lung_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Lung disease">lung disease</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Portal_venous_pressure" title="Portal venous pressure">portal venous pressure</a> is the blood pressure in the <a href="/wiki/Portal_vein" title="Portal vein">portal vein</a>. It is normally 5–10 mmHg<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pulmonary_pressure">Pulmonary pressure</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Pulmonary pressure">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_artery_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary artery pressure">Pulmonary artery pressure</a></div> Normally, the pressure in the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_artery" title="Pulmonary artery">pulmonary artery</a> is about 15 mmHg at rest.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Increased blood pressure in the <a href="/wiki/Capillaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Capillaries">capillaries</a> of the lung causes <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_hypertension" title="Pulmonary hypertension">pulmonary hypertension</a>, leading to interstitial <a href="/wiki/Edema" title="Edema">edema</a> if the pressure increases to above 20 mmHg, and to <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_edema" title="Pulmonary edema">pulmonary edema</a> at pressures above 25 mmHg.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aortic_pressure">Aortic pressure</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Aortic pressure">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aortic_pressure" title="Aortic pressure">Aortic pressure</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Aortic_pressure" title="Aortic pressure">Aortic pressure</a>, also called central aortic blood pressure, or central blood pressure, is the blood pressure at the root of the <a href="/wiki/Aorta" title="Aorta">aorta</a>. Elevated aortic pressure has been found to be a more accurate predictor of both cardiovascular events and mortality, as well as structural changes in the heart, than has peripheral blood pressure (such as measured through the <a href="/wiki/Brachial_artery" title="Brachial artery">brachial artery</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Roman_Devereux_Kizer_Lee_2007_pp._197–203-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kesten_Qasem_Avolio_2022_pp._128–139-43">[43]</a> Traditionally it involved an invasive procedure to measure aortic pressure, but now there are non-invasive methods of measuring it indirectly without a significant margin of error.<a href="#cite_note-Avolio_2008_pp._1470–1471-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chen_Nevo_Fetics_Pak_1997_pp._1827–1836-45">[45]</a> Certain researchers have argued for physicians to begin using aortic pressure, as opposed to peripheral blood pressure, as a guide for clinical decisions.<a href="#cite_note-McEniery_Cockcroft_Roman_Franklin_2014_pp._1719–1725-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kesten_Qasem_Avolio_2022_pp._128–139-43">[43]</a> The way antihypertensive drugs impact peripheral blood pressure can often be very different from the way they impact central aortic pressure.<a href="#cite_note-The_CAFE_Investigators_CAFE_Steering_Committee_and_Writing_Committee_Williams_Lacy_2006_pp._1213–1225-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mean_systemic_pressure">Mean systemic pressure</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mean systemic pressure">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mean_systemic_pressure" title="Mean systemic pressure">Mean systemic pressure</a></div> If the heart is stopped, blood pressure falls, but it does not fall to zero. The remaining pressure measured after cessation of the heart beat and redistribution of blood throughout the circulation is termed the mean systemic pressure or mean circulatory filling pressure;<a href="#cite_note-:5-48">[48]</a> typically this is proximally ~7 mmHg.<a href="#cite_note-:5-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disorders_of_blood_pressure">Disorders of blood pressure</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Disorders of blood pressure">edit</a>]</div> Disorders of blood pressure control include <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">high blood pressure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypotension" title="Hypotension">low blood pressure</a>, and blood pressure that shows excessive or maladaptive fluctuation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High_blood_pressure">High blood pressure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: High blood pressure">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">Hypertension</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Main_complications_of_persistent_high_blood_pressure.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Main_complications_of_persistent_high_blood_pressure.svg/300px-Main_complications_of_persistent_high_blood_pressure.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Main_complications_of_persistent_high_blood_pressure.svg/450px-Main_complications_of_persistent_high_blood_pressure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Main_complications_of_persistent_high_blood_pressure.svg/600px-Main_complications_of_persistent_high_blood_pressure.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1164" data-file-height="1076" /></a><figcaption>Overview of main complications of persistent high blood pressure.<a href="#cite_note-aha23-49">[49]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Arterial_hypertension" class="mw-redirect" title="Arterial hypertension">Arterial hypertension</a> can be an indicator of other problems and may have long-term adverse effects. Sometimes it can be an acute problem, such as in a <a href="/wiki/Hypertensive_emergency" title="Hypertensive emergency">hypertensive emergency</a> when blood pressure is more than 180/120 mmHg.<a href="#cite_note-aha23-49">[49]</a> Levels of arterial pressure put mechanical stress on the arterial walls. Higher pressures increase heart workload and progression of unhealthy tissue growth (<a href="/wiki/Atheroma" title="Atheroma">atheroma</a>) that develops within the walls of arteries. The higher the pressure, the more stress that is present and the more atheroma tend to progress and the <a href="/wiki/Myocardium" class="mw-redirect" title="Myocardium">heart muscle</a> tends to thicken, enlarge and become weaker over time. Persistent <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a> is one of the risk factors for <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">strokes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myocardial_infarction" title="Myocardial infarction">heart attacks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">heart failure</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arterial_aneurysm" class="mw-redirect" title="Arterial aneurysm">arterial aneurysms</a>, and is the leading cause of <a href="/wiki/Chronic_kidney_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic kidney failure">chronic kidney failure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-aha23-49">[49]</a> Even moderate elevation of arterial pressure leads to shortened <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-aha23-49">[49]</a> At severely high pressures, mean arterial pressures 50% or more above average, a person can expect to live no more than a few years unless appropriately treated.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> For people with high blood pressure, higher <a href="/wiki/Heart_rate_variability" title="Heart rate variability">heart rate variability</a> (HRV) is a risk factor for <a href="/wiki/Atrial_fibrillation" title="Atrial fibrillation">atrial fibrillation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid35260686-51">[51]</a> Both high <a href="/wiki/Systole_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Systole (medicine)">systolic</a> pressure and high <a href="/wiki/Pulse_pressure" title="Pulse pressure">pulse pressure</a> (the numerical difference between systolic and diastolic pressures) are risk factors.