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class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evolution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Historical development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microorganisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microorganisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Microorganisms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Microorganisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Microorganisms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Microorganisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marine_viruses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_viruses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Marine viruses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_viruses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_bacteria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_bacteria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Marine bacteria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_bacteria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_archaea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_archaea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Marine archaea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_archaea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_protists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_protists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Marine protists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_protists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_microanimals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_microanimals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Marine microanimals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_microanimals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fungi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fungi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Fungi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fungi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_of_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_of_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Origin of animals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origin_of_animals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origin of animals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origin_of_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Body_plans_and_phyla" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Body_plans_and_phyla"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Body plans and phyla</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Body_plans_and_phyla-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earliest_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earliest_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Earliest animals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earliest_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marine_sponges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_sponges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Marine sponges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_sponges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ctenophores" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ctenophores"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Ctenophores</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ctenophores-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Placozoa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Placozoa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.3</span> <span>Placozoa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Placozoa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_cnidarians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_cnidarians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.4</span> <span>Marine cnidarians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_cnidarians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bilateral_invertebrate_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bilateral_invertebrate_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Bilateral invertebrate animals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bilateral_invertebrate_animals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bilateral invertebrate animals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bilateral_invertebrate_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Protostomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protostomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Protostomes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protostomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marine_worms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_worms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Marine worms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_worms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_molluscs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_molluscs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Marine molluscs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_molluscs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_arthropods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_arthropods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.3</span> <span>Marine arthropods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_arthropods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deuterostomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deuterostomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Deuterostomes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deuterostomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Echinoderms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Echinoderms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>Echinoderms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Echinoderms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hemichordates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hemichordates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.2</span> <span>Hemichordates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hemichordates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_chordates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_chordates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.3</span> <span>Marine chordates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_chordates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vertebrate_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vertebrate_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Vertebrate animals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vertebrate_animals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Vertebrate animals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Vertebrate_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marine_fish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_fish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Marine fish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_fish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jawless_fish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jawless_fish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Jawless fish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jawless_fish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cartilaginous_fish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cartilaginous_fish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>Cartilaginous fish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cartilaginous_fish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bony_fish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bony_fish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.3</span> <span>Bony fish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bony_fish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Teleosts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Teleosts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.4</span> <span>Teleosts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Teleosts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_tetrapods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_tetrapods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Marine tetrapods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_tetrapods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reptiles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reptiles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Reptiles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reptiles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Birds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>Birds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mammals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mammals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.3</span> <span>Mammals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mammals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_producers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_producers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Primary producers</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Primary_producers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Primary producers subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Primary_producers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cyanobacteria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cyanobacteria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Cyanobacteria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cyanobacteria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Algae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Algae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Algae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Algae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_of_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_of_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Origin of plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_of_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plankton_and_trophic_interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plankton_and_trophic_interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Plankton and trophic interactions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Plankton_and_trophic_interactions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Plankton and trophic interactions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Plankton_and_trophic_interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phytoplankton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phytoplankton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Phytoplankton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phytoplankton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zooplankton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zooplankton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Zooplankton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zooplankton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mixotrophic_plankton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mixotrophic_plankton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Mixotrophic plankton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mixotrophic_plankton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_food_web" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_food_web"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Marine food web</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_food_web-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Other interactions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_interactions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other interactions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biogeochemical_cycles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biogeochemical_cycles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Biogeochemical cycles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biogeochemical_cycles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sediments_and_biogenic_ooze" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sediments_and_biogenic_ooze"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Sediments and biogenic ooze</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sediments_and_biogenic_ooze-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Land_interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Land interactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anthropogenic_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthropogenic_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Anthropogenic impacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anthropogenic_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biodiversity_and_extinction_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodiversity_and_extinction_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Biodiversity and extinction events</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biodiversity_and_extinction_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Investigating_and_Exploring_Marine_Life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Investigating_and_Exploring_Marine_Life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Investigating and Exploring Marine Life</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Investigating_and_Exploring_Marine_Life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Investigating and Exploring Marine Life subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Investigating_and_Exploring_Marine_Life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Research_and_study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_and_study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Research and study</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_and_study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span 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href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Морско биологично разнообразие – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Морско биологично разнообразие" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havliv" title="Havliv – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Havliv" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vida_marina" title="Vida marina – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Vida marina" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="زندگی دریایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زندگی دریایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversit%C3%A9_marine" title="Biodiversité marine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Biodiversité marine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EC%96%91_%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC" title="해양 생물 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해양 생물" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biota_laut" title="Biota laut – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Biota laut" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%97%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="צורות חיים ימיות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="צורות חיים ימיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BD%D1%8C" title="Морская жизнь – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Морская жизнь" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeta_detare" title="Jeta detare – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Jeta detare" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDivljenje_v_oceanih" title="Življenje v oceanih – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Življenje v oceanih" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Морски живот – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Морски живот" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meriel%C3%A4m%C3%A4" title="Merielämä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Merielämä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deniz_ya%C5%9Fam%C4%B1" title="Deniz yaşamı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Deniz yaşamı" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Organisms that live in salt water</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Sealife" redirects here. For the aquarium attractions operated by <a href="/wiki/Merlin_Entertainments" title="Merlin Entertainments">Merlin Entertainments</a>, see <a href="/wiki/Sea_Life" title="Sea Life">Sea Life</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Too_many_photos plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Image_cancel.svg/40px-Image_cancel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Image_cancel.svg/60px-Image_cancel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Image_cancel.svg/80px-Image_cancel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="32" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>contains too many pictures for its overall length</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Marine_life" title="Talk:Marine life">talk page</a>. Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit">improve this article</a> by removing <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:GALLERY" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:GALLERY">indiscriminate collections of images</a> or adjusting images that are <a href="/wiki/MOS:SANDWICH" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS:SANDWICH">sandwiching text</a> in accordance with the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Images" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Images">Manual of Style on use of images</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series of overviews on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#82C3D8; padding:0.2em; font-size:160%; font-weight:bold;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Marine life</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Dolphin.svg/90px-Dolphin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Dolphin.svg/135px-Dolphin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Dolphin.svg/180px-Dolphin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></span></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Habitats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Microorganisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microbiome" title="Marine microbiome">Microbiomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Prokaryotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">Protists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">Invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine vertebrates">Vertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">Primary production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">Carbon pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biogeochemical_cycles" title="Marine biogeochemical cycles">Biogeochemical cycles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Human impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Conservation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: #82C3D8; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Yellow.tang.arp.jpg/16px-Yellow.tang.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Yellow.tang.arp.jpg/24px-Yellow.tang.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Yellow.tang.arp.jpg/32px-Yellow.tang.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1315" data-file-height="1039" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Marine_life" title="Portal:Marine life">Marine life portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Marine_life_sidebar" title="Template:Marine life sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Marine_life_sidebar" title="Template talk:Marine life sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Marine_life_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Marine life sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:General_characteristics_of_a_large_marine_ecosystem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/General_characteristics_of_a_large_marine_ecosystem.jpg/400px-General_characteristics_of_a_large_marine_ecosystem.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/General_characteristics_of_a_large_marine_ecosystem.jpg/600px-General_characteristics_of_a_large_marine_ecosystem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/General_characteristics_of_a_large_marine_ecosystem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption>General characteristics of a <a href="/wiki/Large_marine_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Large marine ecosystem">large marine ecosystem</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Alaska" title="Gulf of Alaska">Gulf of Alaska</a>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orca_porpoising.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Orca_porpoising.jpg/330px-Orca_porpoising.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Orca_porpoising.jpg/495px-Orca_porpoising.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Orca_porpoising.jpg/660px-Orca_porpoising.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="471" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Killer_whale" class="mw-redirect" title="Killer whale">Killer whales</a> (orcas) are highly visible marine <a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">apex predators</a> that hunt many large species. But most biological activity in the ocean takes place with <a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine microorganism">microscopic marine organisms</a> that cannot be seen individually with the naked eye, such as <a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteria">marine bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_phytoplankton" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cavicchioli_2019_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cavicchioli_2019-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Marine life</b>, <b>sea life</b> or <b>ocean life</b> is the collective <a href="/wiki/Ecological_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological communities">ecological communities</a> that encompass all <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal">aquatic animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_plant" title="Aquatic plant">plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">protists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Single-celled" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-celled">single-celled</a> <a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">microorganisms</a> and associated <a href="/wiki/Marine_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine virus">viruses</a> living in the <a href="/wiki/Saline_water" title="Saline water">saline water</a> of <a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a>, either the <a href="/wiki/Sea_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea water">sea water</a> of <a href="/wiki/Marginal_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea">marginal seas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">oceans</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Brackish_water" title="Brackish water">brackish water</a> of <a href="/wiki/Coast" title="Coast">coastal</a> <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">lagoons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">estuaries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inland_sea" title="Inland sea">inland seas</a>. As of 2023<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, more than 242,000 marine <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> have been documented, and perhaps two million marine species are yet to be documented. An average of 2,332 new species per year are being described.<sup id="cite_ref-Drogin_2009_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drogin_2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marine life is studied scientifically in both <a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">marine biology</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Biological_oceanography" title="Biological oceanography">biological oceanography</a>. </p><p>By volume, oceans provide about 90% of the living space on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA2019_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA2019-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and served as the <a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Cradle of life">cradle of life</a> and vital biotic sanctuaries throughout <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_geological_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's geological history">Earth's geological history</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">earliest known life forms</a> evolved as <a href="/wiki/Anaerobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaerobe">anaerobic</a> <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a> oceans around the <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">deep sea</a> <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a>, before <a href="/wiki/Photoautotroph" title="Photoautotroph">photoautotrophs</a> appeared and allowed the <a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">microbial mats</a> to expand into <a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_marine_environment" title="Shallow water marine environment">shallow water marine environments</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Oxygenation_Event" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Oxygenation Event">Great Oxygenation Event</a> of the early <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a> significantly altered the <a href="/wiki/Marine_chemistry" title="Marine chemistry">marine chemistry</a>, which likely caused a widespread anaerobe <a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">extinction event</a> but also led to the <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> through <a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a> between surviving anaerobes and <a href="/wiki/Aerobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerobe">aerobes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Complex_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex life">Complex life</a> eventually arose out of marine eukaryotes during the <a href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" title="Neoproterozoic">Neoproterozoic</a>, and which culminated in a large <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_radiation" title="Evolutionary radiation">evolutionary radiation</a> event of <a href="/wiki/Edicaran_biota" class="mw-redirect" title="Edicaran biota">mostly sessile macrofaunae</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Avalon_Explosion" class="mw-redirect" title="Avalon Explosion">Avalon Explosion</a>. This was followed in the early <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a> by a more prominent radiation event known as the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_Explosion" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambrian Explosion">Cambrian Explosion</a>, where actively moving <a href="/wiki/Eumetazoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Eumetazoan">eumetazoan</a> became prevalent. These marine life also expanded into <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">fresh waters</a>, where fungi and <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a> that were washed ashore onto <a href="/wiki/Riparian_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Riparian area">riparian areas</a> started to take hold later during the <a href="/wiki/Ordivician" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordivician">Ordivician</a> before <a href="/wiki/Silurian-Devonian_Terrestrial_Revolution" title="Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution">rapidly expanding inland</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a>, paving the way for <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystem" title="Terrestrial ecosystem">terrestrial ecosystems</a> to develop. </p><p>Today, marine species range in size from the microscopic <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>, which can be as small as 0.02–<a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">micrometres</a>; to huge <a href="/wiki/Cetacean" class="mw-redirect" title="Cetacean">cetaceans</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Blue_whale" title="Blue whale">blue whale</a>, which can reach 33 m (108 ft) in length.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marine microorganisms have been variously estimated as constituting about 70%<sup id="cite_ref-Bar-On_2018_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bar-On_2018-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or about 90%<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cavicchioli_2019_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cavicchioli_2019-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the total marine <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a>. <a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">Marine primary producers</a>, mainly <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplastic</a> <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_cycle" title="Oxygen cycle">produce oxygen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">sequester carbon</a> via <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, which generate enormous biomass and significantly influence the <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">atmospheric chemistry</a>. <a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">Migratory</a> species, such as <a href="/wiki/Oceanodromous" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanodromous">oceanodromous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anadromous" class="mw-redirect" title="Anadromous">anadromous</a> <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, also create biomass and <a href="/wiki/Biological_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological energy">biological energy</a> transfer between different regions of Earth, with many serving as <a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">keystone species</a> of various ecosystems. At a fundamental level, marine life affects the nature of the planet, and in part, shape and protect shorelines, and some marine organisms (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>) even help create new <a href="/wiki/Land" title="Land">land</a> via accumulated <a href="/wiki/Reef" title="Reef">reef</a>-building. </p><p>Marine life can be roughly grouped into <a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotrophs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">heterotrophs</a> according to their roles within the <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food web</a>: the former include photosynthetic and the much rarer <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemosynthetic">chemosynthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chemoautotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoautotroph">chemoautotrophs</a>) that can convert <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_molecule" class="mw-redirect" title="Inorganic molecule">inorganic molecules</a> into <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a> using energy from <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> or <a href="/wiki/Exothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Exothermic">exothermic</a> <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a>, such as cyanobacteria, <a href="/wiki/Iron-oxidizing_bacteria" title="Iron-oxidizing bacteria">iron-oxidizing bacteria</a>, algae (<a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">seaweeds</a> and various <a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">microalgae</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">seagrass</a>; the latter include all the rest that must <a href="/wiki/Feeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Feeding">feed</a> on other organisms to acquire <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a> and energy, which include animals, fungi, protists and non-photosynthetic microorganisms. Marine animals are further informally divided into <a href="/wiki/Marine_vertebrate" title="Marine vertebrate">marine vertebrates</a> and marine <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>, both of which are <a href="/wiki/Polyphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphyletic">polyphyletic</a> groupings with the former including all <a href="/wiki/Saltwater_fish" title="Saltwater fish">saltwater fish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">marine mammals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">marine reptiles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">seabirds</a>, and the latter include all that are not considered <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>. Generally, marine vertebrates are much more <a href="/wiki/Nekton" title="Nekton">nektonic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metabolic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabolic">metabolically</a> demanding of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and nutrients, often suffering distress or even <a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">mass dyings</a> (a.k.a. "<a href="/wiki/Fish_kill" title="Fish kill">fish kills</a>") during <a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">anoxic events</a>, while marine invertebrates are a lot more <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">hypoxia</a>-tolerant and exhibit a wide range of morphological and physiological modifications to survive in <a href="/wiki/Anoxic_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Anoxic water">poorly oxygenated waters</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water">Water</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Water"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth_elevation_histogram_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Earth_elevation_histogram_2.svg/290px-Earth_elevation_histogram_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Earth_elevation_histogram_2.svg/435px-Earth_elevation_histogram_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Earth_elevation_histogram_2.svg/580px-Earth_elevation_histogram_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="582" data-file-height="441" /></a><figcaption>Elevation histogram showing the percentage of the Earth's surface above and below sea level</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">Hydrosphere</a></div> <p>There is no life without water.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been described as the <i>universal solvent</i> for its ability to <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">dissolve</a> many substances,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as the <i>solvent of life</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Water is the only common substance to exist as a <a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">solid</a>, liquid, and <a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">gas</a> under conditions normal to life on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize</a> winner <a href="/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyi" title="Albert Szent-Györgyi">Albert Szent-Györgyi</a> referred to water as the <i>mater und matrix</i>: the mother and womb of life.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Composition_of_seawater.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Composition_of_seawater.jpg/290px-Composition_of_seawater.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Composition_of_seawater.jpg/435px-Composition_of_seawater.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Composition_of_seawater.jpg 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="280" /></a><figcaption>Composition of seawater. Quantities in relation to 1 kg or 1 litre of sea water.</figcaption></figure> <p>The abundance of surface water on Earth is a unique feature in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>. Earth's <a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">hydrosphere</a> consists chiefly of the oceans but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft). The deepest underwater location is <a href="/wiki/Challenger_Deep" title="Challenger Deep">Challenger Deep</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>, having a depth of 10,900 metres (6.8 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-trench_depth_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trench_depth-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kaiko7000_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kaiko7000-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Conventionally, the planet is divided into five separate oceans, but these oceans all connect into a single <a href="/wiki/World_ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="World ocean">world ocean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mass of this world ocean is 1.35<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7001180000000000000♠"></span>18</span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Metric_ton" class="mw-redirect" title="Metric ton">metric tons</a> or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The world ocean covers an area of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7014361800000000000♠"></span>3.618<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>8</sup> km<sup>2</sup></span> with a mean depth of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003368200000000000♠"></span>3682 m</span>, resulting in an estimated volume of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7018133200000000000♠"></span>1.332<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>9</sup> km<sup>3</sup></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Charette_2010_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charette_2010-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If all of Earth's crustal surface was at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be about 2.7 kilometres (1.7 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagram_of_the_Water_Cycle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Diagram_of_the_Water_Cycle.jpg/220px-Diagram_of_the_Water_Cycle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Diagram_of_the_Water_Cycle.jpg/330px-Diagram_of_the_Water_Cycle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Diagram_of_the_Water_Cycle.jpg/440px-Diagram_of_the_Water_Cycle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The Earth's <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a></figcaption></figure> <p>About 97.5% of the water on Earth is <a href="/wiki/Saline_water" title="Saline water">saline</a>; the remaining 2.5% is <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a>. Most fresh water – about 69% – is present as ice in <a href="/wiki/Ice_cap" title="Ice cap">ice caps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams (1.2 oz) of salt per kilogram of seawater (3.5% salt).<sup id="cite_ref-Kennish_2001_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennish_2001-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the salt in the ocean comes from the weathering and erosion of rocks on land.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some salts are released from <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanic activity</a> or extracted from cool <a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">igneous rocks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mullen_2002_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullen_2002-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_2007_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris_2007-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large <a href="/wiki/Heat_reservoir" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat reservoir">heat reservoir</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Michon_2006_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michon_2006-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o-Southern_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño-Southern Oscillation">El Niño-Southern Oscillation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sample_2005_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sample_2005-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA19048_realistic_color_Europa_mosaic_edited.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/PIA19048_realistic_color_Europa_mosaic_edited.jpg/220px-PIA19048_realistic_color_Europa_mosaic_edited.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/PIA19048_realistic_color_Europa_mosaic_edited.jpg/330px-PIA19048_realistic_color_Europa_mosaic_edited.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/PIA19048_realistic_color_Europa_mosaic_edited.jpg/440px-PIA19048_realistic_color_Europa_mosaic_edited.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3680" data-file-height="2720" /></a><figcaption>Jupiter's moon <a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a> may have an <a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_liquid_water#Europa" title="Extraterrestrial liquid water">underground ocean</a> which <a href="/wiki/Planetary_habitability_in_the_Solar_System#Europa" title="Planetary habitability in the Solar System">supports life</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Altogether the ocean occupies 71 percent of the world surface,<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA2019_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA2019-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> averaging nearly 3.7 kilometres (2.3 mi) in depth.<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA2015_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA2015-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By volume, the ocean provides about 90 percent of the living space on the planet.<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA2019_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA2019-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The science fiction writer <a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke" title="Arthur C. Clarke">Arthur C. Clarke</a> has pointed out it would be more appropriate to refer to planet Earth as planet Ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, water is found elsewhere in the Solar System. <a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a>, one of the moons orbiting <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>, is slightly smaller than the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Earth's Moon</a>. There is a strong possibility a large saltwater ocean exists beneath its ice surface.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA-20150512_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20150512-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been estimated the outer crust of solid ice is about 10–30 km (6–19 mi) thick and the liquid ocean underneath is about 100 km (60 mi) deep.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This would make Europa's ocean over twice the volume of the Earth's ocean. There has been speculation Europa's ocean <a href="/wiki/Life_on_Europa" class="mw-redirect" title="Life on Europa">could support life</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Tritt_2002_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tritt_2002-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schulze-Makuch_2001_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schulze-Makuch_2001-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and could be capable of supporting multicellular <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> if <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a> are active on the ocean floor.<sup id="cite_ref-EuropaPlanetary_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EuropaPlanetary-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Enceladus" title="Enceladus">Enceladus</a>, a small icy moon of Saturn, also has what appears to be <a href="/wiki/Enceladus#Subsurface_water_ocean" title="Enceladus">an underground ocean</a> which actively vents warm water from the moon's surface.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table id="Container" role="presentation" class="nomobile toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:29.760em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 0 1em"><div style="background-color:#77bb77;padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Life timeline</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" id="Navbox" style="padding:0;margin:0 1em 0 0;text-align:right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><span>This box: </span><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_timeline" title="Template:Life timeline"><span title="View this template">view</span></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life_timeline" title="Template talk:Life timeline"><span title="Discuss this template">talk</span></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life_timeline" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life timeline"><span title="Edit this template">edit</span></a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:50em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:49.67em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:48.63em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:47.58em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:46.53em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.47em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:44.40em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:43.32em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:42.23em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:41.14em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:40.03em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:38.91em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:37.78em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:36.65em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:35.49em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:34.33em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:33.15em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:31.96em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.76em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:29.53em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:28.29em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.04em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:25.76em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:24.46em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:23.14em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:21.79em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.41em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:19.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.56em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:16.08em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:14.54em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.96em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:11.30em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:9.56em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:7.70em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.68em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:3.38em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:13em;height:50em;float:left;border:none"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e5cc7f;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:50.000em;left:0.910em;width:12.090em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-25.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#aebfd1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:45.470em;height:3.469em;left:1.040em;width:11.960em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.735em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Water</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#aebfd1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:45.470em;left:1.040em;width:0.130em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-22.735em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3d9ff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:41.137em;height:4.333em;left:1.170em;width:11.830em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.167em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">Single-celled life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3d9ff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:41.137em;left:1.170em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-20.568em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:28.044em;height:13.093em;left:1.430em;width:11.570em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.546em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_photosynthesis" title="Evolution of photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:28.044em;left:1.430em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-14.022em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3ffea;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:22.870em;height:5.174em;left:1.690em;width:11.310em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.587em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3ffea;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:22.870em;left:1.690em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-11.435em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccffe7;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:10.141em;height:12.729em;left:1.950em;width:11.050em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.365em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellular life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccffe7;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:10.141em;left:1.950em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.070em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#77dd00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:4.443em;height:9.789em;left:2.210em;width:1.170em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.894em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;">P<br />l<br />a<br />n<br />t<br />s</span></a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#77dd00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:4.443em;left:2.210em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.221em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:4.808em;height:5.333em;left:3.380em;width:9.620em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.667em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a> <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Molluscs</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffff00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:4.443em;left:2.470em;width:3.510em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.53em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.221em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant#Evolutionary_history" title="Flowering plant">Flowers</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e6b880;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:2.081em;height:4.435em;left:3.380em;width:5.070em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.218em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffcc00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:4.808em;left:8.580em;width:4.420em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.404em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffcc00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.826em;height:2.982em;left:8.450em;width:4.290em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.15em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:87%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.491em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammals</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e6b880;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:3.298em;left:5.980em;width:2.600em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.225em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.649em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Birds</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffbbbb;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.826em;left:8.710em;width:4.030em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.1em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.913em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">Primates</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#993c00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:45.470em;height:4.530em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.05em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.265em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.80em;"><a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean"><span style="color:#ffffff;">H<br />a<br />d<br />e<br />a<br />n</span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#936a00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:31.962em;height:13.508em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-1.2em;left:-0.05em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.754em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean"><span style="color:#ffffff;"><br /><br /><br />A<br />r<br />c<br />h<br />e<br />a<br />n</span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#f1c309;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:10.141em;height:21.821em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-10.911em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />P<br />r<br />o<br />t<br />e<br />r<br />o<br />z<br />o<br />i<br />c</a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#c1e0c1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:10.141em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.25em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.070em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">P<br />h<br />a<br />n<br />e<br />r<br />o<br />z<br />o<br />i<br />c</a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:12.956em;left:12.714em;width:0.286em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.478em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:4.808em;left:12.714em;width:0.286em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.404em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:10.860em;height:50em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:50.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">Earth formed</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:48.922em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Earliest water</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:48.422em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">LUCA</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:45.470em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest fossils</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:44.615em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">LHB meteorites</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:41.137em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_oxygen" title="Geological history of oxygen">Earliest oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:35.170em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Pongola_glaciation" title="Pongola glaciation">Pongola glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:30.024em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event" title="Great Oxidation Event">Atmospheric oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:29.534em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Huronian_glaciation" title="Huronian glaciation">Huronian glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:27.037em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction#Origin_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:28.044em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Francevillian_biota" title="Francevillian biota">Multicellular life</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:21.789em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Earliest fungi</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:14.231em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Earliest plants</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:12.956em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Caveasphaera" title="Caveasphaera">Earliest animals</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:12.038em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cryogenian" title="Cryogenian">Cryogenian ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:11.436em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ediacaran_biota" title="Ediacaran biota">Ediacaran biota</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:10.141em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.15em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.833em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Hirnantian_glaciation" title="Hirnantian glaciation">Hirnantian ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:7.627em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">Earliest tetrapods</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:6.517em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Late_Paleozoic_icehouse" title="Late Paleozoic icehouse">Karoo ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.887em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Hominoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominoid">Earliest hominoid</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.129em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation" title="Quaternary glaciation">Quaternary ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:26.000em"><div style="float:left;font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Myr" class="mw-redirect" title="Myr">million years ago</a>)</div><div style="float:right;font-size:95%;">*<i><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_glaciation" title="Timeline of glaciation">Ice Ages</a></i></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">Evolutionary history of life</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolutionary history of life</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_development">Historical development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Historical development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of the Earth">Earth</a> is about 4.54 billion years old.<sup id="cite_ref-USGS1997_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS1997-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dalrymple_2001_205–221_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dalrymple_2001_205–221-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Manhes_1980_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manhes_1980-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest undisputed evidence of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life on Earth</a> dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago,<sup id="cite_ref-Schopf_2007_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schopf_2007-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Raven_Johnson_2002_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raven_Johnson_2002-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> during the <a href="/wiki/Eoarchean" title="Eoarchean">Eoarchean</a> era after a geological <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> started to solidify following the earlier molten <a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Hadean</a> Eon. <a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a> <a href="/wiki/Fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossils">fossils</a> have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a> in <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other early physical evidence of a <a href="/wiki/Biogenic_substance" title="Biogenic substance">biogenic substance</a> is <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> in 3.7 billion-year-old <a href="/wiki/Metasediment" class="mw-redirect" title="Metasediment">metasedimentary rocks</a> discovered in <a href="/wiki/Western_Greenland" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Greenland">Western Greenland</a><sup id="cite_ref-Ohtomo_2014_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohtomo_2014-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as "remains of <a href="/wiki/Biotic_material" title="Biotic material">biotic life</a>" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-Borenstein_2015_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borenstein_2015-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bell_2015_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bell_2015-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Borenstein_2015_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borenstein_2015-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All organisms on Earth are descended from a <a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">common ancestor</a> or ancestral <a href="/wiki/Gene_pool" title="Gene pool">gene pool</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Penny_1999_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Penny_1999-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Highly energetic chemistry is thought to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago, and half a billion years later the <a href="/wiki/Last_universal_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Last universal ancestor">last common ancestor of all life</a> existed.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolittle_2000_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolittle_2000-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The current scientific consensus is that the complex biochemistry that makes up life came from simpler chemical reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The beginning of life may have included self-replicating molecules such as <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the assembly of simple cells.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2016 scientists reported a set of 355 <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">last universal common ancestor</a> (LUCA) of all <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a>, including microorganisms, living on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20160725_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20160725-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Current species are a stage in the process of evolution, with their diversity the product of a long series of speciation and extinction events.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation. Second, the diversity of life is not a set of unique organisms, but organisms that share <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">morphological similarities</a>. Third, vestigial traits with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits and finally, that organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups—similar to a family tree.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, modern research has suggested that, due to <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer_in_evolution" title="Horizontal gene transfer in evolution">horizontal gene transfer</a>, this "tree of life" may be more complicated than a simple branching tree since some genes have spread independently between distantly related species.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Past species have also left records of their evolutionary history. Fossils, along with the comparative anatomy of present-day organisms, constitute the morphological, or anatomical, record.<sup id="cite_ref-Jablonski_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jablonski-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, paleontologists can infer the lineages of those species. However, this approach is most successful for organisms that had hard body parts, such as shells, bones or teeth. Further, as prokaryotes such as bacteria and archaea share a limited set of common morphologies, their fossils do not provide information on their ancestry. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left noresize" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png/320px-Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png/480px-Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png/640px-Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png 2x" data-file-width="1122" data-file-height="741" usemap="#ImageMap_0a164291f73509fe" resource="/wiki/File:Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png" /></span><map name="ImageMap_0a164291f73509fe"><area href="/wiki/Euryarchaeota" shape="rect" coords="25,151,90,160" alt="Euryarchaeota" title="Euryarchaeota" /><area href="/wiki/Nanoarchaeota" shape="rect" coords="15,132,83,140" alt="Nanoarchaeota" title="Nanoarchaeota" /><area href="/wiki/Thermoproteota" shape="rect" coords="13,116,79,124" alt="Thermoproteota" title="Thermoproteota" /><area href="/wiki/Protozoa" shape="rect" coords="33,88,73,95" alt="Protozoa" title="Protozoa" /><area href="/wiki/Algae" shape="rect" coords="56,57,81,66" alt="Algae" title="Algae" /><area href="/wiki/Plant" shape="rect" coords="64,43,91,50" alt="Plant" title="Plant" /><area href="/wiki/Slime_molds" shape="rect" coords="47,31,108,38" alt="Slime molds" title="Slime molds" /><area href="/wiki/Animal" shape="rect" coords="91,19,128,27" alt="Animal" title="Animal" /><area href="/wiki/Fungus" shape="rect" coords="133,17,158,26" alt="Fungus" title="Fungus" /><area href="/wiki/Gram-positive_bacteria" shape="rect" coords="163,14,231,23" alt="Gram-positive bacteria" title="Gram-positive bacteria" /><area href="/wiki/Chlamydiota" shape="rect" coords="175,25,228,34" alt="Chlamydiota" title="Chlamydiota" /><area href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" shape="rect" coords="193,38,305,46" alt="Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota" /><area href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" shape="rect" coords="215,53,280,60" alt="Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota" /><area href="/wiki/Planctomycetota" shape="rect" coords="229,68,300,77" alt="Planctomycetota" title="Planctomycetota" /><area href="/wiki/Spirochaetota" shape="rect" coords="233,85,292,94" alt="Spirochaetota" title="Spirochaetota" /><area href="/wiki/Fusobacteriota" shape="rect" coords="233,107,291,114" alt="Fusobacteriota" title="Fusobacteriota" /><area href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" shape="rect" coords="232,125,313,146" alt="Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria" /><area href="/wiki/Thermophiles" shape="rect" coords="220,150,293,168" alt="Thermophiles" title="Thermophiles" /><area href="/wiki/Acidobacteriota" shape="rect" coords="194,177,257,185" alt="Acidobacteriota" title="Acidobacteriota" /><area href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" shape="rect" coords="118,188,183,195" alt="Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota" /></map><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Evolutionary tree</a> showing the divergence of modern species from their common ancestor in the centre.<sup id="cite_ref-Ciccarelli_2006_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ciccarelli_2006-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The three <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">domains</a> are coloured, with <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> blue, <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> green and <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> red.</figcaption></figure> <p>More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical similarities between organisms. For example, all living cells use the same basic set of <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The development of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetics</a> has revealed the record of evolution left in organisms' genomes: dating when species diverged through the <a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">molecular clock</a> produced by mutations.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, these DNA sequence comparisons have revealed that humans and chimpanzees share 98% of their genomes and analysing the few areas where they differ helps shed light on when the common ancestor of these species existed.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prokaryotes inhabited the Earth from approximately 3–4 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Cavalier-Smith_2006_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cavalier-Smith_2006-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No obvious changes in <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a> or cellular organisation occurred in these organisms over the next few billion years.<sup id="cite_ref-Schopf_1994_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schopf_1994-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6 and 2.7 billion years ago. The next major change in cell structure came when bacteria were engulfed by eukaryotic cells, in a cooperative association called <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbiosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-rgruqh_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rgruqh-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dyall_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dyall-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The engulfed bacteria and the host cell then underwent coevolution, with the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria or <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenosome" title="Hydrogenosome">hydrogenosomes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another engulfment of <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacterial</a>-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_Living_Organisms_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Tree_of_Living_Organisms_2.png/290px-Tree_of_Living_Organisms_2.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Tree_of_Living_Organisms_2.png/435px-Tree_of_Living_Organisms_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Tree_of_Living_Organisms_2.png/580px-Tree_of_Living_Organisms_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1530" data-file-height="1533" /></a><figcaption>Phylogenetic and symbiogenetic tree of living organisms, showing a view of the origins of eukaryotes and prokaryotes</figcaption></figure> <p>The history of life was that of the <a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">unicellular</a> eukaryotes, prokaryotes and archaea until about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to appear in the oceans in the <a href="/wiki/Ediacara_biota" class="mw-redirect" title="Ediacara biota">Ediacaran</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-Cavalier-Smith_2006_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cavalier-Smith_2006-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular evolution">evolution of multicellularity</a> occurred in multiple independent events, in organisms as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">brown algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slime_mould" class="mw-redirect" title="Slime mould">slime moulds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Myxobacteria" title="Myxobacteria">myxobacteria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2016 scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called <a href="/wiki/GK-PID" class="mw-redirect" title="GK-PID">GK-PID</a> may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20160107_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20160107-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Soon after the emergence of these first multicellular organisms, a remarkable amount of biological diversity appeared over a span of about 10 million years, in an event called the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a>. Here, the majority of <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">types</a> of modern animals appeared in the fossil record, as well as unique lineages that subsequently became extinct.