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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epigenetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Evolutionary forces </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolutionary_forces-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Evolutionary forces subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Natural_selection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_selection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Natural selection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_selection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_drift" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_drift"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Genetic drift </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_drift-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mutation_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mutation_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Mutation bias </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mutation_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genetic_hitchhiking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_hitchhiking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Genetic hitchhiking </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_hitchhiking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_selection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_selection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Sexual selection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_selection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_outcomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_outcomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Natural outcomes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Natural_outcomes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Natural outcomes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Natural_outcomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Adaptation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adaptation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Adaptation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adaptation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coevolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coevolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Coevolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coevolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cooperation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cooperation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Cooperation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cooperation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Speciation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Speciation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Speciation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Speciation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extinction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extinction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Extinction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extinction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Applications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_history_of_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Evolutionary history of life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolutionary_history_of_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Evolutionary history of life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_history_of_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origin_of_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_of_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Origin of life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_of_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Common_descent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common_descent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Common descent </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common_descent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Evolution of life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_evolutionary_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_evolutionary_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 History of evolutionary thought </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_of_evolutionary_thought-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History of evolutionary thought subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History_of_evolutionary_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classical_antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Classical antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre-Darwinian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Darwinian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Pre-Darwinian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Darwinian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Darwinian_revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Darwinian_revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Darwinian revolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Darwinian_revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pangenesis_and_heredity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pangenesis_and_heredity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Pangenesis and heredity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pangenesis_and_heredity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_'modern_synthesis'" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_'modern_synthesis'"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 The 'modern synthesis' </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_'modern_synthesis'-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_syntheses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_syntheses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Further syntheses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_syntheses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_and_cultural_responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_and_cultural_responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Social and cultural responses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_and_cultural_responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Evolution</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 157 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-157" aria-hidden="true" > 157 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusie" title="Evolusie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Evolusie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%9D%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%98%E1%89%B0_%E1%88%88%E1%8B%8D%E1%8C%A5" title="ዝግመተ ለውጥ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ዝግመተ ለውጥ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1" title="التطور – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="التطور" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n" title="Evolución – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Evolución" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D4%BE%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A8" title="Մարդկային Ծիները – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Մարդկային Ծիները" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B6" title="ক্ৰমবিকাশ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ক্ৰমবিকাশ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_biol%C3%B3xica" title="Evolución biolóxica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Evolución biolóxica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekove_%C3%B1emoambue" title="Tekove ñemoambue – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tekove ñemoambue" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%99kam%C3%BCl" title="Təkamül – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Təkamül" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%AA%D8%A6%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="تکامول تئوریسی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="تکامول تئوریسی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8" title="বিবর্তন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিবর্তন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%ACn-h%C3%B2a" title="Chìn-hòa – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chìn-hòa" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Эвалюцыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эвалюцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Эвалюцыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Эвалюцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Еволюция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Еволюция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucija" title="Evolucija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Evolucija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Эволюци – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Эволюци" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3" title="Evolució – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Evolució" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Эволюци – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Эволюци" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebolusyon" title="Ebolusyon – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Ebolusyon" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluce" title="Evoluce – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Evoluce" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esblygiad" title="Esblygiad – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Esblygiad" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_(biologi)" title="Evolution (biologi) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Evolution (biologi)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1" title="التطور – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="التطور" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutsioon" title="Evolutsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Evolutsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BE%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BE%CE%B7" title="Εξέλιξη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εξέλιξη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluzi%C3%B2un" title="Evoluziòun – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Evoluziòun" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_biol%C3%B3gica" title="Evolución biológica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Evolución biológica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucio_(teorio)" title="Evolucio (teorio) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Evolucio (teorio)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voluci%C3%B3n" title="Volución – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Volución" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eboluzio" title="Eboluzio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Eboluzio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B4%D8%AA" title="فرگشت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرگشت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menningarl%C3%A6ran" title="Menningarlæran – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Menningarlæran" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89volution_(biologie)" title="Évolution (biologie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Évolution (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evol%C3%BAsje" title="Evolúsje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Evolúsje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89abhl%C3%B3id" title="Éabhlóid – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Éabhlóid" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean-fh%C3%A0s" title="Mean-fhàs – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Mean-fhàs" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n" title="Evolución – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Evolución" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Эволюци – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Эволюци" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A8har%C5%A9raka_(evolution)" title="Ũharũraka (evolution) – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Ũharũraka (evolution)" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gĩkũyũ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%89%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%BF" title="ઉત્ક્રાંતિ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ઉત્ક્રાંતિ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%84%ED%99%94" title="진화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="진화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%BE%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Էվոլյուցիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էվոլյուցիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="क्रम-विकास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="क्रम-विकास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucija" title="Evolucija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Evolucija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluciono" title="Evoluciono – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Evoluciono" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebolusion" title="Ebolusion – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Ebolusion" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8" title="বিবর্তন – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="বিবর্তন" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target">বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusi" title="Evolusi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Evolusi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Er%C3%B3un" title="Þróun – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þróun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluzione" title="Evoluzione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Evoluzione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%91%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94" title="אבולוציה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אבולוציה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89volusi" title="Évolusi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Évolusi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8" title="ವಿಕಾಸ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿಕಾಸ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebolusyon" title="Ebolusyon – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Ebolusyon" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ევოლუცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ევოლუცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esplegyans" title="Esplegyans – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Esplegyans" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mageuko_ya_spishi" title="Mageuko ya spishi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mageuko ya spishi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolisyon" title="Evolisyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Evolisyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89volousyon_(byoloji)" title="Évolousyon (byoloji) – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Évolousyon (byoloji)" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%AA%C5%9Fve%C3%A7%C3%BBn" title="Pêşveçûn – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Pêşveçûn" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99" title="ວິວັດທະນາການ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ວິວັດທະນາການ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutio" title="Evolutio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Evolutio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evol%C5%ABcija" title="Evolūcija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Evolūcija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutioun_(Biologie)" title="Evolutioun (Biologie) – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Evolutioun (Biologie)" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoliucija" title="Evoliucija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Evoliucija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusi" title="Evolusi – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Evolusi" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target">Li Niha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutie_(biologie)" title="Evolutie (biologie) – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Evolutie (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolui" title="Evolui – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Evolui" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evol%C3%BAci%C3%B3_(biol%C3%B3gia)" title="Evolúció (biológia) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Evolúció (biológia)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88volusi" title="Èvolusi – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Èvolusi" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Madhurâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Еволуција – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Еволуција" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ev%C3%B4lisi%C3%B4na" title="Evôlisiôna – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Evôlisiôna" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%82" title="ജീവപരിണാമം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജീവപരിണാമം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluzzjoni" title="Evoluzzjoni – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Evoluzzjoni" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80" title="उत्क्रांती – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="उत्क्रांती" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ევოლუცია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ევოლუცია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1" title="تطور – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تطور" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84" title="تکامل – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="تکامل" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusi" title="Evolusi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Evolusi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9ng-hu%C3%A1" title="Céng-huá – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Céng-huá" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eibolu%C3%A7on" title="Eiboluçon – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Eiboluçon" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Эволюци – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Эволюци" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%84%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%B2%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B2%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF%E1%80%96%E1%80%BC%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%89%E1%80%BA" title="ဆင့်ကဲပြောင်းလဲမှုဖြစ်စဉ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဆင့်ကဲပြောင်းလဲမှုဖြစ်စဉ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutie_(biologie)" title="Evolutie (biologie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Evolutie (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="क्रम-विकास – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="क्रम-विकास" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE" title="विकासक्रम – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="विकासक्रम" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96" title="進化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="進化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Эволюци – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Эволюци" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewolutsion" title="Ewolutsion – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Ewolutsion" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusjon" title="Evolusjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Evolusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusjon" title="Evolusjon – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Evolusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucion_(biologia)" title="Evolucion (biologia) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Evolucion (biologia)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutsiya" title="Evolutsiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Evolutsiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6" title="ਵਿਕਾਸਵਾਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਕਾਸਵਾਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%86" title="ایولوشن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایولوشن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolushon" title="Evolushon – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Evolushon" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84" title="تکامل – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="تکامل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivoluushan" title="Ivoluushan – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ivoluushan" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolussion" title="Evolussion – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Evolussion" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivolusan" title="Ivolusan – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Ivolusan" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutschoon" title="Evolutschoon – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Evolutschoon" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewolucja_biologiczna" title="Ewolucja biologiczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ewolucja biologiczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Evolução – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Evolução" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolu%C8%9Bie" title="Evoluție – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Evoluție" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluziun" title="Evoluziun – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Evoluziun" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rikch%27aqyay" title="Rikch'aqyay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Rikch'aqyay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Еволуція – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Еволуція" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эволюция – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Эволюция" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_de_sa_evolutzioni" title="Teoria de sa evolutzioni – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Teoria de sa evolutzioni" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucioni" title="Evolucioni – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Evolucioni" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BA" title="පරිණාමය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පරිණාමය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7" title="ارتقا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ارتقا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologick%C3%A1_evol%C3%BAcia" title="Biologická evolúcia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Biologická evolúcia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucija" title="Evolucija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Evolucija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86" title="پەرەسەندن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پەرەسەندن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Еволуција (биологија) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Еволуција (биологија)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucija" title="Evolucija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Evolucija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89volusi" title="Évolusi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Évolusi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluutio" title="Evoluutio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Evoluutio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Evolution" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebolusyon" title="Ebolusyon – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Ebolusyon" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-spoken-icon" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/File:Evolution.ogg" title="Listen to this article"><img alt="Listen to this article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/20px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/30px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/40px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Gradual change in the heritable traits of organisms</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about evolution in biology. For related articles, see <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline of evolution</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Evolution_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Evolution (disambiguation)">Evolution (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more accessible and less technical introduction to this topic, see <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction to evolution</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border: 1px solid #90db90;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a> series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background: #90db90; padding-top:0.2em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evolution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Darwin_Tree_1837.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Darwin_Tree_1837.png/200px-Darwin_Tree_1837.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="326" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Darwin_Tree_1837.png/300px-Darwin_Tree_1837.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Darwin_Tree_1837.png/400px-Darwin_Tree_1837.png 2x" data-file-width="1390" data-file-height="2265" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background: #90db90"> Mechanisms and processes</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maladaptation" title="Maladaptation">Maladaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_theory_of_molecular_evolution" title="Neutral theory of molecular evolution"> Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background: #90db90"> Research and history</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">Evolutionary history of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Level_of_support_for_evolution" title="Level of support for evolution">Level of support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" title="Objections to evolution">Objections</a> / <a href="/wiki/Creation%E2%80%93evolution_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Creation–evolution controversy">Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory" title="Social effects of evolutionary theory">Social effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_as_fact_and_theory" title="Evolution as fact and theory">Theory and fact</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background: #90db90"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a> fields</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding:0.15em 0.15em 0.25em; display:block; margin-bottom:0.55em; background-color: #e7f4e7;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/16px-Tree_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/24px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/32px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="915" data-file-height="760" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Evolution">Evolution portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolution_sidebar" title="Template:Evolution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Evolution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Evolution is the change in the <a href="/wiki/Heritable" class="mw-redirect" title="Heritable">heritable</a> <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_trait" title="Phenotypic trait">characteristics</a> of biological populations over successive generations.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> It occurs when evolutionary processes such as <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">genetic drift</a> act on genetic variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more or less common within a population over successive generations.<a href="#cite_note-Scott-Phillips-2014-3">[3]</a> The process of evolution has given rise to <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> at every level of <a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">biological organisation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Voet-2016-5">[5]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific theory</a> of evolution by natural selection was conceived independently by two British naturalists, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a>, in the mid-19th century as an explanation for why organisms are adapted to their physical and biological environments. The theory was first set out in detail in Darwin's book <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Evolution by natural selection is established by observable facts about living organisms: (1) more offspring are often produced than can possibly survive; (2) <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_variation" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenotypic variation">traits vary</a> among individuals with respect to their <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>, and behaviour; (3) different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a>); and (4) traits can be passed from generation to generation (<a href="/wiki/Heritability" title="Heritability">heritability</a> of fitness).<a href="#cite_note-Lewontin-1970-7">[7]</a> In successive generations, members of a population are therefore more likely to be replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Offspring" title="Offspring">offspring</a> of parents with favourable characteristics for that environment. In the early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_evolution_by_natural_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternatives to evolution by natural selection">competing ideas of evolution</a> were <a href="/wiki/Superseded_theories_in_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Superseded theories in science">refuted</a> and evolution was combined with <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a> to give rise to modern evolutionary theory.<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma2017a-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">In this synthesis</a> the basis for heredity is in <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> molecules that pass information from generation to generation. The processes that change DNA in a population include natural selection, genetic drift, <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">gene flow</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Scott-Phillips-2014-3">[3]</a> All life on Earth—including <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">humanity</a>—shares a <a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">last universal common ancestor</a> (LUCA),<a href="#cite_note-Kampourakis-2014-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Doolittle-2000-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> which lived approximately 3.5–3.8 billion years ago.<a href="#cite_note-Schopf-2007-12">[12]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil record</a> includes a progression from early <a href="/wiki/Biogenic_substance" title="Biogenic substance">biogenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a><a href="#cite_note-Ohtomo-2014-13">[13]</a> to <a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">microbial mat</a> fossils<a href="#cite_note-Borenstein-2013-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pearlman-2013-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Noffke-2013-16">[16]</a> to fossilised <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular organisms</a>. Existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped by repeated formations of new species (<a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a>), changes within species (<a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">anagenesis</a>), and loss of species (<a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a>) throughout the evolutionary <a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">history of life</a> on Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma04-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">Morphological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biochemical">biochemical</a> traits tend to be more similar among species that share a more <a href="/wiki/Recent_common_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Recent common ancestor">recent common ancestor</a>, which historically was used to reconstruct <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">phylogenetic trees</a>, although direct comparison of genetic sequences is a more common method today.<a href="#cite_note-Panno_2005-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary biologists">Evolutionary biologists</a> have continued to study various aspects of evolution by forming and testing <a href="/wiki/Hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypotheses">hypotheses</a> as well as constructing theories based on <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">evidence</a> from the field or laboratory and on data generated by the methods of <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">mathematical and theoretical biology</a>. Their discoveries have influenced not just the development of <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> but also other fields including agriculture, medicine, and <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma-1999-20">[20]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Heredity">Heredity</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction to genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ADN_static.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/ADN_static.png/220px-ADN_static.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/ADN_static.png/330px-ADN_static.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/ADN_static.png 2x" data-file-width="423" data-file-height="657" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> structure. <a href="/wiki/Nucleobase" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobase">Bases</a> are in the centre, surrounded by phosphate–sugar chains in a <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_double_helix" title="Nucleic acid double helix">double helix</a>.</figcaption></figure> Evolution in organisms occurs through changes in heritable characteristics—the inherited characteristics of an organism. In humans, for example, <a href="/wiki/Eye_colour" class="mw-redirect" title="Eye colour">eye colour</a> is an inherited characteristic and an individual might inherit the "brown-eye trait" from one of their parents.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an organism's <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> (genetic material) is called its <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotype</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson-2006-22">[22]</a> The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an organism is called its <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a>. Some of these traits come from the interaction of its genotype with the environment while others are neutral.