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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Main_areas_of_midwifery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Main_areas_of_midwifery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Main areas of midwifery</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Main_areas_of_midwifery-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Main areas of midwifery subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Main_areas_of_midwifery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pregnancy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pregnancy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Pregnancy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pregnancy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_trimester" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_trimester"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>First trimester</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_trimester-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_trimester" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_trimester"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Second trimester</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_trimester-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_trimester" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_trimester"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Third trimester</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_trimester-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Childbirth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Childbirth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Childbirth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Childbirth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Labor_and_delivery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labor_and_delivery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Labor and delivery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labor_and_delivery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Birthing_positions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birthing_positions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Birthing positions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birthing_positions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postpartum_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postpartum_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Postpartum period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postpartum_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Care_of_the_newborn" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Care_of_the_newborn"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Care of the newborn</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Care_of_the_newborn-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Midwifery-led_continuity_of_care" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Midwifery-led_continuity_of_care"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Midwifery-led continuity of care</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Midwifery-led_continuity_of_care-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Ancient history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-classical_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-classical_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Post-classical history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-classical_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Modern history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Contemporary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Contemporary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Midwifery</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9" title="قبالة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قبالة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%88%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Акушэрства – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Акушэрства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%88%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Акушэрства – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Акушэрства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Акушерство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Акушерство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porodn%C3%AD_asistence" title="Porodní asistence – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Porodní asistence" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bydwreigiaeth" title="Bydwreigiaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Bydwreigiaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordemoderkundskab" title="Jordemoderkundskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jordemoderkundskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geburtshilfe" title="Geburtshilfe – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geburtshilfe" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emadushooldus" title="Emadushooldus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Emadushooldus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Μαιευτική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μαιευτική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetricia_(matroner%C3%ADa)" title="Obstetricia (matronería) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Obstetricia (matronería)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="مامایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مامایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C3%AFeutique" title="Maïeutique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Maïeutique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cn%C3%A1imhseachas" title="Cnáimhseachas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cnáimhseachas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B1%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մանկաբարձություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մանկաբարձություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="प्रसूतिविद्या – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रसूतिविद्या" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kebidanan" title="Kebidanan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kebidanan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lj%C3%B3sm%C3%B3%C3%B0urfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Ljósmóðurfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ljósmóðurfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%BA%D3%A9%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Акушерлік көмек – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Акушерлік көмек" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetricia" title="Obstetricia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Obstetricia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nganga-bob%C3%B3tisi" title="Nganga-bobótisi – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Nganga-bobótisi" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%BCl%C3%A9szet" title="Szülészet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szülészet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%AB%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF" title="മിഡ്‌വൈഫറി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മിഡ്‌വൈഫറി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verloskunde" title="Verloskunde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Verloskunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%A3%E0%A8%BE" title="ਦਾਈਪੁਣਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਦਾਈਪੁਣਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D9%8F%DD%A8%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="دائی پُݨاں – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="دائی پُݨاں" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po%C5%82o%C5%BCnictwo" title="Położnictwo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Położnictwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Акушерство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Акушерство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babi%C5%A1tvo" title="Babištvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Babištvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="پیرکی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پیرکی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Акушерство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Акушерство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangungumadrona" title="Pangungumadrona – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Pregnancy and childbirth-related profession</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical specialty</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title" style="padding-bottom:0.25em;">Midwifery</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Midwife_home_appointment.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Midwife_home_appointment.jpg/230px-Midwife_home_appointment.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Midwife_home_appointment.jpg/345px-Midwife_home_appointment.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Midwife_home_appointment.jpg/460px-Midwife_home_appointment.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding-top:0.25em;padding-bottom:0.4em;">A pregnancy check-up by a <a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">midwife</a> in a birth center</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.185em;line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.5em;">Focus</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist nowrap"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">Childbirth</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum" class="mw-redirect" title="Postpartum">Postpartum</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Newborn" class="mw-redirect" title="Newborn">Newborn care</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health">Women's health</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive health">Reproductive health</a></li></ul></div></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.185em;line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.5em;">Specialist</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">Midwife</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Midwifery</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Health_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Health science">health science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Health_profession" class="mw-redirect" title="Health profession">health profession</a> that deals with <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_period" title="Postpartum period">postpartum period</a> (including care of the <a href="/wiki/Newborn" class="mw-redirect" title="Newborn">newborn</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in addition to the sexual and reproductive health of women throughout their lives.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many countries, midwifery is a medical profession<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (special for its independent and direct specialized education; should not be confused with the medical specialty, which depends on a previous general training). A professional in midwifery is known as a <a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">midwife</a>. </p><p>A 2013 <a href="/wiki/Cochrane_review" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochrane review">Cochrane review</a> concluded that "most women should be offered midwifery-led continuity models of care and women should be encouraged to ask for this option although caution should be exercised in applying this advice to women with substantial medical or obstetric complications."<sup id="cite_ref-Sandall2013_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sandall2013-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The review found that midwifery-led care was associated with a reduction in the use of <a href="/wiki/Epidurals" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidurals">epidurals</a>, with fewer <a href="/wiki/Episiotomies" class="mw-redirect" title="Episiotomies">episiotomies</a> or instrumental births, and a decreased risk of losing the baby before 24 weeks' gestation. However, midwifery-led care was also associated with a longer mean length of labor as measured in hours.<sup id="cite_ref-Sandall2013_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sandall2013-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Main_areas_of_midwifery">Main areas of midwifery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Main areas of midwifery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pregnancy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care" title="Prenatal care">Prenatal care</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_trimester">First trimester</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: First trimester"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trimester means "three months". A normal pregnancy lasts about nine months and has three trimesters.<sup id="cite_ref-MedlinePlus_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MedlinePlus-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>First trimester screening varies by country. Women are typically offered <a href="/wiki/Urinalysis" title="Urinalysis">urinalysis</a> (UA) and blood tests including a <a href="/wiki/Complete_blood_count" title="Complete blood count">complete blood count</a> (CBC), <a href="/wiki/Blood_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood group">blood typing</a> (including Rh screen), <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis" title="Hepatitis">hepatitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rubella" title="Rubella">rubella</a> testing.<sup id="cite_ref-MedlinePlus_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MedlinePlus-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, women may have <a href="/wiki/Chlamydia_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlamydia infection">chlamydia</a> testing via a urine sample, and women considered at high risk are screened for <a href="/wiki/Sickle_cell_disease" title="Sickle cell disease">sickle cell disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thalassemia" title="Thalassemia">thalassemia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MedlinePlus_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MedlinePlus-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women must consent to all tests before they are carried out. The woman's <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a>, height and weight are measured. Her past pregnancies and family, social, and medical history are discussed. Women may have an <a href="/wiki/Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasound</a> scan during the first trimester which may be used to help find the <a href="/wiki/Estimated_date_of_confinement" class="mw-redirect" title="Estimated date of confinement">estimated due date</a>. Some women may have <a href="/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">genetic testing</a>, such as screening for <a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a>. Diet, exercise, and common disorders of pregnancy such as <a href="/wiki/Morning_sickness" title="Morning sickness">morning sickness</a> are discussed.<sup id="cite_ref-MedlinePlus_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MedlinePlus-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pregnancy_trimesters.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Pregnancy_trimesters.jpg/220px-Pregnancy_trimesters.