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Vocabulary - Wikipedia

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id="toc-Vocabulary_in_an_individual-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Productive_and_receptive_knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Productive_and_receptive_knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Productive and receptive knowledge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Productive_and_receptive_knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Degree_of_knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degree_of_knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Degree of knowledge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Degree_of_knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Depth_of_knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Depth_of_knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Depth of knowledge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Depth_of_knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Types of vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reading_vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reading_vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Reading vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reading_vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Listening_vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Listening_vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Listening vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Listening_vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Speaking_vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Speaking_vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3</span> <span>Speaking vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Speaking_vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.4</span> <span>Writing vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing_vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.5</span> <span>Final vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary_growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary_growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Vocabulary growth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Importance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Importance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Importance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Importance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary_size" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary_size"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Vocabulary size</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary_size-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Native-language_vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Native-language_vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.1</span> <span>Native-language vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Native-language_vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign-language_vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign-language_vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.2</span> <span>Foreign-language vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign-language_vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_effects_of_vocabulary_size_on_language_comprehension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_effects_of_vocabulary_size_on_language_comprehension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.2.1</span> <span>The effects of vocabulary size on language comprehension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_effects_of_vocabulary_size_on_language_comprehension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_language_vocabulary_acquisition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_language_vocabulary_acquisition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.2.2</span> <span>Second language vocabulary acquisition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_language_vocabulary_acquisition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memorization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memorization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.2.3</span> <span>Memorization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Memorization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_keyword_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_keyword_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.2.4</span> <span>The keyword method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_keyword_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word_lists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_lists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.3</span> <span>Word lists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_lists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Focal_vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Focal_vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Focal vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Focal_vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Vocabulary</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">51 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woordeskat" title="Woordeskat – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Woordeskat" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="مفردات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مفردات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocabulari" title="Vocabulari – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Vocabulari" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovn%C3%AD_z%C3%A1soba" title="Slovní zásoba – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Slovní zásoba" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordforr%C3%A5d" title="Ordforråd – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ordforråd" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wortschatz" title="Wortschatz – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wortschatz" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B5navara" title="Sõnavara – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sõnavara" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%B5%CE%BE%CE%B9%CE%BB%CF%8C%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Λεξιλόγιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λεξιλόγιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocabulario" title="Vocabulario – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Vocabulario" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vortprovizo" title="Vortprovizo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vortprovizo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berbategi" title="Berbategi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Berbategi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%98%D9%87" title="دایره واژه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دایره واژه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocabulaire" title="Vocabulaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vocabulaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasht-fockle" title="Tasht-fockle – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Tasht-fockle" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocabulario" title="Vocabulario – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Vocabulario" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%B4%ED%9C%98" title="어휘 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="어휘" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%B1%D5%AB_%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%A1%D6%80" title="Անձի բառապաշար – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Անձի բառապաշար" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okwu" title="Okwu – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Okwu" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosakata" title="Kosakata – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kosakata" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Or%C3%B0afor%C3%B0i" title="Orðaforði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Orðaforði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%A8_%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9D" title="אוצר מילים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אוצר מילים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D3%A9%D0%B7_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%93%D1%8B" title="Сөз байлығы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сөз байлығы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%81%D3%A9%D0%B7%D0%B4%D2%AF%D0%BA_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8B" title="Тилдин сөздүк курамы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Тилдин сөздүк курамы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_(%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80)" title="Речник (вокабулар) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Речник (вокабулар)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perbendaharaan_kata" title="Perbendaharaan kata – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perbendaharaan kata" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9D%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AB%E1%80%9F%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9B" title="ဝေါဟာရ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဝေါဟာရ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woordenschat" title="Woordenschat – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Woordenschat" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E5%BD%99" title="語彙 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="語彙" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordforr%C3%A5d" title="Ordforråd – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ordforråd" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordforr%C3%A5d" title="Ordforråd – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ordforråd" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF_(%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D9%87)" title="سیند (لغاتونه) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سیند (لغاتونه)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%82ownictwo" title="Słownictwo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Słownictwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%B5%CF%87%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CE%BD" title="Λεχτικόν – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Λεχτικόν" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="Pontic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ποντιακά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocabul%C3%A1rio" title="Vocabulário – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Vocabulário" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimay_taqi" title="Rimay taqi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Rimay taqi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Словарный запас – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Словарный запас" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woudsk%C3%A4t" title="Woudskät – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Woudskät" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjal%C3%ABsi" title="Fjalësi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Fjalësi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" 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hreflang="sv" data-title="Ordförråd" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talasalitaan" title="Talasalitaan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Talasalitaan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%88" title="சொற்கோவை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சொற்கோவை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%97%E0%B9%8C" title="วงศัพท์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วงศัพท์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B6z_varl%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Söz varlığı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Söz varlığı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Словниковий запас – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Словниковий запас" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" 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For the song by Fugees, see <a href="/wiki/Vocab_(song)" title="Vocab (song)">Vocab (song)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border: 1px solid #9999CC"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Reading_(process)" title="Category:Reading (process)">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:none;padding-top:0;font-size:175%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0;"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Big_Book.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Big_Book.svg/125px-Big_Book.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Big_Book.svg/188px-Big_Book.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Big_Book.svg/250px-Big_Book.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="835" data-file-height="567" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Learning_to_read" class="mw-redirect" title="Learning to read">Learning to read</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reading_readiness" title="Reading readiness">Reading readiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocabulary_development" title="Vocabulary development">Vocabulary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocabulary_learning" title="Vocabulary learning">Vocabulary learning</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Scientific theories and models</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dual-route_hypothesis_to_reading_aloud" title="Dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud">Dual route theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_view_of_reading" title="Simple view of reading">Simple view of reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_reading" title="Science of reading">Science of reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scarborough%27s_Reading_Rope" class="mw-redirect" title="Scarborough&#39;s Reading Rope">Scarborough's Reading Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading#The_active_view_of_reading_model" title="Reading">The active view of reading model</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Cognitive processes</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reading_comprehension" title="Reading comprehension">Comprehension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonemic_awareness" title="Phonemic awareness">Phonemic awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_awareness" title="Phonological awareness">Phonological awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subvocalization" title="Subvocalization">Subvocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_recognition" title="Word recognition">Word recognition</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Reading#Teaching_reading" title="Reading">Reading instruction</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_phonics" title="Analytic phonics">Analytic phonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basal_reader" title="Basal reader">Basal reader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept-Oriented_Reading_Instruction" title="Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction">Concept-oriented</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directed_listening_and_thinking_activity" title="Directed listening and thinking activity">Directed listening and thinking activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_reading" title="Guided reading">Guided reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_reading" title="Independent reading">Independent reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_circle" title="Literature circle">Literature circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">Phonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_teaching" title="Reciprocal teaching">Reciprocal teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structured_Word_Inquiry" class="mw-redirect" title="Structured Word Inquiry">Structured word inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustained_silent_reading" title="Sustained silent reading">Sustained silent reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_phonics" title="Synthetic phonics">Synthetic phonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_language" title="Whole language">Whole language</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Reading rate</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fluency" title="Fluency">Fluency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_reading" title="Slow reading">Slow reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speed_reading" title="Speed reading">Speed reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Words_per_minute#Reading_and_comprehension" title="Words per minute">Words per minute</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Readability" title="Readability">Readability</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_readability_assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Automatic readability assessment">Automatic assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legibility" title="Legibility">Legibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Readability_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Readability test">Readability test</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Reading differences and disabilities</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">Dyslexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperlexia" title="Hyperlexia">Hyperlexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading_disability" title="Reading disability">Reading disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading_for_special_needs" title="Reading for special needs">Reading for special needs</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabetic_principle" title="Alphabetic principle">Alphabetic principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolch_word_list" title="Dolch word list">Dolch word list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">Grapheme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_printing" title="History of printing">History of printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">Morpheme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">Phoneme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sight_word" title="Sight word">Sight word</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">Written language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">Writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">Literacy</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_literacy" title="Critical literacy">Critical literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_reading" title="Close reading">Close reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distant_reading" title="Distant reading">Distant reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_literacy" title="Family literacy">Family literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_illiteracy" title="Functional illiteracy">Functional illiteracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_books" class="mw-redirect" title="Great books">Great books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_literature" title="Children&#39;s literature">Children's</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Reading" title="Template:Reading"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Reading" title="Template talk:Reading"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Reading" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Reading"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>A <b>vocabulary</b> (also known as a <b>lexicon</b>) is a set of <a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">words</a>, typically the set in a <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> or the set known to an individual. The word <i>vocabulary</i> originated from the Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vocabulum</i></span>, meaning "a word, name". It forms an essential component of language and <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>, helping convey thoughts, ideas, emotions, and information. Vocabulary can be <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">oral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">written</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">signed</a> and can be categorized into two main types: active vocabulary (words one uses regularly) and passive vocabulary (words one recognizes but does not use often). An individual's vocabulary continually evolves through various methods, including <a href="/wiki/Direct_instruction" title="Direct instruction">direct instruction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Independent_reading" title="Independent reading">independent reading</a>, and natural language exposure, but it can also shrink due to <a href="/wiki/Forgetting" title="Forgetting">forgetting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">trauma</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a>. Furthermore, vocabulary is a significant focus of study across various disciplines, like <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>. Vocabulary is not limited to single words; it also encompasses multi-word units known as <a href="/wiki/Collocation" title="Collocation">collocations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Idiom" title="Idiom">idioms</a>, and other types of phraseology. Acquiring an adequate vocabulary is one of the largest challenges in learning a <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A vocabulary is the set of words in a given language that an individual knows and uses.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In the context of <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, a vocabulary may refer more broadly to any set of words. Types of vocabularies have been further defined: a <i><a href="/wiki/Lexis_(linguistics)" title="Lexis (linguistics)">lexis</a></i> is a vocabulary comprising all words used in a language or other linguistic context or in a person's lexical repertoire. An individual person's vocabulary includes an <i>passive vocabulary</i> of words they can recognize or understand, as well as an <i>active vocabulary</i> of words they regularly use in speech and writing.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a>, vocabulary refers to the complete set of symbols and signs in a <a href="/wiki/Sign_system" title="Sign system">sign system</a> or a text, extending the definition beyond purely verbal communication to encompass other forms of symbolic communication.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vocabulary acquisition is a central aspect of language education, as it directly impacts reading comprehension, expressive and receptive language skills, and academic achievement.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Vocabulary is examined in <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> as a measure of language processing and cognitive development. It can serve as an indicator of <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_ability" class="mw-redirect" title="Intellectual ability">intellectual ability</a> or cognitive status, with vocabulary tests often forming part of <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychological_assessment" title="Neuropsychological assessment">neuropsychological assessments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definition_of_&quot;word&quot;"><span id="Definition_of_.22word.22"></span>Definition of "word"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Definition of &quot;word&quot;"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">Word</a></div> <p><i>Word</i> has a variety of meanings, and our understand of ideas such as vocabulary size differ depending on the definition used. </p><p>The most common definition equates words with <a href="/wiki/Lemma_(morphology)" title="Lemma (morphology)">lemmas</a> (the inflected or dictionary form; this includes <i>walk</i>, but not <i>walks, walked or walking</i>). Most of the time lemmas do not include proper nouns (names of people, places, companies, etc.). Another definition often used in research of vocabulary size is that of <a href="/wiki/Word_family" title="Word family">word family</a>. These are all the words that can be derived from a ground word (e.g., the words <i>effortless, effortlessly, effortful, effortfully</i> are all part of the word family <i>effort</i>). Estimates of vocabulary size range from as high as 200 thousand to as low as 10 thousand, depending on the definition used.