<sup id="cite_ref-Valentine_1999_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Valentine_1999-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> from photosynthesis.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>About 500 million years ago, plants and fungi started colonising the land. Evidence for the appearance of the first <a href="/wiki/Land_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Land plants">land plants</a> occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a>, around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=450">450</a> million years ago</span>, in the form of fossil spores.<sup id="cite_ref-Wellman2003_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wellman2003-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Land plants began to diversify in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Silurian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Silurian">Late Silurian</a>, from around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=430">430</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The colonisation of the land by plants was soon followed by <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a> and other animals.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">Insects</a> were particularly successful and even today make up the majority of animal species.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">Amphibians</a> first appeared around 364 million years ago, followed by early <a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">amniotes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> around 155 million years ago (both from "<a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptile</a>"-like lineages), <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> around 129 million years ago, <a href="/wiki/Homininae" title="Homininae">homininae</a> around 10 million years ago and <a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern humans">modern humans</a> around 250,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, despite the evolution of these large animals, smaller organisms similar to the types that evolved early in this process continue to be highly successful and dominate the Earth, with the majority of both biomass and species being prokaryotes.<sup id="cite_ref-Schloss_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schloss-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Estimates on the number of Earth's current <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> range from 10 million to 14 million,<sup id="cite_ref-MillerSpoolman2012_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MillerSpoolman2012-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described.<sup id="cite_ref-PLoS-20110823_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PLoS-20110823-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Microorganisms">Microorganisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Microorganisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:448px;max-width:448px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="text-align:center">microbial mats</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyanobacterial-algal_mat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Cyanobacterial-algal_mat.jpg/220px-Cyanobacterial-algal_mat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Cyanobacterial-algal_mat.jpg/330px-Cyanobacterial-algal_mat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Cyanobacterial-algal_mat.jpg/440px-Cyanobacterial-algal_mat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mats</a> are the earliest form of life on Earth for which there is good <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> evidence. The image shows a <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacterial" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanobacterial">cyanobacterial</a>-algal mat.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stromatolites_in_Sharkbay.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Stromatolites_in_Sharkbay.jpg/220px-Stromatolites_in_Sharkbay.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Stromatolites_in_Sharkbay.jpg/330px-Stromatolites_in_Sharkbay.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Stromatolites_in_Sharkbay.jpg/440px-Stromatolites_in_Sharkbay.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2440" data-file-height="1816" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Stromatolite" title="Stromatolite">Stromatolites</a> are formed from microbial mats as microbes slowly move upwards to avoid being smothered by sediment.</div></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine microorganism">Marine microorganism</a></div> <p>Microorganisms make up about 70% of the <a href="/wiki/Marine_biomass" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biomass">marine biomass</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bar-On_2018_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bar-On_2018-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganism</a>, or microbe, is a <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscopic</a> <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organism</a> too small to be recognised with the naked eye. It can be <a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">single-celled</a><sup id="cite_ref-Brock_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular</a>. Microorganisms are diverse and include all <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>, most <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>, and certain microscopic animals such as <a href="/wiki/Rotifer" title="Rotifer">rotifers</a>. </p><p>Many <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic_scale" title="Macroscopic scale">macroscopic</a> animals and <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> have microscopic <a href="/wiki/Juvenile_(organism)" title="Juvenile (organism)">juvenile stages</a>. Some microbiologists also classify <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> (and <a href="/wiki/Viroid" title="Viroid">viroids</a>) as microorganisms, but others consider these as nonliving.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid13481308_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid13481308-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Microorganisms are crucial to nutrient recycling in <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> as they act as <a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">decomposers</a>. Some microorganisms are <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogenic</a>, causing disease and even death in plants and animals.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As inhabitants of the largest environment on Earth, microbial marine systems drive changes in every global system. Microbes are responsible for virtually all the <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> that occurs in the ocean, as well as the cycling of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, other <a href="/wiki/Nutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrients">nutrients</a> and trace elements.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Relative_scale.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Relative_scale.svg/260px-Relative_scale.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Relative_scale.svg/390px-Relative_scale.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Relative_scale.svg/520px-Relative_scale.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="936" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption>The range of sizes shown by <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a> (bacteria and archaea) and <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> relative to those of other organisms and <a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">biomolecules</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1261294616">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto;display:table}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf p{padding-right:5px;padding-left:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR p{padding-left:5px;padding-right:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse p{padding-left:5px;padding-right:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><b><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine microorganisms</a></b> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="#Marine_viruses">Viruses</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bacteriophage2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Bacteriophage2.png/45px-Bacteriophage2.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="43" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Bacteriophage2.png/68px-Bacteriophage2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Bacteriophage2.png/90px-Bacteriophage2.png 2x" data-file-width="589" data-file-height="560" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Cellular_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular life">Cellular life</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Prokaryotes</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="#Marine_bacteria">Bacteria</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Prokaryote_cell.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Prokaryote_cell.svg/45px-Prokaryote_cell.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Prokaryote_cell.svg/68px-Prokaryote_cell.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Prokaryote_cell.svg/90px-Prokaryote_cell.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="910" data-file-height="1020" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="#Marine_archaea">Archaea</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Haloquadratum_walsbyi00_(cropped).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Haloquadratum_walsbyi00_%28cropped%29.png/25px-Haloquadratum_walsbyi00_%28cropped%29.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Haloquadratum_walsbyi00_%28cropped%29.png/38px-Haloquadratum_walsbyi00_%28cropped%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Haloquadratum_walsbyi00_%28cropped%29.png/50px-Haloquadratum_walsbyi00_%28cropped%29.png 2x" data-file-width="261" data-file-height="272" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotes">Eukaryotes</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="#Marine_protists">Protists</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Diatomee_-_Diatom_(fossile)_-_Stephanopyxis_sp._-_630x_(14117161428).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Diatomee_-_Diatom_%28fossile%29_-_Stephanopyxis_sp._-_630x_%2814117161428%29.jpg/55px-Diatomee_-_Diatom_%28fossile%29_-_Stephanopyxis_sp._-_630x_%2814117161428%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="55" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Diatomee_-_Diatom_%28fossile%29_-_Stephanopyxis_sp._-_630x_%2814117161428%29.jpg/83px-Diatomee_-_Diatom_%28fossile%29_-_Stephanopyxis_sp._-_630x_%2814117161428%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Diatomee_-_Diatom_%28fossile%29_-_Stephanopyxis_sp._-_630x_%2814117161428%29.jpg/110px-Diatomee_-_Diatom_%28fossile%29_-_Stephanopyxis_sp._-_630x_%2814117161428%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Microfungi" title="Microfungi">Microfungi</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg/25px-S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg/38px-S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg/50px-S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1560" data-file-height="1560" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="#Marine_microanimals">Microanimals</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2_(white_background).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2_%28white_background%29.png/40px-SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2_%28white_background%29.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2_%28white_background%29.png/60px-SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2_%28white_background%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2_%28white_background%29.png/80px-SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2_%28white_background%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1379" data-file-height="1205" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Microbial_Loop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Microbial_Loop.jpg/220px-Microbial_Loop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Microbial_Loop.jpg/330px-Microbial_Loop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Microbial_Loop.jpg/440px-Microbial_Loop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1008" data-file-height="1344" /></a><figcaption> Marine <a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">microbial loop</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Microscopic life undersea is diverse and still poorly understood, such as for the role of <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> in marine ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most marine viruses are <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophages</a>, which are harmless to plants and animals, but are essential to the regulation of saltwater and freshwater ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-Shors_2017_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shors_2017-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup> They infect and destroy bacteria in aquatic microbial communities, and are the most important mechanism of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">recycling carbon</a> in the marine environment. The organic molecules released from the dead bacterial cells stimulate fresh bacterial and algal growth.<sup id="cite_ref-Shors_2017_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shors_2017-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 593">: 593 </span></sup> Viral activity may also contribute to the <a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biological pump</a>, the process whereby <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> is <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">sequestered</a> in the deep ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17853907_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17853907-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg/290px-Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg/435px-Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg/580px-Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1271" /></a><figcaption> Sea spray containing marine microorganisms can be swept high into the atmosphere where they become <a href="/wiki/Aeroplankton" title="Aeroplankton">aeroplankton</a>, and can travel the globe before falling back to earth.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marine_critters.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Marine_critters.jpg/220px-Marine_critters.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Marine_critters.jpg/330px-Marine_critters.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Marine_critters.jpg/440px-Marine_critters.jpg 2x" data-file-width="615" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>Under a magnifier, a splash of seawater teems with life.</figcaption></figure> <p>A stream of airborne microorganisms circles the planet above weather systems but below commercial air lanes.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some peripatetic microorganisms are swept up from terrestrial dust storms, but most originate from marine microorganisms in <a href="/wiki/Sea_spray" title="Sea spray">sea spray</a>. In 2018, scientists reported that hundreds of millions of viruses and tens of millions of bacteria are deposited daily on every square meter around the planet.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ISME-2018_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISME-2018-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Microscopic organisms live throughout the <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>. The mass of <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryote</a> microorganisms — which includes bacteria and archaea, but not the nucleated <a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Eukaryotes" title="Microorganism">eukaryote microorganisms</a> — may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon (of the total biosphere <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">mass</a>, estimated at between 1 and 4 trillion tons).<sup id="cite_ref-AGCI-2014_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AGCI-2014-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Single-celled <a href="/wiki/Piezophile" title="Piezophile">barophilic</a> marine microbes have been found at a depth of 10,900 m (35,800 ft) in the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a>, the deepest spot in the Earth's oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-LS-20130317_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LS-20130317-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NG-20130317_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NG-20130317-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Microorganisms live inside rocks 580 m (1,900 ft) below the sea floor under 2,590 m (8,500 ft) of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States,<sup id="cite_ref-LS-20130317_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LS-20130317-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LS-20130314_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LS-20130314-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as 2,400 m (7,900 ft; 1.5 mi) beneath the seabed off Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC-20141215-RM_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-20141215-RM-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The greatest known temperature at which microbial life can exist is 122 °C (252 °F) (<i><a href="/wiki/Methanopyrus_kandleri" class="mw-redirect" title="Methanopyrus kandleri">Methanopyrus kandleri</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2014, scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living 800 m (2,600 ft) below the ice of <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NAT-20140820_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20140820-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FRB-20140820_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FRB-20140820-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one researcher, "You can find microbes everywhere — they're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are."<sup id="cite_ref-LS-20130317_97-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LS-20130317-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_viruses">Marine viruses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Marine viruses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Marine viruses</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Viruses" class="mw-redirect" title="Viruses">Viruses</a> are small <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">infectious agents</a> that do not have their own <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> and can <a href="/wiki/Replicate_(biology)" title="Replicate (biology)">replicate</a> only inside the living <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> of other <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20010599_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20010599-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Viruses can infect all types of <a href="/wiki/Life_forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Life forms">life forms</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> to <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16984643_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16984643-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The linear size of the average virus is about one one-hundredth that of the average <a href="/wiki/Bacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterium">bacterium</a>. Most viruses cannot be seen with an <a href="/wiki/Optical_microscope" title="Optical microscope">optical microscope</a> so <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">electron microscopes</a> are used instead.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Viruses are found wherever there is life and have probably existed since living cells first evolved.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16494962_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16494962-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The origin of viruses is unclear because they do not form fossils, so <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular techniques</a> have been used to compare the DNA or RNA of viruses and are a useful means of investigating how they arise.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20660197_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20660197-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Viruses are now recognised as ancient and as having origins that pre-date the divergence of life into the <a href="/wiki/Three-domain_system" title="Three-domain system">three domains</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_28_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mahy_Gen_28-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the origins of viruses in the <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">evolutionary history of life</a> are unclear: some may have <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolved</a> from <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmids</a>—pieces of DNA that can move between cells—while others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer_in_evolution" title="Horizontal gene transfer in evolution">horizontal gene transfer</a>, which increases <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Canchaya_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canchaya-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:334px;max-width:334px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Bacteriophages (phages)</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Phage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Phage.jpg/160px-Phage.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Phage.jpg/240px-Phage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Phage.jpg/320px-Phage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1480" data-file-height="1733" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Multiple phages attached to a bacterial cell wall at 200,000× magnification</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:168px;max-width:168px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tailed_phage.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Tailed_phage.png/166px-Tailed_phage.png" decoding="async" width="166" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Tailed_phage.png/249px-Tailed_phage.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Tailed_phage.png/332px-Tailed_phage.png 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="840" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Diagram of a typical <a href="/wiki/Caudovirales" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudovirales">tailed phage</a></div></div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyanophages.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Cyanophages.png/220px-Cyanophages.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Cyanophages.png/330px-Cyanophages.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Cyanophages.png/440px-Cyanophages.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="961" /></a><figcaption> These are <a href="/wiki/Cyanophage" title="Cyanophage">cyanophages</a>, viruses that infect cyanobacteria (scale bars indicate 100 nm)</figcaption></figure> <p>Opinions differ on whether viruses are a form of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> or organic structures that interact with living organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26965225_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26965225-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are considered by some to be a life form, because they carry genetic material, reproduce by creating multiple copies of themselves through self-assembly, and evolve through <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. However they lack key characteristics such as a cellular structure generally considered necessary to count as life. Because they possess some but not all such qualities, viruses have been described as replicators<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26965225_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26965225-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as "organisms at the edge of life".<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caudovirales.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Caudovirales.svg/160px-Caudovirales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Caudovirales.svg/240px-Caudovirales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Caudovirales.svg/320px-Caudovirales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="852" data-file-height="347" /></a><figcaption>In terms of individual counts, <a href="/wiki/Caudovirales" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudovirales">tailed phage</a> are the most <a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">abundant</a> biological entities in the sea.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophages</a>, often just called <i>phages</i>, are viruses that <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasite</a> bacteria and archaea. <a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine phages</a> parasite marine bacteria and archaea, such as <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mann_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mann-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are a common and diverse group of viruses and are the most abundant biological entity in marine environments, because their hosts, bacteria, are typically the numerically dominant cellular life in the sea. Generally there are about 1 million to 10 million viruses in each mL of seawater, or about ten times more double-stranded DNA viruses than there are cellular organisms,<sup id="cite_ref-Wommack_2000_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wommack_2000-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Suttle_2005_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suttle_2005-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although estimates of viral abundance in seawater can vary over a wide range.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Caudovirales" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudovirales">Tailed bacteriophages</a> appear to dominate marine ecosystems in number and diversity of organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Mann_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mann-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bacteriophages belonging to the families <a href="/wiki/Corticovirus" title="Corticovirus">Corticoviridae</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Inoviridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Inoviridae">Inoviridae</a><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Microviridae" title="Microviridae">Microviridae</a><sup id="cite_ref-Roux_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roux-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are also known to infect diverse marine bacteria. </p><p>Microorganisms make up about 70% of the marine biomass.<sup id="cite_ref-Bar-On_2018_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bar-On_2018-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is estimated viruses kill 20% of this biomass each day and that there are 15 times as many viruses in the oceans as there are bacteria and archaea. Viruses are the main agents responsible for the rapid destruction of harmful <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">algal blooms</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Suttle_2005_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suttle_2005-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which often kill other marine life.<sup id="cite_ref-cdc.gov_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cdc.gov-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of viruses in the oceans decreases further offshore and deeper into the water, where there are fewer host organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17853907_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17853907-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also <a href="/wiki/Archaeal_viruses" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeal viruses">archaeal viruses</a> which replicate within <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>: these are double-stranded DNA viruses with unusual and sometimes unique shapes.<sup id="cite_ref-Lawrence_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lawrence-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Prangishvili_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prangishvili-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These viruses have been studied in most detail in the <a href="/wiki/Thermophile" title="Thermophile">thermophilic</a> archaea, particularly the orders <a href="/wiki/Sulfolobales" title="Sulfolobales">Sulfolobales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermoproteales" title="Thermoproteales">Thermoproteales</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Viruses are an important natural means of <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">transferring genes</a> between different species, which increases <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a> and drives evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Canchaya_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canchaya-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is thought that viruses played a central role in the early evolution, before the diversification of bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes, at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Last_universal_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Last universal ancestor">last universal common ancestor</a> of life on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11536914_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11536914-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Viruses are still one of the largest reservoirs of unexplored genetic diversity on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17853907_92-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17853907-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_bacteria">Marine bacteria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Marine bacteria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vibrio_vulnificus_01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Vibrio_vulnificus_01.png/220px-Vibrio_vulnificus_01.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Vibrio_vulnificus_01.png/330px-Vibrio_vulnificus_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Vibrio_vulnificus_01.png/440px-Vibrio_vulnificus_01.png 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="420" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Vibrio_vulnificus" title="Vibrio vulnificus">Vibrio vulnificus</a></i>, a virulent bacterium found in <a href="/wiki/Estuaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Estuaries">estuaries</a> and along coastal areas</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pelagibacter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Pelagibacter.jpg/220px-Pelagibacter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Pelagibacter.jpg/330px-Pelagibacter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Pelagibacter.jpg/440px-Pelagibacter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="407" /></a><figcaption> <i><a href="/wiki/Pelagibacter_ubique" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagibacter ubique">Pelagibacter ubique</a></i>, the most abundant bacteria in the ocean, plays a major role in the global <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Marine prokaryotes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacterioplankton" title="Bacterioplankton">Bacterioplankton</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> constitute a large <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">domain</a> of <a href="/wiki/Prokaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Prokaryotic">prokaryotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>. Typically a few <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">micrometres</a> in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, and are present in most of its <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitats</a>. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">acidic hot springs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">radioactive waste</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the deep portions of <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">Earth's crust</a>. Bacteria also live in <a href="/wiki/Symbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiotic">symbiotic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parasitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic">parasitic</a> relationships with plants and animals. </p><p>Once regarded as <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> constituting the class <i>Schizomycetes</i>, bacteria are now classified as <a href="/wiki/Prokaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Prokaryotes">prokaryotes</a>. Unlike cells of animals and other <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>, bacterial cells do not contain a <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a> and rarely harbour <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">membrane-bound</a> <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a>. Although the term <i>bacteria</i> traditionally included all prokaryotes, the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific classification">scientific classification</a> changed after the discovery in the 1990s that prokaryotes consist of two very different groups of organisms that <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolved</a> from an ancient common ancestor. These <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">evolutionary domains</a> are called <i>Bacteria</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Woese_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woese-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">first forms of life</a> to appear on Earth, about 4 billion years ago. For about 3 billion years, most organisms were microscopic, and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life.<sup id="cite_ref-Schopf_1994_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schopf_1994-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although bacterial <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> exist, such as <a href="/wiki/Stromatolite" title="Stromatolite">stromatolites</a>, their lack of distinctive <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a> prevents them from being used to examine the history of bacterial evolution, or to date the time of origin of a particular bacterial species. However, gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogeny</a>, and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the archaeal/eukaryotic lineage.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bacteria were also involved in the second great evolutionary divergence, that of the archaea and eukaryotes. Here, eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria into <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbiotic</a> associations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells, which were themselves possibly related to the <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dyall_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dyall-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-rgruqh_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rgruqh-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This involved the engulfment by proto-eukaryotic cells of <a href="/wiki/Alphaproteobacteria" title="Alphaproteobacteria">alphaproteobacterial</a> symbionts to form either <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenosome" title="Hydrogenosome">hydrogenosomes</a>, which are still found in all known Eukarya. Later on, some eukaryotes that already contained mitochondria also engulfed cyanobacterial-like organisms. This led to the formation of <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> in algae and plants. There are also some algae that originated from even later endosymbiotic events. Here, eukaryotes engulfed a eukaryotic algae that developed into a "second-generation" plastid.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is known as <a href="/wiki/Secondary_endosymbiosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary endosymbiosis">secondary endosymbiosis</a>. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 142px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 140px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sulphide_bacteria_crop2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The marine Thiomargarita namibiensis, the largest known bacterium"><img alt="The marine Thiomargarita namibiensis, the largest known bacterium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Sulphide_bacteria_crop2.jpg/210px-Sulphide_bacteria_crop2.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Sulphide_bacteria_crop2.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="270" data-file-height="270" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The marine <i><a href="/wiki/Thiomargarita_namibiensis" title="Thiomargarita namibiensis">Thiomargarita namibiensis</a></i>, the largest known bacterium</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 216px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 214px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Potomac_river_eutro.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cyanobacteria blooms can contain lethal cyanotoxins."><img alt="Cyanobacteria blooms can contain lethal cyanotoxins." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Potomac_river_eutro.jpg" decoding="async" width="214" height="140" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="157" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a> <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">blooms</a> can contain lethal <a href="/wiki/Cyanotoxin" title="Cyanotoxin">cyanotoxins</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 188.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 186.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glaucocystis_sp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The chloroplasts of glaucophytes have a peptidoglycan layer, evidence suggesting their endosymbiotic origin from cyanobacteria.[131]"><img alt="The chloroplasts of glaucophytes have a peptidoglycan layer, evidence suggesting their endosymbiotic origin from cyanobacteria.[131]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Glaucocystis_sp.jpg/280px-Glaucocystis_sp.jpg" decoding="async" width="187" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Glaucocystis_sp.jpg/420px-Glaucocystis_sp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Glaucocystis_sp.jpg/560px-Glaucocystis_sp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> of <a href="/wiki/Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">glaucophytes</a> have a <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">peptidoglycan</a> layer, evidence suggesting their <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiotic theory">endosymbiotic</a> origin from <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-keeling_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-keeling-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 156.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 154.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Alvinella_pompejana01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bacteria can be beneficial. This Pompeii worm, an extremophile found only at hydrothermal vents, has a protective cover of bacteria."><img alt="Bacteria can be beneficial. This Pompeii worm, an extremophile found only at hydrothermal vents, has a protective cover of bacteria." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Alvinella_pompejana01.jpg/232px-Alvinella_pompejana01.jpg" decoding="async" width="155" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Alvinella_pompejana01.jpg/348px-Alvinella_pompejana01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Alvinella_pompejana01.jpg/463px-Alvinella_pompejana01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="580" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Bacteria can be beneficial. This <a href="/wiki/Pompeii_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Pompeii worm">Pompeii worm</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">extremophile</a> found only at <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a>, has a protective cover of bacteria.</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>The largest known bacterium, the marine <i><a href="/wiki/Thiomargarita_namibiensis" title="Thiomargarita namibiensis">Thiomargarita namibiensis</a></i>, can be visible to the naked eye and sometimes attains 0.75 mm (750 μm).<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_archaea">Marine archaea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Marine archaea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Morning-Glory_Hotspring.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Morning-Glory_Hotspring.jpg/220px-Morning-Glory_Hotspring.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Morning-Glory_Hotspring.jpg/330px-Morning-Glory_Hotspring.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Morning-Glory_Hotspring.jpg/440px-Morning-Glory_Hotspring.jpg 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Archaea were initially viewed as <a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">extremophiles</a> living in harsh environments, such as the yellow archaea pictured here in a <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">hot spring</a>, but they have since been found in a much broader range of <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitats</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bang2015_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bang2015-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Marine prokaryotes</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> (Greek for <i>ancient</i><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) constitute a <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">domain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdom</a> of <a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">single-celled</a> <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>. These microbes are <a href="/wiki/Prokaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Prokaryotes">prokaryotes</a>, meaning they have no <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">cell nucleus</a> or any other membrane-bound <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a> in their cells. </p><p>Archaea were initially classified as <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, but this classification is outdated.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeal cells have unique properties separating them from the other two domains of life, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eukaryota" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a>. The Archaea are further divided into multiple recognized <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a>. Classification is difficult because the majority have not been isolated in the laboratory and have only been detected by analysis of their <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acids</a> in samples from their environment. </p><p>Archaea and bacteria are generally similar in size and shape, although a few archaea have very strange shapes, such as the flat and square-shaped cells of <i><a href="/wiki/Haloquadratum" title="Haloquadratum">Haloquadratum walsbyi</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this morphological similarity to bacteria, archaea possess <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> and several <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">metabolic pathways</a> that are more closely related to those of eukaryotes, notably the <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> involved in <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcription</a> and <a href="/wiki/Translation_(biology)" title="Translation (biology)">translation</a>. Other aspects of archaeal biochemistry are unique, such as their reliance on <a href="/wiki/Ether_lipid" title="Ether lipid">ether lipids</a> in their <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membranes</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Archaeol" title="Archaeol">archaeols</a>. Archaea use more energy sources than eukaryotes: these range from <a href="/wiki/Organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic compounds">organic compounds</a>, such as sugars, to <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">metal ions</a> or even <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen gas</a>. Salt-tolerant archaea (the <a href="/wiki/Haloarchaea" title="Haloarchaea">Haloarchaea</a>) use sunlight as an energy source, and other species of archaea <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">fix carbon</a>; however, unlike plants and <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>, no known species of archaea does both. Archaea <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">reproduce asexually</a> by <a href="/wiki/Binary_fission" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary fission">binary fission</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fragmentation_(reproduction)" title="Fragmentation (reproduction)">fragmentation</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Budding" title="Budding">budding</a>; unlike bacteria and eukaryotes, no known species forms <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>. </p><p>Archaea are particularly numerous in the oceans, and the archaea in <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a> may be one of the most abundant groups of organisms on the planet. Archaea are a major part of Earth's life and may play roles in both the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle" title="Nitrogen cycle">nitrogen cycle</a>. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 169.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 167.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Halobacteria_with_scale.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Halobacteria, found in water near saturated with salt, are now recognised as archaea."><img alt="Halobacteria, found in water near saturated with salt, are now recognised as archaea." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Halobacteria_with_scale.jpg/251px-Halobacteria_with_scale.jpg" decoding="async" width="168" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Halobacteria_with_scale.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="251" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Halobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Halobacteria">Halobacteria</a>, found in water near saturated with salt, are now recognised as archaea.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 144.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 142.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Haloquadratum_walsbyi00.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flat, square-shaped cells of the archaea Haloquadratum walsbyi"><img alt="Flat, square-shaped cells of the archaea Haloquadratum walsbyi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Haloquadratum_walsbyi00.jpg/214px-Haloquadratum_walsbyi00.jpg" decoding="async" width="143" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Haloquadratum_walsbyi00.jpg/322px-Haloquadratum_walsbyi00.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Haloquadratum_walsbyi00.jpg 2x" data-file-width="357" data-file-height="375" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Flat, square-shaped cells of the archaea <i><a href="/wiki/Haloquadratum" title="Haloquadratum">Haloquadratum walsbyi</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 156px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 154px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Methanosarcina_barkeri_fusaro.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Methanosarcina barkeri, a marine archaea that produces methane"><img alt="Methanosarcina barkeri, a marine archaea that produces methane" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Methanosarcina_barkeri_fusaro.gif" decoding="async" width="154" height="150" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="228" data-file-height="222" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Methanosarcina" title="Methanosarcina">Methanosarcina barkeri</a></i>, a marine archaea that produces <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thermophile_bacteria2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Thermophiles, such as Pyrolobus fumarii, survive well over 100 °C."><img alt="Thermophiles, such as Pyrolobus fumarii, survive well over 100 °C." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Thermophile_bacteria2.jpg/225px-Thermophile_bacteria2.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Thermophile_bacteria2.jpg/338px-Thermophile_bacteria2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Thermophile_bacteria2.jpg/450px-Thermophile_bacteria2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="892" data-file-height="892" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Thermophile" title="Thermophile">Thermophiles</a>, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Pyrolobus_fumarii" title="Pyrolobus fumarii">Pyrolobus fumarii</a></i>, survive well over 100 °C.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 228.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pyrococcus_furiosus.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Drawing of another marine thermophile, Pyrococcus furiosus"><img alt="Drawing of another marine thermophile, Pyrococcus furiosus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Pyrococcus_furiosus.png/343px-Pyrococcus_furiosus.png" decoding="async" width="229" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Pyrococcus_furiosus.png/515px-Pyrococcus_furiosus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Pyrococcus_furiosus.png/686px-Pyrococcus_furiosus.png 2x" data-file-width="742" data-file-height="487" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Drawing of another marine thermophile, <i><a href="/wiki/Pyrococcus_furiosus" title="Pyrococcus furiosus">Pyrococcus furiosus</a></i></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_protists">Marine protists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Marine protists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">Marine protists</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protists</a> are eukaryotes that cannot be classified as plants, fungi or animals. They are usually single-celled and microscopic. Life originated as <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">single-celled prokaryotes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>) and later evolved into <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">more complex eukaryotes</a>. Eukaryotes are the more developed life forms known as plants, animals, fungi and protists. The term <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protist</a> came into use historically as a term of convenience for eukaryotes that cannot be strictly classified as plants, animals or fungi. They are not a part of modern cladistics, because they are <a href="/wiki/Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletic">paraphyletic</a> (lacking a common ancestor). Protists can be broadly divided into four groups depending on whether their nutrition is plant-like, animal-like, fungus-like,<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or a mixture of these.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="8"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Protists according to how they get food</div> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Type of protist </th> <th>Description </th> <th colspan="2">Example </th> <th>Other examples </th></tr> <tr> <th width="90px">Plant-like </th> <td width="90px"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a><br />(<a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Algae">see below</a>)</div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophic</a> protists that make their own food without needing to consume other organisms, usually by using photosynthesis </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyanidium_O5A.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Cyanidium_O5A.jpg/100px-Cyanidium_O5A.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Cyanidium_O5A.jpg/150px-Cyanidium_O5A.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Cyanidium_O5A.jpg/200px-Cyanidium_O5A.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></span> </td> <td>Red algae, <i><a href="/wiki/Cyanidiophyceae" title="Cyanidiophyceae">Cyanidium sp.</a></i> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">Green algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">brown algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a>. Plant-like protists are important components of phytoplankton <a href="#Phytoplankton">discussed below</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Animal-like </th> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Protozoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Protozoan">Protozoans</a></div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotrophic</a> protists that get their food consuming other organisms </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Haeckel_Spumellaria_detail.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Haeckel_Spumellaria_detail.png/100px-Haeckel_Spumellaria_detail.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Haeckel_Spumellaria_detail.png/150px-Haeckel_Spumellaria_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Haeckel_Spumellaria_detail.png/200px-Haeckel_Spumellaria_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="1255" data-file-height="1177" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Radiolarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiolarian">Radiolarian</a> protist as drawn by <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Haeckel</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Foraminiferan" class="mw-redirect" title="Foraminiferan">Foraminiferans</a>, and some marine <a href="/wiki/Amoebae" class="mw-redirect" title="Amoebae">amoebae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">ciliates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flagellate" title="Flagellate">flagellates</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Fungus-like </th> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Slime_mould" class="mw-redirect" title="Slime mould">Slime moulds</a><br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/Slime_net" class="mw-redirect" title="Slime net">slime nets</a></div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Saprotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Saprotroph">Saprotrophic</a> protists that get their food from the remains of organisms that have broken down and decayed </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aplanonet3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Aplanonet3.jpg/100px-Aplanonet3.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Aplanonet3.jpg/150px-Aplanonet3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Aplanonet3.jpg/200px-Aplanonet3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="616" data-file-height="483" /></a></span> </td> <td>Marine <a href="/wiki/Slime_net" class="mw-redirect" title="Slime net">slime nets</a> form labyrinthine networks of tubes in which amoeba without pseudopods can travel </td> <td>Marine lichen </td></tr> <tr> <th>Mixotropes </th> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Various</div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mixotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixotrophic">Mixotrophic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Osmotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Osmotrophic">osmotrophic</a> protists that get their food from a combination of the above </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Euglena_mutabilis_-_400x_-_1_(10388739803)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Euglena_mutabilis_-_400x_-_1_%2810388739803%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/100px-Euglena_mutabilis_-_400x_-_1_%2810388739803%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Euglena_mutabilis_-_400x_-_1_%2810388739803%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Euglena_mutabilis_-_400x_-_1_%2810388739803%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Euglena_mutabilis_-_400x_-_1_%2810388739803%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/200px-Euglena_mutabilis_-_400x_-_1_%2810388739803%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="669" /></a></span> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Euglena" title="Euglena">Euglena mutabilis</a></i>, a photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Flagellate" title="Flagellate">flagellate</a> </td> <td>Many marine mixotropes are found among protists, including among ciliates, <a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a> and dinoflagellates <sup id="cite_ref-Leles2017_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leles2017-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:381px;max-width:381px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:187px;max-width:187px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Codosiga.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Codosiga.jpg/185px-Codosiga.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Codosiga.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="190" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">micrograph</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cronoflagelado2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Cronoflagelado2.svg/188px-Cronoflagelado2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="188" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Cronoflagelado2.svg/282px-Cronoflagelado2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Cronoflagelado2.svg/376px-Cronoflagelado2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="379" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">cell schematic</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Choanoflagellate" title="Choanoflagellate">Choanoflagellates</a>, unicellular "collared" <a href="/wiki/Flagellate" title="Flagellate">flagellate</a> protists, are thought to be the closest living relatives of the <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Budd2015_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budd2015-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <hr /> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9rtUEPuzhbE&ab_channel=JourneytotheMicrocosmos">Getting to know our single-celled ancestors</a> - <i>MicroCosmos</i></div></div></div></div> <p>Protists are highly diverse organisms currently organised into 18 phyla, but are not easy to classify.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies have shown high protist diversity exists in oceans, deep sea-vents and river sediments, suggesting a large number of eukaryotic microbial communities have yet to be discovered.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There has been little research on <a href="/wiki/Mixotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixotrophic">mixotrophic</a> protists, but recent studies in marine environments found mixotrophic protests contribute a significant part of the protist <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Leles2017_141-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leles2017-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerycaption">Single-celled and microscopic protists</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 200px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 198px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Diatoms are a major algae group generating about 20% of world oxygen production.[146]"><img alt="Diatoms are a major algae group generating about 20% of world oxygen production.[146]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg/297px-Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg" decoding="async" width="198" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg/446px-Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg/594px-Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1796" data-file-height="1180" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">Diatoms</a> are a major algae group generating about 20% of world oxygen production.<sup id="cite_ref-livescience.com_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-livescience.com-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 173.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Diatom_algae_Amphora_sp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Diatoms have glass like cell walls made of silica and called frustules.[147]"><img alt="Diatoms have glass like cell walls made of silica and called frustules.[147]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Diatom_algae_Amphora_sp.jpg/260px-Diatom_algae_Amphora_sp.jpg" decoding="async" width="174" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Diatom_algae_Amphora_sp.jpg/391px-Diatom_algae_Amphora_sp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Diatom_algae_Amphora_sp.jpg/520px-Diatom_algae_Amphora_sp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Diatoms have glass like cell walls made of <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> and called <a href="/wiki/Frustule" title="Frustule">frustules</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 132px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 130px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Triceratium_morlandii_var._morlandii.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fossil diatom frustule from 32 to 40 mya"><img alt="Fossil diatom frustule from 32 to 40 mya" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Triceratium_morlandii_var._morlandii.jpg/195px-Triceratium_morlandii_var._morlandii.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Triceratium_morlandii_var._morlandii.jpg/293px-Triceratium_morlandii_var._morlandii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Triceratium_morlandii_var._morlandii.jpg/390px-Triceratium_morlandii_var._morlandii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2480" data-file-height="2480" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Fossil diatom frustule from 32 to 40 <a href="/wiki/Mya_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mya (unit)">mya</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 208.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 206.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Podocyrtis_papalis_Ehrenberg_-_Radiolarian_(30448963206).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Radiolarian"><img alt="Radiolarian" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Podocyrtis_papalis_Ehrenberg_-_Radiolarian_%2830448963206%29.jpg/310px-Podocyrtis_papalis_Ehrenberg_-_Radiolarian_%2830448963206%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="207" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Podocyrtis_papalis_Ehrenberg_-_Radiolarian_%2830448963206%29.jpg/466px-Podocyrtis_papalis_Ehrenberg_-_Radiolarian_%2830448963206%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Podocyrtis_papalis_Ehrenberg_-_Radiolarian_%2830448963206%29.jpg/620px-Podocyrtis_papalis_Ehrenberg_-_Radiolarian_%2830448963206%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="1700" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Radiolarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiolarian">Radiolarian</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 132px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 130px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color_(lightened).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Single-celled alga, Gephyrocapsa oceanica"><img alt="Single-celled alga, Gephyrocapsa oceanica" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color_%28lightened%29.jpg/195px-Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color_%28lightened%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color_%28lightened%29.jpg/293px-Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color_%28lightened%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color_%28lightened%29.jpg/390px-Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color_%28lightened%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Single-celled alga, <i><a href="/wiki/Gephyrocapsa_oceanica" title="Gephyrocapsa oceanica">Gephyrocapsa oceanica</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_7609_SEM_dinoflagellate.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Two dinoflagellates"><img alt="Two dinoflagellates" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/CSIRO_ScienceImage_7609_SEM_dinoflagellate.jpg/300px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_7609_SEM_dinoflagellate.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/CSIRO_ScienceImage_7609_SEM_dinoflagellate.jpg/450px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_7609_SEM_dinoflagellate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/CSIRO_ScienceImage_7609_SEM_dinoflagellate.jpg/599px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_7609_SEM_dinoflagellate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1831" data-file-height="1192" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Two <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 166px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 164px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zooxanthellae.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Zooxanthellae is a photosynthetic algae that lives inside hosts like coral."><img alt="Zooxanthellae is a photosynthetic algae that lives inside hosts like coral." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Zooxanthellae.jpg/246px-Zooxanthellae.jpg" decoding="async" width="164" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Zooxanthellae.jpg/370px-Zooxanthellae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Zooxanthellae.jpg/493px-Zooxanthellae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="594" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Zooxanthellae" title="Zooxanthellae">Zooxanthellae</a> is a photosynthetic algae that lives inside hosts like <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">coral</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 197.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 195.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Paramecium_bursaria.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A single-celled ciliate with green zoochlorellae living inside endosymbiotically."><img alt="A single-celled ciliate with green zoochlorellae living inside endosymbiotically." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Paramecium_bursaria.jpg/293px-Paramecium_bursaria.jpg" decoding="async" width="196" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Paramecium_bursaria.jpg/440px-Paramecium_bursaria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Paramecium_bursaria.jpg/585px-Paramecium_bursaria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3543" data-file-height="2362" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> A single-celled <a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">ciliate</a> with green <a href="/wiki/Zoochlorellae" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoochlorellae">zoochlorellae</a> living inside <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiotic">endosymbiotically</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 212px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Euglenoid_movement.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Euglenoid"><img alt="Euglenoid" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Euglenoid_movement.jpg/315px-Euglenoid_movement.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Euglenoid_movement.jpg/473px-Euglenoid_movement.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Euglenoid_movement.jpg/629px-Euglenoid_movement.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="496" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Euglenoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Euglenoid">Euglenoid</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 198px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 196px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_ciliate_Frontonia_sp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="This ciliate is digesting cyanobacteria. The cytostome or mouth is at the bottom right."><img alt="This ciliate is digesting cyanobacteria. The cytostome or mouth is at the bottom right." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/The_ciliate_Frontonia_sp.jpg/294px-The_ciliate_Frontonia_sp.jpg" decoding="async" width="196" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/The_ciliate_Frontonia_sp.jpg/441px-The_ciliate_Frontonia_sp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/The_ciliate_Frontonia_sp.jpg/587px-The_ciliate_Frontonia_sp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4672" data-file-height="3104" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> This ciliate is digesting <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Cytostome" title="Cytostome">cytostome</a> or mouth is at the bottom right.</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Frontonia_ingesting_a_diatom.ogv/220px--Frontonia_ingesting_a_diatom.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="20" data-mwtitle="Frontonia_ingesting_a_diatom.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Frontonia_ingesting_a_diatom.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4b/Frontonia_ingesting_a_diatom.ogv/Frontonia_ingesting_a_diatom.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Frontonia_ingesting_a_diatom.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4b/Frontonia_ingesting_a_diatom.ogv/Frontonia_ingesting_a_diatom.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4b/Frontonia_ingesting_a_diatom.ogv/Frontonia_ingesting_a_diatom.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4b/Frontonia_ingesting_a_diatom.ogv/Frontonia_ingesting_a_diatom.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4b/Frontonia_ingesting_a_diatom.ogv/Frontonia_ingesting_a_diatom.