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Pregnancy_trimesters.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="354" /></a><figcaption>This image shows the progression of pregnancy over the three trimesters.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Second_trimester">Second trimester</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Second trimester"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The mother visits the <a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">midwife</a> monthly or more often during the second trimester. The mother's partner and/or the birth companion may accompany her. The midwife will discuss pregnancy issues such as fatigue, heartburn, varicose veins, and other common problems such as back pain. Blood pressure and weight are monitored and the midwife measures the mother's abdomen to see if the baby is growing as expected. Lab tests such as a UA, CBC, and <a href="/wiki/Glucose_tolerance_test" title="Glucose tolerance test">glucose tolerance test</a> are done if clinically indicated.<sup id="cite_ref-MedlinePlus2_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MedlinePlus2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Third_trimester">Third trimester</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Third trimester"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the third trimester the midwife will see the mother every two weeks until week 36 and every week after that. Weight, blood pressure, and abdominal measurements will continue to be done. Lab tests such as a CBC and UA may be done with additional testing done for at-risk pregnancies. The midwife palpates the woman's abdomen to establish the lie, presentation and position of the fetus and later, the engagement. A pelvic exam may be done to see if the mother's cervix is dilating.<sup id="cite_ref-MedlinePlus3_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MedlinePlus3-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The midwife and the mother discuss birthing options and write a birth care plan.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Childbirth">Childbirth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Childbirth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Labor_and_delivery">Labor and delivery</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Labor and delivery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cephalicpre.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Cephalicpre.JPG/220px-Cephalicpre.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="385" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Cephalicpre.JPG/330px-Cephalicpre.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Cephalicpre.JPG 2x" data-file-width="342" data-file-height="598" /></a><figcaption>An illustration of normal head-first presentation. The membranes have ruptured and the cervix is fully dilated.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geburt_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Geburt_01.jpg/220px-Geburt_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Geburt_01.jpg/330px-Geburt_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Geburt_01.jpg/440px-Geburt_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="637" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Newborn rests as caregiver checks breath sounds.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">Childbirth</a></div> <p>Midwives are qualified to assist with a normal vaginal delivery while more complicated deliveries are handled by a health care provider who has had further training. Childbirth is divided into four stages. </p> <dl><dd><b>First stage of labor</b> The first stage of labour involves the opening of the cervix.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early parts of this stage the cervix will become soft and thin thus preparing for the delivery of the baby.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first stage of labour is complete when the cervix has dilated the full 10cm.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the first stage of labor the mother begins to feel strong and regular contractions that come every 5 to 20 minutes and last 30 to 60 seconds. Contractions gradually become stronger, more frequent, and longer lasting.</dd></dl> <dl><dd><b>Second stage of labor</b> During the second stage the baby begins to move down the birth canal. As the baby moves to the opening of the vagina it "crowns", meaning the top of the head can be seen at the vaginal entrance. At one time an "episiotomy", (an incision in the tissue at the opening of the vagina) was done routinely because it was believed that it prevented excessive tearing and healed more readily than a natural tear.<sup id="cite_ref-Mayo_Clinic_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mayo_Clinic-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, more recent research shows that a surgical incision may be more extensive than a natural tear, and is more likely to contribute to later incontinence and pain during sex than a natural tear would have.<sup id="cite_ref-Mayo_Clinic_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mayo_Clinic-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dd>The midwife assists the baby as needed and when fully emerged, cuts the umbilical cord. If desired, either of the baby's parents may cut the cord. In the past the cord was cut shortly after birth, but there is growing evidence that delayed cord clamping may benefit the infant.<sup id="cite_ref-MedlinePlus4_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MedlinePlus4-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dd><b>Third stage of labor</b> The third stage of labour is where the mother must deliver the <a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">placenta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order for the mother to do this they may need to push. Just like the contractions in the first stage of labour they may experience one or two of these.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The midwife may assist the mother in delivering the placenta by gently pulling on the umbilical cord.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dd><b>Fourth stage of labor</b> The fourth stage of labor is the period beginning immediately after the birth and extending for about six weeks. The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> describes this period as the most critical and yet the most neglected phase in the lives of mothers and babies.<sup id="cite_ref-World_Health_Organization_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until recently babies were routinely removed from their mothers following birth, however beginning around 2000, some authorities began to suggest that early skin-to-skin contact (placing the naked baby on the mother's chest) is of benefit to both mother and infant. As of 2014, early skin-to-skin contact is endorsed by all major organizations that are responsible for the well-being of infants.<sup id="cite_ref-Medscape_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Medscape-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, to help establish bonding and successful breastfeeding, the midwife carries out immediate mother and infant assessments as the infant lies on the mother's chest and removes the infant for further observations only after they have had their first breastfeed.</dd></dl> <p>Following the birth, if the mother had an <a href="/wiki/Episiotomy" title="Episiotomy">episiotomy</a> or a tearing of the <a href="/wiki/Perineum" title="Perineum">perineum</a>, it is sutured. The midwife does regular assessments for uterine contraction, <a href="/wiki/Fundal_height" title="Fundal height">fundal height</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Maternal-Newborn_Care_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maternal-Newborn_Care-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and vaginal bleeding.<sup id="cite_ref-Labor_and_Delivery:_Postpartum_Care_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Labor_and_Delivery:_Postpartum_Care-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout labor and delivery the mother's <a href="/wiki/Vital_signs" title="Vital signs">vital signs</a> (temperature, blood pressure, and pulse) are closely monitored and her fluid intake and output are measured. The midwife also monitors the baby's pulse rate, palpates the mother's abdomen to monitor the baby's position, and does vaginal examinations as indicated. If the birth deviates from the norm at any stage, the midwife requests assistance from the multi-disciplinary team. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Birthing_positions">Birthing positions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Birthing positions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Childbirth_positions" title="Childbirth positions">Childbirth positions</a></div> <p>Until the last century most women have used both the upright position and alternative positions to give birth. The <a href="/wiki/Lithotomy_position" title="Lithotomy position">lithotomy position</a> was not used until the advent of forceps in the seventeenth century and since then childbirth has progressively moved from a woman supported experience in the home to a medical intervention within the hospital. There are significant advantages to assuming an upright position in labor and birth, such as stronger and more efficient uterine contractions aiding cervical dilatation, increased pelvic inlet and outlet diameters and improved uterine contractility.<sup id="cite_ref-Factors_influencing_maternal_positions_during_labor_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Factors_influencing_maternal_positions_during_labor-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upright positions in the second stage include sitting, squatting, kneeling, and being on hands and knees.<sup id="cite_ref-Gelis122-134_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gelis122-134-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postpartum_period">Postpartum period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Postpartum period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_period" title="Postpartum period">Postpartum period</a></div> <p>For women who have a hospital birth, the minimum hospital stay is six hours. Women who leave before this do so against medical advice. Women may choose when to leave the hospital. Full postnatal assessments are conducted daily whilst inpatient, or more frequently if needed. A postnatal assessment includes the woman's observations, general well-being, breasts (either a discussion and assistance with breastfeeding or a discussion about lactation suppression), abdominal palpation (if she has not had a caesarean section) to check for involution of the uterus, or a check of her caesarean wound (the dressing does not need to be removed for this), a check of her perineum, particularly if she tore or had stitches, reviewing her lochia, ensuring she has passed urine and had her bowels open and checking for signs and symptoms of a DVT. The baby is also checked for jaundice, signs of adequate feeding, or other concerns. The baby has a nursery exam between six and seventy two hours of birth to check for conditions such as heart defects, hip problems, or eye problems.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the community, the community midwife sees the woman at least until day ten. This does not mean she sees the woman and baby daily, but she cannot discharge them from her care until day ten at the earliest. Postnatal checks include neonatal screening test (NST, or heel prick test) around day five. The baby is weighed and the midwife plans visits according to the health and needs of mother and baby. They are discharged to the care of the health visitor.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Care_of_the_newborn">Care of the newborn</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Care of the newborn"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Newborn" class="mw-redirect" title="Newborn">Newborn</a></div> <p>At birth, the baby receives an <a href="/wiki/Apgar_score" title="Apgar score">Apgar score</a> at, at the least, one minute and five minutes of age.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a score out of 10 that assesses the baby on five different areas—each worth between 0 and 2 points. These areas are: colour, respiratory effort, tone, heart rate, and response to stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">midwife</a> checks the baby for any obvious problems, weighs the baby, and measure head circumference. The midwife ensures the cord has been clamped securely and the baby has the appropriate name tags on (if in hospital). Babies lengths are not routinely measured. The midwife performs these checks as close to the mother as possible and returns the baby to the mother quickly. Skin-to-skin is encouraged, as this regulates the baby's heart rate, breathing, oxygen saturation, and temperature—and promotes bonding and breastfeeding.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In some countries, such as <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, the midwife is the professional who can direct neonatal intensive care units. This is an advantage for these professionals, who can use the knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Perinatology" class="mw-redirect" title="Perinatology">perinatology</a> to bring a high quality care of the newborn, with medical or surgical conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Midwifery-led_continuity_of_care">Midwifery-led continuity of care</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Midwifery-led continuity of care"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Australian_Clinical_Midwifery_Facilitator_Florence_West_teaches_training_midwives_at_the_Pacific_Adventist_University_PAU,_outskirts_of_Port_Moresby,_PNG._(10674496146).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Australian Clinical Midwifery Facilitator Florence West teaches training midwives at the Pacific Adventist University PAU, outskirts of Port Moresby, PNG." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Australian_Clinical_Midwifery_Facilitator_Florence_West_teaches_training_midwives_at_the_Pacific_Adventist_University_PAU%2C_outskirts_of_Port_Moresby%2C_PNG._%2810674496146%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Australian_Clinical_Midwifery_Facilitator_Florence_West_teaches_training_midwives_at_the_Pacific_Adventist_University_PAU%2C_outskirts_of_Port_Moresby%2C_PNG._%2810674496146%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Australian_Clinical_Midwifery_Facilitator_Florence_West_teaches_training_midwives_at_the_Pacific_Adventist_University_PAU%2C_outskirts_of_Port_Moresby%2C_PNG._%2810674496146%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2666" data-file-height="3999" /></a><figcaption>Clinical midwifery facilitator training midwives</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cambodian_Midwife_Project_(10678944753).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Cambodian_Midwife_Project_%2810678944753%29.jpg/220px-Cambodian_Midwife_Project_%2810678944753%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Cambodian_Midwife_Project_%2810678944753%29.jpg/330px-Cambodian_Midwife_Project_%2810678944753%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Cambodian_Midwife_Project_%2810678944753%29.jpg/440px-Cambodian_Midwife_Project_%2810678944753%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>"Babies" for student practice</figcaption></figure> <p>Midwifery-led continuity of care is where one or more midwives have the primary responsibility for the <a href="/wiki/Continuity_of_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuity of care">continuity of care</a> for childbearing women, with a multidisciplinary network of consultation and referral with other health care providers. This is different from "medical-led care" where an obstetrician or family physician is primarily responsible. In "shared-care" models, responsibility may be shared between a <a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">midwife</a>, an obstetrician and/or a family physician.