<a href="#cite_note-aha23-49">[49]</a> Elevated pulse pressure has been found to be a stronger independent predictor of cardiovascular events, especially in older populations, than has systolic, diastolic, or mean arterial pressure.<a href="#cite_note-Cleveland_Clinic_2021-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_Izzo_Lacourcière_Ouellet_2002_pp._2955–2961-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Benetos_Safar_Rudnichi_Smulyan_1997_pp._1410–1415-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Franklin_Khan_Wong_Larson_1999_pp._354–360-55">[55]</a> In some cases, it appears that a decrease in excessive diastolic pressure can actually increase risk, probably due to the increased difference between systolic and diastolic pressures (ie. widened pulse pressure). If systolic blood pressure is elevated (>140 mmHg) with a normal diastolic blood pressure (<90 mmHg), it is called <a href="/wiki/Isolated_systolic_hypertension" class="mw-redirect" title="Isolated systolic hypertension">isolated systolic hypertension</a> and may present a health concern.<a href="#cite_note-aha23-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-urlIsolated_systolic_hypertension:_A_health_concern?_–_MayoClinic.com-56">[56]</a> According to the 2017<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> American Heart Association blood pressure guidelines state that a systolic blood pressure of 130–139 mmHg with a diastolic pressure of 80–89 mmHg is "stage one hypertension".<a href="#cite_note-aha23-49">[49]</a> For those with <a href="/wiki/Heart_valve" title="Heart valve">heart valve</a> regurgitation, a change in its severity may be associated with a change in diastolic pressure. In a study of people with heart valve regurgitation that compared measurements two weeks apart for each person, there was an increased severity of <a href="/wiki/Aortic_insufficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Aortic insufficiency">aortic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mitral_regurgitation" title="Mitral regurgitation">mitral regurgitation</a> when diastolic blood pressure increased, whereas when diastolic blood pressure decreased, there was a decreased severity.<a href="#cite_note-Gottdiener2002-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Low_blood_pressure">Low blood pressure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Low blood pressure">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hypotension" title="Hypotension">Hypotension</a></div> Blood pressure that is too low is known as <a href="/wiki/Hypotension" title="Hypotension">hypotension</a>. This is a medical concern if it causes signs or symptoms, such as dizziness, fainting, or in extreme cases in medical emergencies, <a href="/wiki/Shock_(circulatory)" title="Shock (circulatory)">circulatory shock</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NHLBI2008-59">[59]</a> Causes of low arterial pressure include <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">sepsis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypovolemia" title="Hypovolemia">hypovolemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bleeding" title="Bleeding">bleeding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardiogenic_shock" title="Cardiogenic shock">cardiogenic shock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reflex_syncope" title="Reflex syncope">reflex syncope</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormonal</a> abnormalities such as <a href="/wiki/Addison%27s_disease" title="Addison's disease">Addison's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eating_disorder" title="Eating disorder">eating disorders</a> – particularly <a href="/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa" title="Anorexia nervosa">anorexia nervosa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bulimia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulimia">bulimia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Orthostatic_hypotension">Orthostatic hypotension</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Orthostatic hypotension">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Orthostatic_hypotension" title="Orthostatic hypotension">Orthostatic hypotension</a></div> A large fall in blood pressure upon standing (typically a systolic/diastolic blood pressure decrease of >20/10 mmHg) is termed <a href="/wiki/Orthostatic_hypotension" title="Orthostatic hypotension">orthostatic hypotension</a> (postural hypotension) and represents a failure of the body to compensate for the effect of <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> on the circulation. Standing results in an increased <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatics" title="Hydrostatics">hydrostatic</a> pressure in the blood vessels of the lower limbs. The consequent distension of the veins below the <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">diaphragm</a> (venous pooling) causes ~500 ml of blood to be relocated from the chest and upper body. This results in a rapid decrease in central blood volume and a reduction of ventricular <a href="/wiki/Preload_(cardiology)" title="Preload (cardiology)">preload</a> which in turn reduces stroke volume, and mean arterial pressure. Normally this is compensated for by multiple mechanisms, including activation of the <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic nervous system</a> which increases <a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">heart rate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myocardial_contractility" title="Myocardial contractility">myocardial contractility</a> and systemic arterial <a href="/wiki/Vasoconstriction" title="Vasoconstriction">vasoconstriction</a> to preserve blood pressure and elicits <a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">venous</a> vasoconstriction to decrease venous <a href="/wiki/Compliance_(physiology)" title="Compliance (physiology)">compliance</a>. Decreased venous compliance also results from an intrinsic <a href="/wiki/Myogenic_mechanism" title="Myogenic mechanism">myogenic</a> increase in venous <a href="/wiki/Smooth_muscle" title="Smooth muscle">smooth muscle</a> tone in response to the elevated pressure in the veins of the lower body. Other compensatory mechanisms include the veno-arteriolar <a href="/wiki/Axon_reflex" title="Axon reflex">axon reflex</a>, the '<a href="/wiki/Skeletal-muscle_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeletal-muscle pump">skeletal muscle pump</a>' and '<a href="/wiki/Respiratory_pump" title="Respiratory pump">respiratory pump</a>'. Together these mechanisms normally stabilize blood pressure within a minute or less.<a href="#cite_note-:4-61">[61]</a> If these compensatory mechanisms fail and arterial pressure and blood <a href="/wiki/Rate_of_fluid_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Rate of fluid flow">flow</a> decrease beyond a certain point, the <a href="/wiki/Perfusion" title="Perfusion">perfusion</a> of the brain becomes critically compromised (i.e., the blood supply is not sufficient), causing <a href="/wiki/Lightheadedness" title="Lightheadedness">lightheadedness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dizziness" title="Dizziness">dizziness</a>, weakness or <a href="/wiki/Syncope_(medicine)" title="Syncope (medicine)">fainting</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Usually this failure of compensation is due to disease, or drugs that affect the <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic nervous system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-61">[61]</a> A similar effect is observed following the experience of excessive gravitational forces (G-loading), such as routinely experienced by aerobatic or combat pilots '<a href="/wiki/G-force" title="G-force">pulling Gs</a>' where the extreme hydrostatic pressures exceed the ability of the body's compensatory mechanisms. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variable_or_fluctuating_blood_pressure">Variable or fluctuating blood pressure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Variable or fluctuating blood pressure">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Labile_hypertension" title="Labile hypertension">Labile hypertension</a></div> Some fluctuation or variation in blood pressure is normal. Variation in blood pressure that is significantly greater than the norm is known as <a href="/wiki/Labile_hypertension" title="Labile hypertension">labile hypertension</a> and is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> brain small vessel disease,<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> and dementia<a href="#cite_note-:6-65">[65]</a> independent of the average blood pressure level. Recent evidence from <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">clinical trials</a> has also linked variation in blood pressure to mortality,<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> stroke,<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> heart failure,<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> and cardiac changes that may give rise to heart failure.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> These data have prompted discussion of whether excessive variation in blood pressure should be treated, even among normotensive older adults.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Older individuals and those who had received blood pressure medications are more likely to exhibit larger fluctuations in pressure,<a href="#cite_note-ncbi.nlm.nih.gov-72">[72]</a> and there is some evidence that different antihypertensive agents have different effects on blood pressure variability;<a href="#cite_note-:6-65">[65]</a> whether these differences translate to benefits in outcome is uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-:6-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physiology">Physiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Physiology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Systolevs_Diastole.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Systolevs_Diastole.png/220px-Systolevs_Diastole.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Systolevs_Diastole.png/330px-Systolevs_Diastole.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Systolevs_Diastole.png/440px-Systolevs_Diastole.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="889" /></a><figcaption>Cardiac systole and diastole</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VIM_LDH.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/VIM_LDH.jpg/220px-VIM_LDH.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/VIM_LDH.jpg/330px-VIM_LDH.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/VIM_LDH.jpg/440px-VIM_LDH.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1180" data-file-height="455" /></a><figcaption>Blood flow velocity waveforms in the central retinal artery (red) and vein (blue), measured by <a href="/wiki/Laser_Doppler_imaging" title="Laser Doppler imaging">laser Doppler imaging</a> in the eye fundus of a healthy volunteer.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Circulation_pressures_v1.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Circulation_pressures_v1.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Circulation_pressures_v1.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Circulation_pressures_v1.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Circulation_pressures_v1.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Circulation_pressures_v1.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Circulation_pressures_v1.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6320" data-file-height="3994" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of pressures in the circulation</figcaption></figure> During each heartbeat, blood pressure varies between a maximum (systolic) and a minimum (diastolic) pressure.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)">unreliable medical source</a>] The blood pressure in the circulation is principally due to the pumping action of the heart.<a href="#cite_note-Caro-74">[74]</a> However, blood pressure is also regulated by neural regulation from the brain (see <a href="/wiki/Hypertension_and_the_brain" title="Hypertension and the brain">Hypertension and the brain</a>), as well as osmotic regulation from the kidney. Differences in mean blood pressure drive the flow of blood around the circulation. The rate of mean blood flow depends on both blood pressure and the resistance to flow presented by the blood vessels. In the absence of <a href="/wiki/Fluid_statics" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluid statics">hydrostatic</a> effects (e.g. standing), mean blood pressure decreases as the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulating blood</a> moves away from the heart through arteries and <a href="/wiki/Capillaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Capillaries">capillaries</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscous</a> losses of energy. Mean blood pressure drops over the whole circulation, although most of the fall occurs along the small arteries and <a href="/wiki/Arterioles" class="mw-redirect" title="Arterioles">arterioles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Klabunde2005p93-4-75">[75]</a> Pulsatility also diminishes in the smaller elements of the arterial circulation, although some transmitted pulsatility is observed in capillaries.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Gravity affects blood pressure via hydrostatic forces (e.g., during standing), and valves in veins, <a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">breathing</a>, and pumping from contraction of skeletal muscles also influence blood pressure, particularly in veins.<a href="#cite_note-Caro-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hemodynamics">Hemodynamics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Hemodynamics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hemodynamics" title="Hemodynamics">Hemodynamics</a></div> A simple view of the <a href="/wiki/Hemodynamics" title="Hemodynamics">hemodynamics</a> of systemic arterial pressure is based around <a href="/wiki/Mean_arterial_pressure" title="Mean arterial pressure">mean arterial pressure</a> (MAP) and pulse pressure. Most influences on blood pressure can be understood in terms of their effect on <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_output" title="Cardiac output">cardiac output</a>,<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vascular_resistance" title="Vascular resistance">systemic vascular resistance</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Arterial_stiffness" title="Arterial stiffness">arterial stiffness</a> (the inverse of arterial compliance). Cardiac output is the product of stroke volume and heart rate. Stroke volume is influenced by 1) the <a href="/wiki/End-diastolic_volume" title="End-diastolic volume">end-diastolic volume</a> or filling pressure of the ventricle acting via the <a href="/wiki/Frank%E2%80%93Starling_law" title="Frank–Starling law">Frank–Starling mechanism</a>—this is influenced by <a href="/wiki/Blood_volume" title="Blood volume">blood volume</a>; 2) <a href="/wiki/Myocardial_contractility" title="Myocardial contractility">cardiac contractility</a>; and 3) <a href="/wiki/Afterload" title="Afterload">afterload</a>, the impedance to blood flow presented by the circulation.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> In the short-term, the greater the blood volume, the higher the cardiac output. This has been proposed as an explanation of the relationship between high dietary salt intake and increased blood pressure; however, responses to increased dietary sodium intake vary between individuals and are highly dependent on autonomic nervous system responses and the <a href="/wiki/Renin%E2%80%93angiotensin_system" title="Renin–angiotensin system">renin–angiotensin system</a>,<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> changes in <a href="/wiki/Plasma_osmolality" title="Plasma osmolality">plasma osmolarity</a> may also be important.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> In the longer-term the relationship between volume and blood pressure is more complex.