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Video of a ciliate ingesting a diatom</figcaption></figure> <p>In contrast to the cells of prokaryotes, the cells of eukaryotes are highly organised. Plants, animals and fungi are usually <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multi-celled</a> and are typically <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroscopic">macroscopic</a>. Most protists are single-celled and microscopic. But there are exceptions. Some single-celled marine protists are macroscopic. Some marine slime molds have unique life cycles that involve switching between unicellular, <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonial</a>, and multicellular forms.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other marine protist are neither single-celled nor microscopic, such as <a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">seaweed</a>. </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Macroscopic_protists"></span> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerycaption">Macroscopic protists (see also <a href="#Unicellular_macroalgae">unicellular macroalgae →</a>)</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 124px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 122px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chaos_carolinensis_Wilson_1900.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The single-celled giant amoeba has up to 1000 nuclei and reaches lengths of 5 mm (0.20 in)."><img alt="The single-celled giant amoeba has up to 1000 nuclei and reaches lengths of 5 mm (0.20 in)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Chaos_carolinensis_Wilson_1900.jpg/183px-Chaos_carolinensis_Wilson_1900.jpg" decoding="async" width="122" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Chaos_carolinensis_Wilson_1900.jpg/275px-Chaos_carolinensis_Wilson_1900.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Chaos_carolinensis_Wilson_1900.jpg/366px-Chaos_carolinensis_Wilson_1900.jpg 2x" data-file-width="380" data-file-height="405" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> The single-celled <a href="/wiki/Giant_amoeba" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant amoeba">giant amoeba</a> has up to 1000 <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nuclei</a> and reaches lengths of 5 mm (0.20 in).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 179.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 177.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gromia_in_situ_closeup.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Gromia sphaerica is a large spherical testate amoeba which makes mud trails. Its diameter is up to 3.8 cm (1.5 in).[149]"><img alt="Gromia sphaerica is a large spherical testate amoeba which makes mud trails. Its diameter is up to 3.8 cm (1.5 in).[149]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Gromia_in_situ_closeup.png/266px-Gromia_in_situ_closeup.png" decoding="async" width="178" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Gromia_in_situ_closeup.png/400px-Gromia_in_situ_closeup.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Gromia_in_situ_closeup.png 2x" data-file-width="476" data-file-height="349" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <i><a href="/wiki/Gromia_sphaerica" title="Gromia sphaerica">Gromia sphaerica</a></i> is a large spherical <a href="/wiki/Testate_amoeba" class="mw-redirect" title="Testate amoeba">testate amoeba</a> which makes mud trails. Its diameter is up to 3.8 cm (1.5 in).<sup id="cite_ref-Matz2008_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matz2008-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 207.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 205.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spiculosiphon_oceana_AB.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Spiculosiphon oceana, a unicellular foraminiferan with an appearance and lifestyle that mimics a sponge, grows to 5 cm long."><img alt="Spiculosiphon oceana, a unicellular foraminiferan with an appearance and lifestyle that mimics a sponge, grows to 5 cm long." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Spiculosiphon_oceana_AB.png/308px-Spiculosiphon_oceana_AB.png" decoding="async" width="206" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Spiculosiphon_oceana_AB.png/462px-Spiculosiphon_oceana_AB.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Spiculosiphon_oceana_AB.png/615px-Spiculosiphon_oceana_AB.png 2x" data-file-width="1119" data-file-height="710" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <i><a href="/wiki/Spiculosiphon_oceana" title="Spiculosiphon oceana">Spiculosiphon oceana</a></i>, a unicellular <a href="/wiki/Foraminiferan" class="mw-redirect" title="Foraminiferan">foraminiferan</a> with an appearance and lifestyle that mimics a <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponge</a>, grows to 5 cm long.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 196.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 194.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Xenophyophore.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The xenophyophore, another single-celled foraminiferan, lives in abyssal zones. It has a giant shell up to 20 cm (7.9 in) across.[150]"><img alt="The xenophyophore, another single-celled foraminiferan, lives in abyssal zones. It has a giant shell up to 20 cm (7.9 in) across.[150]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Xenophyophore.jpg/292px-Xenophyophore.jpg" decoding="async" width="195" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Xenophyophore.jpg/439px-Xenophyophore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Xenophyophore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="543" data-file-height="363" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> The <a href="/wiki/Xenophyophore" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenophyophore">xenophyophore</a>, another single-celled foraminiferan, lives in <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_zone" title="Abyssal zone">abyssal zones</a>. It has a giant shell up to 20 cm (7.9 in) across.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 197.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 195.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Giant_Kelp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Giant kelp, a brown algae, is not a true plant, yet it is multicellular and can grow to 50m."><img alt="Giant kelp, a brown algae, is not a true plant, yet it is multicellular and can grow to 50m." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Giant_Kelp.jpg/293px-Giant_Kelp.jpg" decoding="async" width="196" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Giant_Kelp.jpg/440px-Giant_Kelp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Giant_Kelp.jpg/586px-Giant_Kelp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="433" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Giant_kelp" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant kelp">Giant kelp</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">brown algae</a>, is not a true plant, yet it is multicellular and can grow to 50m.</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>Protists have been described as a taxonomic grab bag where anything that doesn't fit into one of the main <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">biological kingdoms</a> can be placed.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some modern authors prefer to exclude multicellular organisms from the traditional definition of a protist, restricting protists to unicellular organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Malley_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Malley-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Adl_05_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adl_05-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This more constrained definition excludes <a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">seaweeds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slime_mold" title="Slime mold">slime molds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_microanimals">Marine microanimals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Marine microanimals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Microanimal" class="mw-redirect" title="Microanimal">Microanimal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ichthyoplankton" title="Ichthyoplankton">Ichthyoplankton</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width: 280px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UZZ_RmpzSFQ&ab_channel=JourneytotheMicrocosmos">Copepods: The Diatom-Devouring King of Plankton</a> - <i>Journey to the Microcosmos</i></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As juveniles, animals develop from microscopic stages, which can include <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egg" title="Egg">eggs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larvae</a>. At least one microscopic animal group, the <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasitic</a> <a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">cnidarian</a> <a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a>, is unicellular in its adult form, and includes marine species. Other adult marine <a href="/wiki/Microanimal" class="mw-redirect" title="Microanimal">microanimals</a> are multicellular. Microscopic adult <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a> are more commonly found inland in freshwater, but there are marine species as well. Microscopic adult marine <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a> include some <a href="/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">copepods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cladocera" class="mw-redirect" title="Cladocera">cladocera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">tardigrades</a> (water bears). Some marine <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematodes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rotifer" title="Rotifer">rotifers</a> are also too small to be recognised with the naked eye, as are many <a href="/wiki/Loricifera" title="Loricifera">loricifera</a>, including the recently discovered <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_organism" title="Anaerobic organism">anaerobic</a> species that spend their lives in an <a href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">anoxic</a> environment.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Copepods contribute more to the <a href="/wiki/Secondary_productivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary productivity">secondary productivity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sink</a> of the world oceans than any other group of organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While <a href="/wiki/Mite" title="Mite">mites</a> are not normally thought of as marine organisms, most species of the family <a href="/wiki/Halacaridae" title="Halacaridae">Halacaridae</a> live in the sea.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerycaption">Marine microanimals</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Copepod_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Over 10,000 marine species are copepods, small, often microscopic crustaceans"><img alt="Over 10,000 marine species are copepods, small, often microscopic crustaceans" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Copepod_2.jpg/225px-Copepod_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Copepod_2.jpg/338px-Copepod_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Copepod_2.jpg/450px-Copepod_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="3600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Over 10,000 marine species are <a href="/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">copepods</a>, small, often microscopic <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 146px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 144px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gastrotrich.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Darkfield photo of a gastrotrich, a worm-like animal living between sediment particles"><img alt="Darkfield photo of a gastrotrich, a worm-like animal living between sediment particles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Gastrotrich.jpg/216px-Gastrotrich.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Gastrotrich.jpg/325px-Gastrotrich.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Gastrotrich.jpg/432px-Gastrotrich.jpg 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="1003" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Dark_field_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Dark field microscopy">Darkfield photo</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Gastrotrich" title="Gastrotrich">gastrotrich</a>, a worm-like animal living between sediment particles</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 142.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 140.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pliciloricus_enigmatus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Armoured Pliciloricus enigmaticus, about 0.2 mm long, live in spaces between marine gravel."><img alt="Armoured Pliciloricus enigmaticus, about 0.2 mm long, live in spaces between marine gravel." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Pliciloricus_enigmatus.jpg/211px-Pliciloricus_enigmatus.jpg" decoding="async" width="141" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Pliciloricus_enigmatus.jpg/317px-Pliciloricus_enigmatus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Pliciloricus_enigmatus.jpg/422px-Pliciloricus_enigmatus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1708" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Armoured <i><a href="/wiki/Pliciloricus_enigmaticus" title="Pliciloricus enigmaticus">Pliciloricus enigmaticus</a></i>, about 0.2 mm long, live in spaces between marine gravel.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 142px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 140px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Echiniscus_testudo_Doyere_1840_Pl_12_Fig_1.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Drawing of a tardigrade (water bear) on a grain of sand"><img alt="Drawing of a tardigrade (water bear) on a grain of sand" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Echiniscus_testudo_Doyere_1840_Pl_12_Fig_1.png/210px-Echiniscus_testudo_Doyere_1840_Pl_12_Fig_1.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Echiniscus_testudo_Doyere_1840_Pl_12_Fig_1.png/315px-Echiniscus_testudo_Doyere_1840_Pl_12_Fig_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Echiniscus_testudo_Doyere_1840_Pl_12_Fig_1.png/419px-Echiniscus_testudo_Doyere_1840_Pl_12_Fig_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1924" data-file-height="2066" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Drawing of a <a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">tardigrade</a> (water bear) on a grain of sand</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Squatinella_sp._(R%C3%A4dertierchen_-_Rotifera)_-_160x_(13402418244).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rotifers, usually 0.1–0.5 mm long, may look like protists but have many cells and belongs to the Animalia."><img alt="Rotifers, usually 0.1–0.5 mm long, may look like protists but have many cells and belongs to the Animalia." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Squatinella_sp._%28R%C3%A4dertierchen_-_Rotifera%29_-_160x_%2813402418244%29.jpg/225px-Squatinella_sp._%28R%C3%A4dertierchen_-_Rotifera%29_-_160x_%2813402418244%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Squatinella_sp._%28R%C3%A4dertierchen_-_Rotifera%29_-_160x_%2813402418244%29.jpg/338px-Squatinella_sp._%28R%C3%A4dertierchen_-_Rotifera%29_-_160x_%2813402418244%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Squatinella_sp._%28R%C3%A4dertierchen_-_Rotifera%29_-_160x_%2813402418244%29.jpg/450px-Squatinella_sp._%28R%C3%A4dertierchen_-_Rotifera%29_-_160x_%2813402418244%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1100" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Rotifer" title="Rotifer">Rotifers</a>, usually 0.1–0.5 mm long, may look like protists but have many cells and belongs to the Animalia.</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fungi">Fungi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Fungi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lichen_rock.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Lichen_rock.jpeg/220px-Lichen_rock.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Lichen_rock.jpeg/330px-Lichen_rock.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Lichen_rock.jpeg/440px-Lichen_rock.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">Lichen</a> on a rock in a marine <a href="/wiki/Splash_zone" title="Splash zone">splash zone</a>. Lichens are mutualistic associations between a fungus and an alga or cyanobacterium.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Littoraria_irrorata.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Littoraria_irrorata.jpg/220px-Littoraria_irrorata.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Littoraria_irrorata.jpg/330px-Littoraria_irrorata.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Littoraria_irrorata.jpg/440px-Littoraria_irrorata.jpg 2x" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption> A <a href="/wiki/Sea_snail" title="Sea snail">sea snail</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Littoraria_irrorata" title="Littoraria irrorata">Littoraria irrorata</a></i>, covered in lichen. This snail farms intertidal <a href="/wiki/Ascomycetous" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascomycetous">ascomycetous</a> fungi.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Marine fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mycoplankton" title="Mycoplankton">Mycoplankton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Evolution of fungi</a></div> <p>Over 1500 species of <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a> are known from marine environments.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are parasitic on <a href="/wiki/Marine_algae" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine algae">marine algae</a> or animals, or are <a href="/wiki/Saprobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Saprobe">saprobes</a> feeding on dead organic matter from algae, corals, protozoan cysts, sea grasses, wood and other substrata.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spores of many species have special appendages which facilitate attachment to the substratum.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marine fungi can also be found in <a href="/wiki/Sea_foam" title="Sea foam">sea foam</a> and around <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal">hydrothermal</a> areas of the ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-LeCalvez_2009_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeCalvez_2009-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A diverse range of unusual secondary <a href="/wiki/Metabolite" title="Metabolite">metabolites</a> is produced by marine fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mycoplankton" title="Mycoplankton">Mycoplankton</a> are <a href="/wiki/Saprotrophic_nutrition" title="Saprotrophic nutrition">saprotropic</a> members of the <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a> communities of <a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">marine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">freshwater</a> <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">ecosystems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are composed of <a href="/wiki/Filamentous_fungus" class="mw-redirect" title="Filamentous fungus">filamentous</a> free-living <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a> and yeasts associated with planktonic particles or <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar to <a href="/wiki/Bacterioplankton" title="Bacterioplankton">bacterioplankton</a>, these aquatic fungi play a significant role in <a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">heterotrophic</a> <a href="/wiki/Mineralization_(soil_science)" title="Mineralization (soil science)">mineralization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrient cycling">nutrient cycling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mycoplankton can be up to 20 mm in diameter and over 50 mm in length.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A typical milliliter of seawater contains about 10<sup>3</sup> to 10<sup>4</sup> fungal cells.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This number is greater in coastal ecosystems and <a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">estuaries</a> due to nutritional runoff from terrestrial communities. A higher diversity of mycoplankton is found around coasts and in surface waters down to 1000 metres, with a <a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">vertical profile</a> that depends on how abundant <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> is.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This profile changes between seasons due to changes in nutrient availability.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marine fungi survive in a constant oxygen deficient environment, and therefore depend on oxygen diffusion by <a href="/wiki/Turbulence" title="Turbulence">turbulence</a> and oxygen generated by <a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">photosynthetic organisms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sridhar2009_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sridhar2009-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Marine fungi can be classified as:<sup id="cite_ref-Sridhar2009_175-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sridhar2009-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Lower fungi - adapted to marine habitats (<a href="/wiki/Zoospore" title="Zoospore">zoosporic</a> fungi, including mastigomycetes: <a href="/wiki/Oomycete" title="Oomycete">oomycetes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycetes" title="Chytridiomycetes">chytridiomycetes</a>)</li> <li>Higher fungi - filamentous, modified to planktonic lifestyle (<a href="/wiki/Hyphomycetes" title="Hyphomycetes">hyphomycetes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">ascomycetes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">basidiomycetes</a>). Most mycoplankton species are higher fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_172-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">Lichens</a> are <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualistic</a> associations between a fungus, usually an <a href="/wiki/Ascomycete" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascomycete">ascomycete</a>, and an alga or a <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacterium</a>. Several lichens are found in marine environments.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many more occur in the <a href="/wiki/Splash_zone" title="Splash zone">splash zone</a>, where they occupy different vertical zones depending on how tolerant they are to submersion.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some lichens live a long time; one species has been dated at 8,600 years.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However their lifespan is difficult to measure because what defines the same lichen is not precise.<sup id="cite_ref-ELNGDL_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ELNGDL-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lichens grow by vegetatively breaking off a piece, which may or may not be defined as the same lichen, and two lichens of different ages can merge, raising the issue of whether it is the same lichen.<sup id="cite_ref-ELNGDL_179-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ELNGDL-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Sea_snail" title="Sea snail">sea snail</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Littoraria_irrorata" title="Littoraria irrorata">Littoraria irrorata</a></i> damages plants of <i><a href="/wiki/Spartina" title="Spartina">Spartina</a></i> in the sea marshes where it lives, which enables spores of intertidal ascomycetous fungi to colonise the plant. The snail then eats the fungal growth in preference to the grass itself.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to fossil records, fungi date back to the late <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a> era 900–570 million years ago. Fossil marine lichens 600 million years old have been discovered in China.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been hypothesized that mycoplankton evolved from terrestrial fungi, likely in the <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> era (390 million years ago).<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_of_animals">Origin of animals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Origin of animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DickinsoniaCostata.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/DickinsoniaCostata.jpg/220px-DickinsoniaCostata.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/DickinsoniaCostata.jpg/330px-DickinsoniaCostata.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/DickinsoniaCostata.jpg/440px-DickinsoniaCostata.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption> <i><a href="/wiki/Dickinsonia" title="Dickinsonia">Dickinsonia</a></i> may be the earliest animal. They appear in the fossil record 571 million to 541 million years ago.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">Marine invertebrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_eukaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of eukaryotes">Origin of eukaryotes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of animals">Evolutionary origin of animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avalon_explosion" title="Avalon explosion">Avalon explosion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a></div> <p>The earliest <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> were marine <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>, that is, <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> came later. Animals are <a href="/wiki/Multicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular">multicellular</a> <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Myxozoa_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myxozoa-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell walls</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">Marine invertebrates</a> are animals that inhabit a <a href="/wiki/Marine_(ocean)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine (ocean)">marine</a> environment apart from the vertebrate members of the <a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">chordate</a> phylum; invertebrates lack a <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral column">vertebral column</a>. Some have evolved a <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">shell</a> or a hard <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a>. </p><p>The earliest animal fossils may belong to the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Dickinsonia" title="Dickinsonia">Dickinsonia</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Vogel_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vogel-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 571 million to 541 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individual <i>Dickinsonia</i> typically resemble a bilaterally symmetrical ribbed oval. They kept growing until they were covered with sediment or otherwise killed,<sup id="cite_ref-Retallack2007_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Retallack2007-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and spent most of their lives with their bodies firmly anchored to the sediment.<sup id="cite_ref-PalAss_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PalAss-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their <a href="/wiki/Affinity_(taxonomy)" title="Affinity (taxonomy)">taxonomic affinities</a> are presently unknown, but their mode of growth is consistent with a <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">bilaterian</a> affinity.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Apart from <i>Dickinsonia</i>, the earliest widely accepted animal fossils are the rather modern-looking <a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">cnidarians</a> (the group that includes <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">coral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemones</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">Hydra</a></i>), possibly from around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=580">580</a> Ma</span><sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ediacara_biota" class="mw-redirect" title="Ediacara biota">Ediacara biota</a>, which flourished for the last 40 million years before the start of the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Grazhdankin2004_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grazhdankin2004-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were the first animals more than a very few centimetres long. Like <i>Dickinsonia</i>, many were flat with a "quilted" appearance, and seemed so strange that there was a proposal to classify them as a separate <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vendozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Vendozoa">Vendozoa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Seilacher1992_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seilacher1992-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others, however, have been interpreted as early <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">molluscs</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Kimberella" title="Kimberella">Kimberella</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Martin2000_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin2000-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FedonkinWaggoner1997KimberellaMollusc_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FedonkinWaggoner1997KimberellaMollusc-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Arkarua" title="Arkarua">Arkarua</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), and <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Spriggina" title="Spriggina">Spriggina</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Parvancorina" title="Parvancorina">Parvancorina</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). There is still debate about the classification of these specimens, mainly because the diagnostic features which allow taxonomists to classify more recent organisms, such as similarities to living organisms, are generally absent in the Ediacarans. However, there seems little doubt that <i>Kimberella</i> was at least a <a href="/wiki/Triploblasty" title="Triploblasty">triploblastic</a> bilaterian animal, in other words, an animal significantly more complex than the cnidarians.<sup id="cite_ref-Butterfield2006_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butterfield2006-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Small_shelly_fauna" title="Small shelly fauna">Small shelly fauna</a> are a very mixed collection of fossils found between the Late Ediacaran and <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_Series_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambrian Series 3">Middle Cambrian</a> periods. The earliest, <i><a href="/wiki/Cloudinid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloudinid">Cloudina</a></i>, shows signs of successful defense against predation and may indicate the start of an <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">evolutionary arms race</a>. Some tiny Early Cambrian shells almost certainly belonged to molluscs, while the owners of some "armor plates," <i><a href="/wiki/Halkieriid" title="Halkieriid">Halkieria</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Microdictyon" title="Microdictyon">Microdictyon</a></i>, were eventually identified when more complete specimens were found in Cambrian <a href="/wiki/Lagerst%C3%A4tte" title="Lagerstätte">lagerstätten</a> that preserved soft-bodied animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Bengtson2004_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bengtson2004-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Body_plans_and_phyla">Body plans and phyla</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Body plans and phyla"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kimberella_NT.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Kimberella_NT.jpg/220px-Kimberella_NT.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Kimberella_NT.jpg/330px-Kimberella_NT.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Kimberella_NT.jpg/440px-Kimberella_NT.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="418" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Kimberella" title="Kimberella">Kimberella</a></i>, an early mollusc important for understanding the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a>. Invertebrates are grouped into different <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a> (<a href="/wiki/Body_plan" title="Body plan">body plans</a>).</figcaption></figure> <p>Invertebrates are grouped into different <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a>. Informally phyla can be thought of as a way of grouping organisms according to their <a href="/wiki/Body_plan" title="Body plan">body plan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Valentine2004_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Valentine2004-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 33">: 33 </span></sup> A body plan refers to a blueprint which describes the shape or <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a> of an organism, such as its <a href="/wiki/Symmetry_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symmetry (biology)">symmetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Segmentation_(biology)" title="Segmentation (biology)">segmentation</a> and the disposition of its <a href="/wiki/Appendage" title="Appendage">appendages</a>. The idea of body plans originated with <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>, which were grouped into one phylum. But the vertebrate body plan is only one of many, and invertebrates consist of many phyla or body plans. The history of the discovery of body plans can be seen as a movement from a worldview centred on vertebrates, to seeing the vertebrates as one body plan among many. Among the pioneering <a href="/wiki/Zoologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoologist">zoologists</a>, Linnaeus identified two body plans outside the vertebrates; Cuvier identified three; and Haeckel had four, as well as the Protista with eight more, for a total of twelve. For comparison, the number of phyla recognised by modern zoologists has <a href="/wiki/Phylum#Animal_phyla" title="Phylum">risen to 35</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Valentine2004_201-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Valentine2004-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marine_animal_biodiversity.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Marine_animal_biodiversity.png/220px-Marine_animal_biodiversity.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Marine_animal_biodiversity.png/330px-Marine_animal_biodiversity.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Marine_animal_biodiversity.png/440px-Marine_animal_biodiversity.png 2x" data-file-width="467" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption> Taxonomic biodiversity of accepted marine species, according to <i><a href="/wiki/WoRMS" class="mw-redirect" title="WoRMS">WoRMS</a></i>, 18 October 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png/220px-20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png/330px-20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png/440px-20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png 2x" data-file-width="1900" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Opabinia" title="Opabinia">Opabinia</a></i>, an extinct <a href="/wiki/Stem_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem group">stem group</a> <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropod</a> appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Cambrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Cambrian">Middle Cambrian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gould1989_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gould1989-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 124–136">: 124–136 </span></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Historically body plans were thought of as having evolved rapidly during the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-AmSci_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmSci-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but a more nuanced understanding of animal evolution suggests a gradual development of body plans throughout the early <a href="/wiki/Palaeozoic" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeozoic">Palaeozoic</a> and beyond.<sup id="cite_ref-Budd2000_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budd2000-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More generally a phylum can be defined in two ways: as described above, as a group of organisms with a certain degree of morphological or developmental similarity (the <a href="/wiki/Phenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenetic">phenetic</a> definition), or a group of organisms with a certain degree of evolutionary relatedness (the <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic">phylogenetic</a> definition).<sup id="cite_ref-Budd2000_206-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budd2000-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1970s there was already a debate about whether the emergence of the modern phyla was "explosive" or gradual but hidden by the shortage of <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a> animal fossils.<sup id="cite_ref-Bengtson2004_199-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bengtson2004-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A re-analysis of fossils from the <a href="/wiki/Burgess_Shale" title="Burgess Shale">Burgess Shale</a> lagerstätte increased interest in the issue when it revealed animals, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Opabinia" title="Opabinia">Opabinia</a></i>, which did not fit into any known <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a>. At the time these were interpreted as evidence that the modern phyla had evolved very rapidly in the Cambrian explosion and that the Burgess Shale's "weird wonders" showed that the Early Cambrian was a uniquely experimental period of animal evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later discoveries of similar animals and the development of new theoretical approaches led to the conclusion that many of the "weird wonders" were evolutionary "aunts" or "cousins" of modern groups<sup id="cite_ref-Budd2003_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budd2003-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—for example that <i>Opabinia</i> was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Lobopodia" title="Lobopodia">lobopods</a>, a group which includes the ancestors of the arthropods, and that it may have been closely related to the modern <a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">tardigrades</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Budd1996_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budd1996-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, there is still much debate about whether the Cambrian explosion was really explosive and, if so, how and why it happened and why it appears unique in the history of animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Marshall2006Explaining_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall2006Explaining-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earliest_animals">Earliest animals <span class="anchor" id="basal_animal_anchor"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Earliest animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Animal#Phylogeny" title="Animal">Animal § Phylogeny</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Basal_(phylogenetics)" title="Basal (phylogenetics)">deepest-branching</a> animals — the earliest animals that appeared during evolution — are marine non-vertebrate organisms. The earliest animal phyla are the <a href="/wiki/Porifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Porifera">Porifera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a>, <a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a>. No member of these <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clades</a> exhibit body plans with <a href="/wiki/Symmetry_in_biology" title="Symmetry in biology">bilateral symmetry</a>. </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade" style="float:left;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Choanoflagellate" title="Choanoflagellate">Choanoflagellata</a><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cronoflagelado2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Cronoflagelado2.svg/50px-Cronoflagelado2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Cronoflagelado2.svg/75px-Cronoflagelado2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Cronoflagelado2.svg/100px-Cronoflagelado2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="379" /></a></span> <small>unicellular protists thought to be the closest living relatives of animals</small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"><small>950 mya</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Animals">Animals</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Porifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Porifera">Porifera</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aplysina_archeri_(Stove-pipe_Sponge-pink_variation).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Aplysina_archeri_%28Stove-pipe_Sponge-pink_variation%29.jpg/30px-Aplysina_archeri_%28Stove-pipe_Sponge-pink_variation%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Aplysina_archeri_%28Stove-pipe_Sponge-pink_variation%29.jpg/45px-Aplysina_archeri_%28Stove-pipe_Sponge-pink_variation%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Aplysina_archeri_%28Stove-pipe_Sponge-pink_variation%29.jpg/60px-Aplysina_archeri_%28Stove-pipe_Sponge-pink_variation%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1903" data-file-height="2544" /></a></span> <small>sponges – asymmetric</small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Comb_jelly_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Comb_jelly_2.jpg/45px-Comb_jelly_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="45" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Comb_jelly_2.jpg/68px-Comb_jelly_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Comb_jelly_2.jpg/90px-Comb_jelly_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="3500" /></a></span> <small>comb jellies – biradial symmetry</small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Trichoplax_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Trichoplax_2.jpg/40px-Trichoplax_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Trichoplax_2.jpg/60px-Trichoplax_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Trichoplax_2.jpg/80px-Trichoplax_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="241" /></a></span> <small>simplest animals – asymmetric</small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cubozoa_-_Tripedalia_drawing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Cubozoa_-_Tripedalia_drawing.jpg/30px-Cubozoa_-_Tripedalia_drawing.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="46" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Cubozoa_-_Tripedalia_drawing.jpg/45px-Cubozoa_-_Tripedalia_drawing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Cubozoa_-_Tripedalia_drawing.jpg/60px-Cubozoa_-_Tripedalia_drawing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1198" data-file-height="1826" /></a></span> <small>have tentacles with stingers – radial symmetry</small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Bilaterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilaterian">bilaterians</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Goldfish_varieties_and_tropical_aquarium_fishes;_a_complete_guide_to_aquaria_and_related_subjects_(1917)_(14597751849).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Goldfish_varieties_and_tropical_aquarium_fishes%3B_a_complete_guide_to_aquaria_and_related_subjects_%281917%29_%2814597751849%29.jpg/45px-Goldfish_varieties_and_tropical_aquarium_fishes%3B_a_complete_guide_to_aquaria_and_related_subjects_%281917%29_%2814597751849%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="45" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Goldfish_varieties_and_tropical_aquarium_fishes%3B_a_complete_guide_to_aquaria_and_related_subjects_%281917%29_%2814597751849%29.jpg/68px-Goldfish_varieties_and_tropical_aquarium_fishes%3B_a_complete_guide_to_aquaria_and_related_subjects_%281917%29_%2814597751849%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Goldfish_varieties_and_tropical_aquarium_fishes%3B_a_complete_guide_to_aquaria_and_related_subjects_%281917%29_%2814597751849%29.jpg/90px-Goldfish_varieties_and_tropical_aquarium_fishes%3B_a_complete_guide_to_aquaria_and_related_subjects_%281917%29_%2814597751849%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <small>all remaining animals – bilateral symmetry</small></i> <a href="#Bilateral_invertebrate_animals">→</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><small>760 mya</small> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:360px;max-width:360px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aplysina_archeri_(Stove-pipe_Sponge-pink_variation).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Aplysina_archeri_%28Stove-pipe_Sponge-pink_variation%29.jpg/130px-Aplysina_archeri_%28Stove-pipe_Sponge-pink_variation%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Aplysina_archeri_%28Stove-pipe_Sponge-pink_variation%29.jpg/195px-Aplysina_archeri_%28Stove-pipe_Sponge-pink_variation%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Aplysina_archeri_%28Stove-pipe_Sponge-pink_variation%29.jpg/260px-Aplysina_archeri_%28Stove-pipe_Sponge-pink_variation%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1903" data-file-height="2544" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Comb_jelly_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Comb_jelly_2.jpg/222px-Comb_jelly_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="222" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Comb_jelly_2.jpg/333px-Comb_jelly_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Comb_jelly_2.jpg/444px-Comb_jelly_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="3500" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">There has been much controversy over which invertebrate phyla, <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">comb jellies</a>, is the most <a href="/wiki/Basal_(phylogenetics)" title="Basal (phylogenetics)">basal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently, sponges are more widely considered to be the most basal.<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marine_sponges">Marine sponges</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Marine sponges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Callyspongia_sp._(Tube_sponge).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Callyspongia_sp._%28Tube_sponge%29.jpg/220px-Callyspongia_sp._%28Tube_sponge%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Callyspongia_sp._%28Tube_sponge%29.jpg/330px-Callyspongia_sp._%28Tube_sponge%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Callyspongia_sp._%28Tube_sponge%29.jpg/440px-Callyspongia_sp._%28Tube_sponge%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="2200" /></a><figcaption>Sponges are perhaps the most basal animals. They have no nervous, digestive or circulatory system.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Sponges</a> are animals of the <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> <a href="/wiki/Porifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Porifera">Porifera</a> (from Modern Latin for <i>bearing pores</i><sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). They are multicellular organisms that have bodies full of pores and channels allowing water to circulate through them, consisting of jelly-like <a href="/wiki/Mesohyl" title="Mesohyl">mesohyl</a> sandwiched between two thin layers of <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>. They have unspecialized cells that can <a href="/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">transform into other types</a> and that often migrate between the main cell layers and the mesohyl in the process. Sponges do not have <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digestive_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Digestive system">digestive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory systems</a>. Instead, most rely on maintaining a constant water flow through their bodies to obtain food and oxygen and to remove wastes. </p><p>Sponges are similar to other animals in that they are <a href="/wiki/Multicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular">multicellular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterotrophic">heterotrophic</a>, lack <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell walls</a> and produce <a href="/wiki/Sperm_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperm cell">sperm cells</a>. Unlike other animals, they lack true <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a>, and have no <a href="/wiki/Body_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Body symmetry">body symmetry</a>. The shapes of their bodies are adapted for maximal efficiency of water flow through the central cavity, where it deposits nutrients, and leaves through a hole called the <a href="/wiki/Osculum" title="Osculum">osculum</a>. Many sponges have internal skeletons of <a href="/wiki/Spongin" title="Spongin">spongin</a> and/or spicules of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silicon dioxide</a>. All sponges are <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sessility (zoology)">sessile</a> aquatic animals. Although there are freshwater species, the great majority are marine (salt water) species, ranging from tidal zones to depths exceeding 8,800 m (5.5 mi). Some sponges live to great ages; there is evidence of the deep-sea glass sponge <i><a href="/wiki/Monorhaphis_chuni" class="mw-redirect" title="Monorhaphis chuni">Monorhaphis chuni</a></i> living about 11,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Petralia2014_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petralia2014-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While most of the approximately 5,000–10,000 known species feed on <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and other food particles in the water, some host <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesizing</a> micro-organisms as <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbionts</a> and these alliances often produce more food and oxygen than they consume. A few species of sponge that live in food-poor environments have become <a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">carnivores</a> that prey mainly on small <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 173.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sponges_in_Caribbean_Sea,_Cayman_Islands.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sponge biodiversity. There are four sponge species in this photo."><img alt="Sponge biodiversity. There are four sponge species in this photo." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Sponges_in_Caribbean_Sea%2C_Cayman_Islands.jpg/260px-Sponges_in_Caribbean_Sea%2C_Cayman_Islands.jpg" decoding="async" width="174" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Sponges_in_Caribbean_Sea%2C_Cayman_Islands.jpg/391px-Sponges_in_Caribbean_Sea%2C_Cayman_Islands.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Sponges_in_Caribbean_Sea%2C_Cayman_Islands.jpg/520px-Sponges_in_Caribbean_Sea%2C_Cayman_Islands.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sponge biodiversity. There are four sponge species in this photo.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 99.333333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 97.333333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Callyspongia_vaginalis_(Branching_Vase_Sponge_-_pink_variation).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Branching vase sponge"><img alt="Branching vase sponge" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Callyspongia_vaginalis_%28Branching_Vase_Sponge_-_pink_variation%29.jpg/146px-Callyspongia_vaginalis_%28Branching_Vase_Sponge_-_pink_variation%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Callyspongia_vaginalis_%28Branching_Vase_Sponge_-_pink_variation%29.jpg/220px-Callyspongia_vaginalis_%28Branching_Vase_Sponge_-_pink_variation%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Callyspongia_vaginalis_%28Branching_Vase_Sponge_-_pink_variation%29.jpg/293px-Callyspongia_vaginalis_%28Branching_Vase_Sponge_-_pink_variation%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2434" data-file-height="3240" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Branching_vase_sponge" class="mw-redirect" title="Branching vase sponge">Branching vase sponge</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 164.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 162.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Euplectella_aspergillum_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Venus' flower basket at a depth of 2572 meters"><img alt="Venus' flower basket at a depth of 2572 meters" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Euplectella_aspergillum_%28cropped%29.jpg/244px-Euplectella_aspergillum_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="163" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Euplectella_aspergillum_%28cropped%29.jpg/366px-Euplectella_aspergillum_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Euplectella_aspergillum_%28cropped%29.jpg/488px-Euplectella_aspergillum_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="640" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Venus%27_flower_basket" title="Venus' flower basket">Venus' flower basket</a> at a depth of 2572 meters</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 158.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 156.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Barrel_sponge_(Xestospongia_testudinaria).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Barrel sponge"><img alt="Barrel sponge" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Barrel_sponge_%28Xestospongia_testudinaria%29.jpg/235px-Barrel_sponge_%28Xestospongia_testudinaria%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="157" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Barrel_sponge_%28Xestospongia_testudinaria%29.jpg/354px-Barrel_sponge_%28Xestospongia_testudinaria%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Barrel_sponge_%28Xestospongia_testudinaria%29.jpg/471px-Barrel_sponge_%28Xestospongia_testudinaria%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3032" data-file-height="2512" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Xestospongia_testudinaria" title="Xestospongia testudinaria">Barrel sponge</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 118px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 116px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Szi_-_Hyalonema.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The long-living Monorhaphis chuni"><img alt="The long-living Monorhaphis chuni" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Szi_-_Hyalonema.jpg/174px-Szi_-_Hyalonema.jpg" decoding="async" width="116" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Szi_-_Hyalonema.jpg/261px-Szi_-_Hyalonema.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Szi_-_Hyalonema.jpg/347px-Szi_-_Hyalonema.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="393" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The long-living <i><a href="/wiki/Monorhaphis_chuni" class="mw-redirect" title="Monorhaphis chuni">Monorhaphis chuni</a></i></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a> mistakenly identified sponges as plants in the order <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-worms_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worms-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a long time thereafter sponges were assigned to a separate subkingdom, <a href="/wiki/Parazoa" title="Parazoa">Parazoa</a> (meaning <i>beside the animals</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are now classified as a <a href="/wiki/Paraphyly" title="Paraphyly">paraphyletic</a> <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> from which the higher animals have evolved.<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ctenophores">Ctenophores</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ctenophores"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ctenophore" class="mw-redirect" title="Ctenophore">Ctenophores</a> (from Greek for <i>carrying a comb</i>), commonly known as comb jellies, are a phylum that live worldwide in marine waters. They are the largest non-colonial animals to swim with the help of <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a> (hairs or combs).<sup id="cite_ref-RuppertBarnes2004Ctenophora_221-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RuppertBarnes2004Ctenophora-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coastal species need to be tough enough to withstand waves and swirling sediment, but some oceanic species are so fragile and transparent that it is very difficult to capture them intact for study.<sup id="cite_ref-MillsNotesFromExpert_222-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MillsNotesFromExpert-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the past ctenophores were thought to have only a modest presence in the ocean, but it is now known they are often significant and even dominant parts of the planktonic biomass.<sup id="cite_ref-Brusca2003_223-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brusca2003-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 269">: 269 </span></sup> </p><p>The phylum has about 150 known species with a wide range of body forms. Sizes range from a few <a href="/wiki/Millimeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Millimeter">millimeters</a> to 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in). <a href="/wiki/Cydippida" title="Cydippida">Cydippids</a> are egg-shaped with their cilia arranged in eight radial comb rows, and deploy retractable tentacles for capturing prey. The benthic <a href="/wiki/Platyctenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Platyctenid">platyctenids</a> are generally combless and flat. The coastal <a href="/wiki/Beroid" class="mw-redirect" title="Beroid">beroids</a> have gaping mouths and lack tentacles. Most adult ctenophores prey on microscopic larvae and <a href="/wiki/Rotifer" title="Rotifer">rotifers</a> and small <a href="/wiki/Crustacea" class="mw-redirect" title="Crustacea">crustaceans</a> but beroids prey on other ctenophores. </p> <div style="clear:right;" class=""></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 89.333333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 87.333333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LightRefractsOf_comb-rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Light diffracting along the comb rows of a cydippid, left tentacle deployed, right retracted"><img alt="Light diffracting along the comb rows of a cydippid, left tentacle deployed, right retracted" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg/131px-LightRefractsOf_comb-rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg" decoding="async" width="88" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg/196px-LightRefractsOf_comb-rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg/262px-LightRefractsOf_comb-rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1100" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Light <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffracting</a> along the comb rows of a cydippid, left tentacle deployed, right retracted</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 96px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 94px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ctenophore.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Deep-sea ctenophore trailing tentacles studded with tentilla (sub-tentacles)"><img alt="Deep-sea ctenophore trailing tentacles studded with tentilla (sub-tentacles)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Ctenophore.jpg/141px-Ctenophore.jpg" decoding="async" width="94" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Ctenophore.jpg/212px-Ctenophore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Ctenophore.jpg/283px-Ctenophore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="560" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Deep-sea ctenophore trailing tentacles studded with <a href="/wiki/Tentilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Tentilla">tentilla</a> (sub-tentacles)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 106px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 104px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aulacoctena_cydippid_ctenophore.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Egg-shaped cydippid ctenophore"><img alt="Egg-shaped cydippid ctenophore" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Aulacoctena_cydippid_ctenophore.jpg/156px-Aulacoctena_cydippid_ctenophore.jpg" decoding="async" width="104" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Aulacoctena_cydippid_ctenophore.jpg/234px-Aulacoctena_cydippid_ctenophore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Aulacoctena_cydippid_ctenophore.jpg/312px-Aulacoctena_cydippid_ctenophore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1305" data-file-height="1505" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Egg-shaped <a href="/wiki/Cydippid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cydippid">cydippid</a> ctenophore</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coeloplana_astericola_(Benthic_ctenophores)_on_Echniaster_luzonicus_(Seastar).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Group of small benthic creeping comb jellies streaming tentacles and living symbiotically on a starfish."><img alt="Group of small benthic creeping comb jellies streaming tentacles and living symbiotically on a starfish." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Coeloplana_astericola_%28Benthic_ctenophores%29_on_Echniaster_luzonicus_%28Seastar%29.jpg/240px-Coeloplana_astericola_%28Benthic_ctenophores%29_on_Echniaster_luzonicus_%28Seastar%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Coeloplana_astericola_%28Benthic_ctenophores%29_on_Echniaster_luzonicus_%28Seastar%29.jpg/360px-Coeloplana_astericola_%28Benthic_ctenophores%29_on_Echniaster_luzonicus_%28Seastar%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Coeloplana_astericola_%28Benthic_ctenophores%29_on_Echniaster_luzonicus_%28Seastar%29.jpg/480px-Coeloplana_astericola_%28Benthic_ctenophores%29_on_Echniaster_luzonicus_%28Seastar%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2339" data-file-height="1754" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Group of small benthic <a href="/wiki/Coeloplana_astericola" title="Coeloplana astericola">creeping comb jellies</a> streaming tentacles and living <a href="/wiki/Symbiotically" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiotically">symbiotically</a> on a starfish.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 132.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 130.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lobate_ctenophore.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lobata sp. with paired thick lobes"><img alt="Lobata sp. with paired thick lobes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Lobate_ctenophore.jpg/196px-Lobate_ctenophore.jpg" decoding="async" width="131" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Lobate_ctenophore.jpg/295px-Lobate_ctenophore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Lobate_ctenophore.jpg/393px-Lobate_ctenophore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1100" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Lobata" title="Lobata">Lobata</a></i> sp. with paired thick lobes</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 172px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mnemiopsis_leidyi_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The sea walnut has a transient anus which forms only when it needs to defecate.[222]"><img alt="The sea walnut has a transient anus which forms only when it needs to defecate.[222]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Mnemiopsis_leidyi_2.jpg/255px-Mnemiopsis_leidyi_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Mnemiopsis_leidyi_2.jpg/383px-Mnemiopsis_leidyi_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Mnemiopsis_leidyi_2.jpg/510px-Mnemiopsis_leidyi_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1157" data-file-height="817" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Sea_walnut" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea walnut">sea walnut</a> has a transient anus which forms only when it needs to defecate.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ctenophore2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Ctenophore2.jpg/310px-Ctenophore2.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Ctenophore2.jpg/465px-Ctenophore2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Ctenophore2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption> The <a href="/wiki/Beroid" class="mw-redirect" title="Beroid">beroid</a> ctenophore, mouth gaping, preys on other ctenophores.</figcaption></figure> <p>Early writers combined ctenophores with <a href="#Marine_cnidarians">cnidarians</a>. Ctenophores resemble cnidarians in relying on water flow through the body cavity for both digestion and respiration, as well as in having a decentralized <a href="/wiki/Nerve_net" title="Nerve net">nerve net</a> rather than a brain. Also like cnidarians, the bodies of ctenophores consist of a mass of jelly, with one layer of <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> on the outside and another lining the internal cavity. In ctenophores, however, these layers are two cells deep, while those in cnidarians are only a single cell deep. While cnidarians exhibit <a href="/wiki/Radial_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Radial symmetry">radial symmetry</a>, ctenophores have two anal canals which exhibit <a href="/wiki/Biradial_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Biradial symmetry">biradial symmetry</a> (half-turn rotational symmetry).<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The position of the ctenophores in the evolutionary family tree of animals has long been debated, and the majority view at present, based on <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">molecular phylogenetics</a>, is that cnidarians and <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">bilaterians</a> are more closely related to each other than either is to ctenophores.<sup id="cite_ref-Brusca2003_223-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brusca2003-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 222">: 222 </span></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 280px; clear: left; float:left;margin:0 1.5em 1.5em 0;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Ny0F6jbX2U&ab_channel=EVNautilus">Iridescent red ctenophore</a> — <i>EVNautilus</i></td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Placozoa">Placozoa</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Placozoa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a> (from Greek for <i>flat animals</i>) have the simplest structure of all animals. They are a <a href="/wiki/Basal_(phylogenetics)" title="Basal (phylogenetics)">basal</a> form of free-living (non-parasitic) <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular organism</a><sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that do not yet have a common name.<sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They live in marine environments and form a phylum containing so far only three described species, of which the first, the classical <i><a href="/wiki/Trichoplax_adhaerens" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichoplax adhaerens">Trichoplax adhaerens</a></i>, was discovered in 1883.<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two more species have been discovered since 2017,<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and genetic methods indicate this phylum has a further 100 to 200 <a href="/wiki/Undescribed_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Undescribed species">undescribed species</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:450px;max-width:450px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:184px;max-width:184px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Trichoplax.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Trichoplax.jpg/182px-Trichoplax.jpg" decoding="async" width="182" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Trichoplax.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="241" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:262px;max-width:262px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Placozoan.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Placozoan.webp/260px-Placozoan.webp.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Placozoan.webp/390px-Placozoan.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Placozoan.webp/520px-Placozoan.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="617" data-file-height="432" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Placozoa have the simplest structure of all animals.</div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Exodigestion_in_Trichoplax_adhaerens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Exodigestion_in_Trichoplax_adhaerens.jpg/330px-Exodigestion_in_Trichoplax_adhaerens.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Exodigestion_in_Trichoplax_adhaerens.jpg/495px-Exodigestion_in_Trichoplax_adhaerens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Exodigestion_in_Trichoplax_adhaerens.jpg/660px-Exodigestion_in_Trichoplax_adhaerens.jpg 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="433" /></a><figcaption> Crawling motility and food uptake by <i><a href="/wiki/Trichoplax_adhaerens" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichoplax adhaerens">T. adhaerens</a></i></figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p><i>Trichoplax</i> is a small, flattened, animal about one mm across and usually about 25 μm thick. Like the <a href="/wiki/Amoebae" class="mw-redirect" title="Amoebae">amoebae</a> they superficially resemble, they continually change their external shape. In addition, spherical phases occasionally form which may facilitate movement. <i>Trichoplax</i> lacks tissues and organs. There is no manifest body symmetry, so it is not possible to distinguish anterior from posterior or left from right. It is made up of a few thousand cells of six types in three distinct layers.<sup id="cite_ref-SmithVaroqueaux2014_232-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SmithVaroqueaux2014-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The outer layer of simple <a href="/wiki/Epithelium" title="Epithelium">epithelial cells</a> bear <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a> which the animal uses to help it creep along the seafloor.<sup id="cite_ref-IZ_233-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IZ-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Trichoplax</i> feed by engulfing and absorbing food particles – mainly microbes and organic detritus – with their underside. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marine_cnidarians">Marine cnidarians</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Marine cnidarians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nematostella_vectensis_(I1419)_999_(30695685804).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Nematostella_vectensis_%28I1419%29_999_%2830695685804%29.jpg/220px-Nematostella_vectensis_%28I1419%29_999_%2830695685804%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Nematostella_vectensis_%28I1419%29_999_%2830695685804%29.jpg/330px-Nematostella_vectensis_%28I1419%29_999_%2830695685804%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Nematostella_vectensis_%28I1419%29_999_%2830695685804%29.jpg/440px-Nematostella_vectensis_%28I1419%29_999_%2830695685804%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1528" data-file-height="1439" /></a><figcaption>Cnidarians, like this <a href="/wiki/Starlet_sea_anemone" title="Starlet sea anemone">starlet sea anemone</a>, are the simplest animals to organise cells into <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissue</a>. Yet they have the same genes that form the vertebrate (including human) head.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Cnidarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnidarians">Cnidarians</a> (from Greek for <i>nettle</i>) are distinguished by the presence of <a href="/wiki/Stinging_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Stinging cell">stinging cells</a>, specialized cells that they use mainly for capturing prey. Cnidarians include <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrozoans" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrozoans">hydrozoans</a>. They form a <a href="/wiki/Phylum_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylum (biology)">phylum</a> containing over 10,000<sup id="cite_ref-Zhang2011_234-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang2011-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> of <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> found exclusively in aquatic (mainly marine) environments. Their bodies consist of <a href="/wiki/Mesoglea" title="Mesoglea">mesoglea</a>, a non-living jelly-like substance, sandwiched between two layers of <a href="/wiki/Epithelium" title="Epithelium">epithelium</a> that are mostly one <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell thick</a>. They have two basic body forms: swimming <a href="/wiki/Medusa_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Medusa (biology)">medusae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sessility (zoology)">sessile</a> <a href="/wiki/Polyp_(zoology)" title="Polyp (zoology)">polyps</a>, both of which are <a href="/wiki/Symmetry_(biology)#Radial_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Symmetry (biology)">radially symmetrical</a> with mouths surrounded by tentacles that bear cnidocytes. Both forms have a single <a href="/wiki/Body_orifice" title="Body orifice">orifice</a> and body cavity that are used for digestion and <a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a>. </p><p>Fossil cnidarians have been found in rocks formed about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=580">580</a> million years ago</span>. Fossils of cnidarians that do not build <a href="/wiki/Biomineralization" title="Biomineralization">mineralized</a> structures are rare. Scientists currently think cnidarians, <a href="/wiki/Ctenophore" class="mw-redirect" title="Ctenophore">ctenophores</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bilaterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilaterian">bilaterians</a> are more closely related to <a href="/wiki/Calcarea" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcarea">calcareous sponges</a> than these are to other <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a>, and that <a href="/wiki/Anthozoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthozoan">anthozoans</a> are the evolutionary "aunts" or "sisters" of other cnidarians, and the most closely related to bilaterians. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cnidarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnidarians">Cnidarians</a> are the simplest animals in which the cells are organised into tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-235" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Starlet_sea_anemone" title="Starlet sea anemone">starlet sea anemone</a> is used as a <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organism</a> in research.<sup id="cite_ref-Nematostella_236-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nematostella-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is easy to care for in the laboratory and a <a href="/wiki/Protocol_(natural_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Protocol (natural sciences)">protocol</a> has been developed which can yield large numbers of embryos on a daily basis.<sup id="cite_ref-Genikhovich_237-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genikhovich-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a remarkable degree of similarity in the gene sequence conservation and complexity between the sea anemone and vertebrates.<sup id="cite_ref-Genikhovich_237-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genikhovich-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, genes concerned in the formation of the head in vertebrates are also present in the anemone.<sup id="cite_ref-238" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 173.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sea_anemone_in_tidepools.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sea anemones are common in tidepools."><img alt="Sea anemones are common in tidepools." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Sea_anemone_in_tidepools.jpg/260px-Sea_anemone_in_tidepools.jpg" decoding="async" width="174" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Sea_anemone_in_tidepools.jpg/391px-Sea_anemone_in_tidepools.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Sea_anemone_in_tidepools.jpg/520px-Sea_anemone_in_tidepools.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sea anemones are common in <a href="/wiki/Tidepool" class="mw-redirect" title="Tidepool">tidepools</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 167.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 165.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Striped_colonial_anemone.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Their tentacles sting and paralyse small fish."><img alt="Their tentacles sting and paralyse small fish." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Striped_colonial_anemone.jpg/248px-Striped_colonial_anemone.jpg" decoding="async" width="166" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Striped_colonial_anemone.jpg/373px-Striped_colonial_anemone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Striped_colonial_anemone.jpg/496px-Striped_colonial_anemone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="550" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Their <a href="/wiki/Tentacle" title="Tentacle">tentacles</a> sting and paralyse small fish.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 173.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Close up of polyps on the surface of a coral, waving their tentacles."><img alt="Close up of polyps on the surface of a coral, waving their tentacles." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Coral_detail.jpg/260px-Coral_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="174" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Coral_detail.jpg/391px-Coral_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Coral_detail.jpg/520px-Coral_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Close up of <a href="/wiki/Polyp_(zoology)" title="Polyp (zoology)">polyps</a> on the surface of a <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">coral</a>, waving their tentacles.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 197.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 195.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maldives_small_island.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="If an island sinks below the sea, coral growth can keep up with rising water and form an atoll."><img alt="If an island sinks below the sea, coral growth can keep up with rising water and form an atoll." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Maldives_small_island.jpg/293px-Maldives_small_island.jpg" decoding="async" width="196" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Maldives_small_island.jpg/440px-Maldives_small_island.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Maldives_small_island.jpg/586px-Maldives_small_island.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1066" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">If an island sinks below the sea, coral growth can keep up with rising water and form an <a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">atoll</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 216px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 214px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Red-paper-lantern-jellyfish-Karen-Osborn-Smithsonian-Institution.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The mantle of the red paper lantern jellyfish crumples and expands like a paper lantern.[238]"><img alt="The mantle of the red paper lantern jellyfish crumples and expands like a paper lantern.[238]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Red-paper-lantern-jellyfish-Karen-Osborn-Smithsonian-Institution.png/321px-Red-paper-lantern-jellyfish-Karen-Osborn-Smithsonian-Institution.png" decoding="async" width="214" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Red-paper-lantern-jellyfish-Karen-Osborn-Smithsonian-Institution.png/482px-Red-paper-lantern-jellyfish-Karen-Osborn-Smithsonian-Institution.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Red-paper-lantern-jellyfish-Karen-Osborn-Smithsonian-Institution.png/641px-Red-paper-lantern-jellyfish-Karen-Osborn-Smithsonian-Institution.png 2x" data-file-width="680" data-file-height="414" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The mantle of the <a href="/wiki/Red_paper_lantern_jellyfish" class="mw-redirect" title="Red paper lantern jellyfish">red paper lantern jellyfish</a> crumples and expands like a paper lantern.<sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 126px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 124px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Portuguese_Man-O-War_(Physalia_physalis).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Portuguese man o' war is a colonial siphonophore"><img alt="The Portuguese man o' war is a colonial siphonophore" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Portuguese_Man-O-War_%28Physalia_physalis%29.jpg/186px-Portuguese_Man-O-War_%28Physalia_physalis%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="124" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Portuguese_Man-O-War_%28Physalia_physalis%29.jpg/279px-Portuguese_Man-O-War_%28Physalia_physalis%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Portuguese_Man-O-War_%28Physalia_physalis%29.jpg/372px-Portuguese_Man-O-War_%28Physalia_physalis%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1508" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> The <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_man_o%27_war" title="Portuguese man o' war">Portuguese man o' war</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonial</a> <a href="/wiki/Siphonophore" class="mw-redirect" title="Siphonophore">siphonophore</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marrus_orthocanna.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Marrus orthocanna another colonial siphonophore, assembled from two types of zooids."><img alt="Marrus orthocanna another colonial siphonophore, assembled from two types of zooids." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Marrus_orthocanna.jpg/180px-Marrus_orthocanna.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Marrus_orthocanna.jpg/270px-Marrus_orthocanna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Marrus_orthocanna.jpg/359px-Marrus_orthocanna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2133" data-file-height="3025" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <i><a href="/wiki/Marrus_orthocanna" title="Marrus orthocanna">Marrus orthocanna</a></i> another colonial siphonophore, assembled from two types of <a href="/wiki/Zooid" title="Zooid">zooids</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 170px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 168px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Porpita_porpita.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Porpita porpita consists of a colony of hydroids[239]"><img alt="Porpita porpita consists of a colony of hydroids[239]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Porpita_porpita.jpg/252px-Porpita_porpita.jpg" decoding="async" width="168" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Porpita_porpita.jpg/379px-Porpita_porpita.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Porpita_porpita.jpg/504px-Porpita_porpita.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2176" data-file-height="2200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Porpita_porpita" title="Porpita porpita">Porpita porpita</a></i> consists of a colony of <a href="/wiki/Hydroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroids">hydroids</a><sup id="cite_ref-Blue_Button_241-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blue_Button-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 129.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 127.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Largelionsmanejellyfish.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lion's mane jellyfish, largest known jellyfish[240]"><img alt="Lion's mane jellyfish, largest known jellyfish[240]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Largelionsmanejellyfish.jpg/191px-Largelionsmanejellyfish.jpg" decoding="async" width="128" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Largelionsmanejellyfish.jpg/287px-Largelionsmanejellyfish.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Largelionsmanejellyfish.jpg/382px-Largelionsmanejellyfish.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Lion%27s_mane_jellyfish" title="Lion's mane jellyfish">Lion's mane jellyfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Largest_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Largest organism">largest known</a> jellyfish<sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 172px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Turritopsis_dohrnii_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Turritopsis dohrnii achieves biological immortality by transferring its cells back to childhood.[241][242]"><img alt="Turritopsis dohrnii achieves biological immortality by transferring its cells back to childhood.[241][242]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Turritopsis_dohrnii_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="190" data-file-height="190" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <i><a href="/wiki/Turritopsis_dohrnii" title="Turritopsis dohrnii">Turritopsis dohrnii</a></i> achieves <a href="/wiki/Biological_immortality" title="Biological immortality">biological immortality</a> by transferring its cells back to childhood.<sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-piraino-96_244-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-piraino-96-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 172px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chironex_fleckeri_(sea_wasp).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The sea wasp is the most lethal jellyfish in the world.[243]"><img alt="The sea wasp is the most lethal jellyfish in the world.[243]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Chironex_fleckeri_%28sea_wasp%29.jpg/255px-Chironex_fleckeri_%28sea_wasp%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Chironex_fleckeri_%28sea_wasp%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="260" data-file-height="260" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> The <a href="/wiki/Sea_wasp" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea wasp">sea wasp</a> is the most lethal jellyfish in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Fenner1996_245-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fenner1996-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bilateral_invertebrate_animals">Bilateral invertebrate animals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Bilateral invertebrate animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bilaterian_body_plan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Bilaterian_body_plan.svg/370px-Bilaterian_body_plan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Bilaterian_body_plan.svg/555px-Bilaterian_body_plan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Bilaterian_body_plan.svg/740px-Bilaterian_body_plan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1185" data-file-height="581" /></a><figcaption>Idealised wormlike bilaterian body plan. With a cylindrical body and a direction of movement the animal has head and tail ends. Sense organs and mouth form the basis of the head. Opposed circular and longitudinal muscles enable <a href="/wiki/Peristalsis" title="Peristalsis">peristaltic motion</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Some of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Bilaterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilaterian">bilaterians</a> were wormlike, and the original <a href="/wiki/Bilaterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilaterian">bilaterian</a> may have been a bottom dwelling worm with a single body opening.<sup id="cite_ref-Cannon2016_246-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cannon2016-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A bilaterian body can be conceptualized as a cylinder with a gut running between two openings, the mouth and the anus. Around the gut it has an internal body cavity, a <a href="/wiki/Coelom" title="Coelom">coelom</a> or pseudocoelom.<sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Animals with this bilaterally symmetric <a href="/wiki/Body_plan" title="Body plan">body plan</a> have a head (anterior) end and a tail (posterior) end as well as a back (dorsal) and a belly (ventral); therefore they also have a left side and a right side.<sup id="cite_ref-Minelli2009_248-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Minelli2009-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brusca2016_249-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brusca2016-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Having a front end means that this part of the body encounters stimuli, such as food, favouring <a href="/wiki/Cephalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalisation">cephalisation</a>, the development of a head with <a href="/wiki/Sense_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Sense organ">sense organs</a> and a mouth.<sup id="cite_ref-Finnerty_250-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finnerty-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The body stretches back from the head, and many bilaterians have a combination of circular <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscles</a> that constrict the body, making it longer, and an opposing set of longitudinal muscles, that shorten the body;<sup id="cite_ref-Brusca2016_249-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brusca2016-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> these enable soft-bodied animals with a <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_skeleton" title="Hydrostatic skeleton">hydrostatic skeleton</a> to move by <a href="/wiki/Peristalsis" title="Peristalsis">peristalsis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Quillin_251-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quillin-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>248<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also have a gut that extends through the basically cylindrical body from mouth to anus. Many bilaterian phyla have primary <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larvae</a> which swim with <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a> and have an apical organ containing sensory cells. However, there are exceptions to each of these characteristics; for example, adult echinoderms are radially symmetric (unlike their larvae), and certain <a href="/wiki/Helminths" class="mw-redirect" title="Helminths">parasitic worms</a> have extremely simplified body structures.<sup id="cite_ref-Minelli2009_248-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Minelli2009-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brusca2016_249-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brusca2016-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ikaria_wariootia_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Ikaria_wariootia_%28cropped%29.jpg/130px-Ikaria_wariootia_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Ikaria_wariootia_%28cropped%29.jpg/195px-Ikaria_wariootia_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Ikaria_wariootia_%28cropped%29.jpg/260px-Ikaria_wariootia_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption> <i><a href="/wiki/Ikaria_wariootia" title="Ikaria wariootia">Ikaria wariootia</a></i>, an early bilaterian<sup id="cite_ref-252" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>249<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="#Earliest_animals">←</a> bilaterians </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade" style="float:right;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Xenacoelomorpha" title="Xenacoelomorpha">Xenacoelomorpha</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Proporus_sp.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Proporus_sp.png/60px-Proporus_sp.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Proporus_sp.png/90px-Proporus_sp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Proporus_sp.png/120px-Proporus_sp.png 2x" data-file-width="1428" data-file-height="812" /></a></span>   <small>basal bilaterians (lack a true gut)<sup id="cite_ref-Cannon2016_246-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cannon2016-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Nephrozoa" title="Nephrozoa">Nephrozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Protostome" title="Protostome">protostomes</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped_2.jpg/55px-J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="55" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped_2.jpg/83px-J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped_2.jpg/110px-J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="874" /></a></span> <small>develops mouth first</small> <a href="#Protostomes">→</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"><small>610 mya</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">deuterostomes</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carassius_wild_golden_fish_2013_G1_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Carassius_wild_golden_fish_2013_G1_%282%29.jpg/65px-Carassius_wild_golden_fish_2013_G1_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="65" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Carassius_wild_golden_fish_2013_G1_%282%29.jpg/98px-Carassius_wild_golden_fish_2013_G1_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Carassius_wild_golden_fish_2013_G1_%282%29.jpg/130px-Carassius_wild_golden_fish_2013_G1_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3740" data-file-height="2200" /></a></span> <small>develops anus first</small> <a href="#Deuterostomes">→</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><small>650 mya</small> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protostomes">Protostomes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Protostomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Embryological_origins_of_the_mouth_and_anus" title="Embryological origins of the mouth and anus">Embryological origins of the mouth and anus</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Protostomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Protostomes">Protostomes</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> for <i>first mouth</i>) are a <a href="/wiki/Superphylum" class="mw-redirect" title="Superphylum">superphylum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>. It is a sister clade of the <a href="/wiki/Deuterostomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuterostomes">deuterostomes</a> (from Greek for <i>second mouth</i>), with which it forms the <a href="/wiki/Nephrozoa" title="Nephrozoa">Nephrozoa</a> clade. Protostomes are distinguished from deuterostomes by the way their <a href="/wiki/Embryonic_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryonic development">embryos develop</a>. In protostomes the first opening that develops becomes the <a href="/wiki/Mouth" title="Mouth">mouth</a>, while in deuterostomes it becomes the anus.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20170130_253-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20170130-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NAT-20170130_254-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20170130-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="#Bilateral_invertebrate_animals">←</a> <a href="/wiki/Protostomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Protostomes">Protostomes</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Ecdysozoa" title="Ecdysozoa">Ecdysozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Scalidophora" title="Scalidophora">Scalidophora</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Adult_priapulid_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Adult_priapulid_2.jpg/40px-Adult_priapulid_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Adult_priapulid_2.jpg/60px-Adult_priapulid_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Adult_priapulid_2.jpg/80px-Adult_priapulid_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span> <small><a href="/wiki/Penis_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Penis worm">penis worms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mud_dragon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mud dragon">mud dragons</a></small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped_2.jpg/60px-J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped_2.jpg/90px-J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped_2.jpg/120px-J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="874" /></a></span> <small>mainly <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a></small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematodes</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CelegansGoldsteinLabUNC_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/CelegansGoldsteinLabUNC_2.jpg/50px-CelegansGoldsteinLabUNC_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/CelegansGoldsteinLabUNC_2.jpg/75px-CelegansGoldsteinLabUNC_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/CelegansGoldsteinLabUNC_2.jpg/100px-CelegansGoldsteinLabUNC_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="297" /></a></span> <small><a href="/wiki/Roundworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Roundworm">roundworms</a></small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"><small>>529 mya</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Spiralia" title="Spiralia">Spiralia</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Gnathifera_(clade)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnathifera (clade)">Gnathifera</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Rotifer" title="Rotifer">rotifers</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bdelloid_Rotifer_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Bdelloid_Rotifer_%28cropped%29.jpg/40px-Bdelloid_Rotifer_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="43" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Bdelloid_Rotifer_%28cropped%29.jpg/60px-Bdelloid_Rotifer_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Bdelloid_Rotifer_%28cropped%29.jpg/80px-Bdelloid_Rotifer_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="575" data-file-height="613" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Arrow_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrow worm">arrow worms</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chaetoblack_3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Chaetoblack_3.png/70px-Chaetoblack_3.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Chaetoblack_3.png/105px-Chaetoblack_3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Chaetoblack_3.png/140px-Chaetoblack_3.png 2x" data-file-width="985" data-file-height="364" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Platytrochozoa" title="Platytrochozoa">Platytrochozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Flatworms" class="mw-redirect" title="Flatworms">flatworms</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pseudoceros_liparus_-_Blue_Pseudoceros_Flatworm_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Pseudoceros_liparus_-_Blue_Pseudoceros_Flatworm_2.jpg/80px-Pseudoceros_liparus_-_Blue_Pseudoceros_Flatworm_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="57" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Pseudoceros_liparus_-_Blue_Pseudoceros_Flatworm_2.jpg/120px-Pseudoceros_liparus_-_Blue_Pseudoceros_Flatworm_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Pseudoceros_liparus_-_Blue_Pseudoceros_Flatworm_2.jpg/160px-Pseudoceros_liparus_-_Blue_Pseudoceros_Flatworm_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1145" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Lophotrochozoa" title="Lophotrochozoa">Lophotrochozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Mollusc" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusc">molluscs</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nautilus_-_Ekaterina_Tutynina_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Nautilus_-_Ekaterina_Tutynina_2.jpg/60px-Nautilus_-_Ekaterina_Tutynina_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Nautilus_-_Ekaterina_Tutynina_2.jpg/90px-Nautilus_-_Ekaterina_Tutynina_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Nautilus_-_Ekaterina_Tutynina_2.jpg/120px-Nautilus_-_Ekaterina_Tutynina_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1754" data-file-height="1755" /></a></span> <small><a href="/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">gastropods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">bivalves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">cephalopods</a></small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Ringed_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Ringed worm">ringed worms</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Polychaeta_(no)_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Polychaeta_%28no%29_2.jpg/60px-Polychaeta_%28no%29_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Polychaeta_%28no%29_2.jpg/90px-Polychaeta_%28no%29_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Polychaeta_%28no%29_2.jpg/120px-Polychaeta_%28no%29_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1727" data-file-height="1110" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><small>550 mya</small> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><small>580 mya</small> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><small>(extant)</small> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marine_worms">Marine worms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Marine worms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Marine_worm" title="Marine worm">Marine worm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sea_worm" title="Sea worm">Sea worm</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chaetoblack.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Chaetoblack.png/310px-Chaetoblack.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Chaetoblack.png/465px-Chaetoblack.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Chaetoblack.png/620px-Chaetoblack.png 2x" data-file-width="985" data-file-height="364" /></a><figcaption>Many marine worms are related only distantly, so they form a number of different phyla. The worm shown is an <a href="/wiki/Arrow_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrow worm">arrow worm</a>, found worldwide as a predatory component of plankton.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Worm" title="Worm">Worms</a> (Old English for <i>serpents</i>) form a number of phyla. Different groups of marine worms are related only distantly, so they are found in several different <a href="/wiki/Phylum_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylum (biology)">phyla</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Annelida" class="mw-redirect" title="Annelida">Annelida</a> (segmented worms), <a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha</a> (arrow worms), <a href="/wiki/Phoronida" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoronida">Phoronida</a> (horseshoe worms), and <a href="/wiki/Hemichordata" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemichordata">Hemichordata</a>. All worms, apart from the Hemichordata, are protostomes. The Hemichordata are deuterostomes and are discussed in their own section below. </p><p>The typical body plan of a worm involves long cylindrical tube-like bodies and no <a href="/wiki/Limb_(anatomy)" title="Limb (anatomy)">limbs</a>. <a href="/wiki/Marine_worm" title="Marine worm">Marine worms</a> vary in size from microscopic to over 1 metre (3.3 ft) in length for some marine polychaete worms (<a href="/wiki/Bristle_worms" class="mw-redirect" title="Bristle worms">bristle worms</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-255" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and up to 58 metres (190 ft) for the marine nemertean worm (<a href="/wiki/Bootlace_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Bootlace worm">bootlace worm</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-256" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some marine worms occupy a small variety of <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitic</a> niches, living inside the bodies of other animals, while others live more freely in the marine environment or by burrowing underground. Many of these worms have specialized tentacles used for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide and also may be used for reproduction. Some marine worms are <a href="/wiki/Tube_worm_(body_plan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tube worm (body plan)">tube worms</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Giant_tube_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant tube worm">giant tube worm</a> which lives in waters near underwater <a href="/wiki/Volcanoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanoes">volcanoes</a> and can withstand temperatures up to 90 degrees <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">Celsius</a>. <a href="/wiki/Platyhelminthes" class="mw-redirect" title="Platyhelminthes">Platyhelminthes</a> (flatworms) form another worm phylum which includes a class of parasitic tapeworms. The marine tapeworm <i><a href="/wiki/Polygonoporus_giganticus" class="mw-redirect" title="Polygonoporus giganticus">Polygonoporus giganticus</a></i>, found in the gut of <a href="/wiki/Sperm_whale" title="Sperm whale">sperm whales</a>, can grow to over 30 m (100 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-time-1957_257-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-time-1957-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>254<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hargis_258-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hargis-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematodes</a> (roundworms) constitute a further worm phylum with tubular <a href="/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">digestive systems</a> and an opening at both ends.<sup id="cite_ref-259" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-260" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over 25,000 nematode species have been described,<sup id="cite_ref-261" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>258<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-262" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of which more than half are parasitic. It has been estimated another million remain undescribed.<sup id="cite_ref-Lambshead_1993_263-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lambshead_1993-263"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>260<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are ubiquitous in marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments, where they often outnumber other animals in both individual and species counts. They are found in every part of the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a>, from the top of mountains to the bottom of <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">oceanic trenches</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Borgonie_2011_264-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borgonie_2011-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>261<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By count they represent 90% of all animals on the <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">ocean floor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid18164201_265-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18164201-265"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>262<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their numerical dominance, often exceeding a million individuals per square meter and accounting for about 80% of all individual animals on Earth, their diversity of life cycles, and their presence at various trophic levels point at an important role in many ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-903874-22-9_266-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-903874-22-9-266"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>263<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Riftia_tube_worm_colony_Galapagos_2011.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Giant tube worms cluster around hydrothermal vents."><img alt="Giant tube worms cluster around hydrothermal vents." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Riftia_tube_worm_colony_Galapagos_2011.jpg/400px-Riftia_tube_worm_colony_Galapagos_2011.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Riftia_tube_worm_colony_Galapagos_2011.jpg/601px-Riftia_tube_worm_colony_Galapagos_2011.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Riftia_tube_worm_colony_Galapagos_2011.jpg/800px-Riftia_tube_worm_colony_Galapagos_2011.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Giant_tube_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant tube worm">Giant tube worms</a> cluster around <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 224.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 222.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_2818_Group_of_Nematodes.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nematodes are ubiquitous pseudocoelomates which can parasite marine plants and animals."><img alt="Nematodes are ubiquitous pseudocoelomates which can parasite marine plants and animals." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/CSIRO_ScienceImage_2818_Group_of_Nematodes.jpg/334px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_2818_Group_of_Nematodes.jpg" decoding="async" width="223" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/CSIRO_ScienceImage_2818_Group_of_Nematodes.jpg/501px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_2818_Group_of_Nematodes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/CSIRO_ScienceImage_2818_Group_of_Nematodes.jpg/668px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_2818_Group_of_Nematodes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="1195" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematodes</a> are ubiquitous <a href="/wiki/Pseudocoelomate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudocoelomate">pseudocoelomates</a> which can parasite marine plants and animals.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 228px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 226px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nerr0328.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bloodworms are typically found on the bottom of shallow marine waters."><img alt="Bloodworms are typically found on the bottom of shallow marine waters." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Nerr0328.jpg/339px-Nerr0328.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Nerr0328.jpg/509px-Nerr0328.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Nerr0328.jpg/677px-Nerr0328.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1064" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Glycera_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycera (genus)">Bloodworms</a> are typically found on the bottom of shallow marine waters.</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marine_molluscs">Marine molluscs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Marine molluscs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Squid_komodo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Squid_komodo.jpg/220px-Squid_komodo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Squid_komodo.jpg/330px-Squid_komodo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Squid_komodo.jpg/440px-Squid_komodo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1260" data-file-height="1680" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Bigfin_reef_squid" title="Bigfin reef squid">Bigfin reef squid</a> displaying vivid <a href="/wiki/Iridescence" title="Iridescence">iridescence</a> at night. <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">Cephalopods</a> are the most <a href="/wiki/Neurobiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurobiology">neurologically</a> advanced invertebrates.<sup id="cite_ref-Barnes2001_267-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnes2001-267"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>264<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glaucus_atlanticus_1_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Glaucus_atlanticus_1_cropped.jpg/220px-Glaucus_atlanticus_1_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Glaucus_atlanticus_1_cropped.jpg/330px-Glaucus_atlanticus_1_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Glaucus_atlanticus_1_cropped.jpg/440px-Glaucus_atlanticus_1_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1640" data-file-height="1592" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Glaucus_atlanticus" title="Glaucus atlanticus">Blue dragon</a>, a pelagic <a href="/wiki/Sea_slug" title="Sea slug">sea slug</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bolinus_brandaris_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Bolinus_brandaris_2.jpg/220px-Bolinus_brandaris_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Bolinus_brandaris_2.jpg/330px-Bolinus_brandaris_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Bolinus_brandaris_2.jpg/440px-Bolinus_brandaris_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="801" data-file-height="901" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="/wiki/Bolinus_brandaris" title="Bolinus brandaris">Bolinus brandaris</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Sea_snail" title="Sea snail">sea snail</a> from which the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a> extracted royal <a href="/wiki/Tyrian_purple" title="Tyrian purple">Tyrian purple</a> dye colour code: #66023C <span style="background-color:#66023C; color:#66023C;">_____</span><sup id="cite_ref-268" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>265<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Archimollusc-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Archimollusc-en.svg/220px-Archimollusc-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Archimollusc-en.svg/330px-Archimollusc-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Archimollusc-en.svg/440px-Archimollusc-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2492" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_ancestral_mollusc" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothetical ancestral mollusc">Hypothetical ancestral mollusc</a></div></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_molluscs" title="Evolution of molluscs">Evolution of molluscs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Evolution of cephalopods</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mollusc" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusc">Molluscs</a> (Latin for <i>soft</i>) form a <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> with about 85,000 <a href="/wiki/Extant_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant taxon">extant</a> recognized <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapman2009_269-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapman2009-269"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>266<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are the largest <a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">marine</a> phylum in terms of species count, containing about 23% of all the named marine <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hancock2008_270-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hancock2008-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>267<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Molluscs have more varied forms than other invertebrate phyla. They are highly diverse, not just in size and in <a href="/wiki/Anatomical" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomical">anatomical</a> structure, but also in behaviour and in habitat. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giant_Clam_(Tridacna).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Giant_Clam_%28Tridacna%29.jpg/220px-Giant_Clam_%28Tridacna%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Giant_Clam_%28Tridacna%29.jpg/330px-Giant_Clam_%28Tridacna%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Giant_Clam_%28Tridacna%29.jpg/440px-Giant_Clam_%28Tridacna%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption> Drawing of a <a href="/wiki/Giant_clam" title="Giant clam">giant clam</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a></i>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The mollusc phylum is divided into 9 or 10 <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomic</a> <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">classes</a>. These classes include <a href="/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">gastropods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">bivalves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">cephalopods</a>, as well as other lesser-known but distinctive classes. <a href="/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">Gastropods</a> with protective shells are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Snail" title="Snail">snails</a>, whereas gastropods without protective shells are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Slug" title="Slug">slugs</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">Gastropods</a> are by far the most numerous molluscs in terms of species.<sup id="cite_ref-PonderWinstonLindberg_271-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PonderWinstonLindberg-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>268<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">Bivalves</a> include <a href="/wiki/Clam" title="Clam">clams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oyster" title="Oyster">oysters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cockle_(bivalve)" title="Cockle (bivalve)">cockles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mussel" title="Mussel">mussels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scallop" title="Scallop">scallops</a>, and numerous other <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">families</a>. There are about 8,000 marine bivalves species (including <a href="/wiki/Brackish_water" title="Brackish water">brackish water</a> and <a href="/wiki/Estuarine" class="mw-redirect" title="Estuarine">estuarine</a> species). A deep sea <a href="/wiki/Ocean_quahog" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean quahog">ocean quahog</a> clam has been reported as <a href="/wiki/Ming_(clam)" title="Ming (clam)">having lived 507 years</a><sup id="cite_ref-Munro2012_272-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Munro2012-272"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> making it the longest recorded life of all animals apart from <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonial</a> animals, or near-colonial animals like <a href="#Marine_sponges">sponges</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Petralia2014_215-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petralia2014-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerycaption"><a href="/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">Gastropods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">bivalves</a></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 188.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 186.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nembrotha_aurea_B.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Marine gastropods are sea snails or sea slugs. This nudibranch is a sea slug."><img alt="Marine gastropods are sea snails or sea slugs. This nudibranch is a sea slug." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Nembrotha_aurea_B.jpg/280px-Nembrotha_aurea_B.jpg" decoding="async" width="187" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Nembrotha_aurea_B.jpg/420px-Nembrotha_aurea_B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Nembrotha_aurea_B.jpg/560px-Nembrotha_aurea_B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Marine <a href="/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">gastropods</a> are <a href="/wiki/Sea_snail" title="Sea snail">sea snails</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sea_slug" title="Sea slug">sea slugs</a>. This <a href="/wiki/Nudibranch" title="Nudibranch">nudibranch</a> is a sea slug.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 188.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 186.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Catalonia_VilassarDeDalt_CaudelCargol_Conquilla.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The sea snail Syrinx aruanus has a shell up to 91 cm long, the largest of any living gastropod."><img alt="The sea snail Syrinx aruanus has a shell up to 91 cm long, the largest of any living gastropod." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Catalonia_VilassarDeDalt_CaudelCargol_Conquilla.JPG/280px-Catalonia_VilassarDeDalt_CaudelCargol_Conquilla.JPG" decoding="async" width="187" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Catalonia_VilassarDeDalt_CaudelCargol_Conquilla.JPG/420px-Catalonia_VilassarDeDalt_CaudelCargol_Conquilla.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Catalonia_VilassarDeDalt_CaudelCargol_Conquilla.JPG/560px-Catalonia_VilassarDeDalt_CaudelCargol_Conquilla.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The sea snail <i><a href="/wiki/Syrinx_aruanus" title="Syrinx aruanus">Syrinx aruanus</a></i> has a shell up to 91 cm long, the largest of any living gastropod.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Placopecten_magellanicus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Molluscs usually have eyes. Bordering the edge of the mantle of a scallop, a bivalve mollusc, can be over 100 simple eyes."><img alt="Molluscs usually have eyes. Bordering the edge of the mantle of a scallop, a bivalve mollusc, can be over 100 simple eyes." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Placopecten_magellanicus.jpg/301px-Placopecten_magellanicus.jpg" decoding="async" width="201" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Placopecten_magellanicus.jpg/451px-Placopecten_magellanicus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Placopecten_magellanicus.jpg/601px-Placopecten_magellanicus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1144" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Molluscs usually have eyes. Bordering the edge of the mantle of a <a href="/wiki/Scallop" title="Scallop">scallop</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">bivalve</a> mollusc, can be over 100 <a href="/wiki/Mollusc_eye" title="Mollusc eye">simple eyes</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 76.666666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 74.666666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mytilus_edulis_illustration.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Common mussel, another bivalve"><img alt="Common mussel, another bivalve" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Mytilus_edulis_illustration.png/112px-Mytilus_edulis_illustration.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Mytilus_edulis_illustration.png/169px-Mytilus_edulis_illustration.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Mytilus_edulis_illustration.png 2x" data-file-width="222" data-file-height="414" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Mytilus_edulis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mytilus edulis">Common mussel</a>, another bivalve</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">Cephalopods</a> include <a href="/wiki/Octopus" title="Octopus">octopus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">squid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cuttlefish" title="Cuttlefish">cuttlefish</a>. About 800 living species of marine cephalopods have been identified,<sup id="cite_ref-273" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-273"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>270<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and an estimated 11,000 extinct <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a> have been described.<sup id="cite_ref-mollusca12_274-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mollusca12-274"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>271<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are found in all oceans, but there are no fully freshwater cephalopods.<sup id="cite_ref-275" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-275"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>272<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerycaption"><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">Cephalopods</a></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nautilus_belauensis_from_Palau.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The nautilus is a living fossil little changed since it evolved 500 million years ago as one of the first cephalopods.[273][274][275]"><img alt="The nautilus is a living fossil little changed since it evolved 500 million years ago as one of the first cephalopods.[273][274][275]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Nautilus_belauensis_from_Palau.jpg/300px-Nautilus_belauensis_from_Palau.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Nautilus_belauensis_from_Palau.jpg/451px-Nautilus_belauensis_from_Palau.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Nautilus_belauensis_from_Palau.jpg/600px-Nautilus_belauensis_from_Palau.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Nautilus" title="Nautilus">nautilus</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Living_fossil" title="Living fossil">living fossil</a> little changed since it evolved 500 million years ago as one of the first <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">cephalopods</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Callaway2008_276-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Callaway2008-276"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>273<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Phillips2008_277-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillips2008-277"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>274<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Crook2008_278-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crook2008-278"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>275<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 160px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 158px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dactylioceras_NT.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Reconstruction of an ammonite, a highly successful early cephalopod that appeared 400 mya."><img alt="Reconstruction of an ammonite, a highly successful early cephalopod that appeared 400 mya." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Dactylioceras_NT.jpg/237px-Dactylioceras_NT.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Dactylioceras_NT.jpg/356px-Dactylioceras_NT.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Dactylioceras_NT.jpg/475px-Dactylioceras_NT.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="569" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Reconstruction of an <a href="/wiki/Ammonite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonite">ammonite</a>, a highly successful early cephalopod that appeared 400 <a href="/wiki/Mya_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mya (unit)">mya</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:HPIM1795.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Cephalopods, like this cuttlefish, use their mantle cavity for jet propulsion."><img alt="Cephalopods, like this cuttlefish, use their mantle cavity for jet propulsion." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/HPIM1795.JPG/301px-HPIM1795.JPG" decoding="async" width="201" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/HPIM1795.JPG/452px-HPIM1795.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/HPIM1795.JPG/601px-HPIM1795.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2608" data-file-height="1952" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Cephalopods, like this <a href="/wiki/Cuttlefish" title="Cuttlefish">cuttlefish</a>, use their <a href="/wiki/Mantle_cavity" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantle cavity">mantle cavity</a> for <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_locomotion#Jet_propulsion" title="Aquatic locomotion">jet propulsion</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 106.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 104.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Calmarcolossal.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Colossal squid, the largest of all invertebrates[276]"><img alt="Colossal squid, the largest of all invertebrates[276]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Calmarcolossal.jpg/157px-Calmarcolossal.jpg" decoding="async" width="105" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Calmarcolossal.jpg/236px-Calmarcolossal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Calmarcolossal.jpg/314px-Calmarcolossal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="5008" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Colossal_squid" title="Colossal squid">Colossal squid</a>, the largest of all invertebrates<sup id="cite_ref-BBC2008_279-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC2008-279"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>276<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <p>Molluscs have such diverse shapes that many textbooks base their descriptions of molluscan anatomy on a generalized or <i><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_ancestral_mollusc" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothetical ancestral mollusc">hypothetical ancestral mollusc</a></i>. This generalized mollusc is unsegmented and <a href="/wiki/Bilaterally_symmetrical" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilaterally symmetrical">bilaterally symmetrical</a> with an underside consisting of a single muscular <a href="/wiki/Foot_(mollusc)" class="mw-redirect" title="Foot (mollusc)">foot</a>. Beyond that it has three further key features. Firstly, it has a muscular cloak called a <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(mollusc)" title="Mantle (mollusc)">mantle</a> covering its viscera and containing a significant cavity used for breathing and <a href="/wiki/Excretion" title="Excretion">excretion</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Gastropod_shell" title="Gastropod shell">shell</a> secreted by the mantle covers the upper surface. Secondly (apart from bivalves) it has a rasping tongue called a <a href="/wiki/Radula" title="Radula">radula</a> used for feeding. Thirdly, it has a <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> including a complex digestive system using microscopic, muscle-powered hairs called <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a> to exude <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a>. The generalized mollusc has two paired <a href="/wiki/Ventral_nerve_cord" title="Ventral nerve cord">nerve cords</a> (three in bivalves). The <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>, in species that have one, encircles the <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophagus</a>. Most molluscs have <a href="/wiki/Mollusc_eye" title="Mollusc eye">eyes</a> and all have sensors detecting chemicals, vibrations, and touch.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_2004_280-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert_2004-280"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>277<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hayward1996_281-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayward1996-281"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>278<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Good evidence exists for the appearance of marine gastropods, <a href="/wiki/Cephalopods" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalopods">cephalopods</a> and bivalves in the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> period <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=538.8–486.85">538.8 to 486.85</a> million years ago</span>. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marine_arthropods">Marine arthropods</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Marine arthropods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="noresize thumb tright" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:222px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="height:197px; overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:0px; top:0px; width:120px; position:absolute;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lobster_line_drawing.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Segments and tagmata of an arthropod[277]: 518–52 The thorax bears the main locomotory appendages. The head and thorax are fused in some arthropods, such as crabs and lobsters."><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Lobster_line_drawing.jpg/120px-Lobster_line_drawing.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Lobster_line_drawing.jpg/180px-Lobster_line_drawing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Lobster_line_drawing.jpg/240px-Lobster_line_drawing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="761" data-file-height="1226" /></a></span></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:transparent; line-height:110%;"> <div id="annotation_164x45" style="position:absolute; left:164px; top:45px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Head" title="Head">Head</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_120x65" style="position:absolute; left:120px; top:65px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:green;">___________</span></div> <div id="annotation_157x93" style="position:absolute; left:157px; top:93px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Thorax" title="Thorax">Thorax</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_120x110" style="position:absolute; left:120px; top:110px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:green;">___________</span></div> <div id="annotation_145x145" style="position:absolute; left:145px; top:145px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Abdomen" title="Abdomen">Abdomen</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_120x170" style="position:absolute; left:120px; top:170px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:green;">___________</span></div> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Lobster_line_drawing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Lobster_line_drawing.jpg/120px-Lobster_line_drawing.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Lobster_line_drawing.jpg/180px-Lobster_line_drawing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Lobster_line_drawing.jpg/240px-Lobster_line_drawing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="761" data-file-height="1226" /></a></span></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Lobster_line_drawing.jpg" title="File:Lobster line drawing.jpg"> </a></div>Segments and <a href="/wiki/Tagma_(biology)" title="Tagma (biology)">tagmata</a> of an arthropod<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_2004_280-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert_2004-280"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>277<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 518–52">: 518–52 </span></sup> The thorax bears the main locomotory appendages. The head and thorax are fused in some arthropods, such as <a href="/wiki/Crab" title="Crab">crabs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lobster" title="Lobster">lobsters</a>.</div> </div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pneumodesmus_newmani_-_MUSE.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pneumodesmus_newmani_-_MUSE.JPG/220px-Pneumodesmus_newmani_-_MUSE.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pneumodesmus_newmani_-_MUSE.JPG/330px-Pneumodesmus_newmani_-_MUSE.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pneumodesmus_newmani_-_MUSE.JPG/440px-Pneumodesmus_newmani_-_MUSE.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1062" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>First known air-breathing animal to colonise land, the millipede <i><a href="/wiki/Pneumodesmus_newmani" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumodesmus newmani">Pneumodesmus newmani</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson2004_282-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson2004-282"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>279<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> lived in the <a href="/wiki/Lochkovian" title="Lochkovian">Early Devonian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-283" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-283"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>280<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a> (Greek for <i>jointed feet</i>) have an <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a> (external <a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">skeleton</a>), a <a href="/wiki/Segmentation_(biology)" title="Segmentation (biology)">segmented</a> body, and jointed <a href="/wiki/Appendage" title="Appendage">appendages</a> (paired appendages). They form a <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> which includes <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arachnid" title="Arachnid">arachnids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myriapod" class="mw-redirect" title="Myriapod">myriapods</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>. Arthropods are characterized by their jointed limbs and <a href="/wiki/Arthropod_cuticle" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropod cuticle">cuticle</a> made of <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a>, often mineralised with <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>. The arthropod <a href="/wiki/Body_plan" title="Body plan">body plan</a> consists of <a href="/wiki/Segment_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Segment (biology)">segments</a>, each with a pair of <a href="/wiki/Appendage" title="Appendage">appendages</a>. The rigid cuticle inhibits growth, so arthropods replace it periodically by <a href="/wiki/Moulting" title="Moulting">moulting</a>. Their versatility has enabled them to become the most species-rich members of all <a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">ecological guilds</a> in most environments. </p><p>The evolutionary ancestry of arthropods dates back to the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> period and is generally regarded as <a href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a>. However, <a href="/wiki/Basal_(evolution)" class="mw-redirect" title="Basal (evolution)">basal</a> relationships of arthropods with extinct phyla such as <a href="/wiki/Lobopodia" title="Lobopodia">lobopodians</a> have recently been debated.<sup id="cite_ref-284" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-284"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>281<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-285" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-285"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>282<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Panarthropoda" title="Panarthropoda">Panarthropoda</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>tardigrades <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2_(white_background).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2_%28white_background%29.png/50px-SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2_%28white_background%29.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2_%28white_background%29.png/75px-SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2_%28white_background%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2_%28white_background%29.png/100px-SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2_%28white_background%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1379" data-file-height="1205" /></a></span> <small>water bears</small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Lobopodia" title="Lobopodia">Lobopodia</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Onychophora" title="Onychophora">velvet worms</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Velvet_worm.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Velvet_worm.png/80px-Velvet_worm.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Velvet_worm.png/120px-Velvet_worm.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Velvet_worm.png/160px-Velvet_worm.png 2x" data-file-width="2799" data-file-height="1340" /></a></span> <small>(terrestrial)</small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>arthropods <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Scylla_serrata.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Scylla_serrata.jpg/60px-Scylla_serrata.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Scylla_serrata.jpg/90px-Scylla_serrata.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Scylla_serrata.jpg/120px-Scylla_serrata.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span> <small>mainly crustaceans</small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:352px;max-width:352px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:200px;max-width:200px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:111px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aysheaia2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Aysheaia2.jpg/198px-Aysheaia2.jpg" decoding="async" width="198" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Aysheaia2.jpg/297px-Aysheaia2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Aysheaia2.jpg/396px-Aysheaia2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2474" data-file-height="1392" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Some palaeontologists think Lobopodia represents a basal grade which lead to an arthropod body plan.