<sup id="cite_ref-Sandall2013_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sandall2013-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The midwife is part of very intimate situations with the mother. For this reason, many say that the most important thing to look for in a midwife is comfort with them, as one will go to them with every question or problem.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a <a href="/wiki/Cochrane_review" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochrane review">Cochrane review</a> of public health systems in Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, "most women should be offered midwifery-led continuity models of care and women should be encouraged to ask for this option although caution should be exercised in applying this advice to women with substantial medical or obstetric complications." Midwifery-led care has effects including the following:<sup id="cite_ref-Sandall2013_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sandall2013-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>a reduction in the use of epidurals, with fewer episiotomies or instrumental births.</li> <li>a longer mean length of labour as measured in hours</li> <li>increased chances of being cared for in labour by a midwife known by the childbearing woman</li> <li>increased chances of having a spontaneous vaginal birth</li> <li>decreased risk of preterm birth</li> <li>decreased risk of losing the baby before 24 weeks' gestation, although there appears to be no differences in the risk of losing the baby after 24 weeks or overall</li></ul> <p>There was no difference in the number of <a href="/wiki/Caesarean_section" title="Caesarean section">Caesarean sections</a>. All trials in the Cochrane review included licensed midwives, and none included lay or traditional midwives. Also, no trial included out of hospital birth.<sup id="cite_ref-Sandall2013_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sandall2013-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Compared to women in other care models, women in continuity models of midwifery care are more satisfied with their care. The updated version of the <a href="//doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004667.pub5" class="extiw" title="doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004667.pub5">Cochrane review</a> also shows a cost-saving effect in continuity models, compared to other midwifery models of care.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In continuity models of midwifery care, the midwife-woman relationship is developing over time. The deepened relationship has shown to be of great importance and is in a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0266613818301153?via%3Dihub">systematic review</a> described as "the viechle through which personalised care, trust and empowerment are achieved in the continuity of care midwifery model".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some cultures, midwifery is the most traditional way of carrying out a pregnancy and childbirth, and it has been conducted for multiple generations. Child birthing women in these cultures, take Zimbabwe for example, feel that health facilities are not as comforting as cultural roots of care.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, according to the World Health Organization, women should be able to have their children where ever they feel the most safe, so if having a midwife and proceeding with an at-home birth is what makes some women feel safe, then midwifery-led continuity of care might be the best option for them.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_history">Ancient history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ancient history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eucharius_R%C3%B6%C3%9Flin_Rosgarten_Childbirth.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Eucharius_R%C3%B6%C3%9Flin_Rosgarten_Childbirth.jpg/225px-Eucharius_R%C3%B6%C3%9Flin_Rosgarten_Childbirth.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Eucharius_R%C3%B6%C3%9Flin_Rosgarten_Childbirth.jpg/338px-Eucharius_R%C3%B6%C3%9Flin_Rosgarten_Childbirth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Eucharius_R%C3%B6%C3%9Flin_Rosgarten_Childbirth.jpg/450px-Eucharius_R%C3%B6%C3%9Flin_Rosgarten_Childbirth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>A woman giving birth on a birth chair, from a work by German physician <a href="/wiki/Eucharius_R%C3%B6%C3%9Flin" class="mw-redirect" title="Eucharius Rößlin">Eucharius Rößlin</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2-XVII_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2-XVII_crop.jpg/220px-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2-XVII_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2-XVII_crop.jpg/330px-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2-XVII_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2-XVII_crop.jpg/440px-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2-XVII_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="444" /></a><figcaption>Icon Birth of Mary (detail). Russia, 17th century</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, midwifery was a recognized female occupation, as attested by the <a href="/wiki/Ebers_Papyrus" title="Ebers Papyrus">Ebers Papyrus</a> which dates from 1900 to 1550 BCE. Five columns of this papyrus deal with <a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">obstetrics and gynecology</a>, especially concerning the acceleration of parturition (the action or process of giving birth to offspring) and the birth prognosis of the newborn. The <a href="/wiki/Westcar_Papyrus" title="Westcar Papyrus">Westcar papyrus</a>, dated to 1700 BCE, includes instructions for calculating the expected date of confinement and describes different styles of birth chairs. Bas reliefs in the royal birth rooms at Luxor and other temples also attest to the heavy presence of midwifery in this culture.<sup id="cite_ref-TowlerBramall-9_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TowlerBramall-9-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Midwifery in <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman">Greco-Roman</a> antiquity covered a wide range of women, including old women who continued folk medical traditions in the villages of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, trained midwives who garnered their knowledge from a variety of sources, and highly trained women who were considered physicians.<sup id="cite_ref-Flemming-359_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flemming-359-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there were certain characteristics desired in a "good" <a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">midwife</a>, as described by the physician <a href="/wiki/Soranus_of_Ephesus" title="Soranus of Ephesus">Soranus of Ephesus</a> in the 2nd century. He states in his work, <i>Gynecology</i>, that "a suitable person will be literate, with her wits about her, possessed of a good memory, loving work, respectable and generally not unduly handicapped as regards her senses [i.e., sight, smell, hearing], sound of limb, robust, and, according to some people, endowed with long slim fingers and short nails at her fingertips." Soranus also recommends that the midwife be of sympathetic disposition (although she need not have borne a child herself) and that she keep her hands soft for the comfort of both mother and child.<sup id="cite_ref-French-69-84_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-French-69-84-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a>, another physician from this time, valued nobility and a quiet and inconspicuous disposition in a midwife.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson-97_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson-97-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There appears to have been three "grades" of midwives present: The first was technically proficient; the second may have read some of the texts on obstetrics and gynecology; but the third was highly trained and reasonably considered a <a href="/wiki/Medical_specialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical specialist">medical specialist</a> with a concentration in midwifery.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson-97_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson-97-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Agnodice" title="Agnodice">Agnodice</a> or Agnodike (Gr. Ἀγνοδίκη) was the earliest historical, and likely apocryphal,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> midwife mentioned among the ancient Greeks.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Midwives were known by many different titles in antiquity, ranging from <i>iatrinē</i> (Gr. <a href="/wiki/Nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Nurse">nurse</a>), <i>maia</i> (Gr., midwife), <i>obstetrix</i> (Lat., <a href="/wiki/Obstetrician" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstetrician">obstetrician</a>), and <i>medica</i> (Lat., <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">doctor</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Flemming-421-424_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flemming-421-424-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It appears as though midwifery was treated differently in the Eastern end of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean basin</a> as opposed to the West. In the East, some women advanced beyond the profession of <a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">midwife</a> (<i>maia</i>) to that of gynaecologist (<i>iatros gynaikeios</i>, translated as <i>women's doctor</i>), for which formal training was required. Also, there were some gynecological tracts circulating in the medical and educated circles of the East that were written by women with Greek names, although these women were few in number. Based on these facts, it would appear that midwifery in the East was a respectable profession in which respectable women could earn their livelihoods and enough esteem to publish works read and cited by male physicians. In fact, a number of Roman legal provisions strongly suggest that midwives enjoyed status and remuneration comparable to that of male doctors.<sup id="cite_ref-French-69-84_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-French-69-84-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One example of such a midwife is <a href="/wiki/Salpe" title="Salpe">Salpe of Lemnos</a>, who wrote on women's diseases and was mentioned several times in the works of Pliny.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson-97_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson-97-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Roman_relief_carving_of_a_midwife_Wellcome_M0003964.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Ancient_Roman_relief_carving_of_a_midwife_Wellcome_M0003964.jpg/220px-Ancient_Roman_relief_carving_of_a_midwife_Wellcome_M0003964.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Ancient_Roman_relief_carving_of_a_midwife_Wellcome_M0003964.jpg/330px-Ancient_Roman_relief_carving_of_a_midwife_Wellcome_M0003964.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Ancient_Roman_relief_carving_of_a_midwife_Wellcome_M0003964.jpg/440px-Ancient_Roman_relief_carving_of_a_midwife_Wellcome_M0003964.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4204" data-file-height="2529" /></a><figcaption>Ancient Roman relief carving of a <a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">midwife</a></figcaption></figure> <p>However, in the Roman West, information about practicing midwives comes mainly from funerary epitaphs. Two hypotheses are suggested by looking at a small sample of these epitaphs. The first is the midwifery was not a profession to which freeborn women of families that had enjoyed free status of several generations were attracted; therefore it seems that most midwives were of servile origin. Second, since most of these funeral epitaphs describe the women as freed, it can be proposed that midwives were generally valued enough, and earned enough income, to be able to gain their freedom. It is not known from these epitaphs how certain slave women were selected for training as midwives. <a href="/wiki/Slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave">Slave</a> girls may have been apprenticed, and it is most likely that mothers taught their daughters.<sup id="cite_ref-French-69-84_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-French-69-84-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The actual duties of the <a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">midwife</a> in antiquity consisted mainly of assisting in the birthing process, although they may also have helped with other medical problems relating to women when needed. Often, the midwife would call for the assistance of a <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physician</a> when a more difficult birth was anticipated. In many cases the midwife brought along two or three assistants.<sup id="cite_ref-Towler-Bramall-12_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Towler-Bramall-12-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In antiquity, it was believed by both midwives and physicians that a normal delivery was made easier when a woman sat upright. Therefore, during parturition, midwives brought a stool to the home where the delivery was to take place. In the seat of the birthstool was a crescent-shaped hole through which the baby would be delivered. The birthstool or chair often had armrests for the mother to grasp during the delivery. Most birthstools or chairs had backs which the patient could press against, but Soranus suggests that in some cases the chairs were backless and an assistant would stand behind the mother to support her.<sup id="cite_ref-French-69-84_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-French-69-84-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The midwife sat facing the mother, encouraging and supporting her through the birth, perhaps offering instruction on breathing and pushing, sometimes massaging her vaginal opening, and supporting her perineum during the delivery of the baby. The assistants may have helped by pushing downwards on the top of the mother's abdomen. </p><p>Finally, the <a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">midwife</a> received the infant, placed it in pieces of cloth, cut the <a href="/wiki/Umbilical_cord" title="Umbilical cord">umbilical cord</a>, and cleansed the baby.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson-97_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson-97-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The child was sprinkled with "fine and powdery salt, or natron or aphronitre" to soak up the birth residue, rinsed, and then powdered and rinsed again. Next, the midwives cleared away any and all mucus present from the nose, mouth, ears, or anus. Midwives were encouraged by Soranus to put <a href="/wiki/Olive_oil" title="Olive oil">olive oil</a> in the baby's eyes to cleanse away any birth residue, and to place a piece of wool soaked in olive oil over the umbilical cord. After the delivery, the midwife made the initial call on whether or not an infant was healthy and fit to rear. She inspected the newborn for <a href="/wiki/Congenital_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital disorder">congenital deformities</a> and testing its cry to hear whether or not it was robust and hearty. Ultimately, midwives made a determination about the chances for an infant's survival and likely recommended that a newborn with any severe deformities be exposed.