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> In simple terms, systemic vascular resistance is mainly determined by the caliber of small arteries and arterioles. The resistance attributable to a blood vessel depends on its radius as described by the <a href="/wiki/Hagen%E2%80%93Poiseuille_equation" title="Hagen–Poiseuille equation">Hagen-Poiseuille's equation</a> (resistance∝1/radius4). Hence, the smaller the radius, the higher the resistance. Other physical factors that affect resistance include: vessel length (the longer the vessel, the higher the resistance), blood viscosity (the higher the viscosity, the higher the resistance)<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> and the number of vessels, particularly the smaller numerous, arterioles and capillaries. The presence of a severe arterial <a href="/wiki/Stenosis" title="Stenosis">stenosis</a> increases resistance to flow, however this increase in resistance rarely increases systemic blood pressure because its contribution to total systemic resistance is small, although it may profoundly decrease downstream flow.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Substances called <a href="/wiki/Vasoconstrictor" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasoconstrictor">vasoconstrictors</a> reduce the caliber of blood vessels, thereby increasing blood pressure. <a href="/wiki/Vasodilator" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasodilator">Vasodilators</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Nitroglycerin" title="Nitroglycerin">nitroglycerin</a>) increase the caliber of blood vessels, thereby decreasing arterial pressure. In the longer term a process termed remodeling also contributes to changing the caliber of small blood vessels and influencing resistance and reactivity to vasoactive agents.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Reductions in capillary density, termed capillary rarefaction, may also contribute to increased resistance in some circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> In practice, each individual's autonomic nervous system and other systems regulating blood pressure, notably the kidney,<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> respond to and regulate all these factors so that, although the above issues are important, they rarely act in isolation and the actual arterial pressure response of a given individual can vary widely in the short and long term. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pulse_pressure">Pulse pressure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Pulse pressure">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pulse_pressure" title="Pulse pressure">Pulse pressure</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arterial-blood-pressure-curve.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Arterial-blood-pressure-curve.svg/220px-Arterial-blood-pressure-curve.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Arterial-blood-pressure-curve.svg/330px-Arterial-blood-pressure-curve.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Arterial-blood-pressure-curve.svg/440px-Arterial-blood-pressure-curve.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="524" data-file-height="372" /></a><figcaption>A schematic representation of the arterial pressure waveform over one cardiac cycle. The notch in the curve is associated with closing of the aortic valve.</figcaption></figure> The pulse pressure is the difference between the measured systolic and diastolic pressures,<a href="#cite_note-KlabundePulse2007-90">[90]</a> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \!P_{\text{pulse}}=P_{\text{sys}}-P_{\text{dias}}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>pulse</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>sys</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>dias</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \!P_{\text{pulse}}=P_{\text{sys}}-P_{\text{dias}}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9489537a05d276b1566e42e2faa16420fcca2d29" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; margin-left: -0.387ex; width:20.427ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \!P_{\text{pulse}}=P_{\text{sys}}-P_{\text{dias}}.}"></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> The pulse pressure is a consequence of the pulsatile nature of the <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_output" title="Cardiac output">cardiac output</a>, i.e. the heartbeat. The magnitude of the pulse pressure is usually attributed to the interaction of the <a href="/wiki/Stroke_volume" title="Stroke volume">stroke volume</a> of the heart, the compliance (ability to expand) of the arterial system—largely attributable to the <a href="/wiki/Aorta" title="Aorta">aorta</a> and large elastic arteries—and the <a href="/wiki/Drag_(physics)" title="Drag (physics)">resistance</a> to flow in the <a href="/wiki/Arterial_tree" title="Arterial tree">arterial tree</a>.<a href="#cite_note-KlabundePulse2007-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Clinical_significance_of_pulse_pressure">Clinical significance of pulse pressure</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Clinical significance of pulse pressure">edit</a>]</div> A healthy pulse pressure is around 40 mmHg.<a href="#cite_note-Homan_Cichowski_2019-1">[1]</a> A pulse pressure that is consistently 60 mmHg or greater is likely to be associated with disease, and a pulse pressure of 50 mmHg or more increases the risk of <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular disease</a> as well as other complications such as eye and kidney disease.<a href="#cite_note-Cleveland_Clinic_2021-52">[52]</a> Pulse pressure is considered low if it is less than 25% of the systolic. (For example, if the systolic pressure is 120 mmHg, then the pulse pressure would be considered low if it is less than 30 mmHg, since 30 is 25% of 120.)<a href="#cite_note-pmid21848774-91">[91]</a> A very low pulse pressure can be a symptom of disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Congestive_heart_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Congestive heart failure">congestive heart failure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cleveland_Clinic_2021-52">[52]</a> Elevated pulse pressure has been found to be a stronger independent predictor of cardiovascular events, especially in older populations, than has systolic, diastolic, or mean arterial pressure.<a href="#cite_note-Cleveland_Clinic_2021-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_Izzo_Lacourcière_Ouellet_2002_pp._2955–2961-53">[53]</a> This increased risk exists for both men and women and even when no other cardiovascular risk factors are present. The increased risk also exists even in cases in which diastolic pressure decreases over time while systolic remains steady.<a href="#cite_note-Franklin_Khan_Wong_Larson_1999_pp._354–360-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Benetos_Safar_Rudnichi_Smulyan_1997_pp._1410–1415-54">[54]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a> in 2000 showed that a 10 mmHg increase in pulse pressure was associated with a 20% increased risk of cardiovascular mortality, and a 13% increase in risk for all coronary end points. The study authors also noted that, while risks of cardiovascular end points do increase with higher systolic pressures, at any given systolic blood pressure the risk of major cardiovascular end points increases, rather than decreases, with lower diastolic levels. This suggests that interventions that lower diastolic pressure without also lowering systolic pressure (and thus lowering pulse pressure) could actually be counterproductive.<a href="#cite_note-pulse_pressure_not_mean-92">[92]</a> There are no drugs currently approved to lower pulse pressure, although some antihypertensive drugs may modestly lower pulse pressure, while in some cases a drug that lowers overall blood pressure may actually have the counterproductive side effect of raising pulse pressure.