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Some observable characteristics are not inherited. For example, <a href="/wiki/Suntanned" class="mw-redirect" title="Suntanned">suntanned</a> skin comes from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children. The phenotype is the ability of the skin to tan when exposed to sunlight. However, some people tan more easily than others, due to differences in genotypic variation; a striking example are people with the inherited trait of <a href="/wiki/Albinism" title="Albinism">albinism</a>, who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to <a href="/wiki/Sunburn" title="Sunburn">sunburn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Heritable characteristics are passed from one generation to the next via <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a> that encodes genetic information.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson-2006-22">[22]</a> DNA is a long <a href="/wiki/Biopolymer" title="Biopolymer">biopolymer</a> composed of four types of bases. The sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule specifies the genetic information, in a manner similar to a sequence of letters spelling out a sentence. Before a cell divides, the DNA is copied, so that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA sequence. Portions of a DNA molecule that specify a single functional unit are called genes; different genes have different sequences of bases. Within cells, each long strand of DNA is called a <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a>. The specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known as a <a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">locus</a>. If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles. DNA sequences can change through mutations, producing new alleles. If a mutation occurs within a gene, the new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the organism.<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma_2005-25">[25]</a> However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are influenced by multiple genes in a <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_trait_loci" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitative trait loci">quantitative</a> or <a href="/wiki/Epistasis" title="Epistasis">epistatic</a> manner.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Min_Lin-2006-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_of_variation">Sources of variation</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Genetic variation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Genetic diversity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Biston.betularia.7200.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Biston.betularia.7200.jpg/200px-Biston.betularia.7200.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Biston.betularia.7200.jpg/300px-Biston.betularia.7200.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Biston.betularia.7200.jpg/400px-Biston.betularia.7200.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2798" data-file-height="1662" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">White <a href="/wiki/Peppered_moth" title="Peppered moth">peppered moth</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg/200px-Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg/300px-Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg/400px-Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="1366" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Black morph in <a href="/wiki/Peppered_moth_evolution" title="Peppered moth evolution">peppered moth evolution</a></div></div></div></div></div> Evolution can occur if there is genetic variation within a population. Variation comes from mutations in the genome, reshuffling of genes through <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a> and migration between populations (<a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">gene flow</a>). Despite the constant introduction of new variation through mutation and gene flow, most of the genome of a species is very similar among all individuals of that species.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> However, discoveries in the field of <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a> have demonstrated that even relatively small differences in genotype can lead to dramatic differences in phenotype both within and between species. An individual organism's phenotype results from both its genotype and the influence of the environment it has lived in.<a href="#cite_note-Min_Lin-2006-27">[27]</a> The modern evolutionary synthesis defines evolution as the change over time in this genetic variation. The frequency of one particular allele will become more or less prevalent relative to other forms of that gene. Variation disappears when a new allele reaches the point of <a href="/wiki/Fixation_(population_genetics)" title="Fixation (population genetics)">fixation</a>—when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely.<a href="#cite_note-Amos-1998-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mutation">Mutation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gene-duplication.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Gene-duplication.svg/170px-Gene-duplication.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="463" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Gene-duplication.svg/255px-Gene-duplication.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Gene-duplication.svg/340px-Gene-duplication.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="354" /></a><figcaption>Duplication of part of a <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a></figcaption></figure> Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell's genome and are the ultimate source of genetic variation in all organisms.<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma2017c-30">[30]</a> When mutations occur, they may alter the <a href="/wiki/Gene_product" title="Gene product">product of a gene</a>, or prevent the gene from functioning, or have no effect. About half of the mutations in the coding regions of protein-coding genes are deleterious — the other half are neutral. A small percentage of the total mutations in this region confer a fitness benefit.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Some of the mutations in other parts of the genome are deleterious but the vast majority are neutral. A few are beneficial. Mutations can involve large sections of a chromosome becoming <a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">duplicated</a> (usually by <a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">genetic recombination</a>), which can introduce extra copies of a gene into a genome.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Extra copies of genes are a major source of the raw material needed for new genes to evolve.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> This is important because most new genes evolve within <a href="/wiki/Gene_family" title="Gene family">gene families</a> from pre-existing genes that share common ancestors.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">human eye</a> uses four genes to make structures that sense light: three for <a href="/wiki/Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">colour vision</a> and one for <a href="/wiki/Rod_cell" title="Rod cell">night vision</a>; all four are descended from a single ancestral gene.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> New genes can be generated from an ancestral gene when a duplicate copy mutates and acquires a new function. This process is easier once a gene has been duplicated because it increases the <a href="/wiki/Gene_redundancy" title="Gene redundancy">redundancy</a> of the system; one gene in the pair can acquire a new function while the other copy continues to perform its original function.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Other types of mutations can even generate entirely new genes from previously noncoding DNA, a phenomenon termed <a href="/wiki/De_novo_gene_birth" title="De novo gene birth">de novo gene birth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> The generation of new genes can also involve small parts of several genes being duplicated, with these fragments then recombining to form new combinations with new functions (<a href="/wiki/Exon_shuffling" title="Exon shuffling">exon shuffling</a>).<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> When new genes are assembled from shuffling pre-existing parts, <a href="/wiki/Protein_domain" title="Protein domain">domains</a> act as modules with simple independent functions, which can be mixed together to produce new combinations with new and complex functions.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Polyketide_synthase" title="Polyketide synthase">polyketide synthases</a> are large <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> that make <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>; they contain up to 100 independent domains that each catalyse one step in the overall process, like a step in an assembly line.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> One example of mutation is <a href="/wiki/Wild_boar" title="Wild boar">wild boar</a> piglets. They are camouflage coloured and show a characteristic pattern of dark and light longitudinal stripes. However, mutations in the <a href="/wiki/Melanocortin_1_receptor" title="Melanocortin 1 receptor">melanocortin 1 receptor</a> (MC1R) disrupt the pattern. The majority of pig breeds carry MC1R mutations disrupting wild-type colour and different mutations causing dominant black colouring.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sex_and_recombination">Sex and recombination</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">Genetic recombination</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Evolution of sexual reproduction</a></div> In <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual</a> organisms, genes are inherited together, or linked, as they cannot mix with genes of other organisms during reproduction. In contrast, the offspring of sexual organisms contain random mixtures of their parents' chromosomes that are produced through independent assortment. In a related process called <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombination</a>, sexual organisms exchange DNA between two matching chromosomes.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Recombination and reassortment do not alter allele frequencies, but instead change which alleles are associated with each other, producing offspring with new combinations of alleles.<a href="#cite_note-Agrawal-2006-46">[46]</a> Sex usually increases genetic variation and may increase the rate of evolution.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evolsex-dia1a.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Evolsex-dia1a.svg/250px-Evolsex-dia1a.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Evolsex-dia1a.svg/375px-Evolsex-dia1a.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Evolsex-dia1a.svg/500px-Evolsex-dia1a.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="777" data-file-height="361" /></a><figcaption>This diagram illustrates the twofold cost of sex. If each individual were to contribute to the same number of offspring (two), (a) the sexual population remains the same size each generation, where the (b) <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">Asexual reproduction</a> population doubles in size each generation.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">image reference needed</a>]</figcaption></figure> The two-fold cost of sex was first described by <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith" title="John Maynard Smith">John Maynard Smith</a>.<a href="#cite_note-maynard-49">[49]</a> The first cost is that in sexually dimorphic species only one of the two sexes can bear young. This cost does not apply to hermaphroditic species, like most plants and many <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>. The second cost is that any individual who reproduces sexually can only pass on 50% of its genes to any individual offspring, with even less passed on as each new generation passes.<a href="#cite_note-ridley-50">[50]</a> Yet sexual reproduction is the more common means of reproduction among eukaryotes and multicellular organisms. The <a href="/wiki/Red_Queen_hypothesis" title="Red Queen hypothesis">Red Queen hypothesis</a> has been used to explain the significance of sexual reproduction as a means to enable continual evolution and adaptation in response to <a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">coevolution</a> with other species in an ever-changing environment.<a href="#cite_note-ridley-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Van_Valen-1973-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hamilton-1990-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Birdsell-53">[53]</a> Another hypothesis is that sexual reproduction is primarily an adaptation for promoting accurate recombinational repair of damage in germline DNA, and that increased diversity is a byproduct of this process that may sometimes be adaptively beneficial.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gene_flow">Gene flow</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></div> Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations and between species.<a href="#cite_note-Morjan-2004-56">[56]</a> It can therefore be a source of variation that is new to a population or to a species. Gene flow can be caused by the movement of individuals between separate populations of organisms, as might be caused by the movement of mice between inland and coastal populations, or the movement of <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> between heavy-metal-tolerant and heavy-metal-sensitive populations of grasses. Gene transfer between species includes the formation of <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybrid</a> organisms and <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>. Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring; this is most common among bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> In medicine, this contributes to the spread of <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistance</a>, as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species.<a href="#cite_note-Walsh-2006-58">[58]</a> Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast <a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a> and the adzuki bean weevil <a href="/wiki/Callosobruchus_chinensis" title="Callosobruchus chinensis">Callosobruchus chinensis</a> has occurred.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> An example of larger-scale transfers are the eukaryotic <a href="/wiki/Bdelloidea" title="Bdelloidea">bdelloid rotifers</a>, which have received a range of genes from bacteria, fungi and plants.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Viruses can also carry DNA between organisms, allowing transfer of genes even across <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">biological domains</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Large-scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic cell">eukaryotic cells</a> and bacteria, during the acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a>. It is possible that eukaryotes themselves originated from horizontal gene transfers between bacteria and <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></div> Some heritable changes cannot be explained by changes to the sequence of <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a> in the DNA. These phenomena are classed as epigenetic inheritance systems.<a href="#cite_note-Jablonka-2009-64">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/DNA_methylation" title="DNA methylation">DNA methylation</a> marking <a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">chromatin</a>, self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by <a href="/wiki/RNA_interference" title="RNA interference">RNA interference</a> and the three-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Protein_structure" title="Protein structure">conformation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">prions</a>) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level.<a href="#cite_note-Bossdorf-2010-65">[65]</a> Developmental biologists suggest that complex interactions in <a href="/wiki/Gene_regulatory_network" title="Gene regulatory network">genetic networks</a> and communication among cells can lead to heritable variations that may underlay some of the mechanics in <a href="/wiki/Developmental_plasticity" title="Developmental plasticity">developmental plasticity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canalisation_(genetics)" title="Canalisation (genetics)">canalisation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jablonka-2002-66">[66]</a> Heritability may also occur at even larger scales. For example, ecological inheritance through the process of <a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">niche construction</a> is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment. This generates a legacy of effects that modify and feed back into the selection regime of subsequent generations.<a href="#cite_note-Laland-2006-67">[67]</a> Other examples of heritability in evolution that are not under the direct control of genes include the inheritance of cultural traits and <a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chapman-1998-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-2007-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolutionary_forces">Evolutionary forces</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mutation_and_selection_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Mutation_and_selection_diagram.svg/300px-Mutation_and_selection_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Mutation_and_selection_diagram.svg/450px-Mutation_and_selection_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Mutation_and_selection_diagram.svg/600px-Mutation_and_selection_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="331" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a> followed by natural selection results in a population with darker colouration.</figcaption></figure> From a <a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">neo-Darwinian</a> perspective, evolution occurs when there are changes in the frequencies of alleles within a population of interbreeding organisms,<a href="#cite_note-Ewens_W.J._2004-70">[70]</a> for example, the allele for black colour in a population of moths becoming more common. Mechanisms that can lead to changes in allele frequencies include natural selection, genetic drift, and mutation bias. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_selection">Natural selection</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dollo%27s_law_of_irreversibility" title="Dollo's law of irreversibility">Dollo's law of irreversibility</a></div> Evolution by natural selection is the process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in successive generations of a population. It embodies three principles:<a href="#cite_note-Lewontin-1970-7">[7]</a> <ul><li>Variation exists within populations of organisms with respect to morphology, physiology and behaviour (phenotypic variation).</li> <li>Different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness).</li> <li>These traits can be passed from generation to generation (heritability of fitness).</li></ul> More offspring are produced than can possibly survive, and these conditions produce competition between organisms for survival and reproduction. Consequently, organisms with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors are more likely to pass on their traits to the next generation than those with traits that do not confer an advantage.<a href="#cite_note-Hurst-2009-71">[71]</a> This <a href="/wiki/Teleonomy" title="Teleonomy">teleonomy</a> is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are <a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">seemingly fitted</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">functional</a> roles they perform.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Consequences of selection include <a href="/wiki/Assortative_mating" title="Assortative mating">nonrandom mating</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_hitchhiking" title="Genetic hitchhiking">genetic hitchhiking</a>. The central concept of natural selection is the <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">evolutionary fitness</a> of an organism.<a href="#cite_note-Orr-2009-74">[74]</a> Fitness is measured by an organism's ability to survive and reproduce, which determines the size of its genetic contribution to the next generation.<a href="#cite_note-Orr-2009-74">[74]</a> However, fitness is not the same as the total number of offspring: instead fitness is indicated by the proportion of subsequent generations that carry an organism's genes.<a href="#cite_note-Haldane-1959-75">[75]</a> For example, if an organism could survive well and reproduce rapidly, but its offspring were all too small and weak to survive, this organism would make little genetic contribution to future generations and would thus have low fitness.<a href="#cite_note-Orr-2009-74">[74]</a> If an allele increases fitness more than the other alleles of that gene, then with each generation this allele has a higher probability of becoming common within the population. These traits are said to be "selected for." Examples of traits that can increase fitness are enhanced survival and increased <a href="/wiki/Fecundity" title="Fecundity">fecundity</a>. Conversely, the lower fitness caused by having a less beneficial or deleterious allele results in this allele likely becoming rarer—they are "selected against."<a href="#cite_note-Lande-1983-76">[76]</a> Importantly, the fitness of an allele is not a fixed characteristic; if the environment changes, previously neutral or harmful traits may become beneficial and previously beneficial traits become harmful.<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma_2005-25">[25]</a> However, even if the direction of selection does reverse in this way, traits that were lost in the past may not re-evolve in an identical form.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> However, a re-activation of dormant genes, as long as they have not been eliminated from the genome and were only suppressed perhaps for hundreds of generations, can lead to the re-occurrence of traits thought to be lost like hindlegs in dolphins, teeth in chickens, wings in wingless stick insects, tails and additional nipples in humans etc. "Throwbacks" such as these are known as <a href="/wiki/Atavism" title="Atavism">atavisms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Genetic_Distribution.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Genetic_Distribution.svg/320px-Genetic_Distribution.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Genetic_Distribution.svg/480px-Genetic_Distribution.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Genetic_Distribution.svg/640px-Genetic_Distribution.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>These charts depict the different types of genetic selection. On each graph, the x-axis variable is the type of <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_trait" title="Phenotypic trait">phenotypic trait</a> and the y-axis variable is the number of organisms.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">image reference needed</a>] Group A is the original population and Group B is the population after selection. · Graph 1 shows <a href="/wiki/Directional_selection" title="Directional selection">directional selection</a>, in which a single extreme <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a> is favoured. · Graph 2 depicts <a href="/wiki/Stabilizing_selection" title="Stabilizing selection">stabilizing selection</a>, where the intermediate phenotype is favoured over the extreme traits. · Graph 3 shows <a href="/wiki/Disruptive_selection" title="Disruptive selection">disruptive selection</a>, in which the extreme phenotypes are favoured over the intermediate.</figcaption></figure> Natural selection within a population for a trait that can vary across a range of values, such as height, can be categorised into three different types. The first is <a href="/wiki/Directional_selection" title="Directional selection">directional selection</a>, which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time—for example, organisms slowly getting taller.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Secondly, <a href="/wiki/Disruptive_selection" title="Disruptive selection">disruptive selection</a> is selection for extreme trait values and often results in <a href="/wiki/Bimodal_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Bimodal distribution">two different values</a> becoming most common, with selection against the average value. This would be when either short or tall organisms had an advantage, but not those of medium height. Finally, in <a href="/wiki/Stabilising_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Stabilising selection">stabilising selection</a> there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends, which causes a decrease in <a href="/wiki/Variance" title="Variance">variance</a> around the average value and less diversity.<a href="#cite_note-Hurst-2009-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> This would, for example, cause organisms to eventually have a similar height. Natural selection most generally makes nature the measure against which individuals and individual traits, are more or less likely to survive. "Nature" in this sense refers to an <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>, that is, a system in which organisms interact with every other element, <a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">physical</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">biological</a>, in their local environment. <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Odum" title="Eugene Odum">Eugene Odum</a>, a founder of ecology, defined an ecosystem as: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms...in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (i.e., exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system...."<a href="#cite_note-Odum1971-82">[82]</a> Each population within an ecosystem occupies a distinct <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a>, or position, with distinct relationships to other parts of the system. These relationships involve the life history of the organism, its position in the <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a> and its geographic range. This broad understanding of nature enables scientists to delineate specific forces which, together, comprise natural selection. Natural selection can act at <a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">different levels of organisation</a>, such as genes, cells, individual organisms, groups of organisms and species.<a href="#cite_note-Okasha07-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gould-1998-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mayr-1997-85">[85]</a> Selection can act at multiple levels simultaneously.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> An example of selection occurring below the level of the individual organism are genes called <a href="/wiki/Transposable_element" title="Transposable element">transposons</a>, which can replicate and spread throughout a genome.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Selection at a level above the individual, such as <a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">group selection</a>, may allow the evolution of cooperation.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_drift">Genetic drift</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a> and <a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Allele-frequency.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Allele-frequency.png/220px-Allele-frequency.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Allele-frequency.png/330px-Allele-frequency.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Allele-frequency.png 2x" data-file-width="333" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Simulation of genetic drift of 20 unlinked alleles in populations of 10 (top) and 100 (bottom). Drift to <a href="/wiki/Fixation_(population_genetics)" title="Fixation (population genetics)">fixation</a> is more rapid in the smaller population.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">image reference needed</a>]</figcaption></figure> Genetic drift is the random fluctuation of <a href="/wiki/Allele_frequency" title="Allele frequency">allele frequencies</a> within a population from one generation to the next.<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma2017b-89">[89]</a> When selective forces are absent or relatively weak, allele frequencies are equally likely to drift upward or downward[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] in each successive generation because the alleles are subject to <a href="/wiki/Sampling_error" title="Sampling error">sampling error</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Masel-2011-90">[90]</a> This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes fixed, either by disappearing from the population or by replacing the other alleles entirely. Genetic drift may therefore eliminate some alleles from a population due to chance alone. Even in the absence of selective forces, genetic drift can cause two separate populations that begin with the same genetic structure to drift apart into two divergent populations with different sets of alleles.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Neutral_theory_of_molecular_evolution" title="Neutral theory of molecular evolution">neutral theory of molecular evolution</a> most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of <a href="/wiki/Neutral_mutation" title="Neutral mutation">neutral mutations</a> by genetic drift.<a href="#cite_note-Kimura-1991-92">[92]</a> In this model, most genetic changes in a population are thus the result of constant mutation pressure and genetic drift.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> This form of the neutral theory has been debated since it does not seem to fit some genetic variation seen in nature.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> A better-supported version of this model is the <a href="/wiki/Nearly_neutral_theory_of_molecular_evolution" title="Nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution">nearly neutral theory</a>, according to which a mutation that would be effectively neutral in a small population is not necessarily neutral in a large population.<a href="#cite_note-Hurst-2009-71">[71]</a> Other theories propose that genetic drift is dwarfed by other <a href="/wiki/Stochastic" title="Stochastic">stochastic</a> forces in evolution, such as genetic hitchhiking, also known as genetic draft.<a href="#cite_note-Masel-2011-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gillespie-2001-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Another concept is <a href="/wiki/Constructive_neutral_evolution" title="Constructive neutral evolution">constructive neutral evolution</a> (CNE), which explains that complex systems can emerge and spread into a population through neutral transitions due to the principles of excess capacity, presuppression, and ratcheting,<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> and it has been applied in areas ranging from the origins of the <a href="/wiki/Spliceosome" title="Spliceosome">spliceosome</a> to the complex interdependence of <a href="/wiki/Microbial_consortium" title="Microbial consortium">microbial communities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The time it takes a neutral allele to become fixed by genetic drift depends on population size; fixation is more rapid in smaller populations.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> The number of individuals in a population is not critical, but instead a measure known as the effective population size.<a href="#cite_note-Charlesworth-2009-105">[105]</a> The effective population is usually smaller than the total population since it takes into account factors such as the level of inbreeding and the stage of the lifecycle in which the population is the smallest.<a href="#cite_note-Charlesworth-2009-105">[105]</a> The effective population size may not be the same for every gene in the same population.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> It is usually difficult to measure the relative importance of selection and neutral processes, including drift.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> The comparative importance of adaptive and non-adaptive forces in driving evolutionary change is an area of <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">current research</a>.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mutation_bias">Mutation bias</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Mutation_bias" title="Mutation bias">Mutation bias</a> is usually conceived as a difference in expected rates for two different kinds of mutation, e.g., transition-transversion bias, GC-AT bias, deletion-insertion bias. This is related to the idea of <a href="/wiki/Developmental_bias" title="Developmental bias">developmental bias</a>. Haldane<a href="#cite_note-Haldane-1927-109">[109]</a> and Fisher<a href="#cite_note-Fisher1930-110">[110]</a> argued that, because mutation is a weak pressure easily overcome by selection, tendencies of mutation would be ineffectual except under conditions of neutral evolution or extraordinarily high mutation rates. This opposing-pressures argument was long used to dismiss the possibility of internal tendencies in evolution,<a href="#cite_note-Yampolsky-2001-111">[111]</a> until the molecular era prompted renewed interest in neutral evolution. Noboru Sueoka<a href="#cite_note-Sueoka-1962-112">[112]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Freese" title="Ernst Freese">Ernst Freese</a><a href="#cite_note-Freese-1962-113">[113]</a> proposed that systematic biases in mutation might be responsible for systematic differences in genomic GC composition between species. The identification of a GC-biased E. coli mutator strain in 1967,<a href="#cite_note-Cox-1967-114">[114]</a> along with the proposal of the <a href="/wiki/Neutral_theory_of_molecular_evolution" title="Neutral theory of molecular evolution">neutral theory</a>, established the plausibility of mutational explanations for molecular patterns, which are now common in the molecular evolution literature. For instance, mutation biases are frequently invoked in models of codon usage.<a href="#cite_note-Shah-2011-115">[115]</a> Such models also include effects of selection, following the mutation-selection-drift model,<a href="#cite_note-Bulmer-1991-116">[116]</a> which allows both for mutation biases and differential selection based on effects on translation. Hypotheses of mutation bias have played an important role in the development of thinking about the evolution of genome composition, including isochores.<a href="#cite_note-Fryxell-2000-117">[117]</a> Different insertion vs. deletion biases in different <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a> can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> The hypothesis of Lynch regarding genome size relies on mutational biases toward increase or decrease in genome size. However, mutational hypotheses for the evolution of composition suffered a reduction in scope when it was discovered that (1) GC-biased gene conversion makes an important contribution to composition in diploid organisms such as mammals<a href="#cite_note-Duret-2009-120">[120]</a> and (2) bacterial genomes frequently have AT-biased mutation.<a href="#cite_note-Hershberg-2010-121">[121]</a> Contemporary thinking about the role of mutation biases reflects a different theory from that of Haldane and Fisher. More recent work<a href="#cite_note-Yampolsky-2001-111">[111]</a> showed that the original "pressures" theory assumes that evolution is based on standing variation: when evolution depends on events of mutation that introduce new alleles, mutational and developmental <a href="/wiki/Bias_in_the_introduction_of_variation" title="Bias in the introduction of variation">biases in the introduction of variation</a> (arrival biases) can impose biases on evolution without requiring neutral evolution or high mutation rates.