<sup id="cite_ref-French-69-84_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-French-69-84-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2nd-century terracotta relief from the Ostian tomb of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Scribonia_Attice&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Scribonia Attice (page does not exist)">Scribonia Attice</a>, wife of physician-surgeon M. Ulpius Amerimnus, details a childbirth scene. Scribonia was a midwife and the relief shows her in the midst of a delivery. A patient sits in the birth chair, gripping the handles and the midwife's assistant stands behind her providing support. Scribonia sits on a low stool in front of the woman, modestly looking away while also assisting the delivery by dilating and massaging the vagina, as encouraged by Soranus.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson-97_34-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson-97-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The services of a midwife were not inexpensive; this fact that suggests poorer women who could not afford the services of a professional midwife often had to make do with female relatives. Many wealthier families had their own midwives. However, the vast majority of women in the Greco-Roman world very likely received their maternity care from hired midwives. They may have been highly trained or possessed only a rudimentary knowledge of obstetrics. Also, many families had a choice of whether or not they wanted to employ a midwife who practiced the <a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">traditional folk medicine</a> or the newer methods of professional parturition.<sup id="cite_ref-French-69-84_33-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-French-69-84-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like a lot of other factors in antiquity, quality gynecological care often depended heavily on the socioeconomic status of the patient. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-classical_history">Post-classical history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Post-classical history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22Dr._William_Hunter_at_a_confinement%22_Wellcome_L0015724.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A man looking through a gap between curtains, a chest with medicines to right." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/%22Dr._William_Hunter_at_a_confinement%22_Wellcome_L0015724.jpg/315px-%22Dr._William_Hunter_at_a_confinement%22_Wellcome_L0015724.jpg" decoding="async" width="315" height="421" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/%22Dr._William_Hunter_at_a_confinement%22_Wellcome_L0015724.jpg/473px-%22Dr._William_Hunter_at_a_confinement%22_Wellcome_L0015724.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/%22Dr._William_Hunter_at_a_confinement%22_Wellcome_L0015724.jpg/631px-%22Dr._William_Hunter_at_a_confinement%22_Wellcome_L0015724.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1209" data-file-height="1614" /></a><figcaption>18th-century etching of <a href="/wiki/William_Hunter_(anatomist)" title="William Hunter (anatomist)">William Hunter</a> attending a pregnant woman. The caption notes that "not until a strenuous fight with the midwives was it customary for obstetricians to be present at confinements."</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Midwifery_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Midwifery in the Middle Ages">Midwifery in the Middle Ages</a></div> <p><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Minkowski_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Minkowski-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_history">Modern history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Modern history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Women_medical_practitioners_in_Early_Modern_Europe#Midwives" title="Women medical practitioners in Early Modern Europe">Women medical practitioners in Early Modern Europe § Midwives</a></div> <p>From the 18th century, a conflict between <a href="/wiki/Surgeon" title="Surgeon">surgeons</a> and midwives arose, as medical men began to assert that their modern scientific techniques were better for mothers and infants than the <a href="/wiki/Folk_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk medicine">folk medicine</a> practiced by midwives.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As doctors and medical associations pushed for a legal monopoly on obstetrical care, midwifery became outlawed or heavily regulated throughout the United States and Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-Ehrenreich_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehrenreich-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rooks1997_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rooks1997-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Northern Europe and Russia, the situation for midwives was a little easier - in the Duchy of Estonia in <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial Russia</a>, Professor Christian Friedrich Deutsch established a midwifery school for women at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Dorpat" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Dorpat">University of Dorpat</a> in 1811, which existed until World War I. It was the predecessor for the <a href="/wiki/Tartu_Health_Care_College" title="Tartu Health Care College">Tartu Health Care College</a>. Training lasted for 7 months and in the end a certificate for practice was issued to the female students. Despite accusations that midwives were "incompetent and ignorant",<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some argued that poorly trained surgeons were far more of a danger to pregnant women.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1846, the physician <a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Semmelweiss" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignaz Semmelweiss">Ignaz Semmelweiss</a> observed that more women died in maternity wards staffed by male surgeons than by female midwives, and traced these outbreaks of <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_infections" title="Postpartum infections">puerperal fever</a> back to (then all-male) medical students not washing their hands properly after <a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy_in_the_19th_century" title="History of anatomy in the 19th century">dissecting cadavers</a>, but his sanitary recommendations were ignored until acceptance of <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory</a> became widespread.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Midwife%27s_case_and_contents.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Midwife%27s_case_and_contents.jpg/220px-Midwife%27s_case_and_contents.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Midwife%27s_case_and_contents.jpg/330px-Midwife%27s_case_and_contents.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Midwife%27s_case_and_contents.jpg/440px-Midwife%27s_case_and_contents.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3120" data-file-height="4160" /></a><figcaption>Midwife's case and contents, Scunthorpe Maternity Hospital, 1920s/30s (North Lincolnshire Museum)</figcaption></figure> <p>The argument that surgeons were more dangerous than midwives lasted until the study of bacteriology became popular in the early 1900s and hospital hygiene was improved. Women began to feel safer in the setting of the hospitals with the amount of aid and the ease of birth that they experienced with doctors.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> "Physicians trained in the new century found a great contrast between their hospital and obstetrics practice in women's homes where they could not maintain sterile conditions or have trained help."<sup id="cite_ref-Brought_to_Bed_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brought_to_Bed-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> German <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social scientists</a> <a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Heinsohn" title="Gunnar Heinsohn">Gunnar Heinsohn</a> and Otto Steiger theorize that midwifery became a target of persecution and repression by public authorities because midwives possessed highly specialized knowledge and skills regarding not only assisting birth, but also contraception and abortion.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Contemporary">Contemporary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Contemporary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At late 20th century, midwives were already recognized as highly trained and specialized professionals in obstetrics. However, at the beginning of the 21st century, the medical perception of pregnancy and childbirth as potentially pathological and dangerous still dominates Western culture. Midwives who work in hospital settings also have been influenced by this view, although by and large they are trained to view birth as a normal and healthy process. While midwives play a much larger role in the care of pregnant mothers in Europe than in America, the medicalized model of birth still has influence in those countries, even though the World Health Organization recommends a natural, normal and humanized birth.<sup id="cite_ref-Fortaleza_declaration_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fortaleza_declaration-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The midwifery model of pregnancy and childbirth as a normal and healthy process plays a much larger role in Sweden and the Netherlands than the rest of Europe, however. Swedish midwives stand out, since they administer 80 percent of prenatal care and more than 80 percent of family planning services in Sweden. Midwives in Sweden attend all normal births in public hospitals and Swedish women tend to have fewer interventions in hospitals than American women. The Dutch <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_infant_and_under-five_mortality_rates" title="List of countries by infant and under-five mortality rates">infant mortality rate</a> is one of the lowest rate in the world, at 4.0 deaths per thousand births, while the United States ranked twenty-second. Midwives in the Netherlands and Sweden owe a great deal of their success to supportive government policies.<sup id="cite_ref-Lingo_2004_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lingo_2004-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Midwifery" class="extiw" title="commons:Midwifery"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Midwifery</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan_Midwifery_Project" title="Afghanistan Midwifery Project">Afghanistan Midwifery Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childbirth_and_obstetrics_in_antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Childbirth and obstetrics in antiquity">Childbirth and obstetrics in antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Library_of_Women%27s_Medicine" title="Global Library of Women's Medicine">Global Library of Women's Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Confederation_of_Midwives" title="International Confederation of Midwives">International Confederation of Midwives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwifery_in_Maya_society" title="Midwifery in Maya society">Midwifery in Maya society</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Notes</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://global.britannica.com/topic/midwifery">"Definition of Midwifery"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Definition+of+Midwifery&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobal.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fmidwifery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170922213449/http://internationalmidwives.org/who-we-are/policy-and-practice/icm-international-definition-of-the-midwife/">"International Definition of the Midwife"</a>. International Confederation of Midwives. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.internationalmidwives.org/who-we-are/policy-and-practice/icm-international-definition-of-the-midwife/">the original</a> on 22 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=International+Definition+of+the+Midwife&rft.pub=International+Confederation+of+Midwives&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.internationalmidwives.org%2Fwho-we-are%2Fpolicy-and-practice%2Ficm-international-definition-of-the-midwife%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170819102137/http://www.belgianmidwivesassociation.be/die-hebamme-in-belgien/">"Die Hebamme in Belgien"</a>. Belgian Midwives Association (BMA). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.belgianmidwivesassociation.be/die-hebamme-in-belgien/">the original</a> on 19 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Die+Hebamme+in+Belgien&rft.pub=Belgian+Midwives+Association+%28BMA%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.belgianmidwivesassociation.be%2Fdie-hebamme-in-belgien%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170621052507/http://www.vecmasuasociacija.lv/?page_id=59">"Vecmātes specialitātes nolikums"</a>. Latvijas Vecmāšu Asociācija. 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Gesser-Edelsburg, Anat (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1891/1058-1243.24.1.25">"Institutional and Cultural Perspectives on Home Birth in Israel"</a>. <i>The Journal of Perinatal Education</i>. <b>24</b> (1): 25–36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1891%2F1058-1243.24.1.25">10.1891/1058-1243.24.1.25</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1058-1243">1058-1243</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4720861">4720861</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26937159">26937159</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Perinatal+Education&rft.atitle=Institutional+and+Cultural+Perspectives+on+Home+Birth+in+Israel&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=25-36&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4720861%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1058-1243&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26937159&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1891%2F1058-1243.24.1.25&rft.aulast=Meroz&rft.aufirst=Michal+%28Rosie%29&rft.au=Gesser-Edelsburg%2C+Anat&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1891%2F1058-1243.24.1.25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TowlerBramall-9-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TowlerBramall-9_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jean Towler and Joan Bramall, <i>Midwives in History and Society</i> (London: Croom Helm, 1986), p. 