<sup id="cite_ref-Budd2001_286-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budd2001-286"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>283<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:148px;max-width:148px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:111px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2.png/146px-SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2.png" decoding="async" width="146" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2.png/219px-SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2.png/292px-SEM_image_of_Milnesium_tardigradum_in_active_state_-_journal.pone.0045682.g001-2.png 2x" data-file-width="1572" data-file-height="1205" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Tardigrades (water bears) are a phylum of eight-legged, segmented <a href="#Marine_microanimals">microanimals</a> able to survive in extreme conditions.</div></div></div></div></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerycaption">Arthropod fossils and living fossils</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cheirurus_ingricus.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Fossil trilobite. Trilobites first appeared about 521 Ma. They were highly successful and were found everywhere in the ocean for 270 Ma.[284]"><img alt="Fossil trilobite. Trilobites first appeared about 521 Ma. They were highly successful and were found everywhere in the ocean for 270 Ma.[284]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Cheirurus_ingricus.png/301px-Cheirurus_ingricus.png" decoding="async" width="201" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Cheirurus_ingricus.png/453px-Cheirurus_ingricus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Cheirurus_ingricus.png/602px-Cheirurus_ingricus.png 2x" data-file-width="1163" data-file-height="869" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Fossil <a href="/wiki/Trilobite" title="Trilobite">trilobite</a>. <a href="/wiki/Trilobite" title="Trilobite">Trilobites</a> first appeared about 521 <a href="/wiki/Megaannum" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaannum">Ma</a>. They were highly successful and were found everywhere in the ocean for 270 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-firstlife_287-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-firstlife-287"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>284<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 272px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 270px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:20191203_Anomalocaris_canadensis.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The Anomalocaris ("abnormal shrimp") was one of the first apex predators and first appeared about 515 Ma."><img alt="The Anomalocaris ("abnormal shrimp") was one of the first apex predators and first appeared about 515 Ma." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/20191203_Anomalocaris_canadensis.png/405px-20191203_Anomalocaris_canadensis.png" decoding="async" width="270" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/20191203_Anomalocaris_canadensis.png/609px-20191203_Anomalocaris_canadensis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/20191203_Anomalocaris_canadensis.png/810px-20191203_Anomalocaris_canadensis.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> The <i><a href="/wiki/Anomalocaris" title="Anomalocaris">Anomalocaris</a></i> ("abnormal shrimp") was one of the first apex predators and first appeared about 515 Ma.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 227.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 225.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jaekelopterus_rhenaniae_reconstruction.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The largest known arthropod, the sea scorpion Jaekelopterus rhenaniae, has been found in estuarine strata from about 390 Ma. It was up to 2.5 m (8.2 ft) long.[285][286]"><img alt="The largest known arthropod, the sea scorpion Jaekelopterus rhenaniae, has been found in estuarine strata from about 390 Ma. It was up to 2.5 m (8.2 ft) long.[285][286]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Jaekelopterus_rhenaniae_reconstruction.jpg/338px-Jaekelopterus_rhenaniae_reconstruction.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Jaekelopterus_rhenaniae_reconstruction.jpg/507px-Jaekelopterus_rhenaniae_reconstruction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Jaekelopterus_rhenaniae_reconstruction.jpg/675px-Jaekelopterus_rhenaniae_reconstruction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3744" data-file-height="2496" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The largest known arthropod, the <a href="/wiki/Eurypterid" title="Eurypterid">sea scorpion</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Jaekelopterus_rhenaniae" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaekelopterus rhenaniae">Jaekelopterus rhenaniae</a></i>, has been found in <a href="/wiki/Estuarine" class="mw-redirect" title="Estuarine">estuarine</a> strata from about 390 Ma. It was up to 2.5 m (8.2 ft) long.<sup id="cite_ref-Braddy2007_288-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Braddy2007-288"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>285<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cressey2007_289-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cressey2007-289"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>286<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 173.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 171.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Limulus_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Xiphosurans, the group including modern Horseshoe crabs appeared around 480 Ma.[287]"><img alt="Xiphosurans, the group including modern Horseshoe crabs appeared around 480 Ma.[287]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Limulus_%28cropped%29.jpg/257px-Limulus_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="172" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Limulus_%28cropped%29.jpg/387px-Limulus_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Limulus_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="411" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Xiphosuran" class="mw-redirect" title="Xiphosuran">Xiphosurans</a>, the group including modern <a href="/wiki/Horseshoe_crab" title="Horseshoe crab">Horseshoe crabs</a> appeared around 480 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-290" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-290"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>287<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>Extant marine arthropods range in size from the microscopic <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustacean</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Stygotantulus" title="Stygotantulus">Stygotantulus</a></i> to the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_spider_crab" title="Japanese spider crab">Japanese spider crab</a>. Arthropods' primary internal cavity is a <a href="/wiki/Hemocoel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemocoel">hemocoel</a>, which accommodates their internal <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a>, and through which their <a href="/wiki/Haemolymph" class="mw-redirect" title="Haemolymph">haemolymph</a> - analogue of <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> - circulates; they have <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system#Open_circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">open circulatory systems</a>. Like their exteriors, the internal organs of arthropods are generally built of repeated segments. Their <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> is "ladder-like", with paired <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location#Dorsal_and_ventral" title="Anatomical terms of location">ventral</a> <a href="/wiki/Ventral_nerve_cord" title="Ventral nerve cord">nerve cords</a> running through all segments and forming paired <a href="/wiki/Ganglia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganglia">ganglia</a> in each segment. Their heads are formed by fusion of varying numbers of segments, and their <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brains</a> are formed by fusion of the ganglia of these segments and encircle the <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophagus</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">respiratory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Excretion" title="Excretion">excretory</a> systems of arthropods vary, depending as much on their environment as on the <a href="/wiki/Subphylum" title="Subphylum">subphylum</a> to which they belong. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerycaption">Modern crustaceans</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 161.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 159.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hyperia.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Many crustaceans are very small, like this tiny amphipod, and make up a significant part of the ocean's zooplankton."><img alt="Many crustaceans are very small, like this tiny amphipod, and make up a significant part of the ocean's zooplankton." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Hyperia.jpg/239px-Hyperia.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Hyperia.jpg/359px-Hyperia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Hyperia.jpg/478px-Hyperia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1673" data-file-height="1576" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Many crustaceans are very small, like this tiny <a href="/wiki/Amphipod" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphipod">amphipod</a>, and make up a significant part of the ocean's <a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 211.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 209.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Macrocheira_kaempferi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Japanese spider crab has the longest leg span of any arthropod, reaching 5.5 metres (18 ft) from claw to claw.[288]"><img alt="The Japanese spider crab has the longest leg span of any arthropod, reaching 5.5 metres (18 ft) from claw to claw.[288]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Macrocheira_kaempferi.jpg/314px-Macrocheira_kaempferi.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Macrocheira_kaempferi.jpg/471px-Macrocheira_kaempferi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Macrocheira_kaempferi.jpg/627px-Macrocheira_kaempferi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="861" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Japanese_spider_crab" title="Japanese spider crab">Japanese spider crab</a> has the longest leg span of any arthropod, reaching 5.5 metres (18 ft) from claw to claw.<sup id="cite_ref-291" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-291"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>288<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 222px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 220px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Tasmanian giant crab is long-lived and slow-growing, making it vulnerable to overfishing.[289]"><img alt="The Tasmanian giant crab is long-lived and slow-growing, making it vulnerable to overfishing.[289]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped.jpg/330px-J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped.jpg/495px-J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped.jpg/659px-J_J_Wild_Pseudocarcinus_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5654" data-file-height="3861" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Tasmanian_giant_crab" title="Tasmanian giant crab">Tasmanian giant crab</a> is long-lived and slow-growing, making it vulnerable to overfishing.<sup id="cite_ref-Currie2009_292-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Currie2009-292"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>289<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 200.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 198.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Odontodactylus_scyllarus_2.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Mantis shrimp have the most advanced eyes in the animal kingdom,[290] and smash prey by swinging their club-like raptorial claws.[291]"><img alt="Mantis shrimp have the most advanced eyes in the animal kingdom,[290] and smash prey by swinging their club-like raptorial claws.[291]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Odontodactylus_scyllarus_2.png/298px-Odontodactylus_scyllarus_2.png" decoding="async" width="199" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Odontodactylus_scyllarus_2.png/448px-Odontodactylus_scyllarus_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Odontodactylus_scyllarus_2.png/596px-Odontodactylus_scyllarus_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1799" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Mantis_shrimp" title="Mantis shrimp">Mantis shrimp</a> have the most advanced eyes in the animal kingdom,<sup id="cite_ref-Kilday2005_293-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kilday2005-293"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>290<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and smash prey by swinging their club-like <a href="/wiki/Raptorial" title="Raptorial">raptorial</a> claws.<sup id="cite_ref-Patek_and_Caldwell_294-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patek_and_Caldwell-294"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>291<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Arthropod_eye" title="Arthropod eye">Arthropod vision</a> relies on various combinations of <a href="/wiki/Compound_eye" title="Compound eye">compound eyes</a> and pigment-pit <a href="/wiki/Ocelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocelli">ocelli</a>: in most species the ocelli can only detect the direction from which light is coming, and the compound eyes are the main source of information. Arthropods also have a wide range of chemical and mechanical sensors, mostly based on modifications of the many <a href="/wiki/Seta" title="Seta">setae</a> (bristles) that project through their cuticles. Arthropod methods of reproduction are diverse: terrestrial species use some form of <a href="/wiki/Internal_fertilization" title="Internal fertilization">internal fertilization</a> while marine species lay eggs using either internal or <a href="/wiki/External_fertilization" title="External fertilization">external fertilization</a>. Arthropod hatchlings vary from miniature adults to grubs that lack jointed limbs and eventually undergo a total <a href="/wiki/Metamorphosis" title="Metamorphosis">metamorphosis</a> to produce the adult form. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deuterostomes">Deuterostomes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Deuterostomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_brachiopods" title="Evolution of brachiopods">Evolution of brachiopods</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">deuterostomes</a> the first opening that develops in the growing embryo becomes the <a href="/wiki/Anus" title="Anus">anus</a>, while in protostomes it becomes the mouth. Deuterostomes form a <a href="/wiki/Superphylum" class="mw-redirect" title="Superphylum">superphylum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> and are the sister clade of the <a href="/wiki/Protostomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Protostomes">protostomes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20170130_253-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20170130-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NAT-20170130_254-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20170130-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is once considered that the earliest known deuterostomes are <i><a href="/wiki/Saccorhytus" title="Saccorhytus">Saccorhytus</a></i> fossils from about 540 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-295" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-295"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>292<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, another study considered that <i>Saccorhytus</i> is more likely to be an <a href="/wiki/Ecdysozoa" title="Ecdysozoa">ecdysozoan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-296" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-296"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>293<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">[[#Bilateral invertebrate animals|]] deuterostomes </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Ambulacrarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambulacrarian">ambulacrarians</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Portugal_20140812-DSC01434_(21371237591).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Portugal_20140812-DSC01434_%2821371237591%29.jpg/60px-Portugal_20140812-DSC01434_%2821371237591%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Portugal_20140812-DSC01434_%2821371237591%29.jpg/90px-Portugal_20140812-DSC01434_%2821371237591%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Portugal_20140812-DSC01434_%2821371237591%29.jpg/120px-Portugal_20140812-DSC01434_%2821371237591%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">hemichordates</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Saccoglossus_kowalevskii_by_Spengel_1893.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Saccoglossus_kowalevskii_by_Spengel_1893.png/50px-Saccoglossus_kowalevskii_by_Spengel_1893.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Saccoglossus_kowalevskii_by_Spengel_1893.png/75px-Saccoglossus_kowalevskii_by_Spengel_1893.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Saccoglossus_kowalevskii_by_Spengel_1893.png/100px-Saccoglossus_kowalevskii_by_Spengel_1893.png 2x" data-file-width="298" data-file-height="428" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Chordates" class="mw-redirect" title="Chordates">chordates</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Cephalochordate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalochordate">cephalochordates</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Branchiostoma_lanceolatum_(Pallas,_1774).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Branchiostoma_lanceolatum_%28Pallas%2C_1774%29.jpg/80px-Branchiostoma_lanceolatum_%28Pallas%2C_1774%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Branchiostoma_lanceolatum_%28Pallas%2C_1774%29.jpg/120px-Branchiostoma_lanceolatum_%28Pallas%2C_1774%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Branchiostoma_lanceolatum_%28Pallas%2C_1774%29.jpg/160px-Branchiostoma_lanceolatum_%28Pallas%2C_1774%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4006" data-file-height="1345" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Tunicate" title="Tunicate">tunicates</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tunicate_komodo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Tunicate_komodo.jpg/60px-Tunicate_komodo.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Tunicate_komodo.jpg/90px-Tunicate_komodo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Tunicate_komodo.jpg/120px-Tunicate_komodo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1680" data-file-height="1260" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a></i> <a href="#Vertebrate_animals">→</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><small>(extant)</small> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Echinoderms">Echinoderms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Echinoderms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Haeckel_Asteridea_Larvae.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Haeckel_Asteridea_Larvae.jpg/260px-Haeckel_Asteridea_Larvae.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Haeckel_Asteridea_Larvae.jpg/390px-Haeckel_Asteridea_Larvae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Haeckel_Asteridea_Larvae.jpg/520px-Haeckel_Asteridea_Larvae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1328" data-file-height="1195" /></a><figcaption> Adult <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a> have fivefold symmetry but as <a href="/wiki/Larvae" class="mw-redirect" title="Larvae">larvae</a> have <a href="/wiki/Bilateral_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilateral symmetry">bilateral symmetry</a>. This is why they are in the <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">Echinoderms</a> (Greek for <i>spiny skin</i>) is a phylum which contains only marine invertebrates. The phylum contains about 7000 living <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-adw_297-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adw-297"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>294<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> making it the second-largest grouping of <a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">deuterostomes</a>, after the <a href="/wiki/Chordata" class="mw-redirect" title="Chordata">chordates</a>. </p><p>Adult echinoderms are recognizable by their <a href="/wiki/Radial_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Radial symmetry">radial symmetry</a> (usually five-point) and include <a href="/wiki/Starfish" title="Starfish">starfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sand_dollar" title="Sand dollar">sand dollars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sea_cucumber" title="Sea cucumber">sea cucumbers</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Crinoid" title="Crinoid">sea lilies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-298" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-298"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>295<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Echinoderms are found at every ocean depth, from the <a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">intertidal zone</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_zone" title="Abyssal zone">abyssal zone</a>. They are unique among animals in having bilateral symmetry at the larval stage, but fivefold symmetry (<a href="/wiki/Pentamerism" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentamerism">pentamerism</a>, a special type of radial symmetry) as adults.<sup id="cite_ref-Lander_299-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lander-299"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>296<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Echinoderms are important both biologically and geologically. Biologically, there are few other groupings so abundant in the <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">biotic desert</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">deep sea</a>, as well as shallower oceans. Most echinoderms are able to <a href="/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)" title="Regeneration (biology)">regenerate</a> tissue, organs, limbs, and <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">reproduce asexually</a>; in some cases, they can undergo complete regeneration from a single limb. Geologically, the value of echinoderms is in their <a href="/wiki/Ossification" title="Ossification">ossified</a> <a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">skeletons</a>, which are major contributors to many <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> formations, and can provide valuable clues as to the geological environment. They were the most used species in regenerative research in the 19th and 20th centuries. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 201.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 199.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Riccio_Melone_a_Capo_Caccia_adventurediving.it.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Echinoderm literally means "spiny skin", as this water melon sea urchin illustrates."><img alt="Echinoderm literally means "spiny skin", as this water melon sea urchin illustrates." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Riccio_Melone_a_Capo_Caccia_adventurediving.it.jpg/299px-Riccio_Melone_a_Capo_Caccia_adventurediving.it.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Riccio_Melone_a_Capo_Caccia_adventurediving.it.jpg/448px-Riccio_Melone_a_Capo_Caccia_adventurediving.it.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Riccio_Melone_a_Capo_Caccia_adventurediving.it.jpg/597px-Riccio_Melone_a_Capo_Caccia_adventurediving.it.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1659" data-file-height="1500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">Echinoderm</a> literally means "spiny skin", as this <a href="/wiki/Echinus_(sea_urchin)" title="Echinus (sea urchin)">water melon sea urchin</a> illustrates.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 242px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ochre_sea_star.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The ochre sea star was the first keystone predator to be studied. They limit mussels which can overwhelm intertidal communities.[297]"><img alt="The ochre sea star was the first keystone predator to be studied. They limit mussels which can overwhelm intertidal communities.[297]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Ochre_sea_star.jpg/360px-Ochre_sea_star.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Ochre_sea_star.jpg/540px-Ochre_sea_star.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Ochre_sea_star.jpg/720px-Ochre_sea_star.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Ochre_sea_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Ochre sea star">ochre sea star</a> was the first <a href="/wiki/Keystone_predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Keystone predator">keystone predator</a> to be studied. They limit <a href="/wiki/Mussel" title="Mussel">mussels</a> which can overwhelm intertidal communities.<sup id="cite_ref-Holsinger_300-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holsinger-300"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>297<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 136.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 134.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Colorful_crinoids_at_shallow_waters_of_Gili_Lawa_Laut.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Colorful sea lilies in shallow waters"><img alt="Colorful sea lilies in shallow waters" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Colorful_crinoids_at_shallow_waters_of_Gili_Lawa_Laut.JPG/202px-Colorful_crinoids_at_shallow_waters_of_Gili_Lawa_Laut.JPG" decoding="async" width="135" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Colorful_crinoids_at_shallow_waters_of_Gili_Lawa_Laut.JPG/304px-Colorful_crinoids_at_shallow_waters_of_Gili_Lawa_Laut.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Colorful_crinoids_at_shallow_waters_of_Gili_Lawa_Laut.JPG/405px-Colorful_crinoids_at_shallow_waters_of_Gili_Lawa_Laut.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2820" data-file-height="3760" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Colorful <a href="/wiki/Crinoid" title="Crinoid">sea lilies</a> in shallow waters</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 192px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Holothuria_cf_arguinensis.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sea cucumbers filter feed on plankton and suspended solids."><img alt="Sea cucumbers filter feed on plankton and suspended solids." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Holothuria_cf_arguinensis.jpg/285px-Holothuria_cf_arguinensis.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Holothuria_cf_arguinensis.jpg/428px-Holothuria_cf_arguinensis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Holothuria_cf_arguinensis.jpg/570px-Holothuria_cf_arguinensis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1360" data-file-height="1360" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Sea_cucumber" title="Sea cucumber">Sea cucumbers</a> filter feed on plankton and suspended solids.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 192px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Scotoplanes_globosa_and_crab_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The sea pig, a deep water sea cucumber, is the only echinoderm that uses legged locomotion."><img alt="The sea pig, a deep water sea cucumber, is the only echinoderm that uses legged locomotion." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Scotoplanes_globosa_and_crab_%28cropped%29.jpg/285px-Scotoplanes_globosa_and_crab_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Scotoplanes_globosa_and_crab_%28cropped%29.jpg/428px-Scotoplanes_globosa_and_crab_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Scotoplanes_globosa_and_crab_%28cropped%29.jpg/570px-Scotoplanes_globosa_and_crab_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="862" data-file-height="862" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Scotoplanes" title="Scotoplanes">sea pig</a>, a deep water sea cucumber, is the only echinoderm that uses legged locomotion.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 192px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Enypniastes_sp_Indonesia.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A benthopelagic and bioluminescent swimming sea cucumber, 3200 metres deep"><img alt="A benthopelagic and bioluminescent swimming sea cucumber, 3200 metres deep" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Enypniastes_sp_Indonesia.jpg/285px-Enypniastes_sp_Indonesia.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Enypniastes_sp_Indonesia.jpg/428px-Enypniastes_sp_Indonesia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Enypniastes_sp_Indonesia.jpg/570px-Enypniastes_sp_Indonesia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> A benthopelagic and bioluminescent <a href="/wiki/Enypniastes" title="Enypniastes">swimming sea cucumber</a>, 3200 metres deep</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>It is held by some scientists that the radiation of echinoderms was responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic_Marine_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesozoic Marine Revolution">Mesozoic Marine Revolution</a>. Aside from the hard-to-classify <i><a href="/wiki/Arkarua" title="Arkarua">Arkarua</a></i> (a <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a> animal with echinoderm-like pentamerous radial symmetry), the first definitive members of the phylum appeared near the start of the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hemichordates">Hemichordates</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Hemichordates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:441px;max-width:441px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Gill (pharyngeal) slits</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Saccoglossus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Saccoglossus.jpg/200px-Saccoglossus.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Saccoglossus.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="280" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Acorn_worm" title="Acorn worm">acorn worm</a> is associated with the development of gill slits.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:235px;max-width:235px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gill_slits.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Gill_slits.png/233px-Gill_slits.png" decoding="async" width="233" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Gill_slits.png/350px-Gill_slits.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Gill_slits.png/466px-Gill_slits.png 2x" data-file-width="753" data-file-height="645" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Gill slits in an acorn worm (left) and tunicate (right)</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_slits" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharyngeal slits">Gill slits</a> have been described as "the foremost morphological innovation of early deuterostomes".<sup id="cite_ref-301" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-301"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>298<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-302" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-302"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>299<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In aquatic organisms, gill slits allow water that enters the mouth during feeding to exit. Some invertebrate chordates also use the slits to filter food from the water.<sup id="cite_ref-2018Clark_303-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2018Clark-303"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>300<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">Hemichordates</a> form a sister phylum to the <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a>. They are solitary worm-shaped organisms rarely seen by humans because of their lifestyle. They include two main groups, the <a href="/wiki/Acorn_worms" class="mw-redirect" title="Acorn worms">acorn worms</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pterobranchia" title="Pterobranchia">Pterobranchia</a>. Pterobranchia form a class containing about 30 species of small worm-shaped animals that live in secreted tubes on the ocean floor. Acorn worms form a class containing about 111 species that generally live in U-shaped burrows on the seabed, from the shoreline to a depth of 3000 metres. The worms lie there with the proboscis sticking out of one opening in the burrow, subsisting as deposit feeders or suspension feeders. It is supposed the ancestors of acorn worms used to live in tubes like their relatives, the Pterobranchia, but eventually started to live a safer and more sheltered existence in sediment burrows.<sup id="cite_ref-304" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-304"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>301<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these worms may grow to be very long; one particular species may reach a length of 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in), although most acorn worms are much smaller. </p><p>Acorn worms are more highly specialised and advanced than other worm-like organisms. They have a circulatory system with a heart that also functions as a kidney. Acorn worms have gill-like structures they use for breathing, similar to the gills of fish. Therefore, acorn worms are sometimes said to be a link between classical invertebrates and <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>. Acorn worms continually form new gill slits as they grow in size, and some older individuals have more than a hundred on each side. Each slit consists of a branchial chamber opening to the pharynx through a U-shaped cleft. Cilia push water through the slits, maintaining a constant flow, just as in fish.<sup id="cite_ref-Barnes1982_305-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnes1982-305"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>302<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some acorn worms also have a postanal tail which may be homologous to the post-anal tail of vertebrates. </p><p>The three-section body plan of the acorn worm is no longer present in the vertebrates, except in the anatomy of the frontal neural tube, later developed into a brain divided into three parts. This means some of the original anatomy of the early chordate ancestors is still present in vertebrates even if it is not always visible. One theory is the three-part body originated from an early common ancestor of the deuterostomes, and maybe even from a common bilateral ancestor of both deuterostomes and protostomes. Studies have shown the gene expression in the embryo share three of the same signaling centers that shape the brains of all vertebrates, but instead of taking part in the formation of their neural system,<sup id="cite_ref-306" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-306"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>303<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they are controlling the development of the different body regions.<sup id="cite_ref-307" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-307"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>304<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marine_chordates">Marine chordates</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Marine chordates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Figure_29_01_04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Figure_29_01_04.jpg/220px-Figure_29_01_04.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Figure_29_01_04.jpg/330px-Figure_29_01_04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Figure_29_01_04.jpg/440px-Figure_29_01_04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption> The lancelet, like all cephalochordates, has a head. Adult lancelets retain the four key features of chordates: a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail. Water from the mouth enters the pharyngeal slits, which filter out food particles. The filtered water then collects in the atrium and exits through the atriopore.<sup id="cite_ref-308" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-308"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>305<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">chordate</a> phylum has three subphyla, one of which is the <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> (see below). The other two subphyla are marine invertebrates: the <a href="/wiki/Tunicate" title="Tunicate">tunicates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Salp" title="Salp">salps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sea_squirt" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea squirt">sea squirts</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Cephalochordate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalochordate">cephalochordates</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Lancelet" title="Lancelet">lancelets</a>). Invertebrate chordates are close relatives to vertebrates. In particular, there has been discussion about how closely some extinct marine species, such as <a href="/wiki/Pikaiidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Pikaiidae">Pikaiidae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaeospondylus" title="Palaeospondylus">Palaeospondylus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhongxiniscus" title="Zhongxiniscus">Zhongxiniscus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vetulicolia" title="Vetulicolia">Vetulicolia</a>, might relate ancestrally to vertebrates. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerycaption">Invertebrate chordates are close relatives of vertebrates</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 223.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 221.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amphioxus.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The lancelet, a small translucent fish-like cephalochordate, is one of the closest living invertebrate relative of the vertebrates.[306][307]"><img alt="The lancelet, a small translucent fish-like cephalochordate, is one of the closest living invertebrate relative of the vertebrates.[306][307]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Amphioxus.png/332px-Amphioxus.png" decoding="async" width="222" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Amphioxus.png/499px-Amphioxus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Amphioxus.png/665px-Amphioxus.png 2x" data-file-width="2020" data-file-height="1277" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Lancelet" title="Lancelet">lancelet</a>, a small translucent fish-like <a href="/wiki/Cephalochordate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalochordate">cephalochordate</a>, is one of the closest living invertebrate relative of the vertebrates.<sup id="cite_ref-309" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-309"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>306<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-310" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-310"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>307<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 188.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 186.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ascidian_(Rhopalaea_Crassa)_(4_cm).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Tunicates, like these fluorescent-colored sea squirts, may provide clues to vertebrate and therefore human ancestry.[308]"><img alt="Tunicates, like these fluorescent-colored sea squirts, may provide clues to vertebrate and therefore human ancestry.[308]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Ascidian_%28Rhopalaea_Crassa%29_%284_cm%29.png/280px-Ascidian_%28Rhopalaea_Crassa%29_%284_cm%29.png" decoding="async" width="187" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Ascidian_%28Rhopalaea_Crassa%29_%284_cm%29.png/420px-Ascidian_%28Rhopalaea_Crassa%29_%284_cm%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Ascidian_%28Rhopalaea_Crassa%29_%284_cm%29.png/560px-Ascidian_%28Rhopalaea_Crassa%29_%284_cm%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Tunicates, like these <a href="/wiki/Rhopalaea_crassa" title="Rhopalaea crassa">fluorescent-colored sea squirts</a>, may provide clues to vertebrate and therefore human ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-311" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-311"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>308<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 188.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 186.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tunicate_off_Atauro_island.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pyrosomes are free-floating bioluminescent tunicates made up of hundreds of individuals."><img alt="Pyrosomes are free-floating bioluminescent tunicates made up of hundreds of individuals." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Tunicate_off_Atauro_island.jpg/280px-Tunicate_off_Atauro_island.jpg" decoding="async" width="187" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Tunicate_off_Atauro_island.jpg/420px-Tunicate_off_Atauro_island.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Tunicate_off_Atauro_island.jpg/560px-Tunicate_off_Atauro_island.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Pyrosome" title="Pyrosome">Pyrosomes</a> are free-floating <a href="/wiki/Bioluminescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioluminescent">bioluminescent</a> tunicates made up of hundreds of individuals.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 198px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 196px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:23_salpchain_frierson_odfw_(8253212250).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Salp chain"><img alt="Salp chain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/23_salpchain_frierson_odfw_%288253212250%29.jpg/294px-23_salpchain_frierson_odfw_%288253212250%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="196" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/23_salpchain_frierson_odfw_%288253212250%29.jpg/441px-23_salpchain_frierson_odfw_%288253212250%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/23_salpchain_frierson_odfw_%288253212250%29.jpg/588px-23_salpchain_frierson_odfw_%288253212250%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Salp" title="Salp">Salp</a> chain</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Figure_29_01_02.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Figure_29_01_02.png/260px-Figure_29_01_02.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Figure_29_01_02.png/390px-Figure_29_01_02.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Figure_29_01_02.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption> In chordates, the four above labelled common features appear at some point during development.<sup id="cite_ref-2018Clark_303-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2018Clark-303"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>300<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:405px;max-width:405px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:229px;max-width:229px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Features_of_a_tunicate_larva.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Features_of_a_tunicate_larva.jpg/227px-Features_of_a_tunicate_larva.jpg" decoding="async" width="227" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Features_of_a_tunicate_larva.jpg/341px-Features_of_a_tunicate_larva.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Features_of_a_tunicate_larva.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The larval stage of the tunicate possesses all of the features characteristic of chordates: a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail.<sup id="cite_ref-2018Clark_303-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2018Clark-303"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>300<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Features_of_a_tunicate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Features_of_a_tunicate.jpg/170px-Features_of_a_tunicate.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Features_of_a_tunicate.jpg/255px-Features_of_a_tunicate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Features_of_a_tunicate.jpg/340px-Features_of_a_tunicate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="360" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">In the adult stage of the tunicate the notochord, nerve cord, and tail disappear.<sup id="cite_ref-2018Clark_303-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2018Clark-303"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>300<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vertebrate_animals">Vertebrate animals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Vertebrate animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:304px;max-width:304px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Skeleton_of_a_bass.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Skeleton_of_a_bass.jpg/300px-Skeleton_of_a_bass.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Skeleton_of_a_bass.jpg/450px-Skeleton_of_a_bass.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Skeleton_of_a_bass.jpg/600px-Skeleton_of_a_bass.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1762" data-file-height="754" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">Ray-finned fish</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SpermWhaleLyd3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/SpermWhaleLyd3.jpg/300px-SpermWhaleLyd3.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/SpermWhaleLyd3.jpg/450px-SpermWhaleLyd3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/SpermWhaleLyd3.jpg/600px-SpermWhaleLyd3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="457" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Marine tetrapod (<a href="/wiki/Sperm_whale" title="Sperm whale">sperm whale</a>)</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Skeletal" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeletal">Skeletal</a> structures showing the vertebral column and internal skeleton running from the head to the tail.</div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marine_vertebrate" title="Marine vertebrate">Marine vertebrate</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">Vertebrates</a> (Latin for <i>joints of the spine</i>) are a <a href="/wiki/Subphylum" title="Subphylum">subphylum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">chordates</a>. They are chordates that have a <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral column">vertebral column</a> (backbone). The vertebral column provides the central support structure for an <a href="/wiki/Endoskeleton" title="Endoskeleton">internal skeleton</a> which gives shape, support, and protection to the body and can provide a means of anchoring fins or limbs to the body. The vertebral column also serves to house and protect the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a> that lies within the vertebral column. </p><p>Marine vertebrates can be divided into marine <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> and marine <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_fish">Marine fish</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Marine fish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">Fish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diversity_of_fish" title="Diversity of fish">diversity of fish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">evolution of fish</a></div> <p>Fish typically breathe by extracting oxygen from water through <a href="/wiki/Fish_gill" title="Fish gill">gills</a> and have a skin protected by <a href="/wiki/Fish_scale" title="Fish scale">scales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucous</a>. They use <a href="/wiki/Fish_fin" title="Fish fin">fins</a> to propel and stabilise themselves in the water, and usually have a <a href="/wiki/Fish_heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Fish heart">two-chambered heart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fish_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Fish vision">eyes</a> well adapted to seeing underwater, as well as other <a href="/wiki/Sensory_systems_in_fish" title="Sensory systems in fish">sensory systems</a>. Over 33,000 species of fish have been described as of 2017,<sup id="cite_ref-312" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-312"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>309<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of which about 20,000 are marine fish.<sup id="cite_ref-313" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-313"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>310<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="#Deuterostomes">←</a> vertebrates </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade" style="float:right;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Jawless_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawless fish">jawless fish</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">hagfish</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eptatretus_polytrema.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Eptatretus_polytrema.jpg/70px-Eptatretus_polytrema.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Eptatretus_polytrema.jpg/105px-Eptatretus_polytrema.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Eptatretus_polytrema.jpg/140px-Eptatretus_polytrema.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="723" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lampreys</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eudontomyzon_mariae_Dunai_ingola.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Eudontomyzon_mariae_Dunai_ingola.jpg/70px-Eudontomyzon_mariae_Dunai_ingola.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Eudontomyzon_mariae_Dunai_ingola.jpg/105px-Eudontomyzon_mariae_Dunai_ingola.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Eudontomyzon_mariae_Dunai_ingola.jpg/140px-Eudontomyzon_mariae_Dunai_ingola.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="278" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Jawed_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawed fish">jawed fish</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Cartilaginous_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartilaginous fish">cartilaginous fish</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ginsu_shark_(Cretoxyrhina_mantellii).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ginsu_shark_%28Cretoxyrhina_mantellii%29.jpg/70px-Ginsu_shark_%28Cretoxyrhina_mantellii%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ginsu_shark_%28Cretoxyrhina_mantellii%29.jpg/105px-Ginsu_shark_%28Cretoxyrhina_mantellii%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ginsu_shark_%28Cretoxyrhina_mantellii%29.jpg/140px-Ginsu_shark_%28Cretoxyrhina_mantellii%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3532" data-file-height="1340" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Euteleostomi" title="Euteleostomi">bony fish</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlantic_cod.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Atlantic_cod.jpg/70px-Atlantic_cod.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Atlantic_cod.jpg/105px-Atlantic_cod.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Atlantic_cod.jpg/140px-Atlantic_cod.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="255" /></a></span> <a href="#Bony_fish">→</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><small>(extant)</small> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jawless_fish">Jawless fish</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Jawless fish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tullimonstrum_NT_small.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Tullimonstrum_NT_small.jpg/260px-Tullimonstrum_NT_small.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Tullimonstrum_NT_small.jpg/390px-Tullimonstrum_NT_small.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Tullimonstrum_NT_small.jpg/520px-Tullimonstrum_NT_small.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption> The Tully monster, a strange looking extinct animal with eyes like a <a href="/wiki/Hammerhead_shark" title="Hammerhead shark">hammerhead</a> protruding from its back, may be an early jawless fish.</figcaption></figure> <p>Early fish had no <a href="/wiki/Fish_jaw" title="Fish jaw">jaws</a>. Most went extinct when they were outcompeted by jawed fish (below), but two groups survived: <a href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">hagfish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lampreys</a>. Hagfish form a class of about 20 species of <a href="/wiki/Eel" title="Eel">eel</a>-shaped, <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">slime</a>-producing marine fish. They are the only known living animals that have a <a href="/wiki/Skull" title="Skull">skull</a> but no <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral column">vertebral column</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">Lampreys</a> form a superclass containing 38 known extant species of <a href="/wiki/Agnatha" title="Agnatha">jawless fish</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-314" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-314"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>311<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adult lamprey is characterized by a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth. Although they are well known for boring into the flesh of other fish to <a href="/wiki/Hematophagy" title="Hematophagy">suck their blood</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-315" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-315"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>312<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> only 18 species of lampreys are actually parasitic.<sup id="cite_ref-316" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-316"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>313<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Together hagfish and lampreys are the sister group to vertebrates. Living hagfish remain similar to hagfish from around 300 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-317" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-317"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>314<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lampreys are a very ancient lineage of vertebrates, though their exact relationship to <a href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">hagfishes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gnathostomata" title="Gnathostomata">jawed vertebrates</a> is still a matter of dispute.<sup id="cite_ref-318" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-318"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>315<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Molecular analysis since 1992 has suggested that hagfish are most closely related to lampreys,<sup id="cite_ref-319" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-319"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>316<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and so also are vertebrates in a <a href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a> sense. Others consider them a sister group of vertebrates in the common taxon of craniata.<sup id="cite_ref-320" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-320"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>317<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Tully_monster" class="mw-redirect" title="Tully monster">Tully monster</a> is an extinct genus of soft-bodied bilaterians that lived in tropical estuaries about 300 million years ago. Since 2016 there has been controversy over whether this animal was a vertebrate or an invertebrate.<sup id="cite_ref-McCoy2016_321-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCoy2016-321"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>318<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sallan2017_322-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sallan2017-322"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>319<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2020 researchers found "strong evidence" that the Tully monster was a vertebrate, and was a <a href="/wiki/Jawless_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawless fish">jawless fish</a> in the lineage of the <a href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lamprey</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-323" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-323"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>320<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-324" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-324"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>321<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while in 2023 other researchers found 3D fossils scans did not support those conclusions.<sup id="cite_ref-325" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-325"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>322<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 201.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 199.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eptatretus_polytrema.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hagfish are the only known living animals with a skull but no vertebral column."><img alt="Hagfish are the only known living animals with a skull but no vertebral column." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Eptatretus_polytrema.jpg/299px-Eptatretus_polytrema.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Eptatretus_polytrema.jpg/448px-Eptatretus_polytrema.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Eptatretus_polytrema.jpg/598px-Eptatretus_polytrema.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="723" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">Hagfish</a> are the only known living animals with a <a href="/wiki/Skull" title="Skull">skull</a> but no <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral column">vertebral column</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 218px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 216px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eudontomyzon_mariae_Dunai_ingola.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lampreys are often parasitic and have a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth."><img alt="Lampreys are often parasitic and have a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Eudontomyzon_mariae_Dunai_ingola.jpg/324px-Eudontomyzon_mariae_Dunai_ingola.jpg" decoding="async" width="216" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Eudontomyzon_mariae_Dunai_ingola.jpg/486px-Eudontomyzon_mariae_Dunai_ingola.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Eudontomyzon_mariae_Dunai_ingola.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="278" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">Lampreys</a> are often parasitic and have a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 129.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 127.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pteraspidomorphi.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="The extinct Pteraspidomorphi, ancestral to jawed vertebrates"><img alt="The extinct Pteraspidomorphi, ancestral to jawed vertebrates" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Pteraspidomorphi.gif/191px-Pteraspidomorphi.gif" decoding="async" width="128" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Pteraspidomorphi.gif/287px-Pteraspidomorphi.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Pteraspidomorphi.gif 2x" data-file-width="368" data-file-height="346" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The extinct <a href="/wiki/Pteraspidomorphi" title="Pteraspidomorphi">Pteraspidomorphi</a>, ancestral to <a href="/wiki/Jawed_vertebrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawed vertebrate">jawed vertebrates</a></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pteraspidomorphi" title="Pteraspidomorphi">Pteraspidomorphi</a> is an extinct <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a> of early jawless fish ancestral to jawed vertebrates. The few characteristics they share with the latter are now considered as primitive for all <a href="/wiki/Vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrates">vertebrates</a>. </p><p>Around the start of the <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a>, fish started appearing with a deep remodelling of the vertebrate skull that resulted in a <a href="/wiki/Fish_jaw" title="Fish jaw">jaw</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-326" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-326"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>323<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All vertebrate jaws, including the human jaw, have evolved from these early fish jaws. The appearance of the early vertebrate jaw has been described as "perhaps the most profound and radical evolutionary step in vertebrate history".<sup id="cite_ref-Gai2012_327-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gai2012-327"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>324<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Maisey_2000_328-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maisey_2000-328"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>325<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jaws make it possible to capture, hold, and chew prey. <a href="/wiki/Agnatha" title="Agnatha">Fish without jaws</a> had more difficulty surviving than fish with jaws, and most jawless fish became extinct during the Triassic period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cartilaginous_fish">Cartilaginous fish</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Cartilaginous fish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cartilaginous_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartilaginous fish">Cartilaginous fish</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jawed_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawed fish">Jawed fish</a> fall into two main groups: <a href="/wiki/Bony_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Bony fish">fish with bony internal skeletons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cartilaginous_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartilaginous fish">fish with cartilaginous internal skeletons</a>. Cartilaginous fish, such as <a href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Batoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Batoidea">rays</a>, have jaws and skeletons made of <a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">cartilage</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bone</a>. <a href="/wiki/Megalodon" title="Megalodon">Megalodon</a> is an extinct species of shark that lived about 28 to 1.5 Ma. It may looked much like a stocky version of the <a href="/wiki/Great_white_shark" title="Great white shark">great white shark</a>, but was much larger with estimated lengths reaching 20.3 metres (67 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-GWB_329-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GWB-329"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>326<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Found in all oceans<sup id="cite_ref-AN_330-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AN-330"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>327<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was one of the largest and most powerful predators in vertebrate history,<sup id="cite_ref-GWB_329-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GWB-329"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>326<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and probably had a profound impact on marine life.<sup id="cite_ref-LV_331-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LV-331"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>328<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Greenland_shark" title="Greenland shark">Greenland shark</a> has the longest known lifespan of all vertebrates, about 400 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Nielsen2016_332-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2016-332"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>329<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some sharks such as the great white are partially warm blooded and give live birth. The <a href="/wiki/Manta_ray" title="Manta ray">manta ray</a>, largest ray in the world, has been targeted by fisheries and is now <a href="/wiki/List_of_threatened_rays" title="List of threatened rays">vulnerable</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-birostris_333-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-birostris-333"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>330<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerycaption">Cartilaginous fishes</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 183.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 181.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Acanthodes_BW_spaced.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cartilaginous fishes may have evolved from spiny sharks."><img alt="Cartilaginous fishes may have evolved from spiny sharks." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Acanthodes_BW_spaced.jpg/272px-Acanthodes_BW_spaced.jpg" decoding="async" width="182" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Acanthodes_BW_spaced.jpg/408px-Acanthodes_BW_spaced.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Acanthodes_BW_spaced.jpg/544px-Acanthodes_BW_spaced.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1370" data-file-height="907" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cartilaginous fishes may have evolved from <a href="/wiki/Spiny_shark" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiny shark">spiny sharks</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 174.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 172.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Myliobatis_aquila_sasr%C3%A1ja.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stingray"><img alt="Stingray" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Myliobatis_aquila_sasr%C3%A1ja.jpg/259px-Myliobatis_aquila_sasr%C3%A1ja.jpg" decoding="async" width="173" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Myliobatis_aquila_sasr%C3%A1ja.jpg/389px-Myliobatis_aquila_sasr%C3%A1ja.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Myliobatis_aquila_sasr%C3%A1ja.jpg/518px-Myliobatis_aquila_sasr%C3%A1ja.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="556" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Stingray" title="Stingray">Stingray</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 118px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 116px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MantaAlfrediLCouterier.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Manta ray, the largest ray"><img alt="Manta ray, the largest ray" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/MantaAlfrediLCouterier.jpg/174px-MantaAlfrediLCouterier.jpg" decoding="async" width="116" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/MantaAlfrediLCouterier.jpg/261px-MantaAlfrediLCouterier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/MantaAlfrediLCouterier.jpg/349px-MantaAlfrediLCouterier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="425" data-file-height="439" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Manta_ray" title="Manta ray">Manta ray</a>, the largest ray</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 273.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 271.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pristis_clavata_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sawfish, rays with long rostrums resembling a saw. All species are now endangered.[331]"><img alt="Sawfish, rays with long rostrums resembling a saw. All species are now endangered.[331]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Pristis_clavata_2.jpg/407px-Pristis_clavata_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="272" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Pristis_clavata_2.jpg/611px-Pristis_clavata_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Pristis_clavata_2.jpg/814px-Pristis_clavata_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1394" data-file-height="617" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Sawfish" title="Sawfish">Sawfish</a>, rays with long <a href="/wiki/Rostrum_(anatomy)" title="Rostrum (anatomy)">rostrums</a> resembling a saw. All species are now <a href="/wiki/Endangered" class="mw-redirect" title="Endangered">endangered</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC2007_334-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC2007-334"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>331<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 128px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 126px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Megalodon_size_chart.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The extinct megalodon resembled a giant great white shark."><img alt="The extinct megalodon resembled a giant great white shark." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Megalodon_size_chart.png/189px-Megalodon_size_chart.png" decoding="async" width="126" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Megalodon_size_chart.png/283px-Megalodon_size_chart.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Megalodon_size_chart.png/378px-Megalodon_size_chart.png 2x" data-file-width="2011" data-file-height="1916" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The extinct <a href="/wiki/Megalodon" title="Megalodon">megalodon</a> resembled a giant <a href="/wiki/Great_white_shark" title="Great white shark">great white shark</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 228.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 226.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Somniosus_microcephalus1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Greenland shark lives longer than any other vertebrate."><img alt="The Greenland shark lives longer than any other vertebrate." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Somniosus_microcephalus1.jpg/340px-Somniosus_microcephalus1.jpg" decoding="async" width="227" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Somniosus_microcephalus1.jpg/510px-Somniosus_microcephalus1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Somniosus_microcephalus1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Greenland_shark" title="Greenland shark">Greenland shark</a> lives longer than any other vertebrate.