<a href="#cite_note-cushman-93">[93]</a> Pulse pressure can both widen or narrow in people with <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">sepsis</a> depending on the degree of <a href="/wiki/Hemodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemodynamic">hemodynamic</a> compromise. A pulse pressure of over 70 mmHg in sepsis is correlated with an increased chance of survival and a more positive response to <a href="/wiki/Fluid_replacement#Intravenous" title="Fluid replacement">IV fluids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pedsepsis-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-widesepsis-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mean_arterial_pressure">Mean arterial pressure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Mean arterial pressure">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mean_arterial_pressure" title="Mean arterial pressure">Mean arterial pressure</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Mean_arterial_pressure" title="Mean arterial pressure">Mean arterial pressure</a> (MAP) is the average of blood pressure over a <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_cycle" title="Cardiac cycle">cardiac cycle</a> and is determined by the <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_output" title="Cardiac output">cardiac output</a> (CO), <a href="/wiki/Systemic_vascular_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic vascular resistance">systemic vascular resistance</a> (SVR), and <a href="/wiki/Central_venous_pressure" title="Central venous pressure">central venous pressure</a> (CVP):<a href="#cite_note-Mayet_Hughes_2003_pp._1104–9-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Granger_Hall_2007_pp._241–263-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-KlabundeMAP2007-97">[97]</a> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \!{\text{MAP}}=({\text{CO}}\cdot {\text{SVR}})+{\text{CVP}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>MAP</mtext> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>CO</mtext> </mrow> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>SVR</mtext> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>CVP</mtext> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \!{\text{MAP}}=({\text{CO}}\cdot {\text{SVR}})+{\text{CVP}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/16565d8751f0db777f99d699fbf5d994d4decd7b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-left: -0.387ex; width:28.121ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \!{\text{MAP}}=({\text{CO}}\cdot {\text{SVR}})+{\text{CVP}}}"></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> In practice, the contribution of CVP (which is small) is generally ignored and so <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \!{\text{MAP}}={\text{CO}}\cdot {\text{SVR}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>MAP</mtext> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>CO</mtext> </mrow> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>SVR</mtext> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \!{\text{MAP}}={\text{CO}}\cdot {\text{SVR}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/add5174bc375b890451802144dcae3ef6d4b0e04" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; margin-left: -0.387ex; width:18.467ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \!{\text{MAP}}={\text{CO}}\cdot {\text{SVR}}}"></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> MAP is often estimated from measurements of the systolic pressure, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \!P_{\text{sys}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>sys</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \!P_{\text{sys}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c1294790011b9c91b6e422860c8eb313e7e8b105" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; margin-left: -0.387ex; width:3.888ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \!P_{\text{sys}}}"> and the diastolic pressure, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \!P_{\text{dias}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>dias</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \!P_{\text{dias}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c0545951b211027c6ef44c0c96129625bb7e0bd6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.387ex; width:4.566ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \!P_{\text{dias}}}"> <a href="#cite_note-KlabundeMAP2007-97">[97]</a> using the equation: <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \!{\text{MAP}}\approxeq P_{\text{dias}}+k(P_{\text{sys}}-P_{\text{dias}})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>MAP</mtext> </mrow> <mo>≊</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>dias</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>sys</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>dias</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \!{\text{MAP}}\approxeq P_{\text{dias}}+k(P_{\text{sys}}-P_{\text{dias}})}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1df9d6b132b73daa05c4e3adca3989a5a173503a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; margin-left: -0.387ex; width:30.276ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \!{\text{MAP}}\approxeq P_{\text{dias}}+k(P_{\text{sys}}-P_{\text{dias}})}"> where k = 0.333 although other values for k have been advocated.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulation_of_blood_pressure">Regulation of blood pressure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Regulation of blood pressure">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Renin%E2%80%93angiotensin_system" title="Renin–angiotensin system">Renin–angiotensin system</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Endogenous" class="mw-redirect" title="Endogenous">endogenous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostatic</a> regulation of arterial pressure is not completely understood, but the following mechanisms of regulating arterial pressure have been well-characterized: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baroreceptor_reflex" class="mw-redirect" title="Baroreceptor reflex">Baroreceptor reflex</a>: <a href="/wiki/Baroreceptor" title="Baroreceptor">Baroreceptors</a> in the <a href="/wiki/High_pressure_receptor_zones" class="mw-redirect" title="High pressure receptor zones">high pressure receptor zones</a> detect changes in arterial pressure. These baroreceptors send signals ultimately to the <a href="/wiki/Medulla_oblongata" title="Medulla oblongata">medulla of the brain stem</a>, specifically to the <a href="/wiki/Rostral_ventrolateral_medulla" title="Rostral ventrolateral medulla">rostral ventrolateral medulla</a> (RVLM). The medulla, by way of the <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic nervous system</a>, adjusts the mean arterial pressure by altering both the force and speed of the heart's contractions, as well as the systemic vascular resistance. The most important arterial baroreceptors are located in the left and right <a href="/wiki/Carotid_sinus" title="Carotid sinus">carotid sinuses</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Aortic_arch" title="Aortic arch">aortic arch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-KlabundeArtBar2007-100">[100]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renin%E2%80%93angiotensin_system" title="Renin–angiotensin system">Renin–angiotensin system</a> (RAS): This system is generally known for its long-term adjustment of arterial pressure. This system allows the <a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">kidney</a> to compensate for loss in <a href="/wiki/Blood_volume" title="Blood volume">blood volume</a> or drops in arterial pressure by activating an endogenous <a href="/wiki/Vasoconstrictor" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasoconstrictor">vasoconstrictor</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Angiotensin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiotensin II">angiotensin II</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldosterone" title="Aldosterone">Aldosterone</a> release: This <a href="/wiki/Steroid_hormone" title="Steroid hormone">steroid hormone</a> is released from the <a href="/wiki/Adrenal_cortex" title="Adrenal cortex">adrenal cortex</a> in response to activation of the renin-angiotensin system, high serum <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a> levels, or elevated <a href="/wiki/Adrenocorticotropic_hormone" title="Adrenocorticotropic hormone">adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)</a>. Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I, which is converted by <a href="/wiki/Angiotensin-converting_enzyme" title="Angiotensin-converting enzyme">angiotensin converting enzyme</a> to angiotensin II. Angiotensin II then signals to the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Aldosterone stimulates <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> retention and potassium excretion by the kidneys and the consequent salt and water retention increases plasma volume, and indirectly, arterial pressure. Aldosterone may also exert direct pressor effects on vascular smooth muscle and central effects on sympathetic nervous system activity.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroreceptor" title="Baroreceptor">Baroreceptors</a> in <a href="/wiki/Low_pressure_receptor_zones" class="mw-redirect" title="Low pressure receptor zones">low pressure receptor zones</a> (mainly in the <a href="/wiki/Venae_cavae" title="Venae cavae">venae cavae</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_veins" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary veins">pulmonary veins</a>, and in the <a href="/wiki/Atrium_(heart)" title="Atrium (heart)">atria</a>) result in feedback by regulating the secretion of <a href="/wiki/Antidiuretic_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Antidiuretic hormone">antidiuretic hormone</a> (ADH/vasopressin), <a href="/wiki/Renin" title="Renin">renin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aldosterone" title="Aldosterone">aldosterone</a>. The resultant increase in <a href="/wiki/Blood_volume" title="Blood volume">blood volume</a> results in an increased <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_output" title="Cardiac output">cardiac output</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Frank%E2%80%93Starling_law_of_the_heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank–Starling law of the heart">Frank–Starling law of the heart</a>, in turn increasing arterial blood pressure.</li></ul> These different mechanisms are not necessarily independent of each other, as indicated by the link between the RAS and aldosterone release. When blood pressure falls many physiological cascades commence in order to return the blood pressure to a more appropriate level. <ol><li>The blood pressure fall is detected by a decrease in blood flow and thus a decrease in <a href="/wiki/Glomerular_filtration_rate" title="Glomerular filtration rate">glomerular filtration rate</a> (GFR).</li> <li>Decrease in GFR is sensed as a decrease in Na+ levels by the <a href="/wiki/Macula_densa" title="Macula densa">macula densa</a>.</li> <li>The macula densa causes an increase in Na+ reabsorption, which causes water to follow in via <a href="/wiki/Osmosis" title="Osmosis">osmosis</a> and leads to an ultimate increase in <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">plasma</a> volume. Further, the macula densa releases adenosine which causes constriction of the afferent arterioles.</li> <li>At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Juxtaglomerular_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Juxtaglomerular cells">juxtaglomerular cells</a> sense the decrease in blood pressure and release <a href="/wiki/Renin" title="Renin">renin</a>.</li> <li>Renin converts <a href="/wiki/Angiotensinogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiotensinogen">angiotensinogen</a> (inactive form) to <a href="/wiki/Angiotensin_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiotensin I">angiotensin I</a> (active form).</li> <li>Angiotensin I flows in the bloodstream until it reaches the capillaries of the lungs where <a href="/wiki/Angiotensin-converting_enzyme" title="Angiotensin-converting enzyme">angiotensin-converting enzyme</a> (ACE) acts on it to convert it into <a href="/wiki/Angiotensin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiotensin II">angiotensin II</a>.</li> <li>Angiotensin II is a vasoconstrictor that will increase blood flow to the heart and subsequently the preload, ultimately increasing the <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_output" title="Cardiac output">cardiac output</a>.</li> <li>Angiotensin II also causes an increase in the release of <a href="/wiki/Aldosterone" title="Aldosterone">aldosterone</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">adrenal glands</a>.</li> <li>Aldosterone further increases the Na+ and H2O reabsorption in the <a href="/wiki/Distal_convoluted_tubule" title="Distal convoluted tubule">distal convoluted tubule</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nephron" title="Nephron">nephron</a>.</li></ol> The RAS is targeted pharmacologically by <a href="/wiki/ACE_inhibitor" title="ACE inhibitor">ACE inhibitors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angiotensin_II_receptor_antagonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiotensin II receptor antagonist">angiotensin II receptor antagonists</a> (also known as angiotensin receptor blockers; ARB). The aldosterone system is directly targeted by <a href="/wiki/Aldosterone_antagonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Aldosterone antagonist">aldosterone antagonists</a>. The fluid retention may be targeted by <a href="/wiki/Diuretic" title="Diuretic">diuretics</a>; the antihypertensive effect of diuretics is due to its effect on blood volume. Generally, the baroreceptor reflex is not targeted in <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a> because if blocked, individuals may experience <a href="/wiki/Orthostatic_hypotension" title="Orthostatic hypotension">orthostatic hypotension</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fainting" class="mw-redirect" title="Fainting">fainting</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement">Measurement</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Measurement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure_measurement" title="Blood pressure measurement">Blood pressure measurement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blood_Pressure_-_Take_Another_Person.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Blood_Pressure_-_Take_Another_Person.png/220px-Blood_Pressure_-_Take_Another_Person.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Blood_Pressure_-_Take_Another_Person.png/330px-Blood_Pressure_-_Take_Another_Person.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Blood_Pressure_-_Take_Another_Person.png/440px-Blood_Pressure_-_Take_Another_Person.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Taking blood pressure with a sphygmomanometer</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blood_pressure_measurement_principle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Blood_pressure_measurement_principle.svg/220px-Blood_pressure_measurement_principle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Blood_pressure_measurement_principle.svg/330px-Blood_pressure_measurement_principle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Blood_pressure_measurement_principle.svg/440px-Blood_pressure_measurement_principle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>Measuring systolic and diastolic blood pressure using a mercury sphygmomanometer</figcaption></figure> Arterial pressure is most commonly measured via a <a href="/wiki/Sphygmomanometer" title="Sphygmomanometer">sphygmomanometer</a>, which uses the height of a column of mercury, or an <a href="/wiki/Aneroid_gauge" class="mw-redirect" title="Aneroid gauge">aneroid gauge</a>, to reflect the blood pressure by auscultation.<a href="#cite_note-Booth1977-4">[4]</a> The most common automated blood pressure measurement technique is based on the <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure_measurement#Oscillometric" title="Blood pressure measurement">oscillometric</a> method.<a href="#cite_note-For2015-103">[103]</a> Fully automated oscillometric measurement has been available since 1981.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> This principle has recently been used to measure blood pressure with a smartphone.