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Flemming-359-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Flemming-359_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Rebecca_Flemming" title="Rebecca Flemming">Rebecca Flemming</a>, <i>Medicine and the Making of Roman Women</i> (Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2000), p. 359</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-French-69-84-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-French-69-84_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-French-69-84_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-French-69-84_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-French-69-84_33-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-French-69-84_33-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-French-69-84_33-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Valerie French, "Midwives and Maternity Care in the Roman World" (Helios, New Series 12(2), 1986), pp. 69-84</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson-97-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson-97_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson-97_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson-97_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson-97_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson-97_34-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ralph Jackson, <i>Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire</i> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988), p. 97</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130403130301/http://www.hsl.virginia.edu/historical/artifacts/antiqua/women.cfm">"Women in Medicine"</a>. www.hsl.virginia.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hsl.virginia.edu/historical/artifacts/antiqua/women.cfm">the original</a> on 2013-04-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-12-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Women+in+Medicine&rft.pub=www.hsl.virginia.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hsl.virginia.edu%2Fhistorical%2Fartifacts%2Fantiqua%2Fwomen.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenhill1867" class="citation book cs1">Greenhill, William Alexander (1867). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121007150113/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0083.html">"Agnodice"</a>. In Smith, William (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_Biography_and_Mythology" title="Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology"><i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology</i></a>. Vol. 1. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Little,_Brown_and_Company" title="Little, Brown and Company">Little, Brown and Company</a>. p. 74. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0083.html">the original</a> on 2012-10-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-12-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Agnodice&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Greek+and+Roman+Biography+and+Mythology&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown+and+Company&rft.date=1867&rft.aulast=Greenhill&rft.aufirst=William+Alexander&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ancientlibrary.com%2Fsmith-bio%2F0083.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Flemming-421-424-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Flemming-421-424_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rebecca Flemming, Medicine and the Making of Roman Women (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 421-424</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Towler-Bramall-12-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Towler-Bramall-12_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Towler and Bramall, p.12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Medical practitioners were subjected to more regulation in the Middle Ages, especially women that had not received proper schooling in their desired medical fields. Although the medical field was becoming a male monopoly with these regulations, midwifery was still dominated by women, as men had not had schooling or education in obstetrics.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Minkowski-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Minkowski_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinkowski1992" class="citation journal cs1">Minkowski, W L (February 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1694293">"Women healers of the middle ages: selected aspects of their history"</a>. <i>American Journal of Public Health</i>. <b>82</b> (2): 292–293. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2105%2Fajph.82.2.288">10.2105/ajph.82.2.288</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1694293">1694293</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1739168">1739168</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Women+healers+of+the+middle+ages%3A+selected+aspects+of+their+history&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=292-293&rft.date=1992-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1694293%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1739168&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2105%2Fajph.82.2.288&rft.aulast=Minkowski&rft.aufirst=W+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1694293&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_TeijlingenLowisMcCaffery2004" class="citation book cs1">Van Teijlingen, Edwin R.; Lowis, George W.; McCaffery, Peter G. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2DHrH08bl5YC"><i>Midwifery and the Medicalization of Childbirth: Comparative Perspectives</i></a>. Nova Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781594540318" title="Special:BookSources/9781594540318"><bdi>9781594540318</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Midwifery+and+the+Medicalization+of+Childbirth%3A+Comparative+Perspectives&rft.pub=Nova+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781594540318&rft.aulast=Van+Teijlingen&rft.aufirst=Edwin+R.&rft.au=Lowis%2C+George+W.&rft.au=McCaffery%2C+Peter+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2DHrH08bl5YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorst1995" class="citation book cs1">Borst, Charlotte G. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=35q762L0IzMC"><i>Catching Babies: The Professionalization of Childbirth, 1870-1920</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674102620" title="Special:BookSources/9780674102620"><bdi>9780674102620</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catching+Babies%3A+The+Professionalization+of+Childbirth%2C+1870-1920&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780674102620&rft.aulast=Borst&rft.aufirst=Charlotte+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D35q762L0IzMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ehrenreich-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ehrenreich_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrenreichDeirdre_English2010" class="citation book cs1">Ehrenreich, Barbara; Deirdre English (2010). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/witchesmidwivesn00ehrerich"><i>Witches, Midwives and Nurses: A History of Women Healers</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). The Feminist Press. pp. 85–87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-912670-13-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-912670-13-3"><bdi>978-0-912670-13-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Witches%2C+Midwives+and+Nurses%3A+A+History+of+Women+Healers&rft.pages=85-87&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=The+Feminist+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-912670-13-3&rft.aulast=Ehrenreich&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft.au=Deirdre+English&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwitchesmidwivesn00ehrerich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rooks1997-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rooks1997_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRooks1997" class="citation book cs1">Rooks, Judith Pence (1997). <i>Midwifery and childbirth in America</i>. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. p. 422. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56639-711-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-56639-711-1"><bdi>1-56639-711-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Midwifery+and+childbirth+in+America&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=422&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-56639-711-1&rft.aulast=Rooks&rft.aufirst=Judith+Pence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVarney2004" class="citation book cs1">Varney, Helen (2004). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/varneysmidwifery00varn"><i>Varney's midwifery</i></a></span> (4th ed.). Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/varneysmidwifery00varn/page/n47">7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7637-1856-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7637-1856-4"><bdi>0-7637-1856-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Varney%27s+midwifery&rft.place=Sudbury%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=7&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Jones+and+Bartlett&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-7637-1856-4&rft.aulast=Varney&rft.aufirst=Helen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvarneysmidwifery00varn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1912" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, J. Whitridge (1912). "The Midwife Problem and Medical Education in the United States". <i>American Association for Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Second Annual Meeting</i>: 165–194.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Association+for+Study+and+Prevention+of+Infant+Mortality%3A+Transactions+of+the+Second+Annual+Meeting&rft.atitle=The+Midwife+Problem+and+Medical+Education+in+the+United+States&rft.pages=165-194&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=J.+Whitridge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis" class="citation web cs1">Davis, Rebecca. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2015/01/12/375663920/the-doctor-who-championed-hand-washing-and-saved-women-s-lives?t=1576014381640">"The Doctor Who Championed Hand-Washing And Briefly Saved Lives"</a>. <i>NPR</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191210222137/https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2015/01/12/375663920/the-doctor-who-championed-hand-washing-and-saved-women-s-lives%3Ft%3D1576014381640">Archived</a> from the original on 10 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=The+Doctor+Who+Championed+Hand-Washing+And+Briefly+Saved+Lives&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Fhealth-shots%2F2015%2F01%2F12%2F375663920%2Fthe-doctor-who-championed-hand-washing-and-saved-women-s-lives%3Ft%3D1576014381640&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHistorical_perspective_on_hand_hygiene_in_health_care2009" class="citation book cs1">Historical perspective on hand hygiene in health care (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK144018/"><i>WHO Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in Health Care: First Global Patient Safety Challenge Clean Care Is Safer Care</i></a>. Geneva: World Health Organization. p. 4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200613045032/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK144018/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=WHO+Guidelines+on+Hand+Hygiene+in+Health+Care%3A+First+Global+Patient+Safety+Challenge+Clean+Care+Is+Safer+Care.&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Historical+perspective+on+hand+hygiene+in+health+care&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK144018%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brought_to_Bed-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brought_to_Bed_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeavitt1988" class="citation book cs1">Leavitt, Judith W. (1988). <i>Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950</i>. Book: Oxford University Press. p. 178. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195056907" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195056907"><bdi>978-0195056907</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brought+to+Bed%3A+Childbearing+in+America%2C+1750-1950&rft.place=Book&rft.pages=178&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0195056907&rft.aulast=Leavitt&rft.aufirst=Judith+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gunnar Heinsohn/Otto Steiger: "Witchcraft, Population Catastrophe and Economic Crisis in Renaissance Europe: An Alternative Macroeconomic Explanation.", <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bremen" title="University of Bremen">University of Bremen</a> 2004 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/54474527">(download)</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged March 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeinsohnSteiger1982" class="citation journal cs1">Heinsohn, Gunnar; Steiger, Otto (May 1982). <a href="/wiki/Witch_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Witch trial">"The Elimination of Medieval Birth Control and the Witch Trials of Modern Times"</a>. <i>International Journal of Women's Studies</i>. <b>3</b>: 193–214.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Women%27s+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Elimination+of+Medieval+Birth+Control+and+the+Witch+Trials+of+Modern+Times&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=193-214&rft.date=1982-05&rft.aulast=Heinsohn&rft.aufirst=Gunnar&rft.au=Steiger%2C+Otto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeinsohnSteiger1999" class="citation journal cs1">Heinsohn, Gunnar; Steiger, Otto (1999). "Birth Control: The Political-Economic Rationale Behind Jean Bodin's 'Démonomanie'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>History of Political Economy</i>. <b>31</b> (3): 423–448. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00182702-31-3-423">10.1215/00182702-31-3-423</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21275210">21275210</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31013297">31013297</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=Birth+Control%3A+The+Political-Economic+Rationale+Behind+Jean+Bodin%27s+%27D%C3%A9monomanie%27&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=423-448&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A31013297%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21275210&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F00182702-31-3-423&rft.aulast=Heinsohn&rft.aufirst=Gunnar&rft.au=Steiger%2C+Otto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fortaleza_declaration-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fortaleza_declaration_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200216130822/http://www.weikert.de/alexandra/who1.html">"Fortaleza Declaration: Appropriate Use of Technology for Birth"</a>. World Health Organization. 22–26 April 1985. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.weikert.de/alexandra/who1.html">the original</a> on 2020-02-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-06-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fortaleza+Declaration%3A+Appropriate+Use+of+Technology+for+Birth&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&rft.date=1985-04-22%2F1985-04-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.weikert.de%2Falexandra%2Fwho1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lingo_2004-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lingo_2004_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLingo2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alison_Klairmont&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alison Klairmont (page does not exist)">Lingo, Alison Klairmont</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3402800303.html">"Obstetrics and Midwifery § Midwifery from 1900 to the Present"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood in History and Society</i>. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150701033459/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3402800303.html">Archived</a> from the original on July 1, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 28,</span> 2015</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Obstetrics+and+Midwifery+%C2%A7+Midwifery+from+1900+to+the+Present&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Children+and+Childhood+in+History+and+Society&rft.place=Farmington+Hills%2C+MI&rft.pub=Gale&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Lingo&rft.aufirst=Alison+Klairmont&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fdoc%2F1G2-3402800303.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span>, from <i>Encyclopedia.com</i>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <p><b>Bibliography</b> </p> <ul><li>Craven, Christa. 2007 A "Consumer's Right" to Choose a Midwife: Shifting Meanings for Reproductive Rights under Neoliberalism. American Anthropologist, Vol. 109, Issue 4, pp. 701–712. In I.L. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press.</li> <li>Ford, Anne R., & Wagner, Vicki. In Bourgeautt, Ivy L., Benoit, Cecilia, and Davis-Floyd, Robbie, ed. 2004 Reconceiving Midwifery. McGill-Queen's University Press: Montreal & Kingston</li> <li>MacDonald, Margaret. 2007 At Work in the Field of Birth: Midwifery Narratives of Nature, Tradition, and Home. Vanderbilt University Press: Nashville</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin_Emily1991" class="citation journal cs1">Martin Emily (1991). "The Egg and the Sperm: How Science Has Constructed a Romance Based on Stereotypical Male-Female Roles". <i>Journal of Women in Culture and Society</i>. <b>16</b> (3): 485–501. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F494680">10.1086/494680</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145638689">145638689</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Women+in+Culture+and+Society&rft.atitle=The+Egg+and+the+Sperm%3A+How+Science+Has+Constructed+a+Romance+Based+on+Stereotypical+Male-Female+Roles&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=485-501&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F494680&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145638689%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Martin+Emily&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><span class="languageicon">(in Dutch)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.verloskundigenpraktijkgroningen.nl">Obstetricians in the city of Groningen.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130625050250/http://verloskundigenpraktijkgroningen.nl/">Archived</a> 2013-06-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judy_Barrett_Litoff" title="Judy Barrett Litoff">Litoff, Judy Barrett</a>. "An historical overview of midwifery in the United States." <i>Pre-and Peri-natal Psychology Journal</i> 1990; 5(1): 5 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1P3-1386989071/an-historical-overview-of-midwifery-in-the-united">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181031133004/https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1P3-1386989071/an-historical-overview-of-midwifery-in-the-united">Archived</a> 2018-10-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Litoff, Judy Barrett. "Midwives and History." In Rima D. Apple, ed., <i>The History of Women, Health, and Medicine in America: An Encyclopedic Handbook</i> (Garland Publishing, 1990) covers the historiography.</li> <li>S. Solagbade Popoola, <i>Ikunle Abiyamo: It is on Bent Knees that I gave Birth</i> 2007 Research material, scientific and historical content based on traditional forms of African Midwifery from <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a> of <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> detailed within the Ifa traditional philosophy. Asefin Media Publication</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreene2012" class="citation journal cs1">Greene, M. F. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMra1209764">"Two Hundred Years of Progress in the Practice of Midwifery"</a>. <i>New England Journal of Medicine</i>. <b>367</b> (18): 1732–1740. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMra1209764">10.1056/NEJMra1209764</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23113484">23113484</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19487046">19487046</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Two+Hundred+Years+of+Progress+in+the+Practice+of+Midwifery&rft.volume=367&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=1732-1740&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19487046%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23113484&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2FNEJMra1209764&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=M.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1056%252FNEJMra1209764&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florence_Nightingale" title="Florence Nightingale">Florence Nightingale</a> (1871), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73878">Introductory notes on lying-in institutions : Together with a proposal for organising an institution for training midwives and midwifery nurses</a></i>, London: Longmans, Green and Co.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTsoucalas_G.,_Karamanou_M.,_Sgantzos_M.2014" class="citation journal cs1">Tsoucalas G., Karamanou M., Sgantzos M. (2014). "Midwifery in ancient Greece, midwife or gynaecologist-obstetrician?". <i>Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology</i>. <b>34</b> (6): 547. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F01443615.2014.911834">10.3109/01443615.2014.911834</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24832625">24832625</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207435300">207435300</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Obstetrics+%26+Gynaecology&rft.atitle=Midwifery+in+ancient+Greece%2C+midwife+or+gynaecologist-obstetrician%3F&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=547&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A207435300%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24832625&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3109%2F01443615.2014.911834&rft.au=Tsoucalas+G.%2C+Karamanou+M.%2C+Sgantzos+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMidwifery" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="/wiki/Clitoris" title="Clitoris">Clitoris</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clitoral_hood" title="Clitoral hood">Clitoral hood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labia_minora" title="Labia minora">Labia minora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labia_majora" title="Labia majora">Labia majora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">Vagina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervix" title="Cervix">Cervix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">Uterus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallopian_tube" title="Fallopian tube">Fallopian tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system_disease" title="Reproductive system disease">Reproductive system disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal <br />health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancy" title="Unintended pregnancy">Unintended pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravidity_and_parity" title="Gravidity and parity">Gravidity and parity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenatal_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Antenatal care">Antenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Adolescent pregnancy">Adolescent pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complications_of_pregnancy" title="Complications of pregnancy">Complications of pregnancy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyperemesis_gravidarum" title="Hyperemesis gravidarum">Hyperemesis gravidarum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectopic_pregnancy" title="Ectopic pregnancy">Ectopic pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miscarriage" title="Miscarriage">Miscarriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_bleeding" title="Obstetrical bleeding">Obstetrical bleeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestational_diabetes" title="Gestational diabetes">Gestational diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertensive_disease_of_pregnancy" title="Hypertensive disease of pregnancy">Hypertension</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preeclampsia" class="mw-redirect" title="Preeclampsia">Preeclampsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclampsia" title="Eclampsia">Eclampsia</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">Childbirth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Midwifery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">Preterm birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_births" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple births">Multiple births</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstructed_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstructed labor">Obstructed labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesarian_section" class="mw-redirect" title="Cesarian section">Cesarian section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retained_placenta" title="Retained placenta">Retained placenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_fistulae" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstetrical fistulae">Obstetrical fistulae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesicovaginal_fistula" title="Vesicovaginal fistula">Vesicovaginal fistula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectovaginal_fistula" title="Rectovaginal fistula">Rectovaginal fistula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episiotomy" title="Episiotomy">Episiotomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Husband_stitch" title="Husband stitch">Husband stitch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_care" title="Postpartum care">Postpartum care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_confinement" title="Postpartum confinement">Postpartum confinement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deaths" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternal deaths">Maternal deaths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perinatal_mortality" title="Perinatal mortality">Perinatal mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stillbirths" class="mw-redirect" title="Stillbirths">Stillbirths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother-to-child_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother-to-child transmission">Mother-to-child transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sterilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Human sterilization">Sterilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_and_mental_health" title="Breastfeeding and mental health">Breastfeeding and mental health</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_life_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive life plan">Reproductive <br />life plan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">Infertility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Childlessness" title="Childlessness">Childlessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">Assisted reproductive technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="In vitro fertilization">In vitro fertilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">Parenting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fostering" class="mw-redirect" title="Fostering">Fostering</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Contraception" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraception">Contraception</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">family planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrauterine_device" title="Intrauterine device">Intrauterine devices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_contraceptive_pill" title="Oral contraceptive pill">Oral contraceptives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condom" title="Condom">Condoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_contraceptive" title="Male contraceptive">Male contraceptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraceptive_prevalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraceptive prevalence">Contraceptive prevalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraceptive_security" title="Contraceptive security">Contraceptive security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_parenthood" class="mw-redirect" title="Planned parenthood">Planned parenthood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_awareness" title="Fertility awareness">Fertility awareness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">Menstruation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_and_menstruation" title="Culture and menstruation">Culture and menstruation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminine_hygiene" title="Feminine hygiene">Feminine hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menarche" title="Menarche">Menarche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menstrual_cycle" title="Menstrual cycle">Menstrual cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menstrual_aids" class="mw-redirect" title="Menstrual aids">Menstrual aids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloth_menstrual_pad" title="Cloth menstrual pad">Cloth menstrual pad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menstrual_cup" title="Menstrual cup">Menstrual cup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tampon" title="Tampon">Tampon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_napkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanitary napkin">Sanitary pad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysmenorrhea" title="Dysmenorrhea">Dysmenorrhea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menorrhagia" class="mw-redirect" title="Menorrhagia">Menorrhagia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenorrhoea" class="mw-redirect" title="Amenorrhoea">Amenorrhoea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menopause" title="Menopause">Menopause</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hormone_replacement_therapy" title="Hormone replacement therapy">Hormone replacement therapy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Sexual <br />health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Sexually_transmittedinfections" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted infections">Sexually transmitted<br />infections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_papilloma_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human papilloma virus">Human papilloma virus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HPV_vaccine" title="HPV vaccine">HPV vaccine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_inflammatory_disease" title="Pelvic inflammatory disease">Pelvic inflammatory disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clitoridectomy" title="Clitoridectomy">Clitoridectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infibulation" title="Infibulation">Infibulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_binding" title="Breast binding">Breast binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Breast health">Breast health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_ironing" title="Breast ironing">Breast ironing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyspareunia" title="Dyspareunia">Dyspareunia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecological_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Gynaecological disorders">Gynaecological