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 242px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhincodon_typus_(recropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The largest extant fish, the whale shark, is now a vulnerable species."><img alt="The largest extant fish, the whale shark, is now a vulnerable species." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Rhincodon_typus_%28recropped%29.jpg/360px-Rhincodon_typus_%28recropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Rhincodon_typus_%28recropped%29.jpg/539px-Rhincodon_typus_%28recropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Rhincodon_typus_%28recropped%29.jpg/719px-Rhincodon_typus_%28recropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="998" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> The largest <a href="/wiki/Extant_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant taxon">extant</a> fish, the <a href="/wiki/Whale_shark" title="Whale shark">whale shark</a>, is now a <a href="/wiki/Vulnerable_species" title="Vulnerable species">vulnerable species</a>.</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bony_fish">Bony fish</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Bony fish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guiyu_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Guiyu_BW.jpg/220px-Guiyu_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Guiyu_BW.jpg/330px-Guiyu_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Guiyu_BW.jpg/440px-Guiyu_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="466" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Guiyu_oneiros" title="Guiyu oneiros">Guiyu oneiros</a></i>, the earliest-known bony fish lived during the Late <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> 419 million years ago.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coelacanth-bgiu.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Coelacanth-bgiu.png/220px-Coelacanth-bgiu.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Coelacanth-bgiu.png/330px-Coelacanth-bgiu.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Coelacanth-bgiu.png/440px-Coelacanth-bgiu.png 2x" data-file-width="660" data-file-height="330" /></a><figcaption>Lobe fins are bedded into the body by bony stalks. They evolved into the legs of the first tetrapod land vertebrates.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carassius_wild_golden_fish_2013_G1_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Carassius_wild_golden_fish_2013_G1_%282%29.jpg/220px-Carassius_wild_golden_fish_2013_G1_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Carassius_wild_golden_fish_2013_G1_%282%29.jpg/330px-Carassius_wild_golden_fish_2013_G1_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Carassius_wild_golden_fish_2013_G1_%282%29.jpg/440px-Carassius_wild_golden_fish_2013_G1_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3740" data-file-height="2200" /></a><figcaption>Ray fins have spines (rays) which can be erected to stiffen the fin for better control of swimming performance.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bony_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Bony fish">Bony fish</a></div> <p>Bony fish have jaws and skeletons made of <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bone</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">cartilage</a>. Bony fish also have hard, bony plates called <a href="/wiki/Operculum_(fish)" title="Operculum (fish)">operculum</a> which help them respire and protect their gills, and they often possess a <a href="/wiki/Swim_bladder" title="Swim bladder">swim bladder</a> which they use for better control of their buoyancy. Bony fish can be further divided into those with <a href="/wiki/Lobe_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobe fin">lobe fins</a> and those with <a href="/wiki/Ray_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ray fin">ray fins</a>. The approximate dates in the phylogenetic tree are from Near et al., 2012<sup id="cite_ref-PNAS_335-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PNAS-335"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>332<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Zhu et al., 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhu2009_336-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhu2009-336"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>333<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="#Vertebrate_animals">←</a> <a href="/wiki/Euteleostomi" title="Euteleostomi">bony fish</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii"><span class="nowrap">lobe fins</span></a></div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Coelacanth" title="Coelacanth">coelacanths</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coelacanth-bgiu.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Coelacanth-bgiu.png/70px-Coelacanth-bgiu.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Coelacanth-bgiu.png/105px-Coelacanth-bgiu.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Coelacanth-bgiu.png/140px-Coelacanth-bgiu.png 2x" data-file-width="660" data-file-height="330" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Lungfish" title="Lungfish">lungfish</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Barramunda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Barramunda.jpg/70px-Barramunda.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Barramunda.jpg/105px-Barramunda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Barramunda.jpg/140px-Barramunda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1181" data-file-height="320" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a></i> <a href="#Marine_tetrapods">→</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"><small>419 mya</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii"><span class="nowrap">ray fins</span></a></div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Chondrostean" class="mw-redirect" title="Chondrostean">chondrosteans</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sturgeon2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg/70px-Sturgeon2.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg/105px-Sturgeon2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg/140px-Sturgeon2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="118" /></a></span> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Sturgeon" title="Sturgeon">sturgeon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paddlefish" title="Paddlefish">paddlefish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bichir" title="Bichir">bichir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reedfish" title="Reedfish">reedfish</a>)</small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Neopterygii" title="Neopterygii">neopterygians</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Holostei" title="Holostei">holosteans</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amia_calva1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Amia_calva1.jpg/70px-Amia_calva1.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Amia_calva1.jpg/105px-Amia_calva1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Amia_calva1.jpg/140px-Amia_calva1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3006" data-file-height="817" /></a></span> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Bowfin" title="Bowfin">bowfin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gar" title="Gar">gars</a>)</small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"><small>275 mya</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Teleost" title="Teleost">teleosts</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><small>all remaining fish (about 14,000 marine species)</small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><small>310 mya</small> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><small>360 mya</small> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><small>400 mya</small> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><small>(extant)</small> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>Lobe fins have the form of fleshy <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lobe" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:lobe">lobes</a> supported by bony stalks which extend from the body.<sup id="cite_ref-337" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-337"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>334<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Guiyu_oneiros" title="Guiyu oneiros">Guiyu oneiros</a></i>, the earliest-known bony fish, lived during the Late <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> 419 million years ago. It has the combination of both <a href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">ray-finned</a> and lobe-finned features, although analysis of the totality of its features place it closer to lobe-finned fish.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhu2009_336-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhu2009-336"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>333<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lobe fins evolved into the legs of the first tetrapod land vertebrates, so by extension an early ancestor of humans was a lobe-finned fish. Apart from the coelacanths and the lungfishes, lobe-finned fishes are now extinct. </p><p>The remaining bony fish have ray fins. These are made of webs of skin supported by bony or horny spines (rays) which can be erected to control the fin stiffness. </p> <ul><li>The main distinguishing feature of the <a href="/wiki/Chondrostean" class="mw-redirect" title="Chondrostean">chondrosteans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sturgeon" title="Sturgeon">sturgeon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paddlefish" title="Paddlefish">paddlefish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bichir" title="Bichir">bichir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reedfish" title="Reedfish">reedfish</a>) is the cartilaginous nature of their skeletons. The ancestors of the chondrosteans are thought to be bony fish, but the characteristic of an ossified skeleton was lost in later evolutionary development, resulting in a lightening of the frame.<sup id="cite_ref-chondro_338-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chondro-338"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>335<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopterygii" title="Neopterygii">Neopterygians</a> (from Greek for <i>new fins</i>) appeared sometime in the Late Permian, before dinosaurs. They were a very successful group of fish, because they could move more rapidly than their ancestors. Their scales and skeletons began to lighten during their evolution, and their jaws became more powerful and efficient.<sup id="cite_ref-339" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-339"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>336<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Teleosts">Teleosts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Teleosts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barb_gonio_080525_9610_ltn_Cf.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Barb_gonio_080525_9610_ltn_Cf.jpg/220px-Barb_gonio_080525_9610_ltn_Cf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Barb_gonio_080525_9610_ltn_Cf.jpg/330px-Barb_gonio_080525_9610_ltn_Cf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Barb_gonio_080525_9610_ltn_Cf.jpg/440px-Barb_gonio_080525_9610_ltn_Cf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="865" /></a><figcaption> Teleosts have <a href="/wiki/Homocercal" class="mw-redirect" title="Homocercal">homocercal tails</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Teleost" title="Teleost">Teleost</a></div> <p>About 96% of all modern fish species are teleosts,<sup id="cite_ref-340" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-340"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>337<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of which about 14,000 are marine species.<sup id="cite_ref-341" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-341"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>338<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Teleosts can be distinguished from other bony fish by their possession of a <a href="/wiki/Homocercal" class="mw-redirect" title="Homocercal">homocercal tail</a>, a tail where the upper half mirrors the lower half.<sup id="cite_ref-Benton_342-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benton-342"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>339<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another difference lies in their jaw bones – teleosts have modifications in the jaw musculature which make it possible for them to <a href="/wiki/Cranial_kinesis" title="Cranial kinesis">protrude their jaws</a>. This enables them to <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">grab prey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suction_feeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Suction feeding">draw it into their mouth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Benton_342-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benton-342"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>339<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, teleosts tend to be quicker and more flexible than more basal bony fishes. Their skeletal structure has evolved towards greater lightness. While teleost bones are well <a href="/wiki/Calcification" title="Calcification">calcified</a>, they are constructed from a scaffolding of struts, rather than the dense <a href="/wiki/Cancellous_bone" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancellous bone">cancellous bones</a> of <a href="/wiki/Holostei" title="Holostei">holostean</a> fish.<sup id="cite_ref-343" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-343"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>340<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Teleosts are found in almost all <a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorit_344-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorit-344"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>341<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have enormous <a href="/wiki/Diversity_of_fish" title="Diversity of fish">diversity</a>, and range in size from adult <a href="/wiki/Gobies" class="mw-redirect" title="Gobies">gobies</a> 8mm long <sup id="cite_ref-345" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-345"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>342<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to <a href="/wiki/Ocean_sunfish" title="Ocean sunfish">ocean sunfish</a> weighing over 2,000 kg.<sup id="cite_ref-346" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-346"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>343<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following images show something of the diversity in the shape and colour of modern marine teleosts... </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 188.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 186.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Istiophorus_platypterus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sailfish"><img alt="Sailfish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Istiophorus_platypterus.jpg/280px-Istiophorus_platypterus.jpg" decoding="async" width="187" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Istiophorus_platypterus.jpg/419px-Istiophorus_platypterus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Istiophorus_platypterus.jpg/559px-Istiophorus_platypterus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="537" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Sailfish" title="Sailfish">Sailfish</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 167.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 165.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coryphaena_hippurus.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Mahi-mahi"><img alt="Mahi-mahi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Coryphaena_hippurus.png" decoding="async" width="166" height="100" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="248" data-file-height="150" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Mahi-mahi" title="Mahi-mahi">Mahi-mahi</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 200.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 198.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Anguilla_japonica_1856.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Eel"><img alt="Eel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Anguilla_japonica_1856.jpg/298px-Anguilla_japonica_1856.jpg" decoding="async" width="199" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Anguilla_japonica_1856.jpg/447px-Anguilla_japonica_1856.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Anguilla_japonica_1856.jpg/596px-Anguilla_japonica_1856.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1007" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Eel" title="Eel">Eel</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 62px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 60px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seepferdlein.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seahorse"><img alt="Seahorse" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Seepferdlein.jpg/71px-Seepferdlein.jpg" decoding="async" width="48" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Seepferdlein.jpg/106px-Seepferdlein.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Seepferdlein.jpg/142px-Seepferdlein.jpg 2x" data-file-width="225" data-file-height="475" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Seahorse" title="Seahorse">Seahorse</a></div> </li> </ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 73.333333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 71.333333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sunfish.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ocean sunfish"><img alt="Ocean sunfish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Sunfish.jpg/107px-Sunfish.jpg" decoding="async" width="72" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Sunfish.jpg/161px-Sunfish.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Sunfish.jpg 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="280" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Ocean_sunfish" title="Ocean sunfish">Ocean sunfish</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 108.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 106.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Humpback_anglerfish.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Anglerfish"><img alt="Anglerfish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Humpback_anglerfish.png/160px-Humpback_anglerfish.png" decoding="async" width="107" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Humpback_anglerfish.png/240px-Humpback_anglerfish.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Humpback_anglerfish.png/320px-Humpback_anglerfish.png 2x" data-file-width="505" data-file-height="473" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Anglerfish" title="Anglerfish">Anglerfish</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 158.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 156.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tetraodon-hispidus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pufferfish"><img alt="Pufferfish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Tetraodon-hispidus.jpg/235px-Tetraodon-hispidus.jpg" decoding="async" width="157" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Tetraodon-hispidus.jpg/352px-Tetraodon-hispidus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Tetraodon-hispidus.jpg/469px-Tetraodon-hispidus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="616" data-file-height="394" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Pufferfish" class="mw-redirect" title="Pufferfish">Pufferfish</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:S%C3%A4rk%C3%A4nniemi_-_fish.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Clown triggerfish"><img alt="Clown triggerfish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/S%C3%A4rk%C3%A4nniemi_-_fish.png/225px-S%C3%A4rk%C3%A4nniemi_-_fish.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/S%C3%A4rk%C3%A4nniemi_-_fish.png/337px-S%C3%A4rk%C3%A4nniemi_-_fish.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/S%C3%A4rk%C3%A4nniemi_-_fish.png/450px-S%C3%A4rk%C3%A4nniemi_-_fish.png 2x" data-file-width="860" data-file-height="574" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Clown_triggerfish" title="Clown triggerfish">Clown triggerfish</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 139.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 137.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Synchiropus_splendidus_2_Luc_Viatour_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Mandarin dragonet"><img alt="Mandarin dragonet" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Synchiropus_splendidus_2_Luc_Viatour_cropped.png/206px-Synchiropus_splendidus_2_Luc_Viatour_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="138" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Synchiropus_splendidus_2_Luc_Viatour_cropped.png/309px-Synchiropus_splendidus_2_Luc_Viatour_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Synchiropus_splendidus_2_Luc_Viatour_cropped.png/412px-Synchiropus_splendidus_2_Luc_Viatour_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="729" data-file-height="531" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_dragonet" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandarin dragonet">Mandarin dragonet</a></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>Nearly half of all extant vertebrate species are teleosts.<sup id="cite_ref-IUCN1014_347-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IUCN1014-347"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>344<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_tetrapods">Marine tetrapods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Marine tetrapods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tetrapods" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapods">Tetrapods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">evolution of tetrapods</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tiktaalik_BW_flopped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Tiktaalik_BW_flopped.jpg/220px-Tiktaalik_BW_flopped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Tiktaalik_BW_flopped.jpg/330px-Tiktaalik_BW_flopped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Tiktaalik_BW_flopped.jpg/440px-Tiktaalik_BW_flopped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="244" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Tiktaalik" title="Tiktaalik">Tiktaalik</a></i>, an extinct lobe-finned fish, developed limb-like fins that could take it onto land.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapod</a> (Greek for <i>four feet</i>) is a vertebrate with <a href="/wiki/Limb_(anatomy)" title="Limb (anatomy)">limbs</a> (feet). Tetrapods evolved from ancient <a href="/wiki/Lobe-finned_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobe-finned fish">lobe-finned fishes</a> about 400 million years ago during the <a href="/wiki/Devonian_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Devonian Period">Devonian Period</a> when their earliest ancestors emerged from the sea and adapted to living on land.<sup id="cite_ref-NarkiewiczNarkiewicz2015_348-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NarkiewiczNarkiewicz2015-348"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>345<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This change from a body plan for breathing and navigating in gravity-neutral water to a body plan with mechanisms enabling the animal to breath in air without dehydrating and move on land is one of the most profound evolutionary changes known.<sup id="cite_ref-Gordon&Long_349-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gordon&Long-349"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>346<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-350" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-350"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>347<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tetrapods can be divided into four classes: <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>. </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="#Bony_fish">←</a> <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a> <small>(there are no true marine amphibians)</small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">amniotes</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dolphin_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Dolphin_2.png/40px-Dolphin_2.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Dolphin_2.png/60px-Dolphin_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Dolphin_2.png/80px-Dolphin_2.png 2x" data-file-width="984" data-file-height="646" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Sauropsida" title="Sauropsida">sauropsids</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Lepidosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Lepidosaur">lepidosaurs</a> <small><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg/20px-Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg/30px-Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg/40px-Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1029" data-file-height="1446" /></a></span></small> <small>(lizards, including snakes)</small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Archosaur" title="Archosaur">archosaurs</a> <small><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinstrap_Penguin_white_background.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Chinstrap_Penguin_white_background.jpg/20px-Chinstrap_Penguin_white_background.jpg" decoding="async" width="20" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Chinstrap_Penguin_white_background.jpg/30px-Chinstrap_Penguin_white_background.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Chinstrap_Penguin_white_background.jpg/40px-Chinstrap_Penguin_white_background.jpg 2x" data-file-width="257" data-file-height="396" /></a></span></small> <small>(turtles, crocodiles & birds)</small> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>Marine tetrapods are tetrapods that returned from land back to the sea again. The first returns to the ocean may have occurred as early as the <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Carboniferous Period">Carboniferous Period</a><sup id="cite_ref-351" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-351"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>348<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas other returns occurred as recently as the <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a>, as in cetaceans, <a href="/wiki/Pinniped" title="Pinniped">pinnipeds</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-352" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-352"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>349<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and several <a href="/wiki/Lissamphibia" title="Lissamphibia">modern amphibians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-353" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-353"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>350<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">Amphibians</a> (from Greek for <i>both kinds of life</i>) live part of their life in water and part on land. They mostly require fresh water to reproduce. A few inhabit brackish water, but there are no true marine amphibians.<sup id="cite_ref-354" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-354"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>351<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There have been reports, however, of amphibians invading marine waters, such as a Black Sea invasion by the natural hybrid <i><a href="/wiki/Pelophylax_esculentus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelophylax esculentus">Pelophylax esculentus</a></i> reported in 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-355" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-355"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>352<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reptiles">Reptiles</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Reptiles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">Marine reptile</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Evolution of reptiles</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Reptiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Reptiles">Reptiles</a> (Late Latin for <i>creeping</i> or <i>crawling</i>) do not have an aquatic larval stage, and in this way are unlike amphibians. Most reptiles are oviparous, although several species of squamates are <a href="/wiki/Viviparity" title="Viviparity">viviparous</a>, as were some extinct aquatic clades<sup id="cite_ref-S12_356-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S12-356"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>353<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> — the fetus develops within the mother, contained in a <a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">placenta</a> rather than an <a href="/wiki/Eggshell" title="Eggshell">eggshell</a>. As <a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">amniotes</a>, reptile eggs are surrounded by membranes for protection and transport, which adapt them to reproduction on dry land. Many of the viviparous species feed their <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetuses</a> through various forms of placenta analogous to those of <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, with some providing initial care for their hatchlings. </p><p>Some reptiles are more closely related to <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> than other reptiles, and many scientists prefer to make Reptilia a monophyletic group which includes the birds.<sup id="cite_ref-modestoanderson2004_357-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-modestoanderson2004-357"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>354<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GKT88_358-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GKT88-358"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>355<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Laurin_95_359-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laurin_95-359"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>356<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MSP99_360-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MSP99-360"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>357<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Extant_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant taxon">Extant</a> non-avian reptiles which inhabit or frequent the sea include <a href="/wiki/Sea_turtle" title="Sea turtle">sea turtles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_snake" title="Sea snake">sea snakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terrapin" title="Terrapin">terrapins</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Marine_iguana" title="Marine iguana">marine iguana</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Saltwater_crocodile" title="Saltwater crocodile">saltwater crocodile</a>. Currently, of the approximately 12,000 extant <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptile</a> species and sub-species, only about 100 of are classed as marine reptiles.<sup id="cite_ref-361" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-361"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>358<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Except for some sea snakes, most extant marine reptiles are <a href="/wiki/Oviparity" title="Oviparity">oviparous</a> and need to return to land to lay their eggs. Apart from sea turtles, the species usually spend most of their lives on or near land rather than in the ocean. Sea snakes generally prefer shallow waters nearby land, around islands, especially waters that are somewhat sheltered, as well as near estuaries.<sup id="cite_ref-Sti74_362-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sti74-362"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>359<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RAS-FAO_363-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RAS-FAO-363"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>360<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike land snakes, sea snakes have evolved flattened tails which help them swim.<sup id="cite_ref-364" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-364"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>361<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marine-Iguana-Espanola.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Marine iguana"><img alt="Marine iguana" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Marine-Iguana-Espanola.jpg/270px-Marine-Iguana-Espanola.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Marine-Iguana-Espanola.jpg/405px-Marine-Iguana-Espanola.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Marine-Iguana-Espanola.jpg/540px-Marine-Iguana-Espanola.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Marine_iguana" title="Marine iguana">Marine iguana</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 208.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 206.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Leatherback_sea_turtle_Tinglar,_USVI_(5839996547).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Leatherback sea turtle"><img alt="Leatherback sea turtle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Leatherback_sea_turtle_Tinglar%2C_USVI_%285839996547%29.jpg/310px-Leatherback_sea_turtle_Tinglar%2C_USVI_%285839996547%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="207" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Leatherback_sea_turtle_Tinglar%2C_USVI_%285839996547%29.jpg/464px-Leatherback_sea_turtle_Tinglar%2C_USVI_%285839996547%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Leatherback_sea_turtle_Tinglar%2C_USVI_%285839996547%29.jpg/619px-Leatherback_sea_turtle_Tinglar%2C_USVI_%285839996547%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1864" data-file-height="1085" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Leatherback_sea_turtle" title="Leatherback sea turtle">Leatherback sea turtle</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SaltwaterCrocodile(%27Maximo%27).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Saltwater crocodile"><img alt="Saltwater crocodile" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/SaltwaterCrocodile%28%27Maximo%27%29.jpg/240px-SaltwaterCrocodile%28%27Maximo%27%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/SaltwaterCrocodile%28%27Maximo%27%29.jpg/360px-SaltwaterCrocodile%28%27Maximo%27%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/SaltwaterCrocodile%28%27Maximo%27%29.jpg/480px-SaltwaterCrocodile%28%27Maximo%27%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Saltwater_crocodile" title="Saltwater crocodile">Saltwater crocodile</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 87.333333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 85.333333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Marine snakes have flattened tails."><img alt="Marine snakes have flattened tails." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg/128px-Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg" decoding="async" width="86" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg/192px-Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg/256px-Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1029" data-file-height="1446" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Marine snakes have flattened tails.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 265.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 263.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ichthyosaurus_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The ancient Ichthyosaurus communis independently evolved flippers similar to dolphins."><img alt="The ancient Ichthyosaurus communis independently evolved flippers similar to dolphins." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Ichthyosaurus_BW.jpg/395px-Ichthyosaurus_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="264" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Ichthyosaurus_BW.jpg/592px-Ichthyosaurus_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Ichthyosaurus_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="274" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The ancient <i><a href="/wiki/Ichthyosaurus_communis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichthyosaurus communis">Ichthyosaurus communis</a></i> independently evolved flippers similar to dolphins.</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>Some <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinct</a> marine reptiles, such as <a href="/wiki/Ichthyosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichthyosaur">ichthyosaurs</a>, evolved to be <a href="/wiki/Viviparity" title="Viviparity">viviparous</a> and had no requirement to return to land. <a href="/wiki/Ichthyosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichthyosaur">Ichthyosaurs</a> resembled dolphins. They first appeared about 245 million years ago and disappeared about 90 million years ago. The terrestrial ancestor of the ichthyosaur had no features already on its back or tail that might have helped along the evolutionary process. Yet the ichthyosaur developed a <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_fin" title="Dorsal fin">dorsal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caudal_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudal fin">tail fin</a> which improved its ability to swim.<sup id="cite_ref-Martill,_1993_365-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martill,_1993-365"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>362<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The biologist <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a> said the ichthyosaur was his favourite example of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-366" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-366"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>363<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest marine reptiles arose in the <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> many groups of reptiles became adapted to life in the seas, including <a href="/wiki/Ichthyosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichthyosaur">ichthyosaurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plesiosaur" title="Plesiosaur">plesiosaurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mosasaur" title="Mosasaur">mosasaurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nothosaur" title="Nothosaur">nothosaurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Placodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Placodont">placodonts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_turtle" title="Sea turtle">sea turtles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thalattosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Thalattosaur">thalattosaurs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thalattosuchia" title="Thalattosuchia">thalattosuchians</a>. Marine reptiles were less numerous after <a href="/wiki/Mass_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass extinction">mass extinction</a> at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Birds">Birds</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Birds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">Seabird</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chesapeake_Waterbird_Food_Web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Chesapeake_Waterbird_Food_Web.jpg/220px-Chesapeake_Waterbird_Food_Web.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Chesapeake_Waterbird_Food_Web.jpg/330px-Chesapeake_Waterbird_Food_Web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Chesapeake_Waterbird_Food_Web.jpg/440px-Chesapeake_Waterbird_Food_Web.jpg 2x" data-file-width="565" data-file-height="440" /></a><figcaption>Waterbird food web in <a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay" title="Chesapeake Bay">Chesapeake Bay</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Seabirds" class="mw-redirect" title="Seabirds">Marine birds</a> are <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adapted</a> to life within the <a href="/wiki/Marine_(ocean)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine (ocean)">marine</a> environment. They are often called <i>seabirds</i>. While marine birds vary greatly in lifestyle, behaviour and physiology, they often exhibit striking <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>, as the same environmental problems and feeding <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niches</a> have resulted in similar adaptations. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Albatross" title="Albatross">albatross</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penguin" title="Penguin">penguins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gannet" title="Gannet">gannets</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Auk" title="Auk">auks</a>. </p><p>In general, marine birds live longer, <a href="/wiki/Mating" title="Mating">breed</a> later and have fewer young than terrestrial birds do, but they invest a great deal of time in their young. Most <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> nest in <a href="/wiki/Bird_colony" title="Bird colony">colonies</a>, which can vary in size from a few dozen birds to millions. Many species are famous for undertaking long annual <a href="/wiki/Bird_migration" title="Bird migration">migrations</a>, crossing the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a> or circumnavigating the Earth in some cases. They feed both at the ocean's surface and below it, and even feed on each other. Marine birds can be highly <a href="/wiki/Pelagic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagic">pelagic</a>, coastal, or in some cases spend a part of the year away from the sea entirely. Some marine birds plummet from heights, plunging through the water leaving vapour-like trails, similar to that of fighter planes.<sup id="cite_ref-baitball_367-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baitball-367"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>364<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gannet" title="Gannet">Gannets</a> plunge into the water at up to 100 kilometres per hour (60 mph). They have air sacs under their skin in their face and chest which act like <a href="/wiki/Bubble-wrap" class="mw-redirect" title="Bubble-wrap">bubble-wrap</a>, cushioning the impact with the water. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 200.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 198.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Go%C3%A9land_argent%C3%A9_-_Julien_Salmon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="European herring gull attack herring schools from above."><img alt="European herring gull attack herring schools from above." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Go%C3%A9land_argent%C3%A9_-_Julien_Salmon.jpg/298px-Go%C3%A9land_argent%C3%A9_-_Julien_Salmon.jpg" decoding="async" width="199" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Go%C3%A9land_argent%C3%A9_-_Julien_Salmon.jpg/448px-Go%C3%A9land_argent%C3%A9_-_Julien_Salmon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Go%C3%A9land_argent%C3%A9_-_Julien_Salmon.jpg/597px-Go%C3%A9land_argent%C3%A9_-_Julien_Salmon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2584" data-file-height="1690" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/European_herring_gull" title="European herring gull">European herring gull</a> attack herring schools from above.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 198px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 196px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pygoscelis_papua_-Nagasaki_Penguin_Aquarium_-swimming_underwater-8a.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gentoo penguin swimming underwater"><img alt="Gentoo penguin swimming underwater" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Pygoscelis_papua_-Nagasaki_Penguin_Aquarium_-swimming_underwater-8a.jpg/294px-Pygoscelis_papua_-Nagasaki_Penguin_Aquarium_-swimming_underwater-8a.jpg" decoding="async" width="196" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Pygoscelis_papua_-Nagasaki_Penguin_Aquarium_-swimming_underwater-8a.jpg/441px-Pygoscelis_papua_-Nagasaki_Penguin_Aquarium_-swimming_underwater-8a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Pygoscelis_papua_-Nagasaki_Penguin_Aquarium_-swimming_underwater-8a.jpg/587px-Pygoscelis_papua_-Nagasaki_Penguin_Aquarium_-swimming_underwater-8a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Gentoo_penguin" title="Gentoo penguin">Gentoo penguin</a> swimming underwater</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 197.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 195.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Albatross_-_east_of_the_Tasman_Peninsula,_Tasmania.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Albatrosses range over huge areas of ocean and some even circle the globe."><img alt="Albatrosses range over huge areas of ocean and some even circle the globe." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Royal_Albatross_-_east_of_the_Tasman_Peninsula%2C_Tasmania.jpg/293px-Royal_Albatross_-_east_of_the_Tasman_Peninsula%2C_Tasmania.jpg" decoding="async" width="196" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Royal_Albatross_-_east_of_the_Tasman_Peninsula%2C_Tasmania.jpg/440px-Royal_Albatross_-_east_of_the_Tasman_Peninsula%2C_Tasmania.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Royal_Albatross_-_east_of_the_Tasman_Peninsula%2C_Tasmania.jpg/585px-Royal_Albatross_-_east_of_the_Tasman_Peninsula%2C_Tasmania.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3774" data-file-height="2516" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Albatrosses range over huge areas of ocean and some even circle the globe.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 144.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 142.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Morus_serrator.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gannets "divebomb" at high speed"><img alt="Gannets "divebomb" at high speed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Morus_serrator.jpg/214px-Morus_serrator.jpg" decoding="async" width="143" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Morus_serrator.jpg/322px-Morus_serrator.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Morus_serrator.jpg/428px-Morus_serrator.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1866" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Gannets "divebomb" at high speed</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>The first marine birds evolved in the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> <a href="/wiki/Geological_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological period">period</a>, and modern marine bird families emerged in the <a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mammals">Mammals</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Mammals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sea_otter_with_sea_urchin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sea_otter_with_sea_urchin.jpg/220px-Sea_otter_with_sea_urchin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sea_otter_with_sea_urchin.jpg/330px-Sea_otter_with_sea_urchin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sea_otter_with_sea_urchin.jpg/440px-Sea_otter_with_sea_urchin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1650" data-file-height="1650" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Sea_otter" title="Sea otter">Sea otter</a>, a classic <a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">keystone species</a> which controls <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchin</a> numbers</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">Marine mammal</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">Evolution of cetaceans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">Evolution of sirenians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_mammal_species" title="List of marine mammal species">List of marine mammal species</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammals</a> (from Latin for <i>breast</i>) are characterised by the presence of <a href="/wiki/Mammary_gland" title="Mammary gland">mammary glands</a> which in <a href="/wiki/Female#Mammalian_female" title="Female">females</a> produce <a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">milk</a> for feeding (nursing) their young. There are about 130 living and recently extinct marine <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammal</a> species such as <a href="/wiki/Pinniped" title="Pinniped">seals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dolphin" title="Dolphin">dolphins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Whale" title="Whale">whales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manatee" title="Manatee">manatees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_otter" title="Sea otter">sea otters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polar_bear" title="Polar bear">polar bears</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-368" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-368"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>365<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They do not represent a distinct taxon or systematic grouping, but are instead unified by their reliance on the marine environment for feeding. Both cetaceans and sirenians are fully aquatic and therefore are obligate water dwellers. Seals and sea-lions are semiaquatic; they spend the majority of their time in the water, but need to return to land for important activities such as <a href="/wiki/Mating" title="Mating">mating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breeding_in_the_wild" title="Breeding in the wild">breeding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molting" class="mw-redirect" title="Molting">molting</a>. In contrast, both otters and the polar bear are much less adapted to aquatic living. Their diet varies considerably as well: some may eat <a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</a>; others may eat fish, squid, shellfish, and sea-grass; and a few may eat other mammals. </p><p>In a process of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>, marine mammals, especially cetaceans such as dolphins and whales, redeveloped their <a href="/wiki/Body_plan" title="Body plan">body plan</a> to parallel the streamlined <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fusiform" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:fusiform">fusiform</a> body plan of <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">pelagic fish</a>. Front legs became <a href="/wiki/Flipper_(anatomy)" title="Flipper (anatomy)">flippers</a> and back legs disappeared, a <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_fin" title="Dorsal fin">dorsal fin</a> reappeared and the tail morphed into a powerful horizontal <a href="/wiki/Fluke_(tail)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluke (tail)">fluke</a>. This body plan is an adaptation to being an active predator in a high <a href="/wiki/Drag_(physics)" title="Drag (physics)">drag</a> environment. A parallel convergence occurred with the now extinct marine reptile <a href="/wiki/Ichthyosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichthyosaur">ichthyosaur</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-369" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-369"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>366<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bluewhale2_noaa.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Endangered blue whale, the largest living animal[367]"><img alt="Endangered blue whale, the largest living animal[367]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Bluewhale2_noaa.jpg/270px-Bluewhale2_noaa.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Bluewhale2_noaa.jpg/405px-Bluewhale2_noaa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Bluewhale2_noaa.jpg/540px-Bluewhale2_noaa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Endangered <a href="/wiki/Blue_whale" title="Blue whale">blue whale</a>, the largest living animal<sup id="cite_ref-370" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-370"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>367<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tursiops_truncatus_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The bottlenose dolphin has the highest encephalization of any animal after humans[368]"><img alt="The bottlenose dolphin has the highest encephalization of any animal after humans[368]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Tursiops_truncatus_01.jpg/271px-Tursiops_truncatus_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="181" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Tursiops_truncatus_01.jpg/406px-Tursiops_truncatus_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Tursiops_truncatus_01.jpg/542px-Tursiops_truncatus_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1995" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> The <a href="/wiki/Bottlenose_dolphin" title="Bottlenose dolphin">bottlenose dolphin</a> has the highest <a href="/wiki/Encephalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Encephalization">encephalization</a> of any animal after humans<sup id="cite_ref-371" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-371"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>368<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 180px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 178px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Beluga03.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Beluga whale"><img alt="Beluga whale" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Beluga03.jpg/267px-Beluga03.jpg" decoding="async" width="178" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Beluga03.jpg/400px-Beluga03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Beluga03.jpg/533px-Beluga03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2093" data-file-height="1414" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Beluga_whale" title="Beluga whale">Beluga whale</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dugong_Marsa_Alam.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dugong grazing on seagrass"><img alt="Dugong grazing on seagrass" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Dugong_Marsa_Alam.jpg/240px-Dugong_Marsa_Alam.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Dugong_Marsa_Alam.jpg/360px-Dugong_Marsa_Alam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Dugong_Marsa_Alam.jpg/480px-Dugong_Marsa_Alam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Dugong" title="Dugong">Dugong</a> grazing on <a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">seagrass</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Noaa-walrus22.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Walrus"><img alt="Walrus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Noaa-walrus22.jpg/240px-Noaa-walrus22.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Noaa-walrus22.jpg/360px-Noaa-walrus22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Noaa-walrus22.jpg/480px-Noaa-walrus22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1424" data-file-height="1068" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Walrus" title="Walrus">Walrus</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 121.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 119.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Polar_Bear_-_Alaska_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Polar bear"><img alt="Polar bear" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Polar_Bear_-_Alaska_%28cropped%29.jpg/179px-Polar_Bear_-_Alaska_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Polar_Bear_-_Alaska_%28cropped%29.jpg/269px-Polar_Bear_-_Alaska_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Polar_Bear_-_Alaska_%28cropped%29.jpg/359px-Polar_Bear_-_Alaska_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="563" data-file-height="565" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Polar_bear" title="Polar bear">Polar bear</a></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Primary_producers">Primary producers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Primary producers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg/350px-Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg/525px-Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg/700px-Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="819" /></a><figcaption>Composite image showing the global distribution of photosynthesis, including both oceanic <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> and terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a>. Dark red and blue-green indicate regions of high photosynthetic activity in the ocean and on land, respectively.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">marine primary production</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_photosynthesis" title="Evolution of photosynthesis">evolution of photosynthesis</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Primary_producer" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary producer">Primary producers</a> are the <a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotroph</a> organisms that make their own food instead of eating other organisms. This means primary producers become the starting point in the <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a> for <a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">heterotroph</a> organisms that do eat other organisms. Some marine primary producers are specialised bacteria and archaea which are <a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">chemotrophs</a>, making their own food by gathering around <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vents" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal vents">hydrothermal vents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cold_seeps" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold seeps">cold seeps</a> and using <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">chemosynthesis</a>. However most marine <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary production</a> comes from organisms which use <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> on the carbon dioxide dissolved in the water. This process uses energy from sunlight to convert water and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a><sup id="cite_ref-Campbell2008_372-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell2008-372"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>369<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 186–187">: 186–187 </span></sup> into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell2008_372-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell2008-372"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>369<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1242">: 1242 </span></sup> Marine primary producers are important because they underpin almost all marine animal life by generating most of the <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and food that provide other organisms with the chemical energy they need to exist. </p><p>The principal marine primary producers are <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> and marine plants. The <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> released as a by-product of photosynthesis is needed by <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_organism" title="Anaerobic organism">nearly</a> all living things to carry out <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">cellular respiration</a>. In addition, primary producers are influential in the global <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water</a> cycles. They stabilize coastal areas and can provide habitats for marine animals. The term <a href="/wiki/Division_(taxonomy)" title="Division (taxonomy)">division</a> has been traditionally used instead of <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> when discussing primary producers, but the <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants</a> now accepts both terms as equivalents.<sup id="cite_ref-ICN_373-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICN-373"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>370<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Cyanobacteria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:368px;max-width:368px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Cyanobacteria</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyanobacteria_guerrero_negro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Cyanobacteria_guerrero_negro.jpg/180px-Cyanobacteria_guerrero_negro.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Cyanobacteria_guerrero_negro.jpg/270px-Cyanobacteria_guerrero_negro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Cyanobacteria_guerrero_negro.jpg/360px-Cyanobacteria_guerrero_negro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="700" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Cyanobacteria from a <a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">microbial mat</a>. Cyanobacteria were the first organisms to release oxygen via photosynthesis.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Prochlorococcus_marinus_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Prochlorococcus_marinus_%28cropped%29.jpg/180px-Prochlorococcus_marinus_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Prochlorococcus_marinus_%28cropped%29.jpg/270px-Prochlorococcus_marinus_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Prochlorococcus_marinus_%28cropped%29.jpg/360px-Prochlorococcus_marinus_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1400" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The cyanobacterium genus <i><a href="/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i> is a major contributor to atmospheric oxygen.</div></div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a> were the first organisms to evolve an ability to turn sunlight into chemical energy. They form a phylum (division) of bacteria which range from unicellular to <a href="/wiki/Protein_filament" title="Protein filament">filamentous</a> and include <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)#Microbial_colonies" title="Colony (biology)">colonial species</a>. They are found almost everywhere on earth: in damp soil, in both freshwater and marine environments, and even on Antarctic rocks.<sup id="cite_ref-WalshSmith2011_374-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WalshSmith2011-374"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>371<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, some species occur as drifting cells floating in the ocean, and as such were amongst the first of the <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>. </p><p>The first primary producers that used photosynthesis were oceanic cyanobacteria about 2.3 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-375" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-375"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>372<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-376" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-376"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>373<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The release of molecular <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> by cyanobacteria as a by-product of photosynthesis induced global changes in the Earth's environment. Because oxygen was toxic to most life on Earth at the time, this led to the near-extinction of <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_organism" title="Anaerobic organism">oxygen-intolerant organisms</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_catastrophe" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen catastrophe">dramatic change</a> which redirected the evolution of the major animal and plant species.<sup id="cite_ref-astrobiology_377-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-astrobiology-377"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>374<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The tiny marine cyanobacterium <i><a href="/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i>, discovered in 1986, forms today part of the base of the ocean <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a> and accounts for much of the photosynthesis of the open ocean<sup id="cite_ref-378" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-378"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>375<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and an estimated 20% of the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-npr_379-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npr-379"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>376<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is possibly the most plentiful genus on Earth: a single millilitre of surface seawater may contain 100,000 cells or more.<sup id="cite_ref-380" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-380"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>377<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Originally, biologists classified cyanobacteria as algae, and referred to it as "blue-green algae". The more recent view is that cyanobacteria are bacteria, and hence are not even in the same <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdom</a> as algae. Most authorities today exclude all <a href="/wiki/Prokaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Prokaryotes">prokaryotes</a>, and hence cyanobacteria from the definition of algae.<sup id="cite_ref-IntroBot_381-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IntroBot-381"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>378<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Allaby_92_382-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allaby_92-382"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>379<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Algae">Algae</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Algae"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:248px;max-width:248px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Diatoms</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:122px;max-width:122px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Centric_diatom_(38258532722).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Centric_diatom_%2838258532722%29.jpg/120px-Centric_diatom_%2838258532722%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Centric_diatom_%2838258532722%29.jpg/180px-Centric_diatom_%2838258532722%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Centric_diatom_%2838258532722%29.jpg/240px-Centric_diatom_%2838258532722%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="583" data-file-height="583" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Centrales" class="mw-redirect" title="Centrales">Centric</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:122px;max-width:122px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pennate_diatoms_(3075304186).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Pennate_diatoms_%283075304186%29.jpg/120px-Pennate_diatoms_%283075304186%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Pennate_diatoms_%283075304186%29.jpg/180px-Pennate_diatoms_%283075304186%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Pennate_diatoms_%283075304186%29.jpg/240px-Pennate_diatoms_%283075304186%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Pennales" title="Pennales">Pennate</a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Diatoms have a <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> shell (<a href="/wiki/Frustule" title="Frustule">frustule</a>) with radial (centric) or bilateral (pennate) symmetry.</div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:248px;max-width:248px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Dinoflagellates</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:122px;max-width:122px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Peridinium_digitale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Peridinium_digitale.jpg/120px-Peridinium_digitale.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Peridinium_digitale.jpg/180px-Peridinium_digitale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Peridinium_digitale.jpg/240px-Peridinium_digitale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="660" data-file-height="660" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Armoured</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:122px;max-width:122px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gymnodinium_agile_sp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Gymnodinium_agile_sp.jpg/120px-Gymnodinium_agile_sp.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Gymnodinium_agile_sp.jpg/180px-Gymnodinium_agile_sp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Gymnodinium_agile_sp.jpg/240px-Gymnodinium_agile_sp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Unarmoured</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Traditionally dinoflagellates have been presented as armoured or unarmoured.</div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a> is an informal term for a widespread and diverse group of photosynthetic <a href="#Marine_protists">protists</a> which are not necessarily closely related and are thus <a href="/wiki/Polyphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphyletic">polyphyletic</a>. Marine algae can be divided into six groups: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a>, an informal group containing about 8,000 recognised species.<sup id="cite_ref-383" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-383"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>380<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many species live most of their lives as single cells or are filamentous, while others form <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonies</a> made up from long chains of cells, or are highly differentiated macroscopic seaweeds.