<a href="#cite_note-Yampolsky-2001-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stoltzfus-2019-122">[122]</a> Several studies report that the mutations implicated in adaptation reflect common mutation biases<a href="#cite_note-Stoltzfus-2017-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-Payne-2019-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-Storz-2019-125">[125]</a> though others dispute this interpretation.<a href="#cite_note-Svensson-2019-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genetic_hitchhiking">Genetic hitchhiking</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_hitchhiking" title="Genetic hitchhiking">Genetic hitchhiking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hill%E2%80%93Robertson_effect" title="Hill–Robertson effect">Hill–Robertson effect</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Selective_sweep" title="Selective sweep">Selective sweep</a></div> Recombination allows alleles on the same strand of DNA to become separated. However, the rate of recombination is low (approximately two events per chromosome per generation). As a result, genes close together on a chromosome may not always be shuffled away from each other and genes that are close together tend to be inherited together, a phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/Genetic_linkage" title="Genetic linkage">linkage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> This tendency is measured by finding how often two alleles occur together on a single chromosome compared to <a href="/wiki/Independence_(probability_theory)" title="Independence (probability theory)">expectations</a>, which is called their <a href="/wiki/Linkage_disequilibrium" title="Linkage disequilibrium">linkage disequilibrium</a>. A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a <a href="/wiki/Haplotype" title="Haplotype">haplotype</a>. This can be important when one allele in a particular haplotype is strongly beneficial: natural selection can drive a <a href="/wiki/Selective_sweep" title="Selective sweep">selective sweep</a> that will also cause the other alleles in the haplotype to become more common in the population; this effect is called genetic hitchhiking or genetic draft.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Genetic draft caused by the fact that some neutral genes are genetically linked to others that are under selection can be partially captured by an appropriate effective population size.<a href="#cite_note-Gillespie-2001-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sexual_selection">Sexual selection</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rana_arvalis2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Rana_arvalis2.jpg/220px-Rana_arvalis2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Rana_arvalis2.jpg/330px-Rana_arvalis2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Rana_arvalis2.jpg/440px-Rana_arvalis2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption>Male <a href="/wiki/Moor_frog" title="Moor frog">moor frogs</a> become blue during the height of mating season. Blue reflectance may be a form of intersexual communication. It is hypothesised that males with brighter blue coloration may signal greater sexual and genetic fitness.<a href="#cite_note-Ries-2008-129">[129]</a></figcaption></figure> A special case of natural selection is sexual selection, which is selection for any trait that increases mating success by increasing the attractiveness of an organism to potential mates.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Traits that evolved through sexual selection are particularly prominent among males of several animal species. Although sexually favoured, traits such as cumbersome antlers, mating calls, large body size and bright colours often attract predation, which compromises the survival of individual males.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Quinn-2001-132">[132]</a> This survival disadvantage is balanced by higher reproductive success in males that show these <a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">hard-to-fake</a>, sexually selected traits.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_outcomes">Natural outcomes</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm/330px-seek%3D106-Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="330" height="186" data-durationhint="115" data-mwtitle="Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm/Kishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AKishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AKishony_lab-The_Evolution_of_Bacteria_on_a_Mega-Plate.webm&lang=sv&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="sv" label="svenska ‪(sv)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>A visual demonstration of rapid <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistance</a> evolution by E. coli growing across a plate with increasing concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Trimethoprim" title="Trimethoprim">trimethoprim</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></figcaption></figure> Evolution influences every aspect of the form and behaviour of organisms. Most prominent are the specific behavioural and physical adaptations that are the outcome of natural selection. These adaptations increase fitness by aiding activities such as finding food, avoiding <a href="/wiki/Predators" class="mw-redirect" title="Predators">predators</a> or attracting mates. Organisms can also respond to selection by <a href="/wiki/Co-operation_(evolution)" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-operation (evolution)">cooperating</a> with each other, usually by aiding their relatives or engaging in mutually beneficial <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a>. In the longer term, evolution produces new species through splitting ancestral populations of organisms into new groups that cannot or will not interbreed. These outcomes of evolution are distinguished based on time scale as <a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">macroevolution</a> versus microevolution. Macroevolution refers to evolution that occurs at or above the level of species, in particular speciation and extinction, whereas microevolution refers to smaller evolutionary changes within a species or population, in particular shifts in allele frequency and adaptation.<a href="#cite_note-Scott-2007-135">[135]</a> Macroevolution is the outcome of long periods of microevolution.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Thus, the distinction between micro- and macroevolution is not a fundamental one—the difference is simply the time involved.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> However, in macroevolution, the traits of the entire species may be important. For instance, a large amount of variation among individuals allows a species to rapidly adapt to new <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitats</a>, lessening the chance of it going extinct, while a wide geographic range increases the chance of speciation, by making it more likely that part of the population will become isolated. In this sense, microevolution and macroevolution might involve selection at different levels—with microevolution acting on genes and organisms, versus macroevolutionary processes such as <a href="/wiki/Species_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Species selection">species selection</a> acting on entire species and affecting their rates of speciation and extinction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould2002657–658-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gould_1994-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jablonski-2000-140">[140]</a> A common misconception is that evolution has goals, long-term plans, or an innate tendency for "progress", as expressed in beliefs such as <a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">orthogenesis</a> and evolutionism; realistically, however, evolution has no long-term goal and does not necessarily produce greater complexity.<a href="#cite_note-Dougherty-1998-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Although <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">complex species</a> have evolved, they occur as a side effect of the overall number of organisms increasing, and simple forms of life still remain more common in the biosphere.<a href="#cite_note-Carroll-2001-144">[144]</a> For example, the overwhelming majority of species are microscopic <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a>, which form about half the world's <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a> despite their small size<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> and constitute the vast majority of Earth's biodiversity.<a href="#cite_note-Schloss-2004-146">[146]</a> Simple organisms have therefore been the dominant form of life on Earth throughout its history and continue to be the main form of life up to the present day, with complex life only appearing more diverse because it is <a href="/wiki/Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">more noticeable</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Indeed, the evolution of microorganisms is particularly important to evolutionary research since their rapid reproduction allows the study of <a href="/wiki/Experimental_evolution" title="Experimental evolution">experimental evolution</a> and the observation of evolution and adaptation in real time.<a href="#cite_note-Buckling-2009-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adaptation">Adaptation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Homology_vertebrates-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Homology_vertebrates-en.svg/300px-Homology_vertebrates-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Homology_vertebrates-en.svg/450px-Homology_vertebrates-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Homology_vertebrates-en.svg/600px-Homology_vertebrates-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="367" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homologous</a> bones in the limbs of <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a>. The bones of these animals have the same basic structure, but have been <a href="/wiki/Adapted" class="mw-redirect" title="Adapted">adapted</a> for specific uses.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">image reference needed</a>]</figcaption></figure> Adaptation is the process that makes organisms better suited to their habitat.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Also, the term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism's survival. For example, the adaptation of horses' teeth to the grinding of grass. By using the term adaptation for the evolutionary process and adaptive trait for the product (the bodily part or function), the two senses of the word may be distinguished. Adaptations are produced by natural selection.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> The following definitions are due to Theodosius Dobzhansky: <ol><li>Adaptation is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat or habitats.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></li> <li>Adaptedness is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a></li> <li>An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a></li></ol> Adaptation may cause either the gain of a new feature, or the loss of an ancestral feature. An example that shows both types of change is bacterial adaptation to antibiotic selection, with genetic changes causing antibiotic resistance by both modifying the target of the drug, or increasing the activity of transporters that pump the drug out of the cell.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Other striking examples are the bacteria <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a> evolving the ability to use <a href="/wiki/Citric_acid" title="Citric acid">citric acid</a> as a nutrient in a <a href="/wiki/E._coli_long-term_evolution_experiment" title="E. coli long-term evolution experiment">long-term laboratory experiment</a>,<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> <a href="/wiki/Flavobacterium" title="Flavobacterium">Flavobacterium</a> evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to grow on the by-products of nylon manufacturing,<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> and the soil bacterium <a href="/wiki/Sphingobium" title="Sphingobium">Sphingobium</a> evolving an entirely new <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">metabolic pathway</a> that degrades the synthetic <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticide</a> <a href="/wiki/Pentachlorophenol" title="Pentachlorophenol">pentachlorophenol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> An interesting but still controversial idea is that some adaptations might increase the ability of organisms to generate genetic diversity and adapt by natural selection (increasing organisms' evolvability).<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Whale_skeleton.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Whale_skeleton.png/300px-Whale_skeleton.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Whale_skeleton.png/450px-Whale_skeleton.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Whale_skeleton.png/600px-Whale_skeleton.png 2x" data-file-width="1388" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Baleen_whale" title="Baleen whale">baleen whale</a> skeleton. Letters a and b label <a href="/wiki/Flipper_(anatomy)" title="Flipper (anatomy)">flipper</a> bones, which were adapted from front leg bones, while c indicates <a href="/wiki/Vestigial" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestigial">vestigial</a> leg bones, both suggesting an adaptation from land to sea.<a href="#cite_note-Bejder-2002-166">[166]</a></figcaption></figure> Adaptation occurs through the gradual modification of existing structures. Consequently, structures with similar internal organisation may have different functions in related organisms. This is the result of a single ancestral structure being adapted to function in different ways. The bones within bat wings, for example, are very similar to those in mice feet and <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primate</a> hands, due to the descent of all these structures from a common mammalian ancestor.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> However, since all living organisms are related to some extent,<a href="#cite_note-Penny-1999-168">[168]</a> even organs that appear to have little or no structural similarity, such as <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropod</a>, <a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">squid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> eyes, or the limbs and wings of arthropods and vertebrates, can depend on a common set of homologous genes that control their assembly and function; this is called <a href="/wiki/Deep_homology" title="Deep homology">deep homology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> During evolution, some structures may lose their original function and become vestigial structures.<a href="#cite_note-Fong-1995-171">[171]</a> Such structures may have little or no function in a current species, yet have a clear function in ancestral species, or other closely related species. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Pseudogene" title="Pseudogene">pseudogenes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave-dwelling fish,<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> wings in flightless birds,<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes,<a href="#cite_note-Bejder-2002-166">[166]</a> and sexual traits in organisms that reproduce via asexual reproduction.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Examples of <a href="/wiki/Human_vestigiality" title="Human vestigiality">vestigial structures in humans</a> include <a href="/wiki/Wisdom_tooth" title="Wisdom tooth">wisdom teeth</a>,<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Coccyx" title="Coccyx">coccyx</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Fong-1995-171">[171]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Vermiform_appendix" class="mw-redirect" title="Vermiform appendix">vermiform appendix</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Fong-1995-171">[171]</a> and other behavioural vestiges such as <a href="/wiki/Goose_bumps" title="Goose bumps">goose bumps</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Primitive_reflexes" title="Primitive reflexes">primitive reflexes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> However, many traits that appear to be simple adaptations are in fact <a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">exaptations</a>: structures originally adapted for one function, but which coincidentally became somewhat useful for some other function in the process.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould20021235–1236-182">[182]</a> One example is the African lizard Holaspis guentheri, which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices, as can be seen by looking at its near relatives. However, in this species, the head has become so flattened that it assists in gliding from tree to tree—an exaptation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould20021235–1236-182">[182]</a> Within cells, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_machine" title="Molecular machine">molecular machines</a> such as the bacterial <a href="/wiki/Flagella" class="mw-redirect" title="Flagella">flagella</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Translocase_of_the_inner_membrane" title="Translocase of the inner membrane">protein sorting machinery</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> evolved by the recruitment of several pre-existing proteins that previously had different functions.<a href="#cite_note-Scott-2007-135">[135]</a> Another example is the recruitment of enzymes from <a href="/wiki/Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">glycolysis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xenobiotic_metabolism" title="Xenobiotic metabolism">xenobiotic metabolism</a> to serve as structural proteins called <a href="/wiki/Crystallin" title="Crystallin">crystallins</a> within the lenses of organisms' eyes.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> An area of current investigation in evolutionary developmental biology is the developmental basis of adaptations and exaptations.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> This research addresses the origin and evolution of <a href="/wiki/Embryogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryogenesis">embryonic development</a> and how modifications of development and developmental processes produce novel features.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to produce new structures, such as embryonic bone structures that develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">middle ear in mammals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> It is also possible for structures that have been lost in evolution to reappear due to changes in developmental genes, such as a mutation in chickens causing embryos to grow teeth similar to those of crocodiles.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> It is now becoming clear that most alterations in the form of organisms are due to changes in a small set of conserved genes.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coevolution">Coevolution</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thamnophis_sirtalis_sirtalis_Wooster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Thamnophis_sirtalis_sirtalis_Wooster.jpg/220px-Thamnophis_sirtalis_sirtalis_Wooster.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Thamnophis_sirtalis_sirtalis_Wooster.jpg/330px-Thamnophis_sirtalis_sirtalis_Wooster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Thamnophis_sirtalis_sirtalis_Wooster.jpg/440px-Thamnophis_sirtalis_sirtalis_Wooster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3384" data-file-height="2820" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Common_garter_snake" title="Common garter snake">common garter snake</a> has evolved resistance to the <a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">defensive substance</a> <a href="/wiki/Tetrodotoxin" title="Tetrodotoxin">tetrodotoxin</a> in its amphibian prey.</figcaption></figure> Interactions between organisms can produce both conflict and cooperation. When the interaction is between pairs of species, such as a <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">host</a>, or a predator and its prey, these species can develop matched sets of adaptations. Here, the evolution of one species causes adaptations in a second species. These changes in the second species then, in turn, cause new adaptations in the first species. This cycle of selection and response is called coevolution.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> An example is the production of <a href="/wiki/Tetrodotoxin" title="Tetrodotoxin">tetrodotoxin</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Rough-skinned_newt" title="Rough-skinned newt">rough-skinned newt</a> and the evolution of tetrodotoxin resistance in its predator, the <a href="/wiki/Common_garter_snake" title="Common garter snake">common garter snake</a>. In this predator-prey pair, an <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">evolutionary arms race</a> has produced high levels of toxin in the newt and correspondingly high levels of toxin resistance in the snake.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cooperation">Cooperation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Co-operation_(evolution)" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-operation (evolution)">Co-operation (evolution)</a></div> Not all co-evolved interactions between species involve conflict.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> Many cases of mutually beneficial interactions have evolved. For instance, an extreme cooperation exists between plants and the <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">mycorrhizal</a> fungi that grow on their roots and aid the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> This is a <a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(evolution)" title="Reciprocity (evolution)">reciprocal</a> relationship as the plants provide the fungi with sugars from <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. Here, the fungi actually grow inside plant cells, allowing them to exchange nutrients with their hosts, while sending <a href="/wiki/Signal_transduction" title="Signal transduction">signals</a> that suppress the plant <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Coalitions between organisms of the same species have also evolved. An extreme case is the <a href="/wiki/Eusociality" title="Eusociality">eusociality</a> found in social insects, such as <a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">bees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Termite" title="Termite">termites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a>, where sterile insects feed and guard the small number of organisms in a <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colony</a> that are able to reproduce. On an even smaller scale, the somatic cells that make up the body of an animal limit their reproduction so they can maintain a stable organism, which then supports a small number of the animal's germ cells to produce offspring. Here, somatic cells respond to specific signals that instruct them whether to grow, remain as they are, or die. If cells ignore these signals and multiply inappropriately, their uncontrolled growth <a href="/wiki/Carcinogenesis" title="Carcinogenesis">causes cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bertram-2000-197">[197]</a> Such cooperation within species may have evolved through the process of <a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">kin selection</a>, which is where one organism acts to help raise a relative's offspring.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> This activity is selected for because if the helping individual contains alleles which promote the helping activity, it is likely that its kin will also contain these alleles and thus those alleles will be passed on.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> Other processes that may promote cooperation include group selection, where cooperation provides benefits to a group of organisms.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Speciation">Speciation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Assortative_mating" title="Assortative mating">Assortative mating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Panmixia" title="Panmixia">Panmixia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Speciation_modes_edit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Speciation_modes_edit.svg/350px-Speciation_modes_edit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Speciation_modes_edit.svg/525px-Speciation_modes_edit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Speciation_modes_edit.svg/700px-Speciation_modes_edit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>The four geographic modes of <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a></figcaption></figure> Speciation is the process where a species diverges into two or more descendant species.<a href="#cite_note-Gavrilets-2003-201">[201]</a> There are multiple ways to define the concept of "species". The choice of definition is dependent on the particularities of the species concerned.<a href="#cite_note-de_Queiroz-2005-202">[202]</a> For example, some species concepts apply more readily toward sexually reproducing organisms while others lend themselves better toward asexual organisms. Despite the diversity of various species concepts, these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches: interbreeding, ecological and phylogenetic.<a href="#cite_note-Ereshefsky-1992-203">[203]</a> The Biological Species Concept (BSC) is a classic example of the interbreeding approach. Defined by evolutionary biologist <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a> in 1942, the BSC states that "species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups."<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> Despite its wide and long-term use, the BSC like other species concepts is not without controversy, for example, because genetic recombination among prokaryotes is not an intrinsic aspect of reproduction;<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> this is called the <a href="/wiki/Species_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Species problem">species problem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-de_Queiroz-2005-202">[202]</a> Some researchers have attempted a unifying monistic definition of species, while others adopt a pluralistic approach and suggest that there may be different ways to logically interpret the definition of a species.<a href="#cite_note-de_Queiroz-2005-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ereshefsky-1992-203">[203]</a> <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_isolation" title="Reproductive isolation">Barriers to reproduction</a> between two diverging sexual populations are required for the populations to become new species. Gene flow may slow this process by spreading the new genetic variants also to the other populations. Depending on how far two species have diverged since their <a href="/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor" title="Most recent common ancestor">most recent common ancestor</a>, it may still be possible for them to produce offspring, as with horses and donkeys mating to produce <a href="/wiki/Mule" title="Mule">mules</a>.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> Such hybrids are generally <a href="/wiki/Infertile" class="mw-redirect" title="Infertile">infertile</a>. In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct. However, viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species, or possess a totally new phenotype.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> The importance of hybridisation in producing <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">new species</a> of animals is unclear, although cases have been seen in many types of animals,<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Gray_tree_frog" class="mw-redirect" title="Gray tree frog">gray tree frog</a> being a particularly well-studied example.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> Speciation has been observed multiple times under both <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_experiments_of_speciation" title="Laboratory experiments of speciation">controlled laboratory conditions</a> and in nature.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> In sexually reproducing organisms, speciation results from reproductive isolation followed by genealogical divergence. There are four primary geographic modes of speciation. The most common in animals is <a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">allopatric speciation</a>, which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically, such as by <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">habitat fragmentation</a> or migration. Selection under these conditions can produce very rapid changes in the appearance and behaviour of organisms.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-Losos-1997-212">[212]</a> As selection and drift act independently on populations isolated from the rest of their species, separation may eventually produce organisms that cannot interbreed.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> The second mode of speciation is <a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">peripatric speciation</a>, which occurs when small populations of organisms become isolated in a new environment. This differs from allopatric speciation in that the isolated populations are numerically much smaller than the parental population. Here, the <a href="/wiki/Founder_effect" title="Founder effect">founder effect</a> causes rapid speciation after an increase in <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding" title="Inbreeding">inbreeding</a> increases selection on homozygotes, leading to rapid genetic change.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> The third mode is <a href="/wiki/Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">parapatric speciation</a>. This is similar to peripatric speciation in that a small population enters a new habitat, but differs in that there is no physical separation between these two populations. Instead, speciation results from the evolution of mechanisms that reduce gene flow between the two populations.<a href="#cite_note-Gavrilets-2003-201">[201]</a> Generally this occurs when there has been a drastic change in the environment within the parental species' habitat. One example is the grass <a href="/wiki/Anthoxanthum" title="Anthoxanthum">Anthoxanthum odoratum</a>, which can undergo parapatric speciation in response to localised metal pollution from mines.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> Here, plants evolve that have resistance to high levels of metals in the soil. Selection against interbreeding with the metal-sensitive parental population produced a gradual change in the flowering time of the metal-resistant plants, which eventually produced complete reproductive isolation. Selection against hybrids between the two populations may cause <a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">reinforcement</a>, which is the evolution of traits that promote mating within a species, as well as <a href="/wiki/Character_displacement" title="Character displacement">character displacement</a>, which is when two species become more distinct in appearance.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:Darwin%27s_finches.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Darwin%27s_finches.jpeg" decoding="async" width="250" height="236" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="236" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Geographical_isolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographical isolation">Geographical isolation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_finches" title="Darwin's finches">finches</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_Islands" title="Galápagos Islands">Galápagos Islands</a> produced over a dozen new species.</figcaption></figure> Finally, in <a href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">sympatric speciation</a> species diverge without geographic isolation or changes in habitat. This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic differences between parts of a population.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> Generally, sympatric speciation in animals requires the evolution of both <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">genetic differences</a> and nonrandom mating, to allow reproductive isolation to evolve.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> One type of sympatric speciation involves <a href="/wiki/Crossbreed" title="Crossbreed">crossbreeding</a> of two related species to produce a new hybrid species. This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile. This is because during <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> the <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">homologous chromosomes</a> from each parent are from different species and cannot successfully pair. However, it is more common in plants because plants often double their number of chromosomes, to form <a href="/wiki/Polyploidy" title="Polyploidy">polyploids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> This allows the chromosomes from each parental species to form matching pairs during meiosis, since each parent's chromosomes are represented by a pair already.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> An example of such a speciation event is when the plant species <a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_arenosa" title="Arabidopsis arenosa">Arabidopsis arenosa</a> crossbred to give the new species Arabidopsis suecica.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> This happened about 20,000 years ago,<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> and the speciation process has been repeated in the laboratory, which allows the study of the genetic mechanisms involved in this process.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> Indeed, chromosome doubling within a species may be a common cause of reproductive isolation, as half the doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with undoubled organisms.<a href="#cite_note-Sémon-2007-224">[224]</a> Speciation events are important in the theory of <a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">punctuated equilibrium</a>, which accounts for the pattern in the fossil record of short "bursts" of evolution interspersed with relatively long periods of stasis, where species remain relatively unchanged.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> In this theory, speciation and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_evolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Contemporary evolution (page does not exist)">rapid evolution</a> are linked, with natural selection and genetic drift acting most strongly on organisms undergoing speciation in novel habitats or small populations. As a result, the periods of stasis in the fossil record correspond to the parental population and the organisms undergoing speciation and rapid evolution are found in small populations or geographically restricted habitats and therefore rarely being preserved as fossils.<a href="#cite_note-Gould_1994-139">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extinction">Extinction</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg/220px-Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg/330px-Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg/440px-Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1552" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurus_rex" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyrannosaurus rex">Tyrannosaurus rex</a>. Non-<a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">avian</a> dinosaurs died out in the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> period.