disorders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaginitis" title="Vaginitis">Vaginitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leblouh" title="Leblouh">Leblouh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">Polygamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">Sexual intercourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgasm" title="Orgasm">Orgasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puberty" title="Puberty">Puberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences">Sex differences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">Sex education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Non-reproductive<br /> health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Violence_against_women" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence <br />against women</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abuse_during_childbirth" title="Abuse during childbirth">Abuse during childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">Domestic violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_and_pregnancy" title="Domestic violence and pregnancy">Pregnancy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimate_partner_violence" title="Intimate partner violence">Intimate partner violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">Sexual assault</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">Rape</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femicide" title="Femicide">Femicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender discrimination">Gender discrimination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-communicable_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-communicable diseases">Non-communicable <br />diseases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Cancer" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">Lung cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">Breast cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_cancer" title="Uterine cancer">Uterine cancer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endometrial_cancer" title="Endometrial cancer">Endometrial cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">Cervical cancer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papanicolaou_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Papanicolaou test">Papanicolaou test</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovarian_cancer" title="Ovarian cancer">Ovarian cancer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">Cardiovascular disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">Dementia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_health" title="Bone health">Bone health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osteoporosis" title="Osteoporosis">Osteoporosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hip_fracture" title="Hip fracture">Hip fracture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaemia">Anaemia</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">Anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">Major depressive disorder</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary tract">Urinary tract</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urethra" title="Urethra">Urethra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_tract_infection" title="Urinary tract infection">Urinary tract infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_incontinence" title="Urinary incontinence">Urinary incontinence</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Sociocultural <br />factors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disadvantaged" title="Disadvantaged">Disadvantaged</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare inequality">Healthcare inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_disparities_in_health" title="Gender disparities in health">Gender disparities in health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_justice" title="Reproductive justice">Reproductive justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment" title="Women's empowerment">Women's empowerment</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Politics, research<br />and advocacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Discrimination_against_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women">The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_elimination_of_violence_against_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Declaration on the elimination of violence against women">Declaration on the elimination of violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_the_Girl_Child" title="International Day of the Girl Child">International Day of the Girl Child</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commission_on_the_Status_of_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="Commission on the Status of Women">Commission on the Status of Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN_Women" title="UN Women">UN Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Research_on_Women%27s_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="Office of Research on Women's Health">Office of Research on Women's Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Health_Initiative" title="Women's Health Initiative">Women's Health Initiative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Center_for_Research_on_Women" title="International Center for Research on Women">International Center for Research on Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurses%27_Health_Study" title="Nurses' Health Study">Nurses' Health Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Women%27s_Health_Study" title="Black Women's Health Study">Black Women's Health Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartwright_Inquiry" title="Cartwright Inquiry">Cartwright Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Women%27s_Health_Research" title="Society for Women's Health Research">Society for Women's Health Research</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Women's health<br />by country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_China" title="Women's health in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_Ethiopia" title="Women's health in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_India" title="Women's health in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_in_India" title="Family planning in India">Family planning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_reproductive_health_in_Russia" title="Women's reproductive health in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">Birth control in the United States</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #F2D4CE;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Women%27s_health" title="Category:Women's health">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Women%27s_health" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Women's health">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Women%27s_Health" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Women's Health">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pregnancy_and_childbirth" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pregnancy" title="Template:Pregnancy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pregnancy" title="Template talk:Pregnancy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pregnancy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pregnancy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pregnancy_and_childbirth" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_family_planning" title="Natural family planning">Natural family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_contraceptive" title="Male contraceptive">Male contraceptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-conception_counseling" title="Pre-conception counseling">Pre-conception counseling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_fertilization" title="Human fertilization">Conception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">Assisted reproductive technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_insemination" title="Artificial insemination">artificial insemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_fraud" title="Fertility fraud">fertility fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_medication" title="Fertility medication">fertility medication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">in vitro fertilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partner-assisted_reproduction" title="Partner-assisted reproduction">partner-assisted reproduction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_awareness" title="Fertility awareness">Fertility awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancy" title="Unintended pregnancy">Unintended pregnancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Testing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_ultrasound" title="3D ultrasound">3D ultrasound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_ultrasonography" title="Obstetric ultrasonography">Obstetric ultrasonography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_test" title="Pregnancy test">Pregnancy test</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HCG_pregnancy_strip_test" class="mw-redirect" title="HCG pregnancy strip test">home testing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_testing" title="Prenatal testing">Prenatal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging_in_pregnancy" title="Medical imaging in pregnancy">Medical imaging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_pregnancy" title="Cervical pregnancy">Cervical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptic_pregnancy" title="Cryptic pregnancy">Cryptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectopic_pregnancy" title="Ectopic pregnancy">Ectopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdominal_pregnancy" title="Abdominal pregnancy">Abdominal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotopic_pregnancy" title="Heterotopic pregnancy">Heterotopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molar_pregnancy" title="Molar pregnancy">Molar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovarian_pregnancy" title="Ovarian pregnancy">Ovarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postterm_pregnancy" title="Postterm pregnancy">Postterm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancy" title="Unintended pregnancy">Unintended</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstitial_pregnancy" title="Interstitial pregnancy">Interstitial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudimentary_horn_pregnancy" title="Rudimentary horn pregnancy">Rudimentary horn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">Childbirth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Preparation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bradley_method_of_natural_childbirth" title="Bradley method of natural childbirth">Bradley method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypnotherapy_in_childbirth" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypnotherapy in childbirth">Hypnobirthing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamaze_technique" title="Lamaze technique">Lamaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nesting_instinct" title="Nesting instinct">Nesting instinct</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mother" title="Mother">Mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">Newborn</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">Preterm birth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postterm_pregnancy" title="Postterm pregnancy">Postterm pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doula" title="Doula">Doula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_attendant" title="Birth attendant">Birth attendant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men%27s_role_in_childbirth" title="Men's role in childbirth">Men's roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">Midwife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_nurse_midwife" title="Auxiliary nurse midwife">Auxiliary nurse midwife</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_nursing" title="Obstetrical nursing">Perinatal nurse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_birth_attendant" title="Traditional birth attendant">Traditional birth attendant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delivery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelvimetry" title="Pelvimetry">Pelvimetry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bishop_score" title="Bishop score">Bishop score</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_dilation" title="Cervical dilation">cervical dilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_effacement" title="Cervical effacement">cervical effacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Position_(obstetrics)" title="Position (obstetrics)">position</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_show" title="Bloody show">Bloody show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_contraction" title="Uterine contraction">Uterine contraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_delivery" title="Vaginal delivery">Vaginal delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentation_(obstetrics)" title="Presentation (obstetrics)">Presentation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breech_birth" title="Breech birth">breech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalic_presentation" title="Cephalic presentation">cephalic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoulder_presentation" title="Shoulder presentation">shoulder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupture_of_membranes" title="Rupture of membranes">Rupture of membranes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarean_section" title="Caesarean section">Caesarean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childbirth_positions" title="Childbirth positions">Childbirth positions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_birth" title="Home birth">Home birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_induction" title="Labor induction">Labor induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_birth" title="Multiple birth">Multiple birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_childbirth" title="Natural childbirth">Natural childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_birth" title="Silent birth">Silent birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unassisted_childbirth" title="Unassisted childbirth">Unassisted childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_birth" title="Water birth">Water birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placental_expulsion" title="Placental expulsion">Placental expulsion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prenatal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anatomy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amniotic_fluid" title="Amniotic fluid">Amniotic fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amniotic_sac" title="Amniotic sac">Amniotic sac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endometrium" title="Endometrium">Endometrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_development" title="Prenatal development">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_embryonic_development" title="Human embryonic development">Embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">Fetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundal_height" title="Fundal height">Fundal height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestational_age" title="Gestational age">Gestational