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">red algae</a>, a (disputed) phylum containing about 7,000 recognised species,<sup id="cite_ref-algaetaxo_384-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-algaetaxo-384"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>381<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mostly <a href="/wiki/Multicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular">multicellular</a> and including many notable <a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">seaweeds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-algaetaxo_384-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-algaetaxo-384"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>381<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_02_385-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_02-385"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>382<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">brown algae</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a> containing about 2,000 recognised species,<sup id="cite_ref-386" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-386"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>383<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mostly <a href="/wiki/Multicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular">multicellular</a> and including many seaweeds, including <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">kelp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a>, a (disputed) phylum containing about 100,000 recognised species of mainly unicellular algae. Diatoms generate about 20 percent of the oxygen produced on the planet each year,<sup id="cite_ref-livescience.com_147-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-livescience.com-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> take in over 6.7 billion metric tons of <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> each year from the waters in which they live,<sup id="cite_ref-387" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-387"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>384<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and contribute nearly half of the organic material found in the oceans. The shells (<a href="/wiki/Frustule" title="Frustule">frustules</a>) of dead diatoms can reach as much as <a href="#Sediments_and_biogenic_ooze">half a mile deep on the ocean floor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-388" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-388"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>385<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a>, a phylum of unicellular flagellates with about 2,000 marine species.<sup id="cite_ref-Gómez12_389-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gómez12-389"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>386<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many dinoflagellates are known to be <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthetic</a>, but a large fraction of these are in fact <a href="/wiki/Mixotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixotrophy">mixotrophic</a>, combining photosynthesis with ingestion of prey (<a href="/wiki/Phagotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Phagotrophy">phagotrophy</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-390" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-390"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>387<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some species are <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbionts</a> of marine animals and play an important part in the biology of <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>. Others predate other protozoa, and a few forms are parasitic.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euglenophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Euglenophyte">euglenophytes</a>, a phylum of unicellular flagellates with only a few marine members</li></ul> <p>Unlike higher plants, algae lack roots, stems, or leaves. They can be classified by size as <i><a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">microalgae</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Macroalgae" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroalgae">macroalgae</a></i>. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">Microalgae</a></b> are the microscopic types of algae, not visible to the naked eye. They are mostly <a href="/wiki/Unicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicellular">unicellular</a> species which exist as individuals or in chains or groups, though some are <a href="/wiki/Multicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular">multicellular</a>. Microalgae are important components of the marine protists (<a href="#Marine_protists">discussed above</a>), as well as the phytoplankton (<a href="#Phytoplankton">discussed below</a>). They are very <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">diverse</a>. It has been estimated there are 200,000-800,000 species of which about 50,000 species have been described.<sup id="cite_ref-Starckx_2012_391-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Starckx_2012-391"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>388<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the species, their sizes range from a few micrometers (μm) to a few hundred micrometers. They are specially adapted to an environment dominated by viscous forces. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 132px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 130px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chlamydomonas_globosa_-_400x_(13263097835).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chlamydomonas globosa, a unicellular green alga with two flagella just visible at bottom left"><img alt="Chlamydomonas globosa, a unicellular green alga with two flagella just visible at bottom left" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Chlamydomonas_globosa_-_400x_%2813263097835%29.jpg/195px-Chlamydomonas_globosa_-_400x_%2813263097835%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Chlamydomonas_globosa_-_400x_%2813263097835%29.jpg/293px-Chlamydomonas_globosa_-_400x_%2813263097835%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Chlamydomonas_globosa_-_400x_%2813263097835%29.jpg/390px-Chlamydomonas_globosa_-_400x_%2813263097835%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Chlamydomonas globosa</i>, a unicellular green alga with two <a href="/wiki/Flagella" class="mw-redirect" title="Flagella">flagella</a> just visible at bottom left</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 197.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 195.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_Ophridium_versatile.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chlorella vulgaris, a common green microalgae, in endosymbiosis with a ciliate[389]"><img alt="Chlorella vulgaris, a common green microalgae, in endosymbiosis with a ciliate[389]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_Ophridium_versatile.jpg/293px-%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_Ophridium_versatile.jpg" decoding="async" width="196" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_Ophridium_versatile.jpg/440px-%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_Ophridium_versatile.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_Ophridium_versatile.jpg/585px-%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_Ophridium_versatile.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3543" data-file-height="2362" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Chlorella_vulgaris" title="Chlorella vulgaris">Chlorella vulgaris</a></i>, a common green <a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">microalgae</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiosis">endosymbiosis</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">ciliate</a><sup id="cite_ref-392" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-392"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>389<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 138.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 136.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Centric_diatom.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Centric diatom"><img alt="Centric diatom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Centric_diatom.jpg/205px-Centric_diatom.jpg" decoding="async" width="137" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Centric_diatom.jpg/308px-Centric_diatom.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Centric_diatom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="337" data-file-height="321" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Centric diatom</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 191.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 189.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dinoflagellates.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dinoflagellates"><img alt="Dinoflagellates" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Dinoflagellates.jpg/284px-Dinoflagellates.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Dinoflagellates.jpg/426px-Dinoflagellates.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Dinoflagellates.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="330" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Dinoflagellates</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Macroalgae" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroalgae">Macroalgae</a></b> are the larger, <a href="/wiki/Multicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular">multicellular</a> and more visible types of algae, commonly called <a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">seaweeds</a>. Seaweeds usually grow in shallow coastal waters where they are anchored to the seafloor by a <a href="/wiki/Holdfast_(biology)" title="Holdfast (biology)">holdfast</a>. Seaweed that becomes adrift can wash up on beaches. <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">Kelp</a> is a large brown seaweed that forms large underwater <a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">forests</a> covering about 25% of the world coastlines.<sup id="cite_ref-393" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-393"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>390<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are among the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Mann_1973_394-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mann_1973-394"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>391<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <i><a href="/wiki/Sargassum" title="Sargassum">Sargassum</a></i> seaweeds are planktonic (free-floating). Like microalgae, macroalgae (seaweeds) are technically <a href="#Marine_protists">marine protists</a> since they are not true plants. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 336px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 334px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Algae_Pengo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="A seaweed is a macroscopic form of red or brown or green algae."><img alt="A seaweed is a macroscopic form of red or brown or green algae." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Algae_Pengo.svg/501px-Algae_Pengo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="334" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Algae_Pengo.svg/751px-Algae_Pengo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Algae_Pengo.svg/1001px-Algae_Pengo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> A seaweed is a macroscopic form of <a href="/wiki/Red_alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Red alga">red</a> or <a href="/wiki/Brown_alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Brown alga">brown</a> or <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a>. </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 212px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sargassum_on_the_beach,_Cuba.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Sargassum seaweed is a planktonic brown alga with air bladders that help it float."><img alt="Sargassum seaweed is a planktonic brown alga with air bladders that help it float." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Sargassum_on_the_beach%2C_Cuba.JPG/315px-Sargassum_on_the_beach%2C_Cuba.JPG" decoding="async" width="210" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Sargassum_on_the_beach%2C_Cuba.JPG/473px-Sargassum_on_the_beach%2C_Cuba.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Sargassum_on_the_beach%2C_Cuba.JPG/630px-Sargassum_on_the_beach%2C_Cuba.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <i><a href="/wiki/Sargassum" title="Sargassum">Sargassum</a></i> seaweed is a planktonic brown alga with air bladders that help it float.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 193.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 191.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Histrio_histrio_by_A._H._Baldwin.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sargassum fish are camouflaged to live among drifting Sargassum seaweed."><img alt="Sargassum fish are camouflaged to live among drifting Sargassum seaweed." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Histrio_histrio_by_A._H._Baldwin.jpg/287px-Histrio_histrio_by_A._H._Baldwin.jpg" decoding="async" width="192" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Histrio_histrio_by_A._H._Baldwin.jpg/430px-Histrio_histrio_by_A._H._Baldwin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Histrio_histrio_by_A._H._Baldwin.jpg/574px-Histrio_histrio_by_A._H._Baldwin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3255" data-file-height="2383" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Sargassum_fish" title="Sargassum fish">Sargassum fish</a> are camouflaged to live among drifting <i>Sargassum</i> seaweed.</div> </li> </ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kelp_forest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Kelp_forest.jpg/220px-Kelp_forest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Kelp_forest.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="313" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forests</a> are among the most productive ecosystems on the planet.</figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Unicellular_macroalgae"></span> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerycaption">Unicellular macroalgae (see also <a href="#Macroscopic_protists">macroscopic protists ←</a>)</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 167.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 165.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ventricaria_ventricosa.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The unicellular bubble algae lives in tidal zones. It can have a 4 cm diameter.[392]"><img alt="The unicellular bubble algae lives in tidal zones. It can have a 4 cm diameter.[392]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Ventricaria_ventricosa.JPG/248px-Ventricaria_ventricosa.JPG" decoding="async" width="166" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Ventricaria_ventricosa.JPG/372px-Ventricaria_ventricosa.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Ventricaria_ventricosa.JPG/496px-Ventricaria_ventricosa.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1335" data-file-height="1131" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> The unicellular <a href="/wiki/Valonia_ventricosa" title="Valonia ventricosa">bubble algae</a> lives in <a href="/wiki/Tidal_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Tidal zone">tidal zones</a>. It can have a 4 cm diameter.<sup id="cite_ref-395" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-395"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>392<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 204px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 202px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Acetabularia_sp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The unicellular mermaid's wineglass are mushroom-shaped algae that grow up to 10 cm high."><img alt="The unicellular mermaid's wineglass are mushroom-shaped algae that grow up to 10 cm high." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Acetabularia_sp.jpg/303px-Acetabularia_sp.jpg" decoding="async" width="202" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Acetabularia_sp.jpg/454px-Acetabularia_sp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Acetabularia_sp.jpg/605px-Acetabularia_sp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2680" data-file-height="1860" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> The unicellular <a href="/wiki/Mermaid%27s_wineglass" class="mw-redirect" title="Mermaid's wineglass">mermaid's wineglass</a> are mushroom-shaped algae that grow up to 10 cm high.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 212.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CaulerpaTaxifolia.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Killer algae are single-celled organisms, but look like ferns and grow stalks up to 80 cm long.[393]"><img alt="Killer algae are single-celled organisms, but look like ferns and grow stalks up to 80 cm long.[393]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/CaulerpaTaxifolia.jpg/316px-CaulerpaTaxifolia.jpg" decoding="async" width="211" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/CaulerpaTaxifolia.jpg/474px-CaulerpaTaxifolia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/CaulerpaTaxifolia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="627" data-file-height="417" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Killer_algae" class="mw-redirect" title="Killer algae">Killer algae</a> are single-celled organisms, but look like ferns and grow stalks up to 80 cm long.<sup id="cite_ref-396" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-396"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>393<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <p>Unicellular organisms are usually microscopic, less than one tenth of a millimeter long. There are exceptions. <a href="/wiki/Mermaid%27s_wineglass" class="mw-redirect" title="Mermaid's wineglass">Mermaid's wineglass</a>, a genus of subtropical <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a>, is single-celled but remarkably large and complex in form with a single large nucleus, making it a model organism for studying <a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">cell biology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-397" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-397"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>394<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another single celled algae, <i><a href="/wiki/Caulerpa_taxifolia" title="Caulerpa taxifolia">Caulerpa taxifolia</a></i>, has the appearance of a vascular plant including "leaves" arranged neatly up stalks like a fern. Selective breeding in aquariums to produce hardier strains resulted in an accidental release into the Mediterranean where it has become an <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a> known colloquially as <i>killer algae</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-398" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-398"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>395<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin_of_plants">Origin of plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Origin of plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evolution_of_seagrasses_Pengo_8.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Evolution_of_seagrasses_Pengo_8.png/220px-Evolution_of_seagrasses_Pengo_8.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Evolution_of_seagrasses_Pengo_8.png/330px-Evolution_of_seagrasses_Pengo_8.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Evolution_of_seagrasses_Pengo_8.png/440px-Evolution_of_seagrasses_Pengo_8.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="973" /></a><figcaption>Evolution of mangroves and seagrasses</figcaption></figure> <p>Back in the <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a>, some phytoplankton evolved into <a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">red</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">brown</a> and <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a>. These algae then invaded the land and started evolving into the land plants we know today. Later, in the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>, some of these land plants returned to the sea as marine plants, such as <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangroves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">seagrasses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-399" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-399"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>396<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Marine plants can be found in <a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">intertidal zones</a> and shallow waters, such as <a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">seagrasses</a> like <a href="/wiki/Zostera" title="Zostera">eelgrass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turtle_grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Turtle grass">turtle grass</a>, <i>Thalassia</i>. These plants have adapted to the high salinity of the ocean environment. Plant life can also flourish in the brackish waters of <a href="/wiki/Estuaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Estuaries">estuaries</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Mangroves" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangroves">mangroves</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cordgrass" class="mw-redirect" title="Cordgrass">cordgrass</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ammophila_(Poaceae)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammophila (Poaceae)">beach grass</a> <a href="/wiki/Beach_grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Beach grass">beach grass</a> might grow. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mangrove-Keti_Bundar.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mangroves"><img alt="Mangroves" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Mangrove-Keti_Bundar.jpg/120px-Mangrove-Keti_Bundar.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Mangrove-Keti_Bundar.jpg/180px-Mangrove-Keti_Bundar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Mangrove-Keti_Bundar.jpg/240px-Mangrove-Keti_Bundar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="690" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangroves</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Floridian_seagrass_bed.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seagrass meadow"><img alt="Seagrass meadow" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Floridian_seagrass_bed.jpg/120px-Floridian_seagrass_bed.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Floridian_seagrass_bed.jpg/180px-Floridian_seagrass_bed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Floridian_seagrass_bed.jpg/240px-Floridian_seagrass_bed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="267" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadow</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Leafy_Sea_Dragon_SA.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sea dragons camouflaged to look like floating seaweed live in kelp forests and seagrass meadows.[397]"><img alt="Sea dragons camouflaged to look like floating seaweed live in kelp forests and seagrass meadows.[397]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Leafy_Sea_Dragon_SA.jpg/120px-Leafy_Sea_Dragon_SA.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Leafy_Sea_Dragon_SA.jpg/180px-Leafy_Sea_Dragon_SA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Leafy_Sea_Dragon_SA.jpg/240px-Leafy_Sea_Dragon_SA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3329" data-file-height="2325" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Leafy_sea_dragon" class="mw-redirect" title="Leafy sea dragon">Sea dragons</a> camouflaged to look like floating seaweed live in kelp forests and seagrass meadows.<sup id="cite_ref-400" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-400"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>397<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>The total world area of mangrove forests was estimated in 2010 as 134,257 square kilometres (51,837 sq mi) (based on satellite data).<sup id="cite_ref-401" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-401"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>398<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-402" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-402"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>399<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The total world area of seagrass meadows is more difficult to determine, but was conservatively estimated in 2003 as 177,000 square kilometres (68,000 sq mi).<sup id="cite_ref-403" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-403"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>400<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mangroves and seagrasses provide important nursery habitats for marine life, acting as hiding and foraging places for larval and juvenile forms of larger fish and invertebrates.<sup id="cite_ref-404" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-404"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>401<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plankton_and_trophic_interactions">Plankton and trophic interactions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Plankton and trophic interactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plankton_collage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Six relatively large variously shaped organisms with dozens of small light-colored dots all against a dark background. Some of the organisms have antennae that are longer than their bodies." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Plankton_collage.jpg/260px-Plankton_collage.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Plankton_collage.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="369" data-file-height="296" /></a><figcaption> Plankton are drifting or floating organisms that cannot swim against a current, and include organisms from most areas of life: <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacterioplankton" title="Bacterioplankton">Bacterioplankton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ichthyoplankton" title="Ichthyoplankton">Ichthyoplankton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mycoplankton" title="Mycoplankton">Mycoplankton</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a> (from Greek for <i>wanderers</i>) are a diverse group of organisms that live in the <a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">water column</a> of large bodies of water but cannot swim against a current. As a result, they wander or drift with the currents.<sup id="cite_ref-405" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-405"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>402<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plankton are defined by their <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">ecological niche</a>, not by any <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomic</a> classification. They are a crucial source of food for many marine animals, from <a href="/wiki/Forage_fish" title="Forage fish">forage fish</a> to <a href="/wiki/Whale" title="Whale">whales</a>. Plankton can be divided into a plant-like component and an animal component. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Phytoplankton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a> are the plant-like components of the plankton community ("phyto" comes from the Greek for <i>plant</i>). They are <a href="/wiki/Autotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Autotrophic">autotrophic</a> (self-feeding), meaning they generate their own food and do not need to consume other organisms. </p><p>Phytoplankton consist mainly of microscopic photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> which inhabit the upper sunlit layer in all oceans. They need sunlight so they can photosynthesize. Most phytoplankton are single-celled algae, but other phytoplankton are bacteria and some are <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-406" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-406"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>403<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phytoplankton groups include <a href="#Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria (above)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a>, various other types of <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> (red, green, brown, and yellow-green), <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euglenid" title="Euglenid">euglenoids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophorid" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccolithophorid">coccolithophorids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cryptomonad" title="Cryptomonad">cryptomonads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chrysophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysophyte">chrysophytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorophyte">chlorophytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prasinophyte" title="Prasinophyte">prasinophytes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Silicoflagellate" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicoflagellate">silicoflagellates</a>. They form the base of the <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary production</a> that drives the ocean <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food web</a>, and account for half of the current global primary production, more than the terrestrial forests.<sup id="cite_ref-407" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-407"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>404<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:248px;max-width:248px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Coccolithophores</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:109px;max-width:109px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:9Calcidiscus_leptoporus,_diploid,_SEM,_showing_coccoliths.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/9Calcidiscus_leptoporus%2C_diploid%2C_SEM%2C_showing_coccoliths.tif/lossy-page1-107px-9Calcidiscus_leptoporus%2C_diploid%2C_SEM%2C_showing_coccoliths.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="107" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/9Calcidiscus_leptoporus%2C_diploid%2C_SEM%2C_showing_coccoliths.tif/lossy-page1-161px-9Calcidiscus_leptoporus%2C_diploid%2C_SEM%2C_showing_coccoliths.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/9Calcidiscus_leptoporus%2C_diploid%2C_SEM%2C_showing_coccoliths.tif/lossy-page1-214px-9Calcidiscus_leptoporus%2C_diploid%2C_SEM%2C_showing_coccoliths.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="755" data-file-height="765" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">...have plates called <a href="/wiki/Coccolith" title="Coccolith">coccoliths</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:135px;max-width:135px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Discoaster_surculus_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Discoaster_surculus_01.jpg/133px-Discoaster_surculus_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="133" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Discoaster_surculus_01.jpg/200px-Discoaster_surculus_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Discoaster_surculus_01.jpg/266px-Discoaster_surculus_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3430" data-file-height="2770" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">...extinct fossil</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">Coccolithophores</a> build calcite skeletons important to the marine carbon cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-408" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-408"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>405<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerycaption">Phytoplankton</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 164.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 162.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Phytoplankton are the foundation of the ocean food chain."><img alt="Phytoplankton are the foundation of the ocean food chain." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg/244px-Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg" decoding="async" width="163" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg/366px-Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg/488px-Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Phytoplankton are the foundation of the ocean food chain.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 104px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 102px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Phytopla.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Phytoplankton come in many shapes and sizes."><img alt="Phytoplankton come in many shapes and sizes." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Phytopla.jpg/153px-Phytopla.jpg" decoding="async" width="102" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Phytopla.jpg/230px-Phytopla.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Phytopla.jpg/306px-Phytopla.jpg 2x" data-file-width="599" data-file-height="764" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Phytoplankton come in many shapes and sizes.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 203.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Diatoms_(248_05)_Various_diatoms.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Diatoms are one of the most common types of phytoplankton."><img alt="Diatoms are one of the most common types of phytoplankton." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Diatoms_%28248_05%29_Various_diatoms.jpg/305px-Diatoms_%28248_05%29_Various_diatoms.jpg" decoding="async" width="204" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Diatoms_%28248_05%29_Various_diatoms.jpg/458px-Diatoms_%28248_05%29_Various_diatoms.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Diatoms_%28248_05%29_Various_diatoms.jpg/610px-Diatoms_%28248_05%29_Various_diatoms.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3751" data-file-height="2400" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">Diatoms</a> are one of the most common types of phytoplankton.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 160.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 158.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Phytoplankton_-_the_foundation_of_the_oceanic_food_chain.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Colonial phytoplankton"><img alt="Colonial phytoplankton" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Phytoplankton_-_the_foundation_of_the_oceanic_food_chain.jpg/238px-Phytoplankton_-_the_foundation_of_the_oceanic_food_chain.jpg" decoding="async" width="159" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Phytoplankton_-_the_foundation_of_the_oceanic_food_chain.jpg/358px-Phytoplankton_-_the_foundation_of_the_oceanic_food_chain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Phytoplankton_-_the_foundation_of_the_oceanic_food_chain.jpg/477px-Phytoplankton_-_the_foundation_of_the_oceanic_food_chain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3265" data-file-height="2671" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">Colonial</a> phytoplankton</div> </li> </ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 176px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 174px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Prochlorococcus_marinus_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus accounts for much of the ocean's primary production."><img alt="The cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus accounts for much of the ocean's primary production." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Prochlorococcus_marinus_2.jpg/261px-Prochlorococcus_marinus_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="174" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Prochlorococcus_marinus_2.jpg/393px-Prochlorococcus_marinus_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Prochlorococcus_marinus_2.jpg/522px-Prochlorococcus_marinus_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4285" data-file-height="3200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> The cyanobacterium <i><a href="/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i> accounts for much of the ocean's primary production.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 173.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyanobacterial_Scum.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Green cyanobacteria scum washed up on a rock in California"><img alt="Green cyanobacteria scum washed up on a rock in California" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Cyanobacterial_Scum.JPG/260px-Cyanobacterial_Scum.JPG" decoding="async" width="174" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Cyanobacterial_Scum.JPG/391px-Cyanobacterial_Scum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Cyanobacterial_Scum.JPG/520px-Cyanobacterial_Scum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Green <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> scum washed up on a rock in California</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 132px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 130px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gyrodinium_dinoflagellate.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gyrodinium, one of the few naked dinoflagellates which lack armour"><img alt="Gyrodinium, one of the few naked dinoflagellates which lack armour" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Gyrodinium_dinoflagellate.jpg/195px-Gyrodinium_dinoflagellate.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Gyrodinium_dinoflagellate.jpg/292px-Gyrodinium_dinoflagellate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Gyrodinium_dinoflagellate.jpg/389px-Gyrodinium_dinoflagellate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1602" data-file-height="1605" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <i><a href="/wiki/Gymnodinium" title="Gymnodinium">Gyrodinium</a></i>, one of the few naked dinoflagellates which lack armour</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 132px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 130px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stichotricha_secunda_-_400x_(14974779356).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Zoochlorellae (green) living inside the ciliate Stichotricha secunda"><img alt="Zoochlorellae (green) living inside the ciliate Stichotricha secunda" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Stichotricha_secunda_-_400x_%2814974779356%29.jpg/195px-Stichotricha_secunda_-_400x_%2814974779356%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Stichotricha_secunda_-_400x_%2814974779356%29.jpg/293px-Stichotricha_secunda_-_400x_%2814974779356%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Stichotricha_secunda_-_400x_%2814974779356%29.jpg/390px-Stichotricha_secunda_-_400x_%2814974779356%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1900" data-file-height="1900" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Zoochlorellae" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoochlorellae">Zoochlorellae</a> (green) living inside the <a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">ciliate</a> <i>Stichotricha secunda</i></div> </li> </ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pinnularia_major.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Pinnularia_major.jpg/220px-Pinnularia_major.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Pinnularia_major.jpg/330px-Pinnularia_major.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Pinnularia_major.jpg/440px-Pinnularia_major.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3543" data-file-height="2362" /></a><figcaption>There are over 100,000 species of <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a> which account for 50% of the ocean's primary production.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Super_Blooms.ogv/220px--Super_Blooms.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="62" data-mwtitle="Super_Blooms.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Super_Blooms.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a4/Super_Blooms.ogv/Super_Blooms.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Super_Blooms.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="960" data-height="540" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a4/Super_Blooms.ogv/Super_Blooms.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a4/Super_Blooms.ogv/Super_Blooms.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a4/Super_Blooms.ogv/Super_Blooms.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Red, orange, yellow and green represent areas where algal blooms abound. Blue areas represent nutrient-poor zones where phytoplankton exist in lower concentrations.</figcaption></figure> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 133.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 131.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:JRYSEM-247-05-azurapl.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coccolithophores named after the BBC documentary series. The Blue Planet"><img alt="Coccolithophores named after the BBC documentary series. The Blue Planet" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/JRYSEM-247-05-azurapl.jpg/197px-JRYSEM-247-05-azurapl.jpg" decoding="async" width="132" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/JRYSEM-247-05-azurapl.jpg/296px-JRYSEM-247-05-azurapl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/JRYSEM-247-05-azurapl.jpg/394px-JRYSEM-247-05-azurapl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="990" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Syracosphaera_azureaplaneta" title="Syracosphaera azureaplaneta">Coccolithophores</a> named after the BBC documentary series. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Blue_Planet" title="The Blue Planet">The Blue Planet</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 140.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 138.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emiliania_huxleyi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi"><img alt="The coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Emiliania_huxleyi.jpg/208px-Emiliania_huxleyi.jpg" decoding="async" width="139" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Emiliania_huxleyi.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="311" data-file-height="291" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> The <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">coccolithophore</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Emiliania_huxleyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Emiliania huxleyi">Emiliania huxleyi</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 164.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 162.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cwall99_lg.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Algae bloom of Emiliania huxleyi off the southern coast of England"><img alt="Algae bloom of Emiliania huxleyi off the southern coast of England" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Cwall99_lg.jpg/244px-Cwall99_lg.jpg" decoding="async" width="163" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Cwall99_lg.jpg/366px-Cwall99_lg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Cwall99_lg.jpg/488px-Cwall99_lg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Algae_bloom" class="mw-redirect" title="Algae bloom">Algae bloom</a> of <i>Emiliania huxleyi</i> off the southern coast of England</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 173.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fjouenne_sbrmvr012w_20070924163039_small.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Guinardia delicatula, a diatom responsible for algal blooms in the North Sea and the English Channel[406]"><img alt="Guinardia delicatula, a diatom responsible for algal blooms in the North Sea and the English Channel[406]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Fjouenne_sbrmvr012w_20070924163039_small.jpg/260px-Fjouenne_sbrmvr012w_20070924163039_small.jpg" decoding="async" width="174" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Fjouenne_sbrmvr012w_20070924163039_small.jpg/391px-Fjouenne_sbrmvr012w_20070924163039_small.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Fjouenne_sbrmvr012w_20070924163039_small.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <i>Guinardia delicatula</i>, a diatom responsible for <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">algal blooms</a> in the North Sea and the English Channel<sup id="cite_ref-409" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-409"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>406<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Zooplankton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:328px;max-width:328px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="text-align:center">Radiolarians</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Haeckel_Phaeodaria_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Haeckel_Phaeodaria_1.jpg/160px-Haeckel_Phaeodaria_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Haeckel_Phaeodaria_1.jpg/240px-Haeckel_Phaeodaria_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Haeckel_Phaeodaria_1.jpg/320px-Haeckel_Phaeodaria_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2320" data-file-height="3284" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Haeckel_Stephoidea_edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Haeckel_Stephoidea_edit.jpg/160px-Haeckel_Stephoidea_edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Haeckel_Stephoidea_edit.jpg/240px-Haeckel_Stephoidea_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Haeckel_Stephoidea_edit.jpg/320px-Haeckel_Stephoidea_edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1973" data-file-height="2800" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center">Drawings by <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Haeckel</a> 1904</div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a> are the animal component of the planktonic community ("zoo" comes from the Greek for <i>animal</i>). They are <a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterotrophic">heterotrophic</a> (other-feeding), meaning they cannot produce their own food and must consume instead other plants or animals as food. In particular, this means they eat phytoplankton. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:248px;max-width:248px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Foraminiferans</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:138px;max-width:138px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Foram-globigerina_hg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Foram-globigerina_hg.jpg/136px-Foram-globigerina_hg.jpg" decoding="async" width="136" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Foram-globigerina_hg.jpg/204px-Foram-globigerina_hg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Foram-globigerina_hg.jpg/272px-Foram-globigerina_hg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2072" data-file-height="2100" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">...can have more than one nucleus</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:106px;max-width:106px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:G_bulloides_Brady_1884.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/G_bulloides_Brady_1884.jpg/104px-G_bulloides_Brady_1884.jpg" decoding="async" width="104" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/G_bulloides_Brady_1884.jpg/156px-G_bulloides_Brady_1884.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/G_bulloides_Brady_1884.jpg/208px-G_bulloides_Brady_1884.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1032" data-file-height="1374" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">...and defensive spines</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Foraminiferans are important unicellular zooplankton <a href="#Marine_protists">protists</a>, with calcium shells.</div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:327px;max-width:327px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Turing and radiolarian morphology</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:210px;max-width:210px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spherical_radiolarian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Spherical_radiolarian.jpg/208px-Spherical_radiolarian.jpg" decoding="async" width="208" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Spherical_radiolarian.jpg/312px-Spherical_radiolarian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Spherical_radiolarian.jpg/416px-Spherical_radiolarian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="700" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Shell of a spherical radiolarian</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:113px;max-width:113px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Radiolarians_-_Actinomma_sol_(33732012006).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Radiolarians_-_Actinomma_sol_%2833732012006%29.jpg/111px-Radiolarians_-_Actinomma_sol_%2833732012006%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="111" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Radiolarians_-_Actinomma_sol_%2833732012006%29.jpg/167px-Radiolarians_-_Actinomma_sol_%2833732012006%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Radiolarians_-_Actinomma_sol_%2833732012006%29.jpg/222px-Radiolarians_-_Actinomma_sol_%2833732012006%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="3200" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Shell micrographs</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Computer simulations of <a href="/wiki/Turing_pattern" title="Turing pattern">Turing patterns</a> on a sphere closely replicate some radiolarian shell patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-410" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-410"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>407<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div> <p>Zooplankton are generally larger than phytoplankton, mostly still microscopic but some can be seen with the naked eye. Many <a href="/wiki/Protozoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Protozoan">protozoans</a> (single-celled <a href="#Marine_protists">protists</a> that prey on other microscopic life) are zooplankton, including <a href="/wiki/Zooflagellate" title="Zooflagellate">zooflagellates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminiferans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiolarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiolarian">radiolarians</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a>. Other dinoflagellates are <a href="/wiki/Mixotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixotrophic">mixotrophic</a> and could also be classified as phytoplankton; the distinction between plants and animals often breaks down in very small organisms. Other zooplankton include pelagic <a href="/wiki/Cnidarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnidarian">cnidarians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ctenophora_(phylum)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ctenophora (phylum)">ctenophores</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mollusc" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusc">molluscs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tunicate" title="Tunicate">tunicates</a>, as well as planktonic <a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">arrow worms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polychaete" title="Polychaete">bristle worms</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Radiolarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiolarian">Radiolarians</a> are unicellular <a href="#Marine_protists">protists</a> with elaborate silica shells </p> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <p><b>Microzooplankton: major grazers of the plankton</b> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 146px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 144px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mikrofoto.de-Radiolarien_6.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Radiolarians come in many shapes."><img alt="Radiolarians come in many shapes." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Mikrofoto.de-Radiolarien_6.jpg/216px-Mikrofoto.de-Radiolarien_6.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Mikrofoto.de-Radiolarien_6.jpg/324px-Mikrofoto.de-Radiolarien_6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Mikrofoto.de-Radiolarien_6.jpg/432px-Mikrofoto.de-Radiolarien_6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="667" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Radiolarians come in many shapes.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 146px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 144px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Planktic_Foraminifera_of_the_northern_Gulf_of_Mexico.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Group of planktic foraminiferans"><img alt="Group of planktic foraminiferans" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Planktic_Foraminifera_of_the_northern_Gulf_of_Mexico.jpg/216px-Planktic_Foraminifera_of_the_northern_Gulf_of_Mexico.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Planktic_Foraminifera_of_the_northern_Gulf_of_Mexico.jpg/324px-Planktic_Foraminifera_of_the_northern_Gulf_of_Mexico.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Planktic_Foraminifera_of_the_northern_Gulf_of_Mexico.jpg/432px-Planktic_Foraminifera_of_the_northern_Gulf_of_Mexico.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1501" data-file-height="1501" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Group of planktic <a href="/wiki/Foraminiferan" class="mw-redirect" title="Foraminiferan">foraminiferans</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 146px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 144px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Copepod_2_with_eggs.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Copepods eat phytoplankton. This one is carrying eggs."><img alt="Copepods eat phytoplankton. This one is carrying eggs." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Copepod_2_with_eggs.jpg/216px-Copepod_2_with_eggs.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Copepod_2_with_eggs.jpg/324px-Copepod_2_with_eggs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Copepod_2_with_eggs.jpg/432px-Copepod_2_with_eggs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="3600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">Copepods</a> eat phytoplankton. This one is carrying eggs.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 146px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 144px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Protoperidinium_dinoflagellate.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The dinoflagellate, Protoperidinium extrudes a large feeding veil to capture prey."><img alt="The dinoflagellate, Protoperidinium extrudes a large feeding veil to capture prey." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Protoperidinium_dinoflagellate.jpg/216px-Protoperidinium_dinoflagellate.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Protoperidinium_dinoflagellate.jpg/324px-Protoperidinium_dinoflagellate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Protoperidinium_dinoflagellate.jpg/432px-Protoperidinium_dinoflagellate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="1250" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> The dinoflagellate, <i>Protoperidinium</i> extrudes a large feeding veil to capture prey.</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>Larger zooplankton can be predatory on smaller zooplankton. </p><p><b>Macrozooplankton</b> </p> <hr /> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 218px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 216px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aurelia_aurita_(Cnidaria)_Luc_Viatour.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Moon jellyfish"><img alt="Moon jellyfish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Aurelia_aurita_%28Cnidaria%29_Luc_Viatour.jpg/324px-Aurelia_aurita_%28Cnidaria%29_Luc_Viatour.jpg" decoding="async" width="216" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Aurelia_aurita_%28Cnidaria%29_Luc_Viatour.jpg/486px-Aurelia_aurita_%28Cnidaria%29_Luc_Viatour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Aurelia_aurita_%28Cnidaria%29_Luc_Viatour.jpg/648px-Aurelia_aurita_%28Cnidaria%29_Luc_Viatour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3419" data-file-height="2279" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Moon_jellyfish" class="mw-redirect" title="Moon jellyfish">Moon jellyfish</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 158.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 156.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cestum_veneris_in_Hawaii.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Venus girdle, a ctenophore"><img alt="Venus girdle, a ctenophore" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Cestum_veneris_in_Hawaii.png/235px-Cestum_veneris_in_Hawaii.png" decoding="async" width="157" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Cestum_veneris_in_Hawaii.png/352px-Cestum_veneris_in_Hawaii.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Cestum_veneris_in_Hawaii.png/469px-Cestum_veneris_in_Hawaii.png 2x" data-file-width="646" data-file-height="595" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Venus_girdle" title="Venus girdle">Venus girdle</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Ctenophore" class="mw-redirect" title="Ctenophore">ctenophore</a> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 146px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 144px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chaetoblack_2.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Arrow worm"><img alt="Arrow worm" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Chaetoblack_2.png/216px-Chaetoblack_2.png" decoding="async" width="144" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Chaetoblack_2.png/324px-Chaetoblack_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Chaetoblack_2.png/432px-Chaetoblack_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Arrow_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrow worm">Arrow worm</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 214px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 212px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomopteriskils.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tomopteris, a planktonic segmented worm with unusual yellow bioluminescence[408]"><img alt="Tomopteris, a planktonic segmented worm with unusual yellow bioluminescence[408]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Tomopteriskils.jpg/318px-Tomopteriskils.jpg" decoding="async" width="212" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Tomopteriskils.jpg/476px-Tomopteriskils.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Tomopteriskils.jpg/635px-Tomopteriskils.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1061" data-file-height="722" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Tomopteris" title="Tomopteris">Tomopteris</a></i>, a planktonic segmented worm with unusual yellow <a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">bioluminescence</a><sup id="cite_ref-411" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-411"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>408<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 130.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 128.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amphipodredkils.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Marine amphipod"><img alt="Marine amphipod" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Amphipodredkils.jpg/193px-Amphipodredkils.jpg" decoding="async" width="129" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Amphipodredkils.jpg/289px-Amphipodredkils.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Amphipodredkils.jpg/385px-Amphipodredkils.jpg 2x" data-file-width="757" data-file-height="849" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Marine <a href="/wiki/Amphipod" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphipod">amphipod</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 214px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 212px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_krill_(Euphausia_superba).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Krill"><img alt="Krill" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Antarctic_krill_%28Euphausia_superba%29.jpg/318px-Antarctic_krill_%28Euphausia_superba%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="212" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Antarctic_krill_%28Euphausia_superba%29.jpg/477px-Antarctic_krill_%28Euphausia_superba%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Antarctic_krill_%28Euphausia_superba%29.jpg/636px-Antarctic_krill_%28Euphausia_superba%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1869" data-file-height="1269" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Krill" title="Krill">Krill</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 146px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 144px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Enypniastes_sp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pelagic sea cucumber"><img alt="Pelagic sea cucumber" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Enypniastes_sp.jpg/216px-Enypniastes_sp.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Enypniastes_sp.jpg/324px-Enypniastes_sp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Enypniastes_sp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Pelagic sea cucumber</div> </li> </ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 180px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lZEQJnMAlS0">Venus Girdle</a> - <i>Youtube</i></td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <p>Many marine animals begin life as zooplankton in the form of eggs or larvae, before they develop into adults. These are <a href="/wiki/Meroplanktic" class="mw-redirect" title="Meroplanktic">meroplanktic</a>, that is, they are planktonic for only part of their life. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerycaption">Larvae and juveniles</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 132px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 130px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Salmonlarvakils_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Salmon larva hatching from its egg"><img alt="Salmon larva hatching from its egg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Salmonlarvakils_2.jpg/195px-Salmonlarvakils_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Salmonlarvakils_2.jpg/293px-Salmonlarvakils_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Salmonlarvakils_2.jpg/390px-Salmonlarvakils_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1820" data-file-height="1820" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Salmon larva hatching from its egg</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 132.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 130.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Molalavdj.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ocean sunfish larva"><img alt="Ocean sunfish larva" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Molalavdj.jpg/196px-Molalavdj.jpg" decoding="async" width="131" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Molalavdj.jpg/294px-Molalavdj.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Molalavdj.jpg/392px-Molalavdj.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="398" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_sunfish" title="Ocean sunfish">Ocean sunfish</a> larva</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 123.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Squidu.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Juvenile planktonic squid"><img alt="Juvenile planktonic squid" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Squidu.jpg/185px-Squidu.jpg" decoding="async" width="124" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Squidu.jpg/278px-Squidu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Squidu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="326" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Juvenile planktonic <a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">squid</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 196.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 194.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Larva_de_phyllosoma.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Larva stage of a spiny lobster"><img alt="Larva stage of a spiny lobster" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Larva_de_phyllosoma.jpg/292px-Larva_de_phyllosoma.jpg" decoding="async" width="195" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Larva_de_phyllosoma.jpg/439px-Larva_de_phyllosoma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Larva_de_phyllosoma.jpg/584px-Larva_de_phyllosoma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="401" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Phyllosoma" title="Phyllosoma">Larva stage</a> of a spiny lobster</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mixotrophic_plankton">Mixotrophic plankton</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Mixotrophic plankton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:304px;max-width:304px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dinoflagellate_lumincescence_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Dinoflagellate_lumincescence_2.jpg/300px-Dinoflagellate_lumincescence_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Dinoflagellate_lumincescence_2.jpg/450px-Dinoflagellate_lumincescence_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Dinoflagellate_lumincescence_2.jpg/600px-Dinoflagellate_lumincescence_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="365" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A <a href="/wiki/Surf_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Surf wave">surf wave</a> at night sparkles with blue light due to the presence of a bioluminescent dinoflagellate, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Lingulodinium_polyedrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingulodinium polyedrum">Lingulodinium polyedrum</a></i></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Potential_Mechanism_for_Dazzling_Blue_Flashes_of_Light_in_Oceans_Identified_(6300345394).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Potential_Mechanism_for_Dazzling_Blue_Flashes_of_Light_in_Oceans_Identified_%286300345394%29.jpg/300px-Potential_Mechanism_for_Dazzling_Blue_Flashes_of_Light_in_Oceans_Identified_%286300345394%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Potential_Mechanism_for_Dazzling_Blue_Flashes_of_Light_in_Oceans_Identified_%286300345394%29.jpg/450px-Potential_Mechanism_for_Dazzling_Blue_Flashes_of_Light_in_Oceans_Identified_%286300345394%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Potential_Mechanism_for_Dazzling_Blue_Flashes_of_Light_in_Oceans_Identified_%286300345394%29.jpg/600px-Potential_Mechanism_for_Dazzling_Blue_Flashes_of_Light_in_Oceans_Identified_%286300345394%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1907" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A suggested explanation for glowing seas<sup id="cite_ref-412" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-412"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>409<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mixotrophic_dinoflagellate" title="Mixotrophic dinoflagellate">Mixotrophic dinoflagellate</a></div> <p>Dinoflagellates are often <a href="/wiki/Mixotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixotrophic">mixotrophic</a> or live in <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a> with other organisms. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerycaption">Mixoplankton</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 146px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 144px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tintinnid_ciliate_Favella.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tintinnid ciliate Favella"><img alt="Tintinnid ciliate Favella" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Tintinnid_ciliate_Favella.jpg/216px-Tintinnid_ciliate_Favella.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Tintinnid_ciliate_Favella.jpg/324px-Tintinnid_ciliate_Favella.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Tintinnid_ciliate_Favella.jpg/432px-Tintinnid_ciliate_Favella.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2400" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Tintinnid" title="Tintinnid">Tintinnid</a> ciliate <i>Favella</i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 145.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 143.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Euglena_mutabilis_-_400x_-_1_(10388739803)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Euglena mutabilis, a photosynthetic flagellate"><img alt="Euglena mutabilis, a photosynthetic flagellate" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Euglena_mutabilis_-_400x_-_1_%2810388739803%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/215px-Euglena_mutabilis_-_400x_-_1_%2810388739803%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Euglena_mutabilis_-_400x_-_1_%2810388739803%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/323px-Euglena_mutabilis_-_400x_-_1_%2810388739803%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Euglena_mutabilis_-_400x_-_1_%2810388739803%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/431px-Euglena_mutabilis_-_400x_-_1_%2810388739803%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="669" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Euglena" title="Euglena">Euglena mutabilis</a></i>, a photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Flagellate" title="Flagellate">flagellate</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 132.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 130.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Noctiluca_scintillans_unica.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Noctiluca scintillans, a bioluminescence dinoflagellate"><img alt="Noctiluca scintillans, a bioluminescence dinoflagellate" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Noctiluca_scintillans_unica.jpg/196px-Noctiluca_scintillans_unica.jpg" decoding="async" width="131" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Noctiluca_scintillans_unica.jpg/294px-Noctiluca_scintillans_unica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Noctiluca_scintillans_unica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="318" data-file-height="350" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <i><a href="/wiki/Noctiluca_scintillans" title="Noctiluca scintillans">Noctiluca scintillans</a></i>, a bioluminescence dinoflagellate</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <p>Some dinoflagellates are <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate#Bioluminescence" title="Dinoflagellate">bioluminescent</a>. At night, ocean water can light up internally and <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate#Bioluminescence" title="Dinoflagellate">sparkle with blue light</a> because of these dinoflagellates.<sup id="cite_ref-413" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-413"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>410<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-414" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-414"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>411<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bioluminescent dinoflagellates possess <a href="/wiki/Scintillons" class="mw-redirect" title="Scintillons">scintillons</a>, individual <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasmic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytoplasmic">cytoplasmic</a> bodies which contain <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate_luciferase" title="Dinoflagellate luciferase">dinoflagellate luciferase</a>, the main enzyme involved in the luminescence. The luminescence, sometimes called <i>the phosphorescence of the sea</i>, occurs as brief (0.1 sec) blue flashes or sparks when individual scintillons are stimulated, usually by mechanical disturbances from, for example, a boat or a swimmer or surf.