</figcaption></figure> Extinction is the disappearance of an entire species. Extinction is not an unusual event, as species regularly appear through speciation and disappear through extinction.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> Nearly all animal and plant species that have lived on Earth are now extinct,<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> and extinction appears to be the ultimate fate of all species.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> These extinctions have happened continuously throughout the history of life, although the rate of extinction spikes in occasional mass <a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">extinction events</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Raup-1994-229">[229]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a>, during which the non-avian dinosaurs became extinct, is the most well-known, but the earlier <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction event</a> was even more severe, with approximately 96% of all marine species driven to extinction.<a href="#cite_note-Raup-1994-229">[229]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction event</a> is an ongoing mass extinction associated with humanity's expansion across the globe over the past few thousand years. Present-day extinction rates are 100–1000 times greater than the background rate and up to 30% of current species may be extinct by the mid 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> Human activities are now the primary cause of the ongoing extinction event;<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a> may further accelerate it in the future.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> Despite the estimated extinction of more than 99% of all species that ever lived on Earth,<a href="#cite_note-Stearns-1999-234">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-Novacek-2014-235">[235]</a> about 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of 1% described.<a href="#cite_note-NSF-2016-236">[236]</a> The role of extinction in evolution is not very well understood and may depend on which type of extinction is considered.<a href="#cite_note-Raup-1994-229">[229]</a> The causes of the continuous "low-level" extinction events, which form the majority of extinctions, may be the result of competition between species for limited resources (the <a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">competitive exclusion principle</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Kutschera-2004-237">[237]</a> If one species can out-compete another, this could produce species selection, with the fitter species surviving and the other species being driven to extinction.<a href="#cite_note-Gould-1998-84">[84]</a> The intermittent mass extinctions are also important, but instead of acting as a selective force, they drastically reduce diversity in a nonspecific manner and promote bursts of rapid evolution and speciation in survivors.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Applications_of_evolution" title="Applications of evolution">Applications of evolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Selective breeding</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_computation" title="Evolutionary computation">Evolutionary computation</a></div> Concepts and models used in evolutionary biology, such as natural selection, have many applications.<a href="#cite_note-Bull-2001-239">[239]</a> Artificial selection is the intentional selection of traits in a population of organisms. This has been used for thousands of years in the <a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">domestication</a> of plants and animals.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> More recently, such selection has become a vital part of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetic engineering</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Selectable_marker" title="Selectable marker">selectable markers</a> such as antibiotic resistance genes being used to manipulate DNA. Proteins with valuable properties have evolved by repeated rounds of mutation and selection (for example modified enzymes and new <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibodies</a>) in a process called <a href="/wiki/Directed_evolution" title="Directed evolution">directed evolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> Understanding the changes that have occurred during an organism's evolution can reveal the genes needed to construct parts of the body, genes which may be involved in human <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">genetic disorders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_tetra" title="Mexican tetra">Mexican tetra</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Albino" class="mw-redirect" title="Albino">albino</a> cavefish that lost its eyesight during evolution. Breeding together different populations of this blind fish produced some offspring with functional eyes, since different mutations had occurred in the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> This helped identify genes required for vision and pigmentation.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> Evolutionary theory has many <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_therapy" title="Evolutionary therapy">applications in medicine</a>. Many human diseases are not static phenomena, but capable of evolution. Viruses, bacteria, fungi and cancers evolve to be resistant to host immune defences, as well as to <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical drug">pharmaceutical drugs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> These same problems occur in agriculture with pesticide<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">herbicide</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> resistance. It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> and predicting the evolution and evolvability<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, simulations of evolution using <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_algorithm" title="Evolutionary algorithm">evolutionary algorithms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artificial_life" title="Artificial life">artificial life</a> started in the 1960s and were extended with simulation of artificial selection.<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> Artificial evolution became a widely recognised optimisation method as a result of the work of <a href="/wiki/Ingo_Rechenberg" title="Ingo Rechenberg">Ingo Rechenberg</a> in the 1960s. He used <a href="/wiki/Evolution_strategies" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution strategies">evolution strategies</a> to solve complex engineering problems.<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> <a href="/wiki/Genetic_algorithm" title="Genetic algorithm">Genetic algorithms</a> in particular became popular through the writing of <a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Holland" title="John Henry Holland">John Henry Holland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> Practical applications also include <a href="/wiki/Genetic_programming" title="Genetic programming">automatic evolution of computer programmes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> Evolutionary algorithms are now used to solve multi-dimensional problems more efficiently than software produced by human designers and also to optimise the design of systems.<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolutionary_history_of_life">Evolutionary history of life</h2></div> <div style="float: right;"> <table id="Container" role="presentation" class="nomobile toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:29.95em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 0 1em"><div style="background-color:#77bb77;padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Life timeline</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" id="Navbox" style="padding:0;margin:0 1em 0 0;text-align:right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist">This box: <ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_timeline" title="Template:Life timeline">view</a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life_timeline" title="Template talk:Life timeline">talk</a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life_timeline" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life timeline">edit</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:50em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:49.56em;transform:translateY(-50%)">−4500 —</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:48.18em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:46.81em;transform:translateY(-50%)">—</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.43em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:44.05em;transform:translateY(-50%)">−4000 —</div><div 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style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.29em;transform:translateY(-50%)">—</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:28.91em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.53em;transform:translateY(-50%)">−2500 —</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:26.16em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:24.78em;transform:translateY(-50%)">—</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:23.40em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:22.03em;transform:translateY(-50%)">−2000 —</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.65em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:19.27em;transform:translateY(-50%)">—</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.90em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:16.52em;transform:translateY(-50%)">−1500 —</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.14em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:13.77em;transform:translateY(-50%)">—</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.39em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:11.01em;transform:translateY(-50%)">−1000 —</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:9.64em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:8.26em;transform:translateY(-50%)">—</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:6.88em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.51em;transform:translateY(-50%)">−500 —</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:4.13em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:2.75em;transform:translateY(-50%)">—</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:1.38em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)">0 —</div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:13em;height:50em;float:left;border:none"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e5cc7f;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:50.000em;left:0.910em;width:12.090em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-25.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#aebfd1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:44.053em;height:4.537em;left:1.040em;width:11.960em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.269em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Water</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#aebfd1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:44.053em;left:1.040em;width:0.130em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-22.026em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3d9ff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:38.546em;height:5.507em;left:1.170em;width:11.830em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.753em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">Single-celled life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3d9ff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:38.546em;left:1.170em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-19.273em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:23.128em;height:15.419em;left:1.430em;width:11.570em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-7.709em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_photosynthesis" title="Evolution of photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:23.128em;left:1.430em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-11.564em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3ffea;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:17.621em;height:5.507em;left:1.690em;width:11.310em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.753em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3ffea;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:17.621em;left:1.690em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.811em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccffe7;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:5.958em;height:11.663em;left:1.950em;width:11.050em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.831em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellular life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccffe7;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:5.958em;left:1.950em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.979em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#77dd00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.982em;height:7.379em;left:2.210em;width:1.170em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.689em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">P l a n t s</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#77dd00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.982em;left:2.210em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.991em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:2.203em;height:3.756em;left:3.380em;width:9.620em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.878em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a> <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Molluscs</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffff00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.982em;left:2.470em;width:3.510em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.53em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.991em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant#Evolutionary_history" title="Flowering plant">Flowers</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e6b880;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.721em;height:2.583em;left:3.380em;width:5.070em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.291em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffcc00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.203em;left:8.580em;width:4.420em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.101em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffcc00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.606em;height:1.597em;left:8.450em;width:4.290em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.15em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.798em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammals</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e6b880;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.333em;left:5.980em;width:2.600em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.225em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.666em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Birds</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffbbbb;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:0.606em;left:8.710em;width:4.030em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.1em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.303em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">Primates</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#993c00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:44.053em;height:5.947em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.05em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.974em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">H a d e a n</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#936a00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:27.533em;height:16.520em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-1.2em;left:-0.05em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.260em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean"> A r c h e a n</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#f1c309;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:5.958em;height:21.575em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-10.787em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic"> P r o t e r o z o i c</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#c1e0c1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:5.958em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.979em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">P h a n e r o z o i c</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:8.260em;left:12.714em;width:0.286em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.130em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.203em;left:12.714em;width:0.286em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.101em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:11.05em;height:50em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:50.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">Earth formed</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:48.568em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Earliest water</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:47.907em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">LUCA</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:44.053em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest fossils</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:42.952em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">LHB meteorites</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:38.546em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_oxygen" title="Geological history of oxygen">Earliest oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:31.278em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Pongola_glaciation" title="Pongola glaciation">Pongola glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:25.330em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event" title="Great Oxidation Event">Atmospheric oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:24.780em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Huronian_glaciation" title="Huronian glaciation">Huronian glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:22.026em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction#Origin_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:17.621em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Francevillian_biota" title="Francevillian biota">Earliest multicellular life</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:16.520em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Earliest fungi</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:9.361em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Earliest plants</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.260em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Caveasphaera" title="Caveasphaera">Earliest animals</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:7.489em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cryogenian" title="Cryogenian">Cryogenian ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:6.993em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ediacaran_biota" title="Ediacaran biota">Ediacaran biota</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:5.958em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.15em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:4.956em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Hirnantian_glaciation" title="Hirnantian glaciation">Hirnantian glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:4.075em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">Earliest tetrapods</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:3.304em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Late_Paleozoic_icehouse" title="Late Paleozoic icehouse">Karoo ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.275em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.3em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">Earliest apes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.018em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation" title="Quaternary glaciation">Quaternary ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:26.8em"><div style="float:left;font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Myr" class="mw-redirect" title="Myr">million years ago</a>)</div><div style="float:right;font-size:95%;">*<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_glaciation" title="Timeline of glaciation">Ice Ages</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">Evolutionary history of life</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of the evolutionary history of life</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin_of_life">Origin of life</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/RNA_world_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA world hypothesis">RNA world hypothesis</a></div> The Earth is <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">about 4.54 billion years old</a>.<a href="#cite_note-USGS-2007-258">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dalrymple-2001-259">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-Manhesa-1980-260">[260]</a> The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago,<a href="#cite_note-Schopf-2007-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-RavenJohnson2002-261">[261]</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Eoarchean" title="Eoarchean">Eoarchean</a> Era after a geological <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> started to solidify following the earlier molten <a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Hadean</a> Eon. Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia.<a href="#cite_note-Borenstein-2013-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pearlman-2013-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Noffke-2013-16">[16]</a> Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old <a href="/wiki/Metasediment" class="mw-redirect" title="Metasediment">metasedimentary rocks</a> discovered in Western Greenland<a href="#cite_note-Ohtomo-2014-13">[13]</a> as well as "remains of <a href="/wiki/Biotic_material" title="Biotic material">biotic life</a>" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.<a href="#cite_note-Borenstein-2015-262">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bell-2015-263">[263]</a> Commenting on the Australian findings, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Blair_Hedges" title="Stephen Blair Hedges">Stephen Blair Hedges</a> wrote: "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe."<a href="#cite_note-Borenstein-2015-262">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a> In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">last universal common ancestor</a> (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Wade-2016-265">[265]</a> More than 99% of all species, amounting to over five billion species,<a href="#cite_note-Book-Biology-266">[266]</a> that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct.<a href="#cite_note-Stearns-1999-234">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-Novacek-2014-235">[235]</a> Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million,<a href="#cite_note-Mora-2011-267">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-Miller-268">[268]</a> of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named<a href="#cite_note-Chapman2009-269">[269]</a> and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date,<a href="#cite_note-Roskov-2016-270">[270]</a> leaving at least 80% not yet described. Highly energetic chemistry is thought to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago, and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed.<a href="#cite_note-Doolittle-2000-10">[10]</a> The current scientific consensus is that the complex biochemistry that makes up life came from simpler chemical reactions.<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBC-20201111-272">[272]</a> The beginning of life may have included self-replicating molecules such as <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a><a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> and the assembly of simple cells.<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_descent">Common descent</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of common descent</a></div> All organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral <a href="/wiki/Gene_pool" title="Gene pool">gene pool</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Penny-1999-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> Current species are a stage in the process of evolution, with their diversity the product of a long series of speciation and extinction events.<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a> The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation. Second, the diversity of life is not a set of completely unique organisms, but organisms that share morphological similarities. Third, <a href="/wiki/Vestigial_trait" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestigial trait">vestigial traits</a> with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits. Fourth, organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups, similar to a family tree.<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ape_skeletons.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Ape_skeletons.png/330px-Ape_skeletons.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Ape_skeletons.png/495px-Ape_skeletons.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Ape_skeletons.png/660px-Ape_skeletons.png 2x" data-file-width="1081" data-file-height="588" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Hominoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominoids">hominoids</a> are descendants of a <a href="/wiki/Common_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Common ancestor">common ancestor</a>.</figcaption></figure> Due to horizontal gene transfer, this "tree of life" may be more complicated than a simple branching tree, since some genes have spread independently between distantly related species.<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> To solve this problem and others, some authors prefer to use the "<a href="/wiki/Coral_of_life" title="Coral of life">Coral of life</a>" as a metaphor or a mathematical model to illustrate the evolution of life. This view dates back to an idea briefly mentioned by Darwin but later abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-Bnotebook-280">[280]</a> Past species have also left records of their evolutionary history. Fossils, along with the comparative anatomy of present-day organisms, constitute the morphological, or anatomical, record.<a href="#cite_note-Jablonski-1999-281">[281]</a> By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, palaeontologists can infer the lineages of those species. However, this approach is most successful for organisms that had hard body parts, such as shells, bones or teeth. Further, as prokaryotes such as bacteria and archaea share a limited set of common morphologies, their fossils do not provide information on their ancestry. More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical similarities between organisms. For example, all living cells use the same basic set of nucleotides and <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> The development of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetics</a> has revealed the record of evolution left in organisms' genomes: dating when species diverged through the <a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">molecular clock</a> produced by mutations.<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a> For example, these DNA sequence comparisons have revealed that humans and chimpanzees share 98% of their genomes and analysing the few areas where they differ helps shed light on when the common ancestor of these species existed.<a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_life">Evolution of life</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">Evolutionary history of life</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolutionary history of life</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right noresize" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png/320px-Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png/480px-Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png/640px-Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png 2x" data-file-width="1122" data-file-height="741" usemap="#ImageMap_0a164291f73509fe" resource="/wiki/File:Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png" /><map name="ImageMap_0a164291f73509fe"><area href="/wiki/Euryarchaeota" shape="rect" coords="25,151,90,160" alt="Euryarchaeota" title="Euryarchaeota" /><area href="/wiki/Nanoarchaeota" shape="rect" coords="15,132,83,140" alt="Nanoarchaeota" title="Nanoarchaeota" /><area href="/wiki/Thermoproteota" shape="rect" coords="13,116,79,124" alt="Thermoproteota" title="Thermoproteota" /><area href="/wiki/Protozoa" shape="rect" coords="33,88,73,95" alt="Protozoa" title="Protozoa" /><area href="/wiki/Algae" shape="rect" coords="56,57,81,66" alt="Algae" title="Algae" /><area href="/wiki/Plant" shape="rect" coords="64,43,91,50" alt="Plant" title="Plant" /><area href="/wiki/Slime_molds" shape="rect" coords="47,31,108,38" alt="Slime molds" title="Slime molds" /><area href="/wiki/Animal" shape="rect" coords="91,19,128,27" alt="Animal" title="Animal" /><area href="/wiki/Fungus" shape="rect" coords="133,17,158,26" alt="Fungus" title="Fungus" /><area href="/wiki/Gram-positive_bacteria" shape="rect" coords="163,14,231,23" alt="Gram-positive bacteria" title="Gram-positive bacteria" /><area href="/wiki/Chlamydiota" shape="rect" coords="175,25,228,34" alt="Chlamydiota" title="Chlamydiota" /><area href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" shape="rect" coords="193,38,305,46" alt="Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota" /><area href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" shape="rect" coords="215,53,280,60" alt="Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota" /><area href="/wiki/Planctomycetota" shape="rect" coords="229,68,300,77" alt="Planctomycetota" title="Planctomycetota" /><area href="/wiki/Spirochaetota" shape="rect" coords="233,85,292,94" alt="Spirochaetota" title="Spirochaetota" /><area href="/wiki/Fusobacteriota" shape="rect" coords="233,107,291,114" alt="Fusobacteriota" title="Fusobacteriota" /><area href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" shape="rect" coords="232,125,313,146" alt="Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria" /><area href="/wiki/Thermophiles" shape="rect" coords="220,150,293,168" alt="Thermophiles" title="Thermophiles" /><area href="/wiki/Acidobacteriota" shape="rect" coords="194,177,257,185" alt="Acidobacteriota" title="Acidobacteriota" /><area href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" shape="rect" coords="118,188,183,195" alt="Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota" /></map><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Evolutionary tree</a> showing the divergence of modern species from their common ancestor in the centre.<a href="#cite_note-Ciccarelli-2006-285">[285]</a> The three <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">domains</a> are coloured, with bacteria blue, <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> green and <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> red.</figcaption></figure> Prokaryotes inhabited the Earth from approximately 3–4 billion years ago.<a href="#cite_note-Cavalier-Smith-2006-286">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> No obvious changes in morphology or cellular organisation occurred in these organisms over the next few billion years.<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6 and 2.7 billion years ago. The next major change in cell structure came when bacteria were engulfed by eukaryotic cells, in a cooperative association called <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbiosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Poole-2007-289">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dyall-2004-290">[290]</a> The engulfed bacteria and the host cell then underwent coevolution, with the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria or <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenosome" title="Hydrogenosome">hydrogenosomes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> Another engulfment of <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacterial</a>-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants.<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a> The history of life was that of the <a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">unicellular</a> eukaryotes, prokaryotes and archaea until about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to appear in the oceans in the <a href="/wiki/Ediacara_biota" class="mw-redirect" title="Ediacara biota">Ediacaran</a> period.<a href="#cite_note-Cavalier-Smith-2006-286">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular evolution">evolution of multicellularity</a> occurred in multiple independent events, in organisms as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">brown algae</a>, cyanobacteria, <a href="/wiki/Slime_mold" title="Slime mold">slime moulds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Myxobacteria" title="Myxobacteria">myxobacteria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a> In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK-PID may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.<a href="#cite_note-Zimmer-2016-295">[295]</a> Soon after the emergence of these first multicellular organisms, a remarkable amount of biological diversity appeared over approximately 10 million years, in an event called the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a>. Here, the majority of <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">types</a> of modern animals appeared in the fossil record, as well as unique lineages that subsequently became extinct.<a href="#cite_note-Valentine-1999-296">[296]</a> Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis.<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a> About 500 million years ago, plants and fungi colonised the land and were soon followed by arthropods and other animals.<a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a> Insects were particularly successful and even today make up the majority of animal species.<a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a> <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">Amphibians</a> first appeared around 364 million years ago, followed by early <a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">amniotes</a> and birds around 155 million years ago (both from "reptile"-like lineages), <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> around 129 million years ago, <a href="/wiki/Homininae" title="Homininae">Homininae</a> around 10 million years ago and <a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern humans">modern humans</a> around 250,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a> However, despite the evolution of these large animals, smaller organisms similar to the types that evolved early in this process continue to be highly successful and dominate the Earth, with the majority of both biomass and species being prokaryotes.<a href="#cite_note-Schloss-2004-146">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_evolutionary_thought">History of evolutionary thought</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History of evolutionary thought</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_speciation" title="History of speciation">History of speciation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lucretius_Rome.