age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_physiological_changes_in_pregnancy" title="Maternal physiological changes in pregnancy">Maternal physiological changes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_physiological_changes" title="Postpartum physiological changes">Postpartum physiological changes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care" title="Prenatal care">Care</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li> <li>Nutrition <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxicants_and_fetal_development" title="Environmental toxicants and fetal development">environmental toxicants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_and_pregnancy" title="Nutrition and pregnancy">in pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_nutrition" title="Prenatal nutrition">prenatal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenatal_depression" title="Antenatal depression">Prenatal depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunization_during_pregnancy" title="Immunization during pregnancy">Immunization</a></li> <li>Concomitant conditions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anemia_in_pregnancy" title="Anemia in pregnancy">Anemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertensive_disease_of_pregnancy" title="Hypertensive disease of pregnancy">Hypertension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercoagulability_in_pregnancy" title="Hypercoagulability in pregnancy">Hypercoagulability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drugs_in_pregnancy" title="Drugs in pregnancy">Substance use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_and_pregnancy" title="Smoking and pregnancy">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol and pregnancy">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_pregnancy" title="Cannabis in pregnancy">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioids_and_pregnancy" title="Opioids and pregnancy">Opioids</a></li></ul></li> <li>Endocrine diseases <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diabetes_and_pregnancy" title="Diabetes and pregnancy">Diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid_disease_in_pregnancy" title="Thyroid disease in pregnancy">Thyroid disease</a></li></ul></li> <li>Liver diseases <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_fatty_liver_of_pregnancy" title="Acute fatty liver of pregnancy">Acute fatty liver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrahepatic_cholestasis_of_pregnancy" title="Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy">Intrahepatic cholestasis</a></li></ul></li> <li>Infections <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV_and_pregnancy" title="HIV and pregnancy">HIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_in_pregnancy" title="COVID-19 in pregnancy">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HCV_in_children_and_pregnancy" title="HCV in children and pregnancy">Hepatitis C</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy-associated_malaria" title="Pregnancy-associated malaria">Malaria</a></li></ul></li> <li>Skin diseases <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lupus_and_pregnancy" title="Lupus and pregnancy">Lupus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pruritic_folliculitis_of_pregnancy" title="Pruritic folliculitis of pregnancy">Pruritic folliculitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dermatoses_of_pregnancy" title="Dermatoses of pregnancy">Dermatoses</a></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drugs_in_pregnancy" title="Drugs in pregnancy">Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_flora_in_pregnancy" title="Vaginal flora in pregnancy">Vaginal flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_bleeding" title="Obstetrical bleeding">Bleeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_vehicle_emissions_and_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy">Motor vehicle emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-existing_disease_in_pregnancy" title="Pre-existing disease in pregnancy">Pre-existing disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_and_sleep" title="Pregnancy and sleep">Sleep</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Procedures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">Amniocentesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiotocography" title="Cardiotocography">Cardiotocography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">Chorionic villus sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonstress_test" title="Nonstress test">Nonstress test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_period" title="Postpartum period">Postpartum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maternal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lochia" title="Lochia">Lochia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_care" title="Postpartum care">Postpartum care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_depression" title="Postpartum depression">Postpartum depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_confinement" title="Postpartum confinement">Postpartum confinement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_after_pregnancy" title="Sex after pregnancy">Sex after pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_disorders_of_childbirth" title="Psychiatric disorders of childbirth">Psychiatric disorders of childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_physiological_changes" title="Postpartum physiological changes">Postpartum physiological changes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doula" title="Doula">Doula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_visitor" title="Health visitor">Health visitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactation_consultant" title="Lactation consultant">Lactation consultant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monthly_nurse" title="Monthly nurse">Monthly nurse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanny#Maternity_nurse_/_newborn_care_specialists_/_confinement_nanny" title="Nanny">Confinement nanny</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infant</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation_to_extrauterine_life" title="Adaptation to extrauterine life">Adaptation to extrauterine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apgar_score" title="Apgar score">Apgar score</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_care" title="Child care">Child care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_defect" title="Birth defect">Congenital disorders</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Obstetric history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravidity_and_parity" title="Gravidity and parity">Gravidity and parity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sexual_and_reproductive_health" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_reproductive_health" title="Template:Human reproductive health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_reproductive_health" title="Template talk:Human reproductive health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_reproductive_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human reproductive health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sexual_and_reproductive_health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Rights</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive Justice">Reproductive Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraceptive_security" title="Contraceptive security">Contraceptive security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion-rights_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="Abortion-rights movements">Abortion-rights movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodily_integrity#Genital_integrity" title="Bodily integrity">Genital integrity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circumcision_controversies" title="Circumcision controversies">Circumcision controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">Sex education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_counseling" title="Genetic counseling">Genetic counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-conception_counseling" title="Pre-conception counseling">Pre-conception counseling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_childlessness" title="Voluntary childlessness">Childfreeness</a>/<a href="/wiki/Childlessness" title="Childlessness">childlessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_spacing" title="Birth spacing">Birth spacing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">Parenting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster_care" title="Foster care">foster care</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperm_theft" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperm theft">Sperm theft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Birth_Control" class="mw-redirect" title="Birth Control">Contraception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hormonal_contraception" title="Hormonal contraception">Hormonal contraception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_contraceptive" title="Male contraceptive">Male contraception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condom" title="Condom">Condom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrauterine_device" title="Intrauterine device">Intrauterine device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(medicine)" title="Sterilization (medicine)">Sterilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">Assisted<br />reproduction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="In vitro fertilization">In vitro fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intracytoplasmic_sperm_injection" title="Intracytoplasmic sperm injection">ICSI</a></li> <li>Gamete Cryopreservation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oocyte_cryopreservation" title="Oocyte cryopreservation">Egg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semen_cryopreservation" title="Semen cryopreservation">Sperm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperm_bank" title="Sperm bank">Sperm bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_fraud" title="Fertility fraud">fertility fraud</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Men%27s_health" title="Men's health">Men's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health">Women's</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vulvovaginal_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulvovaginal health">vulvovaginal</a></li></ul></li> <li>Research <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-report_sexual_risk_behaviors" title="Self-report sexual risk behaviors">self-report sexual risk behaviors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancy" title="Unintended pregnancy">Unintended pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_options_counseling" title="Pregnancy options counseling">Options counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_from_rape" title="Pregnancy from rape">Pregnancy from rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnant_patients%27_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Pregnant patients' rights">Pregnant patients' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care" title="Prenatal care">Prenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teenage_pregnancy" title="Teenage pregnancy">Teenage pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Precocious_puberty_and_pregnancy" title="Category:Precocious puberty and pregnancy">Precocious puberty and pregnancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Identity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">Gender identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation" title="Sexual orientation">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">Transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Genitourinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecology" title="Gynaecology">Gynaecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrics and gynaecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_medicine" title="Sexual medicine">Sexual medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_health_care" title="Transgender health care">Transgender health care</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disorders_of_sex_development" title="Disorders of sex development">Disorders of sex development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">Infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system_disease" title="Reproductive system disease">Reproductive system disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dysfunction" title="Sexual dysfunction">Sexual dysfunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_health_clinic" title="Sexual health clinic">clinic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_dysphoria" title="Gender dysphoria">Gender dysphoria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_in_India" title="Family planning in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_in_Iran" title="Family planning in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraception_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Contraception in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_in_Pakistan" title="Family planning in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsible_Parenthood_and_Reproductive_Health_Act_of_2012" title="Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_planning_in_Singapore" title="Population planning in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teenage_pregnancy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Teenage pregnancy in the United Kingdom">teen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_in_the_United_States" title="Family planning in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teenage_pregnancy_in_the_United_States" title="Teenage pregnancy in the United States">teen pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">birth control</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control movement in the United States">Birth control movement in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_condoms" title="History of condoms">History of condoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_reproductive_rights_legislation" title="Timeline of reproductive rights legislation">Timeline of reproductive rights legislation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">One-child policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-child_policy" title="Two-child policy">Two-child policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-child_policy" title="Three-child policy">Three-child policy</a></li> <li>Financial <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baby_bonus" title="Baby bonus">baby bonus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_tax" title="Bachelor tax">bachelor tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_benefit" title="Child benefit">child benefit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_on_childlessness" title="Tax on childlessness">tax on childlessness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20862341#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20862341#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20862341#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph182398&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000129035&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007554060305171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&oldid=1252604452">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&oldid=1252604452</a>"</div></div> 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