<sup id="cite_ref-Haddock_2009_415-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haddock_2009-415"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>412<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_food_web">Marine food web</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Marine food web"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food web</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oceanic_Food_Web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Oceanic_Food_Web.jpg/310px-Oceanic_Food_Web.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Oceanic_Food_Web.jpg/465px-Oceanic_Food_Web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Oceanic_Food_Web.jpg/620px-Oceanic_Food_Web.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1016" /></a><figcaption>Pelagic <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food web</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Compared to terrestrial environments, marine environments have biomass pyramids which are inverted at the base. In particular, the biomass of consumers (copepods, krill, shrimp, forage fish) is larger than the biomass of primary producers. This happens because the ocean's primary producers are tiny phytoplankton which tend to be <a href="/wiki/R-strategists" class="mw-redirect" title="R-strategists">r-strategists</a> that grow and reproduce rapidly, so a small mass can have a fast rate of primary production. In contrast, terrestrial primary producers, such as mature forests, are often <a href="/wiki/K-strategists" class="mw-redirect" title="K-strategists">K-strategists</a> that grow and reproduce slowly, so a much larger mass is needed to achieve the same rate of primary production. </p><p>Because of this inversion, it is the zooplankton that make up most of the marine animal <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a>. As <a href="/wiki/Primary_consumer" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary consumer">primary consumers</a>, they are the crucial link between the primary producers (mainly phytoplankton) and the rest of the marine food web (<a href="/wiki/Secondary_consumer" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary consumer">secondary consumers</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-416" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-416"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>413<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If phytoplankton dies before it is eaten, it descends through the <a href="/wiki/Euphotic_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphotic zone">euphotic zone</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">marine snow</a> and settles into the depths of sea. In this way, phytoplankton sequester about 2 billion tons of carbon dioxide into the ocean each year, causing the ocean to become a sink of carbon dioxide holding about 90% of all sequestered carbon.<sup id="cite_ref-EarthTimes_417-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EarthTimes-417"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>414<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2010 researchers found whales carry nutrients from the depths of the ocean back to the surface using a process they called the <a href="/wiki/Whale_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Whale pump">whale pump</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Roman_2010_418-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roman_2010-418"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>415<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whales feed at deeper levels in the ocean where <a href="/wiki/Krill" title="Krill">krill</a> is found, but return regularly to the surface to breathe. There whales <a href="/wiki/Whale_faeces" class="mw-redirect" title="Whale faeces">defecate a liquid</a> rich in nitrogen and iron. Instead of sinking, the liquid stays at the surface where <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> consume it. In the Gulf of Maine the whale pump provides more nitrogen than the rivers.<sup id="cite_ref-ScienceDaily_419-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ScienceDaily-419"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>416<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_interactions">Other interactions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Other interactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biogeochemical_cycles">Biogeochemical cycles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Biogeochemical cycles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:364px;max-width:364px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Marine biogeochemical cycles</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:362px;max-width:362px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth_Pacific_jul_30_2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Earth_Pacific_jul_30_2010.jpg/360px-Earth_Pacific_jul_30_2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="360" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Earth_Pacific_jul_30_2010.jpg/540px-Earth_Pacific_jul_30_2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Earth_Pacific_jul_30_2010.jpg/720px-Earth_Pacific_jul_30_2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2732" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The dominant feature of the planet viewed from space is water – oceans of liquid water flood most of the surface while water vapour swirls in atmospheric clouds and the poles are capped with ice.</div></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Marine_biogeochemical_cycles" title="Marine biogeochemical cycles">Marine biogeochemical cycles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biological pump</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">blue carbon</a></div> <p>Taken as a whole, the oceans form a single marine system where water – the "universal solvent" <sup id="cite_ref-420" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-420"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>417<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – dissolves nutrients and substances containing elements such as oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus. These substances are endlessly cycled and recycled, chemically combined and then broken down again, dissolved and then precipitated or evaporated, imported from and exported back to the land and the atmosphere and the ocean floor. Powered both by the biological activity of marine organisms and by the natural actions of the sun and tides and movements within the Earth's crust, these are the <a href="/wiki/Marine_biogeochemical_cycles" title="Marine biogeochemical cycles">marine biogeochemical cycles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-421" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-421"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>418<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-422" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-422"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>419<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 150.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 148.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:OceanCarbonCycle.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Marine carbon cycle[420]"><img alt="Marine carbon cycle[420]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/OceanCarbonCycle.jpg/223px-OceanCarbonCycle.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/OceanCarbonCycle.jpg/334px-OceanCarbonCycle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/OceanCarbonCycle.jpg/446px-OceanCarbonCycle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="471" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">Marine carbon cycle</a><sup id="cite_ref-Prentice_2001_423-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prentice_2001-423"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>420<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 208px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 206px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Oxygen_cycle.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Oxygen cycle"><img alt="Oxygen cycle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Oxygen_cycle.svg/309px-Oxygen_cycle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="206" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Oxygen_cycle.svg/464px-Oxygen_cycle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Oxygen_cycle.svg/618px-Oxygen_cycle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="348" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_cycle" title="Oxygen cycle">Oxygen cycle</a></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 207.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 205.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marine_Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Marine nitrogen cycle"><img alt="Marine nitrogen cycle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Marine_Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg/308px-Marine_Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg" decoding="async" width="206" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Marine_Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg/463px-Marine_Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Marine_Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg/616px-Marine_Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="676" data-file-height="345" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle#Marine_nitrogen_cycle" title="Nitrogen cycle">Marine nitrogen cycle</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 187.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 185.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Phosphorus_cycle.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Marine phosphorus cycle"><img alt="Marine phosphorus cycle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Phosphorus_cycle.png/278px-Phosphorus_cycle.png" decoding="async" width="186" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Phosphorus_cycle.png/418px-Phosphorus_cycle.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Phosphorus_cycle.png 2x" data-file-width="538" data-file-height="304" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Marine <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_cycle" title="Phosphorus cycle">phosphorus cycle</a></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sediments_and_biogenic_ooze">Sediments and biogenic ooze</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Sediments and biogenic ooze"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marine_sediment_thickness_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Marine_sediment_thickness_%28cropped%29.jpg/310px-Marine_sediment_thickness_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Marine_sediment_thickness_%28cropped%29.jpg/465px-Marine_sediment_thickness_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Marine_sediment_thickness_%28cropped%29.jpg/620px-Marine_sediment_thickness_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="707" data-file-height="483" /></a><figcaption> Thickness of marine sediments</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Marine_sediment" title="Marine sediment">Marine sediment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protist_shells" class="mw-redirect" title="Protist shells">Protist shells</a></div> <p>Sediments at the bottom of the ocean have two main origins, terrigenous and biogenous. <a href="/wiki/Terrigenous_sediment" title="Terrigenous sediment">Terrigenous sediments</a> account for about 45% of the total marine sediment, and originate in the erosion of <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rocks</a> on land, transported by rivers and land runoff, windborne dust, volcanoes, or grinding by glaciers. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Biogenous_sediment" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogenous sediment">Biogenous sediments</a> account for the other 55% of the total sediment, and originate in the skeletal remains of <a href="#Marine_protists">marine protists</a> (single-celled plankton and benthos organisms). Much smaller amounts of precipitated minerals and meteoric dust can also be present. <i>Ooze</i>, in the context of a marine sediment, does not refer to the consistency of the sediment but to its biological origin. The term ooze was originally used by <a href="/wiki/John_Murray_(oceanographer)" title="John Murray (oceanographer)">John Murray</a>, the "father of modern oceanography", who proposed the term <i>radiolarian ooze</i> for the silica deposits of radiolarian shells brought to the surface during the <a href="/wiki/Challenger_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Challenger Expedition">Challenger Expedition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-424" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-424"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>421<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <i>biogenic ooze</i> is a <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">pelagic sediment</a> containing at least 30 percent from the skeletal remains of marine organisms. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="8"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Main types of biogenic ooze</div> </th></tr> <tr> <th>type </th> <th>mineral<br />forms </th> <th>protist<br />responsible </th> <th> </th> <th>name of<br />skeleton </th> <th>description </th></tr> <tr> <th width="90px" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Siliceous_ooze" title="Siliceous ooze">Siliceous ooze</a> </th> <td rowspan="2" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Silicon_oxide" title="Silicon oxide">SiO<sub>2</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Opal" title="Opal">opal</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Chert" title="Chert">chert</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a> </td> <td style="background:#000000;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lyrella_hennedy_1600x_contrast_invertion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lyrella_hennedy_1600x_contrast_invertion.jpg/90px-Lyrella_hennedy_1600x_contrast_invertion.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lyrella_hennedy_1600x_contrast_invertion.jpg/135px-Lyrella_hennedy_1600x_contrast_invertion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lyrella_hennedy_1600x_contrast_invertion.jpg/180px-Lyrella_hennedy_1600x_contrast_invertion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="2731" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Frustule" title="Frustule">frustule</a> </td> <td>Individual diatoms range in size from 0.002 to 0.2 mm.<sup id="cite_ref-Hasle_1996_425-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hasle_1996-425"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>422<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Radiolarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiolarian">radiolarians</a> </td> <td style="background:#000000;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Calocycloma_sp._-_Radiolarian_(32163186535).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Calocycloma_sp._-_Radiolarian_%2832163186535%29.jpg/90px-Calocycloma_sp._-_Radiolarian_%2832163186535%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Calocycloma_sp._-_Radiolarian_%2832163186535%29.jpg/135px-Calocycloma_sp._-_Radiolarian_%2832163186535%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Calocycloma_sp._-_Radiolarian_%2832163186535%29.jpg/180px-Calocycloma_sp._-_Radiolarian_%2832163186535%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="3500" /></a></span> </td> <td>skeleton </td> <td>Radiolarians are protozoa with diameters typically between 0.1 and 0.2 mm that produce intricate mineral skeletons, usually made of silica </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Calcareous_ooze" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcareous ooze">Calcareous ooze</a> </th> <td rowspan="3" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">CaCO<sub>3</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Aragonite" title="Aragonite">aragonite</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">chalk</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Foraminiferan" class="mw-redirect" title="Foraminiferan">foraminiferans</a> </td> <td style="background:#000000;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Foram-globigerina_hg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Foram-globigerina_hg.jpg/90px-Foram-globigerina_hg.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Foram-globigerina_hg.jpg/135px-Foram-globigerina_hg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Foram-globigerina_hg.jpg/180px-Foram-globigerina_hg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2072" data-file-height="2100" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Test_(biology)" title="Test (biology)">test</a> </td> <td>There are about 10,000 living species of foraminiferans,<sup id="cite_ref-Adl_2007_426-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adl_2007-426"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>423<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> usually under 1 mm in size. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">coccolithophores</a> </td> <td style="background:#000000;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coccolithus_pelagicus_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Coccolithus_pelagicus_2.jpg/90px-Coccolithus_pelagicus_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Coccolithus_pelagicus_2.jpg/135px-Coccolithus_pelagicus_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Coccolithus_pelagicus_2.jpg/180px-Coccolithus_pelagicus_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Coccolith" title="Coccolith">coccolith</a> </td> <td>Coccolithophores are spherical cells usually less than 0.1 mm across, enclosed by calcareous plates called coccoliths.<sup id="cite_ref-Moheimani_2012_427-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moheimani_2012-427"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>424<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coccoliths are important <a href="/wiki/Microfossil" title="Microfossil">microfossils</a>. They are the largest global source of biogenic calcium carbonate, and make significant contributions to the global carbon cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-428" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-428"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>425<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are the main constituent of chalk deposits such as the <a href="/wiki/White_cliffs_of_Dover" class="mw-redirect" title="White cliffs of Dover">white cliffs of Dover</a>. </td></tr> </tbody></table> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 130.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 128.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Radiolarian_-_Heliodiscus_umbonatus_(Ehr.),_Haeckel_(28187768550).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="An elaborate mineral skeleton of a radiolarian made of silica."><img alt="An elaborate mineral skeleton of a radiolarian made of silica." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Radiolarian_-_Heliodiscus_umbonatus_%28Ehr.%29%2C_Haeckel_%2828187768550%29.jpg/193px-Radiolarian_-_Heliodiscus_umbonatus_%28Ehr.%29%2C_Haeckel_%2828187768550%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="129" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Radiolarian_-_Heliodiscus_umbonatus_%28Ehr.%29%2C_Haeckel_%2828187768550%29.jpg/290px-Radiolarian_-_Heliodiscus_umbonatus_%28Ehr.%29%2C_Haeckel_%2828187768550%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Radiolarian_-_Heliodiscus_umbonatus_%28Ehr.%29%2C_Haeckel_%2828187768550%29.jpg/385px-Radiolarian_-_Heliodiscus_umbonatus_%28Ehr.%29%2C_Haeckel_%2828187768550%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2024" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> An elaborate mineral skeleton of a radiolarian made of silica.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 204px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 202px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marine_diatoms_SEM2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Diatoms, major components of marine plankton, also have silica skeletons called frustules."><img alt="Diatoms, major components of marine plankton, also have silica skeletons called frustules." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Marine_diatoms_SEM2.jpg/303px-Marine_diatoms_SEM2.jpg" decoding="async" width="202" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Marine_diatoms_SEM2.jpg/455px-Marine_diatoms_SEM2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Marine_diatoms_SEM2.jpg/606px-Marine_diatoms_SEM2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2392" data-file-height="1540" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Diatoms, major components of marine plankton, also have silica skeletons called <a href="/wiki/Frustule" title="Frustule">frustules</a>. </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 203.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 201.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_7202_SEM_Coccolithophorid.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coccolithophores have plates or scales made with calcium carbonate called coccoliths"><img alt="Coccolithophores have plates or scales made with calcium carbonate called coccoliths" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/CSIRO_ScienceImage_7202_SEM_Coccolithophorid.jpg/302px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_7202_SEM_Coccolithophorid.jpg" decoding="async" width="202" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/CSIRO_ScienceImage_7202_SEM_Coccolithophorid.jpg/454px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_7202_SEM_Coccolithophorid.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/CSIRO_ScienceImage_7202_SEM_Coccolithophorid.jpg/604px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_7202_SEM_Coccolithophorid.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1861" data-file-height="1202" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">Coccolithophores</a> have plates or scales made with calcium carbonate called <a href="/wiki/Coccolith" title="Coccolith">coccoliths</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 132px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 130px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Globigerina.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Calcified test of a planktic foraminiferan"><img alt="Calcified test of a planktic foraminiferan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Globigerina.png/195px-Globigerina.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Globigerina.png/293px-Globigerina.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Globigerina.png/390px-Globigerina.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Calcified" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcified">Calcified</a> <a href="/wiki/Test_(biology)" title="Test (biology)">test</a> of a planktic foraminiferan</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stephanopyxis_grunowii.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A diatom microfossil from 40 million years ago"><img alt="A diatom microfossil from 40 million years ago" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Stephanopyxis_grunowii.jpg/240px-Stephanopyxis_grunowii.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Stephanopyxis_grunowii.jpg/360px-Stephanopyxis_grunowii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Stephanopyxis_grunowii.jpg/480px-Stephanopyxis_grunowii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> A diatom <a href="/wiki/Microfossil" title="Microfossil">microfossil</a> from 40 million years ago</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 266px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 264px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Diatomaceous_Earth_BrightField.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Diatomaceous earth is a soft, siliceous, sedimentary rock made up of microfossils in the form of the frustules (shells) of single cell diatoms (click to magnify)."><img alt="Diatomaceous earth is a soft, siliceous, sedimentary rock made up of microfossils in the form of the frustules (shells) of single cell diatoms (click to magnify)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Diatomaceous_Earth_BrightField.jpg/396px-Diatomaceous_Earth_BrightField.jpg" decoding="async" width="264" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Diatomaceous_Earth_BrightField.jpg/594px-Diatomaceous_Earth_BrightField.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Diatomaceous_Earth_BrightField.jpg/792px-Diatomaceous_Earth_BrightField.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7062" data-file-height="4284" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Diatomaceous_earth" title="Diatomaceous earth">Diatomaceous earth</a> is a soft, <a href="/wiki/Siliceous" class="mw-redirect" title="Siliceous">siliceous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rock</a> made up of microfossils in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Frustule" title="Frustule">frustules</a> (shells) of single cell <a href="/wiki/Diatoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Diatoms">diatoms</a> (click to magnify).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 245.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 243.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PSM_V44_D483_Globigerina_ooze.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Illustration of a Globigerina ooze"><img alt="Illustration of a Globigerina ooze" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/PSM_V44_D483_Globigerina_ooze.jpg/365px-PSM_V44_D483_Globigerina_ooze.jpg" decoding="async" width="244" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/PSM_V44_D483_Globigerina_ooze.jpg/547px-PSM_V44_D483_Globigerina_ooze.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/PSM_V44_D483_Globigerina_ooze.jpg/729px-PSM_V44_D483_Globigerina_ooze.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1177" data-file-height="775" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Illustration of a <i><a href="/wiki/Globigerina" title="Globigerina">Globigerina</a></i> ooze</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 206px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 204px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:FMIB_47660_Shells_from_Globigerina_Ooze.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Shells (tests), usually made of calcium carbonate, from a foraminiferal ooze on the deep ocean floor"><img alt="Shells (tests), usually made of calcium carbonate, from a foraminiferal ooze on the deep ocean floor" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/FMIB_47660_Shells_from_Globigerina_Ooze.jpeg/306px-FMIB_47660_Shells_from_Globigerina_Ooze.jpeg" decoding="async" width="204" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/FMIB_47660_Shells_from_Globigerina_Ooze.jpeg/459px-FMIB_47660_Shells_from_Globigerina_Ooze.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/FMIB_47660_Shells_from_Globigerina_Ooze.jpeg/613px-FMIB_47660_Shells_from_Globigerina_Ooze.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="580" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Shells (<a href="/wiki/Test_(biology)" title="Test (biology)">tests</a>), usually made of calcium carbonate, from a <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminiferal</a> ooze on the deep ocean floor</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Land_interactions">Land interactions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Land interactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ocean_drainage.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Ocean_drainage.png/330px-Ocean_drainage.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Ocean_drainage.png/495px-Ocean_drainage.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Ocean_drainage.png/660px-Ocean_drainage.png 2x" data-file-width="1256" data-file-height="656" /></a><figcaption>The drainage basins of the principal oceans and seas of the world are marked by <a href="/wiki/Continental_divide" title="Continental divide">continental divides</a>. The grey areas are <a href="/wiki/Endorheic_basin" title="Endorheic basin">endorheic basins</a> that do not drain to the ocean.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem" title="Freshwater ecosystem">Freshwater ecosystem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf_pump" title="Continental shelf pump">Continental shelf pump</a></div> <p>Land interactions impact marine life in many ways. Coastlines typically have <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental shelves">continental shelves</a> extending some way from the shore. These provide extensive shallows sunlit down to the seafloor, allowing for photosynthesis and enabling habitats for seagrass meadows, coral reefs, kelp forests and other <a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">benthic life</a>. Further from shore the continental shelf slopes towards deep water. Wind <a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">blowing at the ocean surface</a> or <a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep ocean current">deep ocean currents</a> can result in cold and nutrient rich waters from <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_depth" class="mw-redirect" title="Abyssal depth">abyssal depths</a> moving up the <a href="/wiki/Continental_slope" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental slope">continental slopes</a>. This can result in <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwellings</a> along the outer edges of continental shelves, providing conditions for <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton_bloom" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytoplankton bloom">phytoplankton blooms</a>. </p><p>Water evaporated by the sun from the surface of the ocean can precipitate on land and eventually return to the ocean as <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">runoff</a> or discharge from rivers, enriched with nutrients as well as <a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">pollutants</a>. As rivers discharge into <a href="/wiki/Estuaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Estuaries">estuaries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freshwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater">freshwater</a> mixes with <a href="/wiki/Saltwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Saltwater">saltwater</a> and becomes <a href="/wiki/Brackish" class="mw-redirect" title="Brackish">brackish</a>. This provides another shallow water habitat where <a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">mangrove forests</a> and <a href="/wiki/Estuarine_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Estuarine fish">estuarine fish</a> thrive. Overall, life in inland lakes can evolve with greater diversity than happens in the sea, because freshwater habitats are themselves diverse and compartmentalised in a way marine habitats are not. Some aquatic life, such as <a href="/wiki/Salmon" title="Salmon">salmon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eel" title="Eel">eels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fish_migration" title="Fish migration">migrate</a> back and forth between freshwater and marine habitats. These migrations can result in exchanges of pathogens and have impacts on the way life evolves in the ocean. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anthropogenic_impacts">Anthropogenic impacts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Anthropogenic impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png/330px-Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png/495px-Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png/660px-Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png 2x" data-file-width="971" data-file-height="466" /></a><figcaption>Global cumulative human impact on the ocean<sup id="cite_ref-Halpern_2019_429-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Halpern_2019-429"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>426<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Human impact on marine life</a></div> <p>Human activities affect marine life and <a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a> through <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a> and the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>. These impact <a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">marine ecosystems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">food webs</a> and may result in consequences as yet unrecognised for the <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and continuation of marine life forms.<sup id="cite_ref-430" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-430"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>427<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biodiversity_and_extinction_events">Biodiversity and extinction events</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Biodiversity and extinction events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phanerozoic_Biodiversity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Phanerozoic_Biodiversity.svg/330px-Phanerozoic_Biodiversity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Phanerozoic_Biodiversity.svg/495px-Phanerozoic_Biodiversity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Phanerozoic_Biodiversity.svg/660px-Phanerozoic_Biodiversity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="464" /></a><figcaption>Apparent marine fossil diversity during the Phanerozoic<sup id="cite_ref-Rosing_2010_431-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosing_2010-431"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>428<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="noresize thumb tright" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:332px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="height:252px; overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:10px; top:30px; width:320px; position:absolute;"> <figure class="noresize" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Extinction_intensity.svg" title="File:Extinction intensity.svg"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/320px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/480px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/640px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="324" usemap="#ImageMap_dd6b8fd031a424b3" /></a><map name="ImageMap_dd6b8fd031a424b3"><area href="/wiki/Cambrian" shape="rect" coords="16,0,46,14" alt="Cambrian" title="Cambrian" /><area href="/wiki/Ordovician" shape="rect" coords="47,0,70,14" alt="Ordovician" title="Ordovician" /><area href="/wiki/Silurian" shape="rect" coords="71,0,86,14" alt="Silurian" title="Silurian" /><area href="/wiki/Devonian" shape="rect" coords="87,0,117,14" alt="Devonian" title="Devonian" /><area href="/wiki/Carboniferous" shape="rect" coords="118,0,151,14" alt="Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous" /><area href="/wiki/Permian" shape="rect" coords="151,0,178,14" alt="Permian" title="Permian" /><area href="/wiki/Triassic" shape="rect" coords="178,0,206,14" alt="Triassic" title="Triassic" /><area href="/wiki/Jurassic" shape="rect" coords="207,0,236,14" alt="Jurassic" title="Jurassic" /><area href="/wiki/Cretaceous" shape="rect" coords="237,0,280,14" alt="Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous" /><area href="/wiki/Paleogene" shape="rect" coords="281,0,304,14" alt="Paleogene" title="Paleogene" /><area href="/wiki/Neogene" shape="rect" coords="304,0,316,14" alt="Neogene" title="Neogene" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:transparent; line-height:110%;"> <div id="annotation_30x10" style="position:absolute; left:30px; top:10px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;">Marine extinction intensity during <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_10x15" style="position:absolute; left:10px; top:15px; font-weight:normal; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="apparent percentage of readily fossilized marine genera becoming extinct">%</span></span></div> <div id="annotation_115x235" style="position:absolute; left:115px; top:235px; font-weight:normal; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;">Millions of years ago</span></div> <div id="annotation_312x135" style="position:absolute; left:312px; top:135px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction"><small>(H)</small></a></span></div> <div id="annotation_275x105" style="position:absolute; left:275px; top:105px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">K–Pg</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_203x110" style="position:absolute; left:203px; top:110px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic%E2%80%93Jurassic_extinction_event" title="Triassic–Jurassic extinction event">Tr–J</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_175x50" style="position:absolute; left:175px; top:50px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">P–Tr</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_158x96" style="position:absolute; left:158px; top:96px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Capitanian_mass_extinction_event" title="Capitanian mass extinction event">Cap</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_97x130" style="position:absolute; left:97px; top:130px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction" title="Late Devonian extinction">Late D</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_70x110" style="position:absolute; left:70px; top:110px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Late_Ordovician_mass_extinction" title="Late Ordovician mass extinction">O–S</a></span></div> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><figure class="noresize" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Extinction_intensity.svg" title="File:Extinction intensity.svg"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/320px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/480px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/640px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="324" usemap="#ImageMap_dd6b8fd031a424b3" /></a><map name="ImageMap_dd6b8fd031a424b3"><area href="/wiki/Cambrian" shape="rect" coords="16,0,46,14" alt="Cambrian" title="Cambrian" /><area href="/wiki/Ordovician" shape="rect" coords="47,0,70,14" alt="Ordovician" title="Ordovician" /><area href="/wiki/Silurian" shape="rect" coords="71,0,86,14" alt="Silurian" title="Silurian" /><area href="/wiki/Devonian" shape="rect" coords="87,0,117,14" alt="Devonian" title="Devonian" /><area href="/wiki/Carboniferous" shape="rect" coords="118,0,151,14" alt="Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous" /><area href="/wiki/Permian" shape="rect" coords="151,0,178,14" alt="Permian" title="Permian" /><area href="/wiki/Triassic" shape="rect" coords="178,0,206,14" alt="Triassic" title="Triassic" /><area href="/wiki/Jurassic" shape="rect" coords="207,0,236,14" alt="Jurassic" title="Jurassic" /><area href="/wiki/Cretaceous" shape="rect" coords="237,0,280,14" alt="Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous" /><area href="/wiki/Paleogene" shape="rect" coords="281,0,304,14" alt="Paleogene" title="Paleogene" /><area href="/wiki/Neogene" shape="rect" coords="304,0,316,14" alt="Neogene" title="Neogene" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption">Apparent extinction intensity, i.e. the fraction of <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genera</a> going extinct at any given time as reconstructed from the <a href="/wiki/Fossil_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil record">fossil record</a> (excluding the current <a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocene extinction event">Holocene extinction event</a>)</div> </div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a> is the result of over three billion years of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>. Until approximately 600 million years ago, all life consisted of <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protozoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Protozoan">protozoans</a> and similar <a href="/wiki/Single-celled_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-celled organism">single-celled organisms</a>. The history of biodiversity during the <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a> (the last 540 million years), starts with rapid growth during the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a> – a period during which nearly every <a href="/wiki/Phylum_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylum (biology)">phylum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular organisms</a> first appeared. Over the next 400 million years or so, invertebrate diversity showed little overall trend and vertebrate diversity shows an overall exponential trend.<sup id="cite_ref-Sahney_2010_432-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahney_2010-432"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>429<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, more than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, amounting to over five billion species,<sup id="cite_ref-Book-Biology_433-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Book-Biology-433"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>430<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are estimated to be <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinct</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-StearnsStearns1999_434-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StearnsStearns1999-434"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>431<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20141108-MJN_435-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20141108-MJN-435"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>432<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These extinctions occur at an uneven rate. The dramatic rise in diversity has been marked by periodic, massive losses of diversity classified as <a href="/wiki/Mass_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass extinction event">mass extinction events</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sahney_2010_432-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahney_2010-432"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>429<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mass extinction events occur when life undergoes precipitous global declines. Most diversity and <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a> on earth is found among the <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>, which are difficult to measure. Recorded extinction events are therefore based on the more easily observed changes in the diversity and abundance of larger <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular organisms</a>, rather than the total diversity and abundance of life.<sup id="cite_ref-436" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-436"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>433<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marine fossils are mostly used to measure extinction rates because of their superior fossil record and <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratigraphic">stratigraphic</a> range compared to land organisms. </p><p>Based on the <a href="/wiki/Fossil_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil record">fossil record</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Background_extinction_rate" title="Background extinction rate">background rate of extinctions</a> on Earth is about two to five <a href="/wiki/Alpha_taxonomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha taxonomy">taxonomic</a> <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">families</a> of marine animals every million years. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Oxygenation_Event" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Oxygenation Event">Great Oxygenation Event</a> was perhaps the first major extinction event. Since the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a> five <a href="/wiki/Extinction_event#Major_extinction_events" title="Extinction event">major mass extinctions</a> have significantly exceeded the background extinction rate.<sup id="cite_ref-Ward_2006_437-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ward_2006-437"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>434<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The worst was the <a href="/wiki/Permian-Triassic_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Permian-Triassic extinction event">Permian-Triassic extinction event</a>, 251 million years ago. One generally estimates that the Big Five mass extinctions of the Phanerozoic (the last 540 million years) wiped out more than 40% of marine genera and probably more than 70% of marine species.<sup id="cite_ref-438" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-438"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>435<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The current <a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a> caused by human activity, and now referred to as the "sixth extinction", may prove ultimately more devastating. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Investigating_and_Exploring_Marine_Life">Investigating and Exploring Marine Life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Investigating and Exploring Marine Life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_and_study">Research and study</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Research and study"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In order to perform research and enrich Marine Life knowledge, Scientists use various methods in-order to reach and explore the depths of the ocean. several Hi-tech instruments and vehicles are used for this purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_439-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-439"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>436<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_underwater_vehicle" title="Autonomous underwater vehicle">Autonomous Underwater Vehicles</a> (AUVs)- Underwater robots used to explore the ocean. AUVs are independent robots and can explore unmanned. They are released from a ship and are operated from the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-440" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-440"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>437<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Deep-Towed Vehicles (DTVs)- vehicles towed behind research vessels, offering a simpler alternative to more advanced underwater vehicles. They serve as versatile platforms for deploying oceanographic instruments to measure various ocean parameters, with specific models like the DTV BRIDGET used for studying hydrothermal vent plumes by moving near the ocean floor.<sup id="cite_ref-441" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-441"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>438<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Manned Submersibles- an manned underwater vehicle used for exploring, experimenting and is often used by army.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_439-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-439"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>436<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_vessel" title="Research vessel">Research vessels</a> (R/Vs)- a boat or ship used to conduct research over a ling period of time. It is capable of transporting a diverse range of sampling and surveying equipment. Research vessels typically feature on-board laboratory space, allowing researchers to promptly analyze the materials collected during cruises.</li> <li>Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs)- unmanned vehicles. able to reach greater depths under water in order to collect a wider variety of information.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_439-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-439"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>436<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-442" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-442"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>439<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Yellow.tang.arp.jpg/32px-Yellow.tang.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Yellow.tang.arp.jpg/48px-Yellow.tang.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Yellow.tang.arp.jpg/64px-Yellow.tang.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1315" data-file-height="1039" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Marine_life" title="Portal:Marine life">Marine life portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/48px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/64px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Blue_Planet" title="The Blue Planet">Blue Planet</a> – 2001 British nature documentary television series - <a href="/wiki/David_Attenborough" title="David Attenborough">David Attenborough</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Planet_II" title="Blue Planet II">Blue Planet II</a> – 2017 British nature documentary television series</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Marine_Life" title="Census of Marine Life">Census of Marine Life</a> – 10 year international marine biological program</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_land" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonization of land">Colonization of land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_larval_ecology" title="Marine larval ecology">Marine larval ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_invertebrates_(Brusca_%26_Brusca,_2003)" title="Taxonomy of invertebrates (Brusca & Brusca, 2003)">Taxonomy of invertebrates</a> – System of classification of animals with emphasis on the invertebrates</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em ;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-trench_depth-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-trench_depth_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This is the measurement taken by the vessel <i><a href="/wiki/Kaik%C5%8D_ROV" title="Kaikō ROV">Kaikō</a></i> in March 1995 and is considered the most accurate measurement to date. See the <a href="/wiki/Challenger_Deep" title="Challenger Deep">Challenger Deep</a> article for more details.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Myxozoa-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Myxozoa_183-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a> were thought to be an exception, but are now thought to be heavily modified members of the <a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJiménez-GuriPhilippeOkamuraHolland2007" class="citation journal cs1">Jiménez-Guri E, Philippe H, Okamura B, Holland PW (July 2007). "Buddenbrockia is a cnidarian worm". <i>Science</i>. <b>317</b> (5834): <span class="nowrap">116–</span>8. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Sci...317..116J">2007Sci...317..116J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1142024">10.1126/science.1142024</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17615357">17615357</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5170702">5170702</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Buddenbrockia+is+a+cnidarian+worm&rft.volume=317&rft.issue=5834&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E116-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.date=2007-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1142024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5170702%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17615357&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007Sci...317..116J&rft.aulast=Jim%C3%A9nez-Guri&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Philippe%2C+H&rft.au=Okamura%2C+B&rft.au=Holland%2C+PW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarine+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-247"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The earliest Bilateria may have had only a single opening, and no coelom.<sup id="cite_ref-Cannon2016_246-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cannon2016-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Cavicchioli_2019-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cavicchioli_2019_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cavicchioli_2019_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCavicchioliRippleTimmisAzam2019" class="citation journal cs1">Cavicchioli R, Ripple WJ, Timmis KN, Azam F, Bakken LR, Baylis M, et al. 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Microbiology</i>. <b>17</b> (9): <span class="nowrap">569–</span>586. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41579-019-0222-5">10.1038/s41579-019-0222-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7136171">7136171</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31213707">31213707</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Scientists%27+warning+to+humanity%3A+microorganisms+and+climate+change&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E569-%3C%2Fspan%3E586&rft.date=2019-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7136171%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31213707&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41579-019-0222-5&rft.aulast=Cavicchioli&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Ripple%2C+WJ&rft.au=Timmis%2C+KN&rft.au=Azam%2C+F&rft.au=Bakken%2C+LR&rft.au=Baylis%2C+M&rft.au=Behrenfeld%2C+MJ&rft.au=Boetius%2C+A&rft.au=Boyd%2C+PW&rft.au=Classen%2C+AT&rft.au=Crowther%2C+TW&rft.au=Danovaro%2C+R&rft.au=Foreman%2C+CM&rft.au=Huisman%2C+J&rft.au=Hutchins%2C+DA&rft.au=Jansson%2C+JK&rft.au=Karl%2C+DM&rft.au=Koskella%2C+B&rft.au=Mark+Welch%2C+DB&rft.au=Martiny%2C+JB&rft.au=Moran%2C+MA&rft.au=Orphan%2C+VJ&rft.au=Reay%2C+DS&rft.au=Remais%2C+JV&rft.au=Rich%2C+VI&rft.au=Singh%2C+BK&rft.au=Stein%2C+LY&rft.au=Stewart%2C+FJ&rft.au=Sullivan%2C+MB&rft.au=van+Oppen%2C+MJ&rft.au=Weaver%2C+SC&rft.au=Webb%2C+EA&rft.au=Webster%2C+NS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7136171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarine+life" class="Z3988"></span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CC_BY_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CC_BY_icon.svg/50px-CC_BY_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CC_BY_icon.svg/75px-CC_BY_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CC_BY_icon.svg/100px-CC_BY_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="88" data-file-height="31" /></a></span> Modified text was copied from this source, which is available under a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drogin_2009-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Drogin_2009_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrogin2009" class="citation news cs1">Drogin, B (2 August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2009-aug-02-na-fish2-story.html">"Mapping an ocean of species"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.coml.org&rft.atitle=Deep-Towed+Vehicles+%28DTVs%29+%7C+Census+of+Marine+Life&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.coml.org%2Finvestigating%2Ftransport%2Fdtvs.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarine+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-442"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-442">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.advancednavigation.com/robotics/micro-auv/hydrus/">"The Drone Revolution underwater"</a>. <i>Advanced Navigation</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Advanced+Navigation&rft.atitle=The+Drone+Revolution+underwater&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.advancednavigation.com%2Frobotics%2Fmicro-auv%2Fhydrus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarine+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_life&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <i><b><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Marine_life#Q1230015" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Marine life">Marine life</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalpernWalbridgeSelkoeKappel2008" class="citation journal cs1">Halpern BS, Walbridge S, Selkoe KA, Kappel CV, Micheli F, D'Agrosa C, et al. (February 2008). "A global map of human impact on marine ecosystems". <i>Science</i>. <b>319</b> (5865): <span class="nowrap">948–</span>52. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Sci...319..948H">2008Sci...319..948H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1149345">10.1126/science.1149345</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18276889">18276889</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26206024">26206024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=A+global+map+of+human+impact+on+marine+ecosystems&rft.volume=319&rft.issue=5865&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E948-%3C%2Fspan%3E52&rft.date=2008-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1149345&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A26206024%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18276889&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Sci...319..948H&rft.aulast=Halpern&rft.aufirst=BS&rft.au=Walbridge%2C+S&rft.au=Selkoe%2C+KA&rft.au=Kappel%2C+CV&rft.au=Micheli%2C+F&rft.au=D%27Agrosa%2C+C&rft.au=Bruno%2C+JF&rft.au=Casey%2C+KS&rft.au=Ebert%2C+C&rft.au=Fox%2C+HE&rft.au=Fujita%2C+R&rft.au=Heinemann%2C+D&rft.au=Lenihan%2C+HS&rft.au=Madin%2C+EM&rft.au=Perry%2C+MT&rft.au=Selig%2C+ER&rft.au=Spalding%2C+M&rft.au=Steneck%2C+R&rft.au=Watson%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarine+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalecznyHammillKarpouziPauly2015" class="citation journal cs1">Paleczny M, Hammill E, Karpouzi V, Pauly D (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4461279">"Population Trend of the World's Monitored Seabirds, 1950-2010"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>10</b> (6): e0129342. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PLoSO..1029342P">2015PLoSO..1029342P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0129342">10.1371/journal.pone.0129342</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4461279">4461279</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26058068">26058068</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Population+Trend+of+the+World%27s+Monitored+Seabirds%2C+1950-2010&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=e0129342&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4461279%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26058068&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0129342&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PLoSO..1029342P&rft.aulast=Paleczny&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Hammill%2C+E&rft.au=Karpouzi%2C+V&rft.au=Pauly%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4461279&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarine+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Ruppert" class="citation book cs1">Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821"><i>Invertebrate Zoology</i></a> (7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1"><bdi>978-0-03-025982-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Zoology&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Brooks+%2F+Cole&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-03-025982-1&rft.aulast=Ruppert&rft.aufirst=EE&rft.au=Fox%2C+RS&rft.au=Barnes%2C+RD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780030259821&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarine+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/radical-conservation/2015/sep/22/after-60-million-years-of-extreme-living-seabirds-are-crashing">"After 60 million years of extreme living, seabirds are crashing"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 22 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=After+60+million+years+of+extreme+living%2C+seabirds+are+crashing&rft.date=2015-09-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2Fradical-conservation%2F2015%2Fsep%2F22%2Fafter-60-million-years-of-extreme-living-seabirds-are-crashing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarine+life" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Algal bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">Anoxic waters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic adaptation">Aquatic adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal">Aquatic animal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_insect" title="Aquatic insect">Insect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_mammal" title="Aquatic mammal">Mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_bird" title="Water bird">Water bird</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_biomonitoring" title="Aquatic biomonitoring">Aquatic biomonitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_plant" title="Aquatic plant">Aquatic plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology#Aquatic_population_dynamics" title="Agent-based model in biology">Aquatic population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_predation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic predation">Aquatic predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_respiration" title="Aquatic respiration">Aquatic respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_science" title="Aquatic science">Aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colored_dissolved_organic_matter" title="Colored dissolved organic matter">Colored dissolved organic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">Dead zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecohydrology" title="Ecohydrology">Ecohydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_science" title="Fisheries science">Fisheries science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GIS_and_aquatic_science" title="GIS and aquatic science">GIS and aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrobiology" title="Hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobenthos" title="Macrobenthos">Macrobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiobenthos" title="Meiobenthos">Meiobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekton" title="Nekton">Nekton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuston" title="Neuston">Neuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_(ecology)" title="Particle (ecology)">Particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleuston" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleuston">Pleuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Convention" title="Ramsar Convention">Ramsar Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_trap" title="Sediment trap">Sediment trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiaquatic" title="Semiaquatic">Semiaquatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Shoaling and schooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siltation" title="Siltation">Siltation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">Spawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_analysis#Stable_isotope_analysis_in_aquatic_ecosystems" title="Isotope analysis">Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_metabolism" title="Stream metabolism">Stream metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substrate_(marine_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (marine biology)">Substrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_camouflage" title="Underwater camouflage">Underwater camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/140px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/210px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/280px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="551" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Freshwater</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biome" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater biome">Freshwater biome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater environmental quality parameters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_fish" title="Freshwater fish">Freshwater fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyporheic_zone" title="Hyporheic zone">Hyporheic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem" title="Lake ecosystem">Lake ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophyte">Macrophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fish_pond" title="Fish pond">Fish pond</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheotaxis" title="Rheotaxis">Rheotaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">River ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">Stream bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upland_and_lowland" title="Upland and lowland">Upland and lowland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_garden" title="Water garden">Water garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">Bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brackish_marsh" title="Brackish marsh">Brackish marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fen" title="Fen">Fen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_marsh" title="Freshwater marsh">Freshwater marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_swamp_forest" title="Freshwater swamp forest">Freshwater swamp forest</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ecoregions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_(WWF)" title="List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)">List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_in_Africa_and_Madagascar" title="List of freshwater ecoregions in Africa and Madagascar">Africa and Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_of_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="List of freshwater ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_ecoregions" title="List of marine ecoregions">List of marine ecoregions</a></li> <li>Specific examples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_ecology_of_the_Everglades" title="Geography and ecology of the Everglades">Everglades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecology_of_Maharashtra" title="Freshwater ecology of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_of_the_North_Pacific_Subtropical_Gyre" title="Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre">North Pacific Subtropical Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Marine_ecosystems_(components)487" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">Marine ecosystems</a> (<a href="/wiki/Template:Marine_aquatic_ecosystems" title="Template:Marine aquatic ecosystems">components</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">Diel vertical migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization" title="Iron fertilization">Iron fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_marine_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Large marine ecosystem">Large marine ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_chemistry" title="Marine chemistry">Marine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">Marine primary production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">Marine snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_physical-biological_process" title="Oceanic physical-biological process">Oceanic physical-biological process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_turbidity" title="Ocean turbidity">Ocean turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">Photophore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_shunt" title="Viral shunt">Viral shunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whale_fall" title="Whale fall">Whale fall</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maldivesfish2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/140px-Maldivesfish2.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/210px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/280px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1818" data-file-height="1228" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Marine life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Marine_Life" title="Census of Marine Life">Census of Marine Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_community" title="Deep-sea community">Deep-sea community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Marine fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">Marine invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_larval_ecology" title="Marine larval ecology">Marine larval ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">Seagrass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seashore_wildlife" title="Seashore wildlife">Seashore wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Marine prokaryotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">Marine protists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Marine viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_vertebrate" title="Marine vertebrate">Vertebrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">Marine mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">Marine reptile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltwater_fish" title="Saltwater fish">Saltwater fish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_fish" title="Coastal fish">Coastal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_fish" title="Deep-sea fish">Deep-sea fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">Pelagic fish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">Seabird</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">Bay mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Marine coastal ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davidson_Seamount#Ecology" title="Davidson Seamount">Davidson Seamount § Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">Intertidal ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biomes">Marine biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyster_reef" title="Oyster reef">Oyster reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">Rocky shore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_pannes_and_pools" title="Salt pannes and pools">Salt pannes and pools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_ground" title="Sponge ground">Sponge ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_reef" title="Sponge reef">Sponge reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Conservation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">Coral bleaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_values_of_mangroves" title="Ecological values of mangroves">Ecological values of mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_and_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries and climate change">Fisheries and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_Ecosystem_Research_and_Man%27s_Impact_On_European_Seas" title="Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man's Impact On European Seas">HERMIONE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Human impact on marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation_activism" title="Marine conservation activism">Marine conservation activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine protected area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/16px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/24px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/32px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Lakes" title="Portal:Lakes">Lakes portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" 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