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Lucretius_Rome.jpg/170px-Lucretius_Rome.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Lucretius_Rome.jpg/255px-Lucretius_Rome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Lucretius_Rome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="272" data-file-height="390" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alfred-Russel-Wallace-c1895.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Alfred-Russel-Wallace-c1895.jpg/170px-Alfred-Russel-Wallace-c1895.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Alfred-Russel-Wallace-c1895.jpg/255px-Alfred-Russel-Wallace-c1895.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Alfred-Russel-Wallace-c1895.jpg/340px-Alfred-Russel-Wallace-c1895.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2293" data-file-height="3355" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Robert_Malthus_Wellcome_L0069037_-crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Thomas_Robert_Malthus_Wellcome_L0069037_-crop.jpg/170px-Thomas_Robert_Malthus_Wellcome_L0069037_-crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Thomas_Robert_Malthus_Wellcome_L0069037_-crop.jpg/255px-Thomas_Robert_Malthus_Wellcome_L0069037_-crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Thomas_Robert_Malthus_Wellcome_L0069037_-crop.jpg/340px-Thomas_Robert_Malthus_Wellcome_L0069037_-crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4045" data-file-height="4944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Thomas Robert Malthus</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg/170px-Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg/255px-Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg/340px-Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg 2x" data-file-width="398" data-file-height="487" /></a><figcaption>In 1842, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> penned his first sketch of <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a>.<a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_antiquity">Classical antiquity</h3></div> The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">pre-Socratic</a> Greek philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Anaximander#Origin_of_humankind" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empedocles#Cosmogony" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a> Such proposals survived into Roman times. The poet and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a> followed Empedocles in his masterwork <a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'On the Nature of Things').<a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3></div> In contrast to these <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialistic</a> views, <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> had considered all natural things as <a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality" title="Potentiality and actuality">actualisations</a> of fixed natural possibilities, known as <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">forms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Torrey-1937-307">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hull-1967-308">[308]</a> This became part of a medieval <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleological</a> understanding of <a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">nature</a> in which all things have an intended role to play in a <a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">divine</a> <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmic</a> order. Variations of this idea became the standard understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and were integrated into Christian learning, but Aristotle did not demand that real types of organisms always correspond one-for-one with exact metaphysical forms and specifically gave examples of how new types of living things could come to be.<a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a> A number of Arab Muslim scholars wrote about evolution, most notably <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a>, who wrote the book <a href="/wiki/Muqaddimah" title="Muqaddimah">Muqaddimah</a> in 1377 AD, in which he asserted that humans developed from "the world of the monkeys", in a process by which "species become more numerous".<a href="#cite_note-Kiros-2001-310">[310]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Darwinian">Pre-Darwinian</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">"New Science"</a> of the 17th century rejected the Aristotelian approach. It sought to explain natural phenomena in terms of <a href="/wiki/Physical_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical law">physical laws</a> that were the same for all visible things and that did not require the existence of any fixed natural categories or divine cosmic order. However, this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences: the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types. <a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a> applied one of the previously more general terms for fixed natural types, "species", to plant and animal types, but he strictly identified each type of living thing as a species and proposed that each species could be defined by the features that perpetuated themselves generation after generation.<a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Biological_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological classification">biological classification</a> introduced by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> in 1735 explicitly recognised the hierarchical nature of species relationships, but still viewed species as fixed according to a divine plan.<a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a> Other <a href="/wiki/Naturalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalists">naturalists</a> of this time speculated on the evolutionary change of species over time according to natural laws. In 1751, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Maupertuis" title="Pierre Louis Maupertuis">Pierre Louis Maupertuis</a> wrote of natural modifications occurring during reproduction and accumulating over many generations to produce new species.<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a> <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon</a>, suggested that species could degenerate into different organisms, and <a href="/wiki/Erasmus_Darwin" title="Erasmus Darwin">Erasmus Darwin</a> proposed that all warm-blooded animals could have descended from a single microorganism (or "filament").<a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a> The first full-fledged evolutionary scheme was <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a>'s "transmutation" theory of 1809,<a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a> which envisaged <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">spontaneous generation</a> continually producing simple forms of life that developed greater complexity in parallel lineages with an inherent progressive tendency, and postulated that on a local level, these lineages adapted to the environment by inheriting changes caused by their use or disuse in parents.<a href="#cite_note-Nardon_Grenier91-316">[316]</a> (The latter process was later called <a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a>.)<a href="#cite_note-Nardon_Grenier91-316">[316]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ghiselin-1994-317">[317]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jablonka-2007-318">[318]</a> These ideas were condemned by established naturalists as speculation lacking empirical support. In particular, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a> insisted that species were unrelated and fixed, their similarities reflecting divine design for functional needs. In the meantime, Ray's ideas of benevolent design had been developed by <a href="/wiki/William_Paley" title="William Paley">William Paley</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Natural_Theology_or_Evidences_of_the_Existence_and_Attributes_of_the_Deity" title="Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity">Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity</a> (1802), which proposed complex adaptations as evidence of divine design and which was admired by Charles Darwin.<a href="#cite_note-Darwin91-319">[319]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sulloway-2009-320">[320]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Darwinian_revolution">Darwinian revolution</h3></div> The crucial break from the concept of constant typological classes or types in biology came with the theory of evolution through natural selection, which was formulated by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wallace" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred Wallace">Alfred Wallace</a> in terms of variable populations. Darwin used the expression "descent with modification" rather than "evolution".<a href="#cite_note-321">[321]</a> Partly influenced by <a href="/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Principle_of_Population" title="An Essay on the Principle of Population">An Essay on the Principle of Population</a> (1798) by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Thomas Robert Malthus</a>, Darwin noted that population growth would lead to a "struggle for existence" in which favourable variations prevailed as others perished. In each generation, many offspring fail to survive to an age of reproduction because of limited resources. This could explain the diversity of plants and animals from a common ancestry through the working of natural laws in the same way for all types of organism.<a href="#cite_note-Sober-2009-322">[322]</a><a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a><a href="#cite_note-324">[324]</a><a href="#cite_note-325">[325]</a> Darwin developed his theory of "natural selection" from 1838 onwards and was writing up his "big book" on the subject when <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> sent him a version of virtually the same theory in 1858. Their <a href="/wiki/On_the_Tendency_of_Species_to_form_Varieties;_and_on_the_Perpetuation_of_Varieties_and_Species_by_Natural_Means_of_Selection" title="On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection">separate papers</a> were presented together at an 1858 meeting of the <a href="/wiki/Linnean_Society_of_London" title="Linnean Society of London">Linnean Society of London</a>.<a href="#cite_note-326">[326]</a> At the end of 1859, Darwin's publication of his "abstract" as On the Origin of Species explained natural selection in detail and in a way that led to an increasingly wide acceptance of <a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwin's concepts of evolution</a> at the expense of <a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_evolution_by_natural_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternatives to evolution by natural selection">alternative theories</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Henry Huxley</a> applied Darwin's ideas to humans, using <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">comparative anatomy</a> to provide strong evidence that humans and <a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">apes</a> shared a common ancestry. Some were disturbed by this since it implied that humans did not have a special place in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a> <a href="/wiki/Othniel_C._Marsh" class="mw-redirect" title="Othniel C. Marsh">Othniel C. Marsh</a>, America’s first paleontologist, was the first to provide solid fossil evidence to support Darwin’s theory of evolution by unearthing the ancestors of the modern horse.<a href="#cite_note-328">[328]</a> In 1877, Marsh delivered a very influential speech before the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, providing a demonstrative argument for evolution. For the first time, Marsh traced the evolution of vertebrates from fish all the way through humans. Sparing no detail, he listed a wealth of fossil examples of past life forms. The significance of this speech was immediately recognized by the scientific community, and it was printed in its entirety in several scientific journals.<a href="#cite_note-329">[329]</a><a href="#cite_note-330">[330]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pangenesis_and_heredity">Pangenesis and heredity</h3></div> The mechanisms of reproductive heritability and the origin of new traits remained a mystery. Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of <a href="/wiki/Pangenesis" title="Pangenesis">pangenesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Liu-2009-331">[331]</a> In 1865, <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a> reported that traits were inherited in a predictable manner through the <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance#Law_of_Independent_Assortment" title="Mendelian inheritance">independent assortment</a> and segregation of elements (later known as genes). Mendel's laws of inheritance eventually supplanted most of Darwin's pangenesis theory.<a href="#cite_note-Weiling-1991-332">[332]</a> <a href="/wiki/August_Weismann" title="August Weismann">August Weismann</a> made the important distinction between <a href="/wiki/Germ_cell" title="Germ cell">germ cells</a> that give rise to <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">egg cells</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Somatic_cell" title="Somatic cell">somatic cells</a> of the body, demonstrating that heredity passes through the germ line only. <a href="/wiki/Hugo_de_Vries" title="Hugo de Vries">Hugo de Vries</a> connected Darwin's pangenesis theory to Weismann's germ/soma cell distinction and proposed that Darwin's pangenes were concentrated in the <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">cell nucleus</a> and when expressed they could move into the <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a> to change the <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a>'s structure. De Vries was also one of the researchers who made Mendel's work well known, believing that Mendelian traits corresponded to the transfer of heritable variations along the germline.<a href="#cite_note-Wright84-333">[333]</a> To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed <a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">a mutation theory</a> that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries.<a href="#cite_note-334">[334]</a><a href="#cite_note-335">[335]</a> In the 1930s, pioneers in the field of <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Ronald Fisher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sewall_Wright" title="Sewall Wright">Sewall Wright</a> and <a href="/wiki/J._B._S._Haldane" title="J. B. S. Haldane">J. B. S. Haldane</a> set the foundations of evolution onto a robust statistical philosophy. The false contradiction between Darwin's theory, genetic mutations, and <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a> was thus reconciled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler1989307–318-336">[336]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_'modern_synthesis'">The 'modern synthesis'</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis (20th century)</a></div> In the 1920s and 1930s, the <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis" title="Modern synthesis">modern synthesis</a> connected natural selection and population genetics, based on Mendelian inheritance, into a unified theory that included random genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow. This new version of evolutionary theory focused on changes in allele frequencies in population. It explained patterns observed across species in populations, through <a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">fossil transitions</a> in palaeontology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler1989307–318-336">[336]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_syntheses">Further syntheses</h3></div> Since then, further syntheses have extended evolution's explanatory power in the light of numerous discoveries, to cover biological phenomena across the whole of the <a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">biological hierarchy</a> from genes to populations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson2019-337">[337]</a> The publication of the structure of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> by <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> with contribution of <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a> in 1953 demonstrated a physical mechanism for inheritance.<a href="#cite_note-Watson-1953-338">[338]</a> <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a> improved understanding of the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotype</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a>. Advances were also made in phylogenetic <a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">systematics</a>, mapping the transition of traits into a comparative and testable framework through the publication and use of <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">evolutionary trees</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hennig99-339">[339]</a> In 1973, evolutionary biologist <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Theodosius Dobzhansky</a> penned that "<a href="/wiki/Nothing_in_Biology_Makes_Sense_Except_in_the_Light_of_Evolution" title="Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution">nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution</a>", because it has brought to light the relations of what first seemed disjointed facts in natural history into a coherent <a href="/wiki/Explanation" title="Explanation">explanatory</a> body of knowledge that describes and predicts many observable facts about life on this planet.<a href="#cite_note-Dobzhansky-1973-340">[340]</a> One extension, known as <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a> and informally called "evo-devo", emphasises how changes between generations (evolution) act on patterns of change within individual organisms (<a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">development</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Kutschera-2004-237">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-Avise10-341">[341]</a> Since the beginning of the 21st century, some biologists have argued for an <a href="/wiki/Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">extended evolutionary synthesis</a>, which would account for the effects of non-genetic inheritance modes, such as <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">epigenetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maternal_effect" title="Maternal effect">parental effects</a>, ecological inheritance and <a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">cultural inheritance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Evolvability" title="Evolvability">evolvability</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Danchin-2011-342">[342]</a><a href="#cite_note-eesbook-343">[343]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_and_cultural_responses">Social and cultural responses</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory" title="Social effects of evolutionary theory">Social effects of evolutionary theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/1860_Oxford_evolution_debate" title="1860 Oxford evolution debate">1860 Oxford evolution debate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acceptance_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Acceptance of evolution by religious groups">Acceptance of evolution by religious groups</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Rejection of evolution by religious groups</a>, <a href="/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" title="Objections to evolution">Objections to evolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Evolution_in_fiction" title="Evolution in fiction">Evolution in fiction</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Editorial_cartoon_depicting_Charles_Darwin_as_an_ape_(1871).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Editorial_cartoon_depicting_Charles_Darwin_as_an_ape_%281871%29.jpg/170px-Editorial_cartoon_depicting_Charles_Darwin_as_an_ape_%281871%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Editorial_cartoon_depicting_Charles_Darwin_as_an_ape_%281871%29.jpg/255px-Editorial_cartoon_depicting_Charles_Darwin_as_an_ape_%281871%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Editorial_cartoon_depicting_Charles_Darwin_as_an_ape_%281871%29.jpg/340px-Editorial_cartoon_depicting_Charles_Darwin_as_an_ape_%281871%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2068" data-file-height="2782" /></a><figcaption>As evolution became widely accepted in the 1870s, <a href="/wiki/Caricature" title="Caricature">caricatures</a> of Charles Darwin with an <a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">ape</a> or monkey body symbolised evolution.<a href="#cite_note-344">[344]</a></figcaption></figure> In the 19th century, particularly after the publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859, the idea that life had evolved was an active source of academic debate centred on the philosophical, social and religious implications of evolution. Today, the modern evolutionary synthesis is accepted by a vast majority of scientists.<a href="#cite_note-Kutschera-2004-237">[237]</a> However, evolution remains a contentious concept for some <a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">theists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-345">[345]</a> While <a href="/wiki/Level_of_support_for_evolution#Religious" title="Level of support for evolution">various religions and denominations</a> have reconciled their beliefs with evolution through concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">theistic evolution</a>, there are <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationists</a> who believe that evolution is contradicted by the <a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">creation myths</a> found in their religions and who raise various <a href="/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" title="Objections to evolution">objections to evolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Scott-2007-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ross-2005-346">[346]</a><a href="#cite_note-347">[347]</a> As had been demonstrated by responses to the publication of <a href="/wiki/Vestiges_of_the_Natural_History_of_Creation" title="Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation">Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation</a> in 1844, the most controversial aspect of evolutionary biology is the implication of <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a> that humans share common ancestry with apes and that the mental and <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">moral faculties</a> of humanity have the same types of natural causes as other inherited traits in animals.<a href="#cite_note-348">[348]</a> In some countries, notably the United States, these tensions between science and religion have fuelled the current creation–evolution controversy, a religious conflict focusing on politics and <a href="/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education" title="Creation and evolution in public education">public education</a>.<a href="#cite_note-349">[349]</a> While other scientific fields such as <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">cosmology</a><a href="#cite_note-Spergel-2003-350">[350]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a><a href="#cite_note-Wilde-2001-351">[351]</a> also conflict with literal interpretations of many <a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">religious texts</a>, evolutionary biology experiences significantly more opposition from religious literalists. The teaching of evolution in American secondary school biology classes was uncommon in most of the first half of the 20th century. The <a href="/wiki/Scopes_Trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Scopes Trial">Scopes Trial</a> decision of 1925 caused the subject to become very rare in American secondary biology textbooks for a generation, but it was gradually re-introduced later and became legally protected with the 1968 <a href="/wiki/Epperson_v._Arkansas" title="Epperson v. Arkansas">Epperson v. Arkansas</a> decision. Since then, the competing religious belief of creationism was legally disallowed in secondary school curricula in various decisions in the 1970s and 1980s, but it returned in <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscientific</a> form as <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">intelligent design</a> (ID), to be excluded once again in the 2005 <a href="/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District" title="Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District">Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District</a> case.<a href="#cite_note-Branch-2007-352">[352]</a> The debate over Darwin's ideas did not generate significant controversy in China.<a href="#cite_note-Xiaoxing-2019-353">[353]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Devolution_(biology)" title="Devolution (biology)">Devolution (biology)</a> – Notion that species can revert to primitive forms</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronospecies" title="Chronospecies">Chronospecies</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHallHallgrímsson2008">Hall & Hallgrímsson 2008</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jrDD3cyA09kC&pg=PA4">4–6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nas.edu/evolution/index.html">"Evolution Resources"</a>. Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/National_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine" title="National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine">National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine</a>. 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160603230514/http://www.nas.edu/evolution/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Evolution+Resources&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=National+Academies+of+Sciences%2C+Engineering%2C+and+Medicine&rft.date=2016&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nas.edu%2Fevolution%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scott-Phillips-2014-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Scott-Phillips-2014_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scott-Phillips-2014_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott-PhillipsLalandShukerDickins2014" class="citation journal cs1">Scott-Phillips, Thomas C.; <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Laland" class="mw-redirect" title="Kevin Laland">Laland, Kevin N.</a>; Shuker, David M.; et al. (May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4261998">"The Niche Construction Perspective: A Critical Appraisal"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Evolution_(journal)" title="Evolution (journal)">Evolution</a>. 68 (5): 1231–1243. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fevo.12332">10.1111/evo.12332</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0014-3820">0014-3820</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4261998">4261998</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24325256">24325256</a>. <q>Evolutionary processes are generally thought of as processes by which these changes occur. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phil.vt.edu/Burian/NothingInBiolChFina.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 23 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Biology+Teacher&rft.atitle=Nothing+in+Biology+Makes+Sense+Except+in+the+Light+of+Evolution&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=125-129&rft.date=1973-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.324.2891%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A207358177%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4444260%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4444260&rft.aulast=Dobzhansky&rft.aufirst=Theodosius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phil.vt.edu%2FBurian%2FNothingInBiolChFina.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Avise10-341"><a href="#cite_ref-Avise10_341-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAviseAyala2010" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Avise" title="John Avise">Avise, John C.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Francisco_J._Ayala" title="Francisco J. Ayala">Ayala, Francisco J.</a> (11 May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.sites.uci.edu/johncavise/files/2011/03/311-intro-to-ILE-IV.pdf">"In the light of evolution IV: The human condition"</a> (PDF). PNAS. 107 (Suppl. 2): 8897–8901. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1003214107">10.1073/pnas.1003214107</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3024015">3024015</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20460311">20460311</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140823063532/http://faculty.sites.uci.edu/johncavise/files/2011/03/311-intro-to-ILE-IV.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 23 August 2014. Retrieved 29 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PNAS&rft.atitle=In+the+light+of+evolution+IV%3A+The+human+condition&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=Suppl.+2&rft.pages=8897-8901&rft.date=2010-05-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3024015%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20460311&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1003214107&rft.aulast=Avise&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.au=Ayala%2C+Francisco+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.sites.uci.edu%2Fjohncavise%2Ffiles%2F2011%2F03%2F311-intro-to-ILE-IV.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Danchin-2011-342"><a href="#cite_ref-Danchin-2011_342-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanchinCharmantierChampagneMesoudi2011" class="citation journal cs1">Danchin, Étienne; Charmantier, Anne; <a href="/wiki/Frances_Champagne" title="Frances Champagne">Champagne, Frances A.</a>; Mesoudi, Alex; Pujol, Benoit; Blanchet, Simon (June 2011). "Beyond DNA: integrating inclusive inheritance into an extended theory of evolution". <a href="/wiki/Nature_Reviews_Genetics" title="Nature Reviews Genetics">Nature Reviews Genetics</a>. 12 (7): 475–486. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg3028">10.1038/nrg3028</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1471-0056">1471-0056</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21681209">21681209</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8837202">8837202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Genetics&rft.atitle=Beyond+DNA%3A+integrating+inclusive+inheritance+into+an+extended+theory+of+evolution&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=475-486&rft.date=2011-06&rft.issn=1471-0056&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8837202%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21681209&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrg3028&rft.aulast=Danchin&rft.aufirst=%C3%89tienne&rft.au=Charmantier%2C+Anne&rft.au=Champagne%2C+Frances+A.&rft.au=Mesoudi%2C+Alex&rft.au=Pujol%2C+Benoit&rft.au=Blanchet%2C+Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-eesbook-343"><a href="#cite_ref-eesbook_343-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPigliucciMüller2010">Pigliucci & Müller 2010</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-344"><a href="#cite_ref-344">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrowne2003">Browne 2003</a>, pp. 376–379 </li> <li id="cite_note-345"><a href="#cite_ref-345">^</a> For an overview of the philosophical, religious and cosmological controversies, see: <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFDennett1995">Dennett 1995</a></li></ul> For the scientific and social reception of evolution in the 19th and early 20th centuries, see: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ian_C._Johnston" title="Ian C. 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London: <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Pimlico</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7126-6837-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7126-6837-8"><bdi>978-0-7126-6837-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/94006598">94006598</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52327000">52327000</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Charles+Darwin%3A+The+Power+of+Place&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Pimlico&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52327000&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F94006598&rft.isbn=978-0-7126-6837-8&rft.aulast=Browne&rft.aufirst=Janet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurkhardtSmith1991" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Burkhardt" title="Frederick Burkhardt">Burkhardt, Frederick</a>; Smith, Sydney, eds. (1991). The Correspondence of Charles Darwin. Vol. 7: 1858–1859. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-38564-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-38564-0"><bdi>978-0-521-38564-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/84045347">84045347</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185662993">185662993</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Correspondence+of+Charles+Darwin&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F185662993&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F84045347&rft.isbn=978-0-521-38564-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrollGrenierWeatherbee2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sean_B._Carroll" title="Sean B. Carroll">Carroll, Sean B.</a>; Grenier, Jennifer K.; Weatherbee, Scott D. (2005). From DNA to Diversity: Molecular Genetics and the Evolution of Animal Design (2nd ed.). Malden, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Blackwell Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1950-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1950-4"><bdi>978-1-4051-1950-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003027991">2003027991</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53972564">53972564</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+DNA+to+Diversity%3A+Molecular+Genetics+and+the+Evolution+of+Animal+Design&rft.place=Malden%2C+Massachusetts&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53972564&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003027991&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-1950-4&rft.aulast=Carroll&rft.aufirst=Sean+B.&rft.au=Grenier%2C+Jennifer+K.&rft.au=Weatherbee%2C+Scott+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapman2009" class="citation book cs1">Chapman, Arthur D. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.environment.gov.au/science/abrs/publications/other/numbers-living-species/">Numbers of Living Species in Australia and the World</a> (2nd ed.). Canberra: <a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Environment,_Water,_Heritage_and_the_Arts" title="Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts">Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts</a>: <a href="/wiki/Australian_Biological_Resources_Study" title="Australian Biological Resources Study">Australian Biological Resources Study</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-642-56860-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-642-56860-1"><bdi>978-0-642-56860-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/780539206">780539206</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161225064434/http://www.environment.gov.au/science/abrs/publications/other/numbers-living-species">Archived</a> from the original on 25 December 2016. Retrieved 6 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Numbers+of+Living+Species+in+Australia+and+the+World&rft.place=Canberra&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Department+of+the+Environment%2C+Water%2C+Heritage+and+the+Arts%3A+Australian+Biological+Resources+Study&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F780539206&rft.isbn=978-0-642-56860-1&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Arthur+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.environment.gov.au%2Fscience%2Fabrs%2Fpublications%2Fother%2Fnumbers-living-species%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoyne2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Coyne" title="Jerry Coyne">Coyne, Jerry A.