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Measuring pressure <a href="/wiki/Invasive_blood_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasive blood pressure">invasively</a>, by penetrating the arterial wall to take the measurement, is much less common and usually restricted to a hospital setting. Novel methods to measure blood pressure without penetrating the arterial wall, and without applying any pressure on patient's body are being explored,<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> for example, cuffless measurements that uses only optical sensors.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> In office blood pressure measurement, <a href="/wiki/Terminal_digit_preference" title="Terminal digit preference">terminal digit preference</a> is common. According to one study, approximately 40% of recorded measurements ended with the digit zero, whereas "without bias, 10%–20% of measurements are expected to end in zero"<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_animals">In animals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: In animals">edit</a>]</div> Blood pressure levels in non-human mammals may vary depending on the species. Heart rate differs markedly, largely depending on the size of the animal (larger animals have slower heart rates).<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> The giraffe has a distinctly high arterial pressure of about 190 mm Hg, enabling blood perfusion through the 2 metres (6 ft 7 in)-long neck to the head.<a href="#cite_note-brondum-110">[110]</a> In other species subjected to orthostatic blood pressure, such as <a href="/wiki/Arboreal_locomotion" title="Arboreal locomotion">arboreal</a> snakes, blood pressure is higher than in non-arboreal snakes.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> A heart near to the head (short heart-to-head distance) and a long tail with tight <a href="/wiki/Integument" title="Integument">integument</a> favor blood perfusion to the head.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-seymour-113">[113]</a> As in humans, blood pressure in animals differs by age, sex, time of day, and environmental circumstances:<a href="#cite_note-:1-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-115">[115]</a> measurements made in laboratories or under anesthesia may not be representative of values under free-living conditions. Rats, mice, dogs and rabbits have been used extensively to study the regulation of blood pressure.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Blood pressure and heart rate of various mammals<a href="#cite_note-:1-114">[114]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Species </th> <th colspan="2">Blood pressure mm Hg </th> <th rowspan="2">Heart rate beats per minute </th></tr> <tr> <th>Systolic </th> <th>Diastolic </th></tr> <tr> <td>Calves </td> <td>140 </td> <td>70 </td> <td>75–146 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cats </td> <td>155 </td> <td>68 </td> <td>100–259 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dogs </td> <td>161 </td> <td>51 </td> <td>62–170 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Goats </td> <td>140 </td> <td>90 </td> <td>80–120 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Guinea-pigs </td> <td>140 </td> <td>90 </td> <td>240–300 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mice </td> <td>120 </td> <td>75 </td> <td>580–680 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pigs </td> <td>169 </td> <td>55 </td> <td>74–116 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rabbits </td> <td>118 </td> <td>67 </td> <td>205–306 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rats </td> <td>153 </td> <td>51 </td> <td>305–500 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rhesus monkeys </td> <td>160 </td> <td>125 </td> <td>180–210 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sheep </td> <td>140 </td> <td>80 </td> <td>63–210 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hypertension_in_cats_and_dogs">Hypertension in cats and dogs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Hypertension in cats and dogs">edit</a>]</div> Hypertension in cats and dogs is generally diagnosed if the blood pressure is greater than 150 mm Hg (systolic),<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> although <a href="/wiki/Sighthound" title="Sighthound">sight hounds</a> have higher blood pressures than most other dog breeds; a systolic pressure greater than 180 mmHg is considered abnormal in these dogs.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_hypertension" title="History of hypertension">History of hypertension</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_pressure&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Homan_Cichowski_2019-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Homan_Cichowski_2019_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Homan_Cichowski_2019_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHomanBordesCichowski2022" class="citation book cs1">Homan TD, Bordes SJ, Cichowski E (12 July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482408/">"Physiology, Pulse Pressure"</a>. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Veterinary+Internal+Medicine&rft.atitle=ACVIM+consensus+statement%3A+Guidelines+for+the+identification%2C+evaluation%2C+and+management+of+systemic+hypertension+in+dogs+and+cats&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1803-%3C%2Fspan%3E1822&rft.date=2018-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6271319%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30353952&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fjvim.15331&rft.aulast=Acierno&rft.aufirst=MJ&rft.au=Brown%2C+S&rft.au=Coleman%2C+AE&rft.au=Jepson%2C+RE&rft.au=Papich%2C+M&rft.au=Stepien%2C+RL&rft.au=Syme%2C+HM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6271319&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlood+pressure" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cardiovascular_physiology" title="Template:Cardiovascular physiology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cardiovascular_physiology" title="Template talk:Cardiovascular physiology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cardiovascular_physiology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cardiovascular physiology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physiology_of_the_cardiovascular_system139" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_physiology" title="Cardiovascular physiology">Physiology of the cardiovascular system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">Heart</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_output" title="Cardiac output">Cardiac output</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_cycle" title="Cardiac cycle">Cardiac cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_output" title="Cardiac output">Cardiac output</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">Heart rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_volume" title="Stroke volume">Stroke volume</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_volume" title="Stroke volume">Stroke volume</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/End-diastolic_volume" title="End-diastolic volume">End-diastolic volume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End-systolic_volume" title="End-systolic volume">End-systolic volume</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afterload" title="Afterload">Afterload</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preload_(cardiology)" title="Preload (cardiology)">Preload</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank%E2%80%93Starling_law" title="Frank–Starling law">Frank–Starling law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_function_curve" title="Cardiac function curve">Cardiac function curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venous_return_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="Venous return curve">Venous return curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiggers_diagram" title="Wiggers diagram">Wiggers diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_volume_diagram" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure volume diagram">Pressure volume