</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn">Why Evolution is True</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Viking_Press" title="Viking Press">Viking</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-02053-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-02053-9"><bdi>978-0-670-02053-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008033973">2008033973</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/233549529">233549529</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+Evolution+is+True&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F233549529&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008033973&rft.isbn=978-0-670-02053-9&rft.aulast=Coyne&rft.aufirst=Jerry+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhyevolutionistr00coyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalrymple2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brent_Dalrymple" title="Brent Dalrymple">Dalrymple, G. Brent</a> (2001). "The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved". In Lewis, C.L.E.; Knell, S.J. (eds.). The Age of the Earth: from 4004 BC to AD 2002. Geological Society Special Publication. Vol. 190. pp. 205–221. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001GSLSP.190..205D">2001GSLSP.190..205D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1144%2Fgsl.sp.2001.190.01.14">10.1144/gsl.sp.2001.190.01.14</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86239-093-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86239-093-5"><bdi>978-1-86239-093-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003464816">2003464816</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48570033">48570033</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:130092094">130092094</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+age+of+the+Earth+in+the+twentieth+century%3A+a+problem+%28mostly%29+solved&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+the+Earth%3A+from+4004+BC+to+AD+2002&rft.series=Geological+Society+Special+Publication&rft.pages=205-221&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A130092094%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001GSLSP.190..205D&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48570033&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003464816&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1144%2Fgsl.sp.2001.190.01.14&rft.isbn=978-1-86239-093-5&rft.aulast=Dalrymple&rft.aufirst=G.+Brent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1837" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a> (1837). "B" Notebook.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22B%22+Notebook&rft.date=1837&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"> The notebook is available from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=CUL-DAR121.-&viewtype=side&pageseq=1">The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220318093920/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR121.-&pageseq=1">Archived</a> 18 March 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 2019-10-09.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1859" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a> (1859). <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life</a> (1st ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/John_Murray_(publishing_house)" title="John Murray (publishing house)">John Murray</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/06017473">06017473</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/741260650">741260650</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Origin+of+Species+by+Means+of+Natural+Selection%2C+or+the+Preservation+of+Favoured+Races+in+the+Struggle+for+Life&rft.place=London&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1859&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F741260650&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F06017473&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"> The book is available from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=1&itemID=F373&viewtype=side">The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150127124331/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=side&pageseq=1">Archived</a> 27 January 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 2014-11-21.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1872" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a> (1872). <a href="/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals" title="The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals">The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals</a>. London: John Murray. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/04002793">04002793</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1102785">1102785</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Expression+of+the+Emotions+in+Man+and+Animals&rft.place=London&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1872&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1102785&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F04002793&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1909" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Darwin" title="Francis Darwin">Darwin, Francis</a>, ed. (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/converted/pdf/1909_Foundations_F1555.pdf">The foundations of The origin of species, a sketch written in 1842</a> (PDF). Cambridge: Printed at the University Press. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/61057537">61057537</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1184581">1184581</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304111606/http://darwin-online.org.uk/converted/pdf/1909_Foundations_F1555.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 27 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+foundations+of+The+origin+of+species%2C+a+sketch+written+in+1842&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Printed+at+the+University+Press&rft.date=1909&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1184581&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F61057537&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fconverted%2Fpdf%2F1909_Foundations_F1555.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennett1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Dennett, Daniel</a> (1995). <a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_Dangerous_Idea" title="Darwin's Dangerous Idea">Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-80290-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-80290-9"><bdi>978-0-684-80290-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/94049158">94049158</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31867409">31867409</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Darwin%27s+Dangerous+Idea%3A+Evolution+and+the+Meanings+of+Life&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F31867409&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F94049158&rft.isbn=978-0-684-80290-9&rft.aulast=Dennett&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobzhansky1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Dobzhansky, Theodosius</a> (1968). "On Some Fundamental Concepts of Darwinian Biology". In Dobzhansky, Theodosius; Hecht, Max K.; Steere, William C. (eds.). Evolutionary Biology (1st ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Appleton-Century-Crofts" title="Appleton-Century-Crofts">Appleton-Century-Crofts</a>. pp. 1–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4684-8094-8_1">10.1007/978-1-4684-8094-8_1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4684-8096-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4684-8096-2"><bdi>978-1-4684-8096-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/24875357">24875357</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+Some+Fundamental+Concepts+of+Darwinian+Biology&rft.btitle=Evolutionary+Biology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1-34&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Appleton-Century-Crofts&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F24875357&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4684-8094-8_1&rft.isbn=978-1-4684-8096-2&rft.aulast=Dobzhansky&rft.aufirst=Theodosius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobzhansky1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Dobzhansky, Theodosius</a> (1970). Genetics of the Evolutionary Process. New York: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-02837-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-02837-0"><bdi>978-0-231-02837-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/72127363">72127363</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/97663">97663</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genetics+of+the+Evolutionary+Process&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F97663&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F72127363&rft.isbn=978-0-231-02837-0&rft.aulast=Dobzhansky&rft.aufirst=Theodosius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEldredgeGould1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Niles_Eldredge" title="Niles Eldredge">Eldredge, Niles</a>; <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Gould, Stephen Jay</a> (1972). "Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism". In Schopf, Thomas J.M. (ed.). Models in Paleobiology. San Francisco, California: Freeman, Cooper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87735-325-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87735-325-6"><bdi>978-0-87735-325-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/72078387">72078387</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/572084">572084</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Punctuated+equilibria%3A+an+alternative+to+phyletic+gradualism&rft.btitle=Models+in+Paleobiology&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Freeman%2C+Cooper&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F572084&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F72078387&rft.isbn=978-0-87735-325-6&rft.aulast=Eldredge&rft.aufirst=Niles&rft.au=Gould%2C+Stephen+Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Eldredge, Niles (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timeframesrethin0000eldr">Time Frames: The Rethinking of Darwinian Evolution and the Theory of Punctuated Equilibria</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-49555-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-49555-8"><bdi>978-0-671-49555-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/84023632">84023632</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/11443805">11443805</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Time+Frames%3A+The+Rethinking+of+Darwinian+Evolution+and+the+Theory+of+Punctuated+Equilibria&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11443805&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F84023632&rft.isbn=978-0-671-49555-8&rft.aulast=Eldredge&rft.aufirst=Niles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftimeframesrethin0000eldr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEwens2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Warren_Ewens" title="Warren Ewens">Ewens, Warren J.</a> (2004). Mathematical Population Genetics. Interdisciplinary Applied Mathematics. Vol. I. Theoretical Introduction (2nd ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer-Verlag New York</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-20191-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-20191-7"><bdi>978-0-387-20191-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003065728">2003065728</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53231891">53231891</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematical+Population+Genetics&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Interdisciplinary+Applied+Mathematics&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag+New+York&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53231891&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003065728&rft.isbn=978-0-387-20191-7&rft.aulast=Ewens&rft.aufirst=Warren+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher1930" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Fisher, Ronald A.</a> (1930). 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Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">The Clarendon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850440-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850440-5"><bdi>978-0-19-850440-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/30029177">30029177</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/18500548">18500548</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genetical+Theory+of+Natural+Selection&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=The+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1930&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F18500548&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F30029177&rft.isbn=978-0-19-850440-5&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Ronald+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFutuyma2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Douglas_J._Futuyma" title="Douglas J. Futuyma">Futuyma, Douglas J.</a> (2004). "The Fruit of the Tree of Life: Insights into Evolution and Ecology". In Cracraft, Joel; Donoghue, Michael J. (eds.). Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford; New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517234-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517234-8"><bdi>978-0-19-517234-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003058012">2003058012</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/61342697">61342697</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Fruit+of+the+Tree+of+Life%3A+Insights+into+Evolution+and+Ecology&rft.btitle=Assembling+the+Tree+of+Life&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F61342697&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003058012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517234-8&rft.aulast=Futuyma&rft.aufirst=Douglas+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"> "Proceedings of a symposium held at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, 2002."</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFutuyma2005" class="citation book cs1">Futuyma, Douglas J. 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Sunderland, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Sinauer_Associates" title="Sinauer Associates">Sinauer Associates</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-187-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-187-3"><bdi>978-0-87893-187-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2004029808">2004029808</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/57311264">57311264</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F57311264&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2004029808&rft.isbn=978-0-87893-187-3&rft.aulast=Futuyma&rft.aufirst=Douglas+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolution0000futu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFutuymaKirkpatrick2017" class="citation book cs1">Futuyma, Douglas J.; Kirkpatrick, Mark (2017). Evolution (Fourth ed.). Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60535-605-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60535-605-1"><bdi>978-1-60535-605-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2017000562">2017000562</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/969439375">969439375</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Massachusetts&rft.edition=Fourth&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F969439375&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2017000562&rft.isbn=978-1-60535-605-1&rft.aulast=Futuyma&rft.aufirst=Douglas+J.&rft.au=Kirkpatrick%2C+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould2002" class="citation book cs1">Gould, Stephen Jay (2002). <a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Evolutionary_Theory" title="The Structure of Evolutionary Theory">The Structure of Evolutionary Theory</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Belknap Press of Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00613-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00613-3"><bdi>978-0-674-00613-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2001043556">2001043556</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47869352">47869352</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structure+of+Evolutionary+Theory&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47869352&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2001043556&rft.isbn=978-0-674-00613-3&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=Stephen+Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGray2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gray_(psychologist)" title="Peter Gray (psychologist)">Gray, Peter</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/psychology0000gray">Psychology</a> (5th ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Macmillan Publishers (United States)">Worth Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-0617-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-0617-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-0617-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2006921149">2006921149</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/76872504">76872504</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Worth+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F76872504&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2006921149&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-0617-5&rft.aulast=Gray&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpsychology0000gray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallHallgrímsson2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_K._Hall" title="Brian K. Hall">Hall, Brian K.</a>; Hallgrímsson, Benedikt (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/strickbergersevo0000hall">Strickberger's Evolution</a> (4th ed.). Sudbury, Massachusetts: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-0066-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-0066-9"><bdi>978-0-7637-0066-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2007008981">2007008981</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/85814089">85814089</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strickberger%27s+Evolution&rft.place=Sudbury%2C+Massachusetts&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Jones+and+Bartlett+Publishers&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F85814089&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2007008981&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-0066-9&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Brian+K.&rft.au=Hallgr%C3%ADmsson%2C+Benedikt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstrickbergersevo0000hall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHennig1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Willi_Hennig" title="Willi Hennig">Hennig, Willi</a> (1999) [Originally published 1966 (reprinted 1979); translated from the author's unpublished revision of Grundzüge einer Theorie der phylogenetischen Systematik, published in 1950]. Phylogenetic Systematics. Translation by D. Dwight Davis and Rainer Zangerl; foreword by Donn E. Rosen, Gareth Nelson, and <a href="/wiki/Colin_Patterson_(biologist)" title="Colin Patterson (biologist)">Colin Patterson</a> (Reissue ed.). Urbana, Illinois: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press" title="University of Illinois Press">University of Illinois Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06814-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06814-0"><bdi>978-0-252-06814-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/78031969">78031969</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/722701473">722701473</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phylogenetic+Systematics&rft.place=Urbana%2C+Illinois&rft.edition=Reissue&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F722701473&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F78031969&rft.isbn=978-0-252-06814-0&rft.aulast=Hennig&rft.aufirst=Willi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolland1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Holland" title="John Henry Holland">Holland, John H.</a> (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/adaptationinnatu0000holl">Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems: An Introductory Analysis with Applications to Biology, Control, and Artificial Intelligence</a>. Ann Arbor, Michigan: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08460-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08460-9"><bdi>978-0-472-08460-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/74078988">74078988</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1531617">1531617</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adaptation+in+Natural+and+Artificial+Systems%3A+An+Introductory+Analysis+with+Applications+to+Biology%2C+Control%2C+and+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+Michigan&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1531617&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F74078988&rft.isbn=978-0-472-08460-9&rft.aulast=Holland&rft.aufirst=John+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fadaptationinnatu0000holl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKampourakis2014" class="citation book cs1">Kampourakis, Kostas (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/understandingevo0000kamp">Understanding Evolution</a>. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03491-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03491-4"><bdi>978-1-107-03491-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2013034917">2013034917</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/855585457">855585457</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Evolution&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F855585457&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2013034917&rft.isbn=978-1-107-03491-4&rft.aulast=Kampourakis&rft.aufirst=Kostas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funderstandingevo0000kamp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirkRavenSchofield1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Kirk" title="Geoffrey Kirk">Kirk, Geoffrey</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Raven" title="John Raven">Raven, John</a>; Schofield, Malcolm (1983). The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts (2nd ed.). Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27455-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27455-5"><bdi>978-0-521-27455-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/82023505">82023505</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9081712">9081712</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Presocratic+Philosophers%3A+A+Critical+History+with+a+Selection+of+Texts&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9081712&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F82023505&rft.isbn=978-0-521-27455-5&rft.aulast=Kirk&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft.au=Raven%2C+John&rft.au=Schofield%2C+Malcolm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoza1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Koza" title="John Koza">Koza, John R.</a> (1992). Genetic Programming: On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural Selection. Complex Adaptive Systems. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-11170-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-11170-6"><bdi>978-0-262-11170-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/92025785">92025785</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26263956">26263956</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genetic+Programming%3A+On+the+Programming+of+Computers+by+Means+of+Natural+Selection&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.series=Complex+Adaptive+Systems&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26263956&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F92025785&rft.isbn=978-0-262-11170-6&rft.aulast=Koza&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLamarck1809" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste</a> (1809). <a href="/wiki/Philosophie_Zoologique" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophie Zoologique">Philosophie Zoologique</a>. Paris: Dentu et L'Auteur. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2210044">2210044</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophie+Zoologique&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Dentu+et+L%27Auteur&rft.date=1809&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2210044&rft.aulast=Lamarck&rft.aufirst=Jean-Baptiste&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosophiezool06unkngoog">Philosophie zoologique (1809)</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>. Retrieved 2014-11-29.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLane1996" class="citation book cs1">Lane, David H. (1996). The Phenomenon of Teilhard: Prophet for a New Age (1st ed.). Macon, Georgia: <a href="/wiki/Mercer_University_Press" title="Mercer University Press">Mercer University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86554-498-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86554-498-7"><bdi>978-0-86554-498-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/96008777">96008777</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/34710780">34710780</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Phenomenon+of+Teilhard%3A+Prophet+for+a+New+Age&rft.place=Macon%2C+Georgia&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Mercer+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F34710780&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F96008777&rft.isbn=978-0-86554-498-7&rft.aulast=Lane&rft.aufirst=David+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevinson2019" class="citation book cs1">Levinson, Gene (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rethinkingevolution.com/">Rethinking Evolution: The Revolution That's Hiding in Plain Sight</a>. Hackensack, New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/World_Scientific" title="World Scientific">World Scientific</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78634-726-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78634-726-8"><bdi>978-1-78634-726-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2019013762">2019013762</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1138095098">1138095098</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220521082753/https://rethinkingevolution.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+Evolution%3A+The+Revolution+That%27s+Hiding+in+Plain+Sight&rft.place=Hackensack%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1138095098&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2019013762&rft.isbn=978-1-78634-726-8&rft.aulast=Levinson&rft.aufirst=Gene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frethinkingevolution.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucretius" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0131%3Abook%3D5%3Acard%3D855">"Book V, lines 855–877"</a>. <a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De Rerum Natura</a>. Edited and translated by <a href="/wiki/William_Ellery_Leonard" title="William Ellery Leonard">William Ellery Leonard</a> (1916). Medford/Somerville, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Tufts_University" title="Tufts University">Tufts University</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/33233743">33233743</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140904053325/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0131%3Abook%3D5%3Acard%3D855">Archived</a> from the original on 4 September 2014. Retrieved 25 November 2014 – via <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Digital Library</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Book+V%2C+lines+855%E2%80%93877&rft.btitle=De+Rerum+Natura&rft.place=Medford%2FSomerville%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Tufts+University&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F33233743&rft.au=Lucretius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.02.0131%253Abook%253D5%253Acard%253D855&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMason1962" class="citation book cs1">Mason, Stephen F. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofscience00maso">A History of the Sciences</a>. Collier Books. Science Library, CS9 (New rev. ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Collier_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Collier Books">Collier Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/62003378">62003378</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/568032626">568032626</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Sciences&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Collier+Books.+Science+Library%2C+CS9&rft.edition=New+rev.&rft.pub=Collier+Books&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F568032626&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F62003378&rft.aulast=Mason&rft.aufirst=Stephen+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofscience00maso&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaynard_Smith1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith" title="John Maynard Smith">Maynard Smith, John</a> (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionofsex0000mayn">The Evolution of Sex</a>. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29302-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29302-0"><bdi>978-0-521-29302-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/77085689">77085689</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3413793">3413793</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Sex&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3413793&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F77085689&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29302-0&rft.aulast=Maynard+Smith&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionofsex0000mayn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaynard_Smith1998" class="citation book cs1">Maynard Smith, John (1998). "The Units of Selection". In Bock, Gregory R.; Goode, Jamie A. (eds.). The Limits of Reductionism in Biology. Novartis Foundation Symposia. Vol. 213. <a href="/wiki/Chichester" title="Chichester">Chichester</a>; New York: <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. pp. 203–221. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470515488.ch15">10.1002/9780470515488.ch15</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-97770-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-97770-4"><bdi>978-0-471-97770-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/98002779">98002779</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/38311600">38311600</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9653725">9653725</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Units+of+Selection&rft.btitle=The+Limits+of+Reductionism+in+Biology&rft.place=Chichester%3B+New+York&rft.series=Novartis+Foundation+Symposia&rft.pages=203-221&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470515488.ch15&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F38311600&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F98002779&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9653725&rft.isbn=978-0-471-97770-4&rft.aulast=Maynard+Smith&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"> "Papers from the Symposium on the Limits of Reductionism in Biology, held at the Novartis Foundation, London, May 13–15, 1997."</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1942" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Mayr, Ernst</a> (1942). <a href="/wiki/Systematics_and_the_Origin_of_Species" title="Systematics and the Origin of Species">Systematics and the Origin of Species from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist</a>. Columbia Biological Series. Vol. 13. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/43001098">43001098</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/766053">766053</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Systematics+and+the+Origin+of+Species+from+the+Viewpoint+of+a+Zoologist&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Columbia+Biological+Series&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1942&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F766053&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F43001098&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1982" class="citation book cs1">Mayr, Ernst (1982). <a href="/wiki/The_Growth_of_Biological_Thought" title="The Growth of Biological Thought">The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance</a>. Translation of <a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a> by E. Silk. Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Belknap Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-36445-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-36445-5"><bdi>978-0-674-36445-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/81013204">81013204</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7875904">7875904</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Growth+of+Biological+Thought%3A+Diversity%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Inheritance&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7875904&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F81013204&rft.isbn=978-0-674-36445-5&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr2002" class="citation book cs1">Mayr, Ernst (2002) [Originally published 2001; New York: <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>]. What Evolution Is. Science Masters. London: <a href="/wiki/Weidenfeld_%26_Nicolson" title="Weidenfeld & Nicolson">Weidenfeld & Nicolson</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-60741-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-60741-0"><bdi>978-0-297-60741-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2001036562">2001036562</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/248107061">248107061</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Evolution+Is&rft.place=London&rft.series=Science+Masters&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F248107061&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2001036562&rft.isbn=978-0-297-60741-0&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKinney1997" class="citation book cs1">McKinney, Michael L. 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London; New York: <a href="/wiki/Chapman_%26_Hall" title="Chapman & Hall">Chapman & Hall</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-412-63380-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-412-63380-5"><bdi>978-0-412-63380-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/96071014">96071014</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/36442106">36442106</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=How+do+rare+species+avoid+extinction%3F+A+paleontological+view&rft.btitle=The+Biology+of+Rarity%3A+Causes+and+consequences+of+rare%E2%80%94common+differences&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Chapman+%26+Hall&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F36442106&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F96071014&rft.isbn=978-0-412-63380-5&rft.aulast=McKinney&rft.aufirst=Michael+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerSpoolman2012" class="citation book cs1">Miller, G. Tyler; Spoolman, Scott E. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NYEJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA62">Environmental Science</a> (14th ed.). Belmont, California: <a href="/wiki/Cengage_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Cengage Learning">Brooks/Cole</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-98893-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-111-98893-7"><bdi>978-1-111-98893-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2011934330">2011934330</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/741539226">741539226</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190502055246/https://books.google.com/books?id=NYEJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA62">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 27 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+Science&rft.place=Belmont%2C+California&rft.edition=14th&rft.pub=Brooks%2FCole&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F741539226&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2011934330&rft.isbn=978-1-111-98893-7&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=G.+Tyler&rft.au=Spoolman%2C+Scott+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNYEJAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNardonGrenier1991" class="citation book cs1">Nardon, Paul; Grenier, Anne-Marie (1991). "Serial Endosymbiosis Theory and Weevil Evolution: The Role of Symbiosis". In Margulis, Lynn; Fester, René (eds.). Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation: Speciation and Morphogenesis. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-13269-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-13269-5"><bdi>978-0-262-13269-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/90020439">90020439</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22597587">22597587</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Serial+Endosymbiosis+Theory+and+Weevil+Evolution%3A+The+Role+of+Symbiosis&rft.btitle=Symbiosis+as+a+Source+of+Evolutionary+Innovation%3A+Speciation+and+Morphogenesis&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F22597587&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F90020439&rft.isbn=978-0-262-13269-5&rft.aulast=Nardon&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Grenier%2C+Anne-Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"> "Based on a conference held in Bellagio, Italy, June 25–30, 1989"</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="NAS_2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a>; <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Medicine">Institute of Medicine</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780309105866">Science, Evolution, and Creationism</a>. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10586-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10586-6"><bdi>978-0-309-10586-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2007015904">2007015904</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/123539346">123539346</a>. Retrieved 22 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Creationism&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=National+Academy+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F123539346&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2007015904&rft.isbn=978-0-309-10586-6&rft.au=National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.au=Institute+of+Medicine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780309105866&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOdum1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Odum" title="Eugene Odum">Odum, Eugene P.</a> (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofec0000odum">Fundamentals of Ecology</a> (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: <a href="/wiki/Saunders_(imprint)" title="Saunders (imprint)">Saunders</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7216-6941-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7216-6941-0"><bdi>978-0-7216-6941-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/76081826">76081826</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/154846">154846</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Ecology&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Saunders&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F154846&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F76081826&rft.isbn=978-0-7216-6941-0&rft.aulast=Odum&rft.aufirst=Eugene+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffundamentalsofec0000odum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOkasha2006" class="citation book cs1">Okasha, Samir (2006). Evolution and the Levels of Selection. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926797-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926797-2"><bdi>978-0-19-926797-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2006039679">2006039679</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/70985413">70985413</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution+and+the+Levels+of+Selection&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F70985413&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2006039679&rft.isbn=978-0-19-926797-2&rft.aulast=Okasha&rft.aufirst=Samir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanno2005" class="citation book cs1">Panno, Joseph (2005). The Cell: Evolution of the First Organism. Facts on File science library. New York: <a href="/wiki/Infobase_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Infobase Publishing">Facts on File</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4946-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4946-2"><bdi>978-0-8160-4946-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003025841">2003025841</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53901436">53901436</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cell%3A+Evolution+of+the+First+Organism&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Facts+on+File+science+library&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53901436&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003025841&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-4946-2&rft.aulast=Panno&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiatigorskyKantorowGopal-SrivastavaTomarev1994" class="citation book cs1">Piatigorsky, Joram; Kantorow, Marc; Gopal-Srivastava, Rashmi; Tomarev, Stanislav I. (1994). "Recruitment of enzymes and stress proteins as lens crystallins". In Jansson, Bengt; Jörnvall, Hans; Rydberg, Ulf; et al. (eds.). Toward a Molecular Basis of Alcohol Use and Abuse. Experientia. Vol. 71. Basel; Boston: <a href="/wiki/Birkh%C3%A4user" title="Birkhäuser">Birkhäuser Verlag</a>. pp. 241–50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-0348-7330-7_24">10.1007/978-3-0348-7330-7_24</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7643-2940-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7643-2940-2"><bdi>978-3-7643-2940-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/94010167">94010167</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/30030941">30030941</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8032155">8032155</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Recruitment+of+enzymes+and+stress+proteins+as+lens+crystallins&rft.btitle=Toward+a+Molecular+Basis+of+Alcohol+Use+and+Abuse&rft.place=Basel%3B+Boston&rft.series=Experientia&rft.pages=241-50&rft.pub=Birkh%C3%A4user+Verlag&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-0348-7330-7_24&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F30030941&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F94010167&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8032155&rft.isbn=978-3-7643-2940-2&rft.aulast=Piatigorsky&rft.aufirst=Joram&rft.au=Kantorow%2C+Marc&rft.au=Gopal-Srivastava%2C+Rashmi&rft.au=Tomarev%2C+Stanislav+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPigliucciMüller2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Massimo_Pigliucci" title="Massimo Pigliucci">Pigliucci, Massimo</a>; <a href="/wiki/Gerd_B._M%C3%BCller" title="Gerd B. 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Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51367-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51367-8"><bdi>978-0-262-51367-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2009024587">2009024587</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/804875316">804875316</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150918231401/http://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780262315142">Archived</a> from the original on 18 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%2C+the+Extended+Synthesis&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F804875316&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2009024587&rft.isbn=978-0-262-51367-8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fbooks%2F9780262315142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProvine1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Will_Provine" class="mw-redirect" title="Will Provine">Provine, William B.</a> (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsoftheoret00prov">The Origins of Theoretical Population Genetics</a>. Chicago History of Science and Medicine (2nd ed.). Chicago, Illinois: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-68464-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-68464-2"><bdi>978-0-226-68464-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2001027561">2001027561</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/46660910">46660910</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Theoretical+Population+Genetics&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.series=Chicago+History+of+Science+and+Medicine&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F46660910&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2001027561&rft.isbn=978-0-226-68464-2&rft.aulast=Provine&rft.aufirst=William+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginsoftheoret00prov&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRavenJohnson2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_H._Raven" title="Peter H. Raven">Raven, Peter H.</a>; <a href="/wiki/George_B._Johnson" title="George B. Johnson">Johnson, George B.</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biologyrave00rave">Biology</a> (6th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill Education">McGraw-Hill</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-112261-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-112261-0"><bdi>978-0-07-112261-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2001030052">2001030052</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45806501">45806501</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology&rft.place=Boston%2C+Massachusetts&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45806501&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2001030052&rft.isbn=978-0-07-112261-0&rft.aulast=Raven&rft.aufirst=Peter+H.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+George+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbiologyrave00rave&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay1686" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">Ray, John</a> (1686). Historia Plantarum [History of Plants]. Vol. I. Londini: Typis Mariæ Clark. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/agr11000774">agr11000774</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2126030">2126030</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+Plantarum&rft.place=Londini&rft.pub=Typis+Mari%C3%A6+Clark&rft.date=1686&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2126030&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2Fagr11000774&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRechenberg1973" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ingo_Rechenberg" title="Ingo Rechenberg">Rechenberg, Ingo</a> (1973). Evolutionsstrategie; Optimierung technischer Systeme nach Prinzipien der biologischen Evolution (PhD thesis). Problemata (in German). Vol. 15. Afterword by <a href="/wiki/Manfred_Eigen" title="Manfred Eigen">Manfred Eigen</a>. Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7728-0373-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7728-0373-4"><bdi>978-3-7728-0373-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/74320689">74320689</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9020616">9020616</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolutionsstrategie%3B+Optimierung+technischer+Systeme+nach+Prinzipien+der+biologischen+Evolution&rft.place=Stuttgart-Bad+Cannstatt&rft.series=Problemata&rft.pub=Frommann-Holzboog&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9020616&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F74320689&rft.isbn=978-3-7728-0373-4&rft.aulast=Rechenberg&rft.aufirst=Ingo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRidley2004" class="citation book cs1">Ridley, Mark (2004). Evolution. Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0345-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0345-9"><bdi>978-1-4051-0345-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-0345-9&rft.aulast=Ridley&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStearnsStearns1999" class="citation book cs1">Stearns, Beverly Peterson; <a href="/wiki/Stephen_C._Stearns" title="Stephen C. Stearns">Stearns, Stephen C.</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300084696">Watching, from the Edge of Extinction</a>. New Haven, Connecticut: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08469-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08469-6"><bdi>978-0-300-08469-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/98034087">98034087</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/803522914">803522914</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Watching%2C+from+the+Edge+of+Extinction&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F803522914&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F98034087&rft.isbn=978-0-300-08469-6&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=Beverly+Peterson&rft.au=Stearns%2C+Stephen+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780300084696&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStevens1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Stevens_(Jungian_analyst)" title="Anthony Stevens (Jungian analyst)">Stevens, Anthony</a> (1982). Archetype: A Natural History of the Self. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge & Kegan Paul</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7100-0980-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7100-0980-7"><bdi>978-0-7100-0980-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/84672250">84672250</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10458367">10458367</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archetype%3A+A+Natural+History+of+the+Self&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10458367&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F84672250&rft.isbn=978-0-7100-0980-7&rft.aulast=Stevens&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoetVoetPratt2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Voet" title="Donald Voet">Voet, Donald</a>; <a href="/wiki/Judith_G._Voet" title="Judith G. Voet">Voet, Judith G.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_W._Pratt" title="Charlotte W. Pratt">Pratt, Charlotte W.</a> (2016). Fundamentals of Biochemistry: Life at the Molecular Level (Fifth ed.). <a href="/wiki/Hoboken,_New_Jersey" title="Hoboken, New Jersey">Hoboken, New Jersey</a>: <a href="/wiki/Wiley_(publisher)" title="Wiley (publisher)">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-91840-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-91840-1"><bdi>978-1-118-91840-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2016002847">2016002847</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/939245154">939245154</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Biochemistry%3A+Life+at+the+Molecular+Level&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+New+Jersey&rft.edition=Fifth&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F939245154&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2016002847&rft.isbn=978-1-118-91840-1&rft.aulast=Voet&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft.au=Voet%2C+Judith+G.&rft.au=Pratt%2C+Charlotte+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sewall_Wright" title="Sewall Wright">Wright, Sewall</a> (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutiongenetic0003wrig_b9l5">Genetic and Biometric Foundations</a>. Evolution and the Genetics of Populations. Vol. 1. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-91038-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-91038-3"><bdi>978-0-226-91038-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/67025533">67025533</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/246124737">246124737</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genetic+and+Biometric+Foundations&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.series=Evolution+and+the+Genetics+of+Populations&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F246124737&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F67025533&rft.isbn=978-0-226-91038-3&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Sewall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutiongenetic0003wrig_b9l5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology" title="Bibliography of biology">Bibliography of biology</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Evolution <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Evolution+%28Biology%29&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Evolution+%28Biology%29">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Evolution+%28Biology%29&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <dl><dt>Introductory reading</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Barrett, Paul H.; Weinshank, Donald J.; Gottleber, Timothy T., eds. (1981). A Concordance to Darwin's Origin of Species, First Edition. Ithaca, New York: <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-1319-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-1319-3"><bdi>978-0-8014-1319-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/80066893">80066893</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/610057960">610057960</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concordance+to+Darwin%27s+Origin+of+Species%2C+First+Edition&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F610057960&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F80066893&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-1319-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Carroll, Sean B. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/endlessformsmost00carr_0">Endless Forms Most Beautiful: The New Science of Evo Devo and the Making of the Animal Kingdom</a>. illustrations by Jamie W. Carroll, Josh P. Klaiss, Leanne M. Olds (1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06016-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06016-4"><bdi>978-0-393-06016-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2004029388">2004029388</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/57316841">57316841</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Endless+Forms+Most+Beautiful%3A+The+New+Science+of+Evo+Devo+and+the+Making+of+the+Animal+Kingdom&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F57316841&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2004029388&rft.isbn=978-0-393-06016-4&rft.aulast=Carroll&rft.aufirst=Sean+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fendlessformsmost00carr_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Charlesworth" title="Brian Charlesworth">Charlesworth, Brian</a>; <a href="/wiki/Deborah_Charlesworth" title="Deborah Charlesworth">Charlesworth, Deborah</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionverysho0000char">Evolution: A Very Short Introduction</a>. Very Short Introductions. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280251-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280251-4"><bdi>978-0-19-280251-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003272247">2003272247</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51668497">51668497</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.series=Very+Short+Introductions&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51668497&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003272247&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280251-4&rft.aulast=Charlesworth&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft.au=Charlesworth%2C+Deborah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionverysho0000char&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Gould, Stephen Jay (1989). <a href="/wiki/Wonderful_Life_(book)" title="Wonderful Life (book)">Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History</a> (1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-02705-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-02705-1"><bdi>978-0-393-02705-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/88037469">88037469</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/18983518">18983518</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wonderful+Life%3A+The+Burgess+Shale+and+the+Nature+of+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F18983518&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F88037469&rft.isbn=978-0-393-02705-1&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=Stephen+Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steve_Jones_(biologist)" title="Steve Jones (biologist)">Jones, Steve</a> (1999). <a href="/wiki/Almost_Like_a_Whale" title="Almost Like a Whale">Almost Like a Whale: The Origin of Species Updated</a>. London; New York: <a href="/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Doubleday</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-40985-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-40985-8"><bdi>978-0-385-40985-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2002391059">2002391059</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/41420544">41420544</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Almost+Like+a+Whale%3A+The+Origin+of+Species+Updated&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F41420544&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2002391059&rft.isbn=978-0-385-40985-8&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Steve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">—— (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/darwinsghostorig0000jone">Darwin's Ghost: The Origin of Species Updated</a> (1st ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Random House</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-50103-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-50103-6"><bdi>978-0-375-50103-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/99053246">99053246</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/42690131">42690131</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Darwin%27s+Ghost%3A+The+Origin+of+Species+Updated&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F42690131&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F99053246&rft.isbn=978-0-375-50103-6&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdarwinsghostorig0000jone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"> American version.</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Mader, Sylvia S. (2007). Biology. Significant contributions by Murray P. Pendarvis (9th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill Education">McGraw-Hill Higher Education</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-246463-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-246463-4"><bdi>978-0-07-246463-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2005027781">2005027781</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/61748307">61748307</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology&rft.place=Boston%2C+Massachusetts&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Higher+Education&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F61748307&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2005027781&rft.isbn=978-0-07-246463-4&rft.aulast=Mader&rft.aufirst=Sylvia+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Maynard Smith, John (1993). <a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Evolution" title="The Theory of Evolution">The Theory of Evolution</a> (Canto ed.). Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45128-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45128-4"><bdi>978-0-521-45128-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/93020358">93020358</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/27676642">27676642</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theory+of+Evolution&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+New+York&rft.edition=Canto&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F27676642&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F93020358&rft.isbn=978-0-521-45128-4&rft.aulast=Maynard+Smith&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Pallen, Mark J. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/roughguidetoevol0000pall">The Rough Guide to Evolution</a>. Rough Guides Reference Guides. London; New York: <a href="/wiki/Rough_Guides" title="Rough Guides">Rough Guides</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85828-946-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85828-946-5"><bdi>978-1-85828-946-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2009288090">2009288090</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/233547316">233547316</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rough+Guide+to+Evolution&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.series=Rough+Guides+Reference+Guides&rft.pub=Rough+Guides&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F233547316&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2009288090&rft.isbn=978-1-85828-946-5&rft.aulast=Pallen&rft.aufirst=Mark+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Froughguidetoevol0000pall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>Advanced reading</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nick_Barton" title="Nick Barton">Barton, Nicholas H.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Derek_Briggs" title="Derek Briggs">Briggs, Derek E.G.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Eisen" title="Jonathan Eisen">Eisen, Jonathan A.</a>; et al. (2007). Evolution. Cold Spring Harbor, New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87969-684-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87969-684-9"><bdi>978-0-87969-684-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2007010767">2007010767</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/86090399">86090399</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution&rft.place=Cold+Spring+Harbor%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Cold+Spring+Harbor+Laboratory+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F86090399&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2007010767&rft.isbn=978-0-87969-684-9&rft.aulast=Barton&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+H.&rft.au=Briggs%2C+Derek+E.G.&rft.au=Eisen%2C+Jonathan+A.&rft.au=Goldstein%2C+David+B.&rft.au=Patel%2C+Nipan+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Coyne, Jerry A.; <a href="/wiki/H._Allen_Orr" title="H. Allen Orr">Orr, H. Allen</a> (2004). Speciation. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-089-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-089-0"><bdi>978-0-87893-089-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2004009505">2004009505</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55078441">55078441</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Speciation&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55078441&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2004009505&rft.isbn=978-0-87893-089-0&rft.aulast=Coyne&rft.aufirst=Jerry+A.&rft.au=Orr%2C+H.+Allen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Bergstrom" title="Carl Bergstrom">Bergstrom, Carl T.</a>; Dugatkin, Lee Alan (2012). Evolution (1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-91341-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-91341-5"><bdi>978-0-393-91341-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2011036572">2011036572</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/729341924">729341924</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F729341924&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2011036572&rft.isbn=978-0-393-91341-5&rft.aulast=Bergstrom&rft.aufirst=Carl+T.&rft.au=Dugatkin%2C+Lee+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Hall, Brian K.; Olson, Wendy, eds. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/keywordsconcepts0000unse">Keywords and Concepts in Evolutionary Developmental Biology</a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00904-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00904-2"><bdi>978-0-674-00904-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2002192201">2002192201</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50761342">50761342</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Keywords+and+Concepts+in+Evolutionary+Developmental+Biology&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50761342&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2002192201&rft.isbn=978-0-674-00904-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkeywordsconcepts0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Kauffman" title="Stuart Kauffman">Kauffman, Stuart A.</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsoforderse0000kauf">The Origins of Order: Self-organization and Selection in Evolution</a>. New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507951-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507951-7"><bdi>978-0-19-507951-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/91011148">91011148</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/895048122">895048122</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Order%3A+Self-organization+and+Selection+in+Evolution&rft.place=New+York%3B+Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F895048122&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F91011148&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507951-7&rft.aulast=Kauffman&rft.aufirst=Stuart+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginsoforderse0000kauf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Maynard Smith, John; <a href="/wiki/E%C3%B6rs_Szathm%C3%A1ry" title="Eörs Szathmáry">Szathmáry, Eörs</a> (1995). <a href="/wiki/The_Major_Transitions_in_Evolution" title="The Major Transitions in Evolution">The Major Transitions in Evolution</a>. Oxford; New York: W.H. Freeman Spektrum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-4525-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-4525-9"><bdi>978-0-7167-4525-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/94026965">94026965</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/30894392">30894392</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Major+Transitions+in+Evolution&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman+Spektrum&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F30894392&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F94026965&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-4525-9&rft.aulast=Maynard+Smith&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Szathm%C3%A1ry%2C+E%C3%B6rs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Mayr, Ernst (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whatevolutionis0000mayr">What Evolution Is</a>. New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-04426-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-04426-9"><bdi>978-0-465-04426-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2001036562">2001036562</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47443814">47443814</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Evolution+Is&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47443814&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2001036562&rft.isbn=978-0-465-04426-9&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhatevolutionis0000mayr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Minelli_(biologist)" title="Alessandro Minelli (biologist)">Minelli, Alessandro</a> (2009). Forms of Becoming: The Evolutionary Biology of Development. Translation by Mark Epstein. Princeton, New Jersey; Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13568-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13568-7"><bdi>978-0-691-13568-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008028825">2008028825</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/233030259">233030259</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forms+of+Becoming%3A+The+Evolutionary+Biology+of+Development&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey%3B+Oxford&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F233030259&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008028825&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13568-7&rft.aulast=Minelli&rft.aufirst=Alessandro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.5em;font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-header{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-listen-to{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-files{text-align:center;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-icon{float:left;margin-left:5px;margin-top:10px}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-disclaimer{margin-left:60px;margin-top:10px;font-size:95%;line-height:1.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-footer{margin-top:10px;text-align:center}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{width:20em;float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="spoken-wikipedia noprint haudio"><div class="spoken-wikipedia-header">Listen to this article (34 minutes)</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-files"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" style="width:200px;" data-durationhint="2068" data-mwtitle="Evolution.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Evolution.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4d/Evolution.ogg/Evolution.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-icon"><img alt="Spoken Wikipedia icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/45px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/68px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/90px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-disclaimer"><a href="/wiki/File:Evolution.ogg" title="File:Evolution.ogg">This audio file</a> was created from a revision of this article dated 18 April 2005 (2005-04-18), and does not reflect subsequent edits.</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-footer">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Media help">Audio help</a> · <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Spoken_articles" title="Wikipedia:Spoken articles">More spoken articles</a>)</div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Evolution at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Evolution" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Evolution">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Evolution" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Evolution">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Evolution" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Evolution">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Evolution" class="extiw" title="q:Evolution">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Evolution" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Evolution">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Evolution" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Evolution">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Evolution" class="extiw" title="v:Evolution">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div></div> </div> <dl><dt>General information</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00545gl">"Evolution"</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)">In Our Time</a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nationalacademies.org/evolution/">"Evolution Resources from the National Academies"</a>. Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a>. Retrieved 30 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Evolution+Resources+from+the+National+Academies&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnationalacademies.org%2Fevolution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://evolution.berkeley.edu/">"Understanding Evolution: your one-stop resource for information on evolution"</a>. Berkeley, California: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>. Retrieved 30 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+Evolution%3A+your+one-stop+resource+for+information+on+evolution&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+Berkeley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fevolution.berkeley.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110519131450/http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/darwin/textonly/index.jsp">"Evolution of Evolution – 150 Years of Darwin's 'On the Origin of Species'"</a>. Arlington County, Virginia: <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/darwin/textonly/index.jsp">the original</a> on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 30 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Evolution+of+Evolution+%E2%80%93+150+Years+of+Darwin%27s+%27On+the+Origin+of+Species%27&rft.place=Arlington+County%2C+Virginia&rft.pub=National+Science+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsf.gov%2Fnews%2Fspecial_reports%2Fdarwin%2Ftextonly%2Findex.jsp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-timeline-interactive">"Human Evolution Timeline Interactive"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="National Museum of Natural History">National Museum of Natural History</a>. 28 January 2010. Retrieved 14 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Human+Evolution+Timeline+Interactive&rft.pub=Smithsonian+Institution%2C+National+Museum+of+Natural+History&rft.date=2010-01-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhumanorigins.si.edu%2Fevidence%2Fhuman-evolution-timeline-interactive&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"> Adobe Flash required.</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.salon.com/2021/08/24/more-americans-believe-in-evolution/">History of Evolution in the United States</a>". <a href="/wiki/Salon.com" title="Salon.com">Salon</a>. Retrieved 2021-08-24.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gZpsVSVRsZk">Video (1980; Cosmos animation; 8:01): "Evolution" – Carl Sagan</a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Experiments</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lenski" title="Richard Lenski">Lenski, Richard E</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://myxo.css.msu.edu/index.html">"Experimental Evolution"</a>. East Lansing, Michigan: <a href="/wiki/Michigan_State_University" title="Michigan State University">Michigan State University</a>. Retrieved 31 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Experimental+Evolution&rft.place=East+Lansing%2C+Michigan&rft.pub=Michigan+State+University&rft.aulast=Lenski&rft.aufirst=Richard+E&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmyxo.css.msu.edu%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Chastain, Erick; Livnat, Adi; <a href="/wiki/Christos_Papadimitriou" title="Christos Papadimitriou">Papadimitriou, Christos</a>; <a href="/wiki/Umesh_Vazirani" title="Umesh Vazirani">Vazirani, Umesh</a> (22 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4115542">"Algorithms, games, and evolution"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America">PNAS</a>. 111 (29): 10620–10623. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PNAS..11110620C">2014PNAS..11110620C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1406556111">10.1073/pnas.1406556111</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4115542">4115542</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24979793">24979793</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PNAS&rft.atitle=Algorithms%2C+games%2C+and+evolution&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=29&rft.pages=10620-10623&rft.date=2014-07-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4115542%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PNAS..11110620C&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24979793&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1406556111&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=Chastain&rft.aufirst=Erick&rft.au=Livnat%2C+Adi&rft.au=Papadimitriou%2C+Christos&rft.au=Vazirani%2C+Umesh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4115542&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>Online lectures</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171218132454/https://online-learning.harvard.edu/course/evolution-matters-lecture-series-0">"Evolution Matters Lecture Series"</a>. Harvard Online Learning Portal. Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://online-learning.harvard.edu/course/evolution-matters-lecture-series-0">the original</a> on 18 December 2017. Retrieved 15 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Online+Learning+Portal&rft.atitle=Evolution+Matters+Lecture+Series&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonline-learning.harvard.edu%2Fcourse%2Fevolution-matters-lecture-series-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_C._Stearns" title="Stephen C. Stearns">Stearns, Stephen C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oyc.yale.edu/ecology-and-evolutionary-biology/eeb-122">"EEB 122: Principles of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Open_Yale_Courses" title="Open Yale Courses">Open Yale Courses</a>. New Haven, Connecticut: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171201233654/https://oyc.yale.edu/ecology-and-evolutionary-biology/eeb-122">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 14 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Open+Yale+Courses&rft.atitle=EEB+122%3A+Principles+of+Evolution%2C+Ecology+and+Behavior&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=Stephen+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foyc.yale.edu%2Fecology-and-evolutionary-biology%2Feeb-122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolution" title="Template:Evolution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolution" title="Template talk:Evolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">Evolutionary arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">Evolutionary pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonadaptive_radiation" title="Nonadaptive radiation">Non-adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene-centered view of evolution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Artificial selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants" title="Sexual selection in flowering plants">Flowering plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_fungi" title="Sexual selection in fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canalisation_(genetics)" title="Canalisation (genetics)">Canalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_assimilation" title="Genetic assimilation">Genetic assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inversion_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Inversion (evolutionary biology)">Inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modularity_(biology)" title="Modularity (biology)">Modularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">Phenotypic plasticity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_brachiopods" title="Evolution of brachiopods">Brachiopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_molluscs" title="Evolution of molluscs">Molluscs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur#Evolutionary_history" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_butterflies" title="Evolution of butterflies">butterflies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cat_gap" title="Cat gap">cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canidae#Evolution" title="Canidae">canids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_wolf" title="Evolution of the wolf">wolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_dog" title="Domestication of the dog">dogs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyena#Evolution" title="Hyena">hyenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">dolphins and whales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_horse" title="Evolution of the horse">horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Macropodidae" title="Evolution of Macropodidae">Kangaroos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_primates" title="Evolution of primates">primates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_lemurs" title="Evolution of lemurs">lemurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">sea cows</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator-mediated_selection" title="Pollinator-mediated selection">pollinator-mediated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_evolution" title="Viral evolution">Viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_DNA_evolution" title="Models of DNA evolution">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome#Eukaryotes" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomembrane_system#Evolution" title="Endomembrane system">endomembrane system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion#Origin_and_evolution" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus#Evolution" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid#Origin" title="Plastid">plastids</a></li></ul></li> <li>In animals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair#Evolution" title="Hair">hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">auditory ossicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">brain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_ageing" title="Evolution of ageing">Aging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death#Evolution_of_aging_and_mortality" title="Death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death#Evolutionary_origin_of_mitochondrial_apoptosis" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">Biological complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Color vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">in primates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy#Evolution_across_species" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_eusociality" title="Evolution of eusociality">Eusociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system#Evolution_and_other_mechanisms" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism#Evolution" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism#Evolutionary_history" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy#Evolution" title="Anisogamy">Gamete differentiation/sexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles/nuclear phases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system#Evolution" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_snake_venom" title="Evolution of snake venom">Snake venom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempo_and_Mode_in_Evolution" title="Tempo and Mode in Evolution">Tempo and modes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phyletic_gradualism" title="Phyletic gradualism">Gradualism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">Micromutation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mutationism#Later_mutationist_theories" title="Mutationism">Macromutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catagenesis_(biology)" title="Catagenesis (biology)">Catagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_speciation" title="Ecological speciation">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonecological_speciation" title="Nonecological speciation">Non-ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance and Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Transmutation of species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">Blending inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">The eclipse of Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">Extended evolutionary synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Tree</a></li></ul></li> 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Template:Life_timeline"," 5.57% 308.331 6 Template:Sfn"," 4.70% 260.317 1 Template:Graphical_timeline"," 3.95% 218.584 1 Template:PhylomapA"," 3.72% 205.796 18 Template:Further"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"3.396","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":18017171,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFA._Stoltzfus2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAgrawal2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllin1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAltenberg1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmosHarwood1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndersson2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderssonSimmons2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAntonovics2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAviseAyala2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAviseHubbellAyala2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAxelrodHamilton1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaguñàGarcia-Fernàndez2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaldoMcClure1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaptesteWalsh2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarnoskyKochFeranecWing2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarton2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaymLiebermanKelsicChait2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBejderHall2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBellBoehnikeHarrisonMao2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenton1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBertram2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBirdsellWills2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlountBorlandLenski2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBombliesWeigel2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorenstein2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorenstein2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorowsky2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBossdorfArcuriRichardsPigliucci2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoucherDouadyPapkeWalsh2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowler1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowler2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowmaker1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBranch2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrowne2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrunetDoolittle2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBucklingMacLeanBrockhurstColegrave2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBullWichman2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBulmer1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurkeArnold2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurkhardtSmith1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFButlinTregenza1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarroll2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarroll2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarroll2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarrollGrenierWeatherbee2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCavalier-Smith2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapmanMargulis1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharlesworth2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCiccarelliDoerksvon_MeringCreevey2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClementsBursacGatsosPerry2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollinMiglietta2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCopley2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoxYanofsky1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoyne2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrawfordJungStrap2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCutterChoi2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalrymple2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDanchinCharmantierChampagneMesoudi2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarwin1837\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarwin1859\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarwin1872\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarwin1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarwinWallace1858\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeLongPace2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDennett1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDesmond2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDobzhansky1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDobzhansky1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDobzhansky1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDobzhansky1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoebleyGautSmith2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoolittle2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoolittleBapteste2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDougherty1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDraghiWagner2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuretGaltier2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDyallBrownJohnson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEldredgeGould1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElenaLenski2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEreshefsky1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEwens2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFelsenstein1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisher1930\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFongKaneCulver1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFraser1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFraserAlmPolzSpratt2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreese1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFryxellZuckerkandl2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFutuyma1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFutuyma2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFutuyma2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFutuymaKirkpatrick2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGavrilets2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGavrilets2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeffeneyBrodieRubenBrodie2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhiselin1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGillespie2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGladyshevMeselsonArkhipova2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlansdorffYing_XuLabedan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoddardGodfrayBurt2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldbergIgić2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGould1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGould1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGould2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGouldLloyd1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGray2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGregoryHebert1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrossBorowskyTabin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrossRieseberg2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaldane1927\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaldane1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallHallgrímsson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHameed2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamiltonAxelrodTanese1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrisHassoFergusonFallon2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrisonGerstein2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHastingsLupskiRosenbergIra2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHauseFester2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHegartyHiscock2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHendryKinnison2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHennig1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerrelHuygheVanhooydonckBackeljau2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHershbergPetrov2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHickey1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoekstraHoekstraBerriganVignieri2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolland1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoskinHiggleMcDonaldMoritz2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHull1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuntBrooksJennionsSmith2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHurles2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHurst2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsaak2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJablonkaLamb2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJablonkaLamb2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJablonkaRaz2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJablonski1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJablonski2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJablonski2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJakobssonHagenbladTavaréSäll2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJamshidi2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeffery2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnsonPorter2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoyce2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJäckelKastHilvert2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaiser2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKampourakis2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeightley2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKimura1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKimura1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirkRavenSchofield1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKokkoBrooksMcNamaraHouston2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKondoNikohIjichiShimada2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoza1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKreitman1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuninGoldovskyDarzentasOuzounis2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKutscheraNiklas2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLabbéBerticatBerthomieuUnal2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLalandSterelny2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLamarck1809\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLancasterBardillTrueMasel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLande1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLandeArnold1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLane1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLangGrayBurger1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeigh2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeroi2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevinson2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewontin1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLienSzydaSchechingerRappold2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiuOkamuraTylerPhillips2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLongBetránThorntonWang2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLososWarheltSchoener1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLucretius\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLukešArchibaldKeelingDoolittle2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaher2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManhesaAllègreDupréaHamelin1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshall2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMasel2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaselBergman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMason1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMason1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwellLarsson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayhew2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaynard_Smith1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaynard_Smith1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayr1942\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayr1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayr1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayr2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKinney1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerloPepperReidMaley2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillerScottOkamoto2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillerSpoolman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchell-OldsWillisGoldstein2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoraTittensorAdlSimpson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorjanRieseberg2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuñoz-GómezBilolikarWidemanGeiler-Samerotte2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNakajimaSugimotoYoneyamaNakae2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNardonGrenier1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNealson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeherShraiman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNei2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeve2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoffkeChristianWaceyHazen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNosilCrespiGriesGries2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNovacek2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNovacekCleland2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOdum1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOettingBrilliantKing1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOhno1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOhno1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOhtomoKakegawaIshidaNagase2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOkadaNegoroKimuraNakamura1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOkasha2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrengoThornton2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrr2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrr2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOttoServedioNuismer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOttoWhitlock1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPallenMatzke2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPanWeiwei_XueWenqi_ZhangHuanxiang_Liu2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPanno2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaszkowski2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPayneMenardoTraunerBorrell2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearlman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPennyPoole1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeretó2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetersOtto2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetrov2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetrovSangsterJohnstonHartl2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiatigorskyKantorowGopal-SrivastavaTomarev1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPigliucciMüller2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPimmRavenPetersonŞekercioğlu2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoolePenny2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProvine1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuinnHendryBuck2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRadding1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaup1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaup1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRavenJohnson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRay1686\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReadLynchThomas2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRechenberg1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReeveHölldobler2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiceHostert1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRidley2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiesSpaetheSztatecsnyStrondl2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiveraLake2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodríguez-RojasRodríguez-BeltránCouceBlázquez2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRongling_WuMin_Lin2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoskovAbucayOrrellNicolson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoss2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSachs2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSavolainenAnstettLexerHutton2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchenkSzendroKrugde_Visser2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchlossHandelsman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchopf1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchopf2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchopfKudryavtsevCzajaTripathi2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchouten2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScott-PhillipsLalandShukerDickins2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScottMatzke2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSedley2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShahGilchrist2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShort1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShubinTabinCarroll2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSiepel2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilvestriSingh2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSober2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSokalCrovello1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpergelVerdePeirisKomatsu2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSprague1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStamhuisMeijerZevenhuizen1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStearnsStearns1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStevens1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoltzfus1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoltzfus2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoltzfusMcCandlish2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStorzNatarajanSignoreWitt2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSturmFrudakis2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSueoka1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSulloway2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSvenssonBerger2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSällJakobssonLind-HalldénHalldén2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSémonWolfe2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTempleton1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTheobald2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTomićMeyer-Rochow2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorreyFelin1937\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrevorsPsenner2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFValentineJablonskiErwin1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Valen1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVarkiAltheide2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVisscherHillWray2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVoetVoetPratt2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVossebergSnel2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVrijenhoek2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWade2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWade2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaggoner2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalsh2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangCaetano-Anollés2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaters2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatsonCrick1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeiling1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeissmanMüller2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitmanColemanWiebe1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWibleRougierNovacekAsher2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWildeValleyPeckGraham2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilsonHölldobler2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilsonWilson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWistow1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitmer2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolfRogozinGrishinKoonin2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodTakebayashiBarkerMayrose2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodfordEllington2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXiaoxing_Jin2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFY._-S._LiuX._M._ZhouM._X._ZhiX._J._Li2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYampolskyStoltzfus2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoungHallgrÍmsson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhaoLei_ZhangGerstein2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmer2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Queiroz2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_der_KooiSchwander2014\"] = 1,\n [\"NAS_2008\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Align\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 79,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 272,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 17,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Clear\"] = 2,\n [\"Doi\"] = 2,\n [\"Evolution\"] = 1,\n [\"Evolution sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 18,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 65,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"Imagefact\"] = 4,\n [\"In Our Time\"] = 1,\n [\"Internet Archive\"] = 1,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Life timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Lit\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 9,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 4,\n [\"PhylomapA\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-protected\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"See introduction\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 6,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Spoken Wikipedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Toclimit\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 3,\n [\"YouTube\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","620","18.5"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","420","12.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","380","11.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","200","6.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","160","4.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","140","4.2"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","120","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","100","3.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","100","3.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","100","3.0"],["[others]","1020","30.4"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-849f99967d-dfhgl","timestamp":"20241123032939","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Evolution","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolution","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1063","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1063","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, 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