diagram</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Echocardiography" title="Echocardiography">Ultrasound</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventricle_(heart)#Dimensions" title="Ventricle (heart)">Fractional shortening</a> = (<a href="/wiki/End-diastolic_dimension" class="mw-redirect" title="End-diastolic dimension">End-diastolic dimension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End-systolic_dimension" class="mw-redirect" title="End-systolic dimension">End-systolic dimension</a>) / End-diastolic dimension</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aortic_valve_area_calculation" title="Aortic valve area calculation">Aortic valve area calculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejection_fraction" title="Ejection fraction">Ejection fraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_index" title="Cardiac index">Cardiac index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left_atrial_volume" title="Left atrial volume">Left atrial volume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">Heart rate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_pacemaker" title="Cardiac pacemaker">Cardiac pacemaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronotropic" title="Chronotropic">Chronotropic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">Heart rate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dromotropic" title="Dromotropic">Dromotropic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nerve_conduction_velocity" title="Nerve conduction velocity">Conduction velocity</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inotrope" title="Inotrope">Inotropic</a> (Contractility)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathmotropic" title="Bathmotropic">Bathmotropic</a> (Excitability)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusitropy" title="Lusitropy">Lusitropic</a> (Relaxation)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conduction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_conduction_system_of_the_heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conduction system of the heart">Conduction system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_electrophysiology" title="Cardiac electrophysiology">Cardiac electrophysiology</a></li> <li>Action potential <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_action_potential" title="Cardiac action potential">cardiac </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atrial_action_potential" title="Atrial action potential">atrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventricular_action_potential" title="Ventricular action potential">ventricular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_refractory_period" title="Effective refractory period">Effective refractory period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacemaker_potential" title="Pacemaker potential">Pacemaker potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrocardiography" title="Electrocardiography">Electrocardiography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P_wave_(electrocardiography)" title="P wave (electrocardiography)">P wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PR_interval" title="PR interval">PR interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QRS_complex" title="QRS complex">QRS complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QT_interval" title="QT interval">QT interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ST_segment" title="ST segment">ST segment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_wave" title="T wave">T wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U_wave" title="U wave">U wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexaxial_reference_system" title="Hexaxial reference system">Hexaxial reference system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chamber pressure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_venous_pressure" title="Central venous pressure">Central venous</a></li> <li>Right <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_atrial_pressure" title="Right atrial pressure">atrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_ventricular_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Right ventricular pressure">ventricular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_artery_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary artery pressure">pulmonary artery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_wedge_pressure" title="Pulmonary wedge pressure">wedge</a></li></ul></li> <li>Left <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_wedge_pressure" title="Pulmonary wedge pressure">atrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left_ventricular_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Left ventricular pressure">ventricular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aortic_pressure" title="Aortic pressure">Aortic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventricular_remodeling" title="Ventricular remodeling">Ventricular remodeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Vascular system</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Hemodynamics" title="Hemodynamics">hemodynamics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hemodynamics" title="Hemodynamics">Blood flow</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compliance_(physiology)" title="Compliance (physiology)">Compliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_resistance" title="Vascular resistance">Vascular resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse" title="Pulse">Pulse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfusion" title="Perfusion">Perfusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Blood pressure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_pressure" title="Pulse pressure">Pulse pressure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systole" title="Systole">Systolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diastole" title="Diastole">Diastolic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mean_arterial_pressure" title="Mean arterial pressure">Mean arterial pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jugular_venous_pressure" title="Jugular venous pressure">Jugular venous pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal_venous_pressure" title="Portal venous pressure">Portal venous pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_closing_pressure" title="Critical closing pressure">Critical closing pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_physiology#Regulation_of_blood_pressure" title="Cardiovascular physiology">Regulation of BP</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baroreflex" title="Baroreflex">Baroreflex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinin%E2%80%93kallikrein_system" title="Kinin–kallikrein system">Kinin–kallikrein system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renin%E2%80%93angiotensin_system" title="Renin–angiotensin system">Renin–angiotensin system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasoconstriction" title="Vasoconstriction">Vasoconstrictors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasodilation" title="Vasodilation">Vasodilators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoregulation" title="Autoregulation">Autoregulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myogenic_mechanism" title="Myogenic mechanism">Myogenic mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubuloglomerular_feedback" title="Tubuloglomerular feedback">Tubuloglomerular feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_autoregulation" title="Cerebral autoregulation">Cerebral autoregulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraganglion" title="Paraganglion">Paraganglia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aortic_body" title="Aortic body">Aortic body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carotid_body" title="Carotid body">Carotid body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glomus_cell" title="Glomus cell">Glomus cell</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link 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