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary_in_an_individual">Vocabulary in an individual</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Vocabulary in an individual"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Productive_and_receptive_knowledge">Productive and receptive knowledge</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Productive and receptive knowledge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first major change distinction that must be made when evaluating word knowledge is whether the knowledge is productive (also called achieve or active) or receptive (also called receive or passive); even within those opposing categories, there is often no clear distinction. Words that are generally understood when heard or read or seen constitute a person's receptive vocabulary. These words may range from well known to barely known (see <a href="#Degree_of_knowledge">degree of knowledge</a> below). A person's receptive vocabulary is usually the larger of the two. For example, although a young child may not yet be able to speak, write, or sign, they may be able to follow simple commands and appear to understand a good portion of the language to which they are exposed. In this case, the child's receptive vocabulary is likely tens, if not hundreds of words, but their active vocabulary is zero. When that child learns to speak or sign, however, the child's active vocabulary begins to increase. It is also possible for the productive vocabulary to be larger than the receptive vocabulary, for example in a second-language learner who has learned words through study rather than exposure, and can produce them, but has difficulty recognizing them in conversation. </p><p>Productive vocabulary, therefore, generally refers to words that can be produced within an appropriate context and match the intended meaning of the speaker or signer. As with receptive vocabulary, however, there are many degrees at which a particular word may be considered part of an active vocabulary. Knowing how to pronounce, sign, or write a word does not necessarily mean that the word that has been used correctly or accurately reflects the intended message; but it does reflect a minimal amount of productive knowledge. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Degree_of_knowledge">Degree of knowledge</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Degree of knowledge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Within the receptive–productive distinction lies a range of abilities that are often referred to as <i>degree of knowledge</i>. This simply indicates that a word gradually enters a person's vocabulary over a period of time as more aspects of word knowledge are learnt. Roughly, these stages could be described as: </p> <ol><li>Never encountered the word.</li> <li>Heard the word, but cannot define it.</li> <li>Recognizes the word due to <a href="/wiki/Context_(language_use)" class="mw-redirect" title="Context (language use)">context</a> or tone of voice.</li> <li>Able to use the word and understand the general and/or intended meaning, but cannot clearly explain it.</li> <li>Fluent with the word – its use and definition.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Depth_of_knowledge">Depth of knowledge</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Depth of knowledge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The differing degrees of word knowledge imply a greater <i>depth of knowledge</i>, but the process is more complex than that. There are many facets to knowing a word, some of which are not hierarchical so their acquisition does not necessarily follow a linear progression suggested by <i>degree of knowledge</i>. Several frameworks of word knowledge have been proposed to better operationalise this concept. One such framework includes nine facets: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a> – written form</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> – spoken form</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Referent" title="Referent">reference</a> – concept and reference</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a> – meaning</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">register</a> – appropriacy of use or register</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collocation" title="Collocation">collocation</a> – lexical neighbours</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_association" class="mw-redirect" title="Word association">word associations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> – grammatical function</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> – word parts</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_of_vocabulary">Types of vocabulary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Types of vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Listed in order of most ample to most limited:</i><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reading_vocabulary">Reading vocabulary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Reading vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A person's reading vocabulary is all the words recognized when reading. This class of vocabulary is generally the most ample, as new words are more commonly encountered when reading than when listening. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Listening_vocabulary">Listening vocabulary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Listening vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A person's <a href="/wiki/Listening" title="Listening">listening</a> vocabulary comprises the words recognized when listening to speech. Cues such as the speaker's tone and gestures, the topic of discussion, and the conversation's social context may convey the meaning of an unfamiliar word. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Speaking_vocabulary">Speaking vocabulary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Speaking vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A person's speaking vocabulary comprises the words used in <a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">speech</a> and is generally a subset of the listening vocabulary. Due to the spontaneous nature of speech, words are often misused slightly and unintentionally, but facial expressions and tone of voice can compensate for this misuse. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Writing_vocabulary">Writing vocabulary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Writing vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The written word appears in registers as different as formal essays and social media feeds. While many written words rarely appear in speech, a person's written vocabulary is generally limited by preference and context: a writer may prefer one synonym over another, and they will be unlikely to use technical vocabulary relating to a subject in which they have no interest or knowledge. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Final_vocabulary">Final vocabulary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Final vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The American philosopher <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty:_Contemporary_American_Thinkers" title="Richard Rorty: Contemporary American Thinkers">Richard Rorty</a> characterized a person's "final vocabulary" as follows: </p> <blockquote><p>All human beings carry about a set of words which they employ to justify their actions, their beliefs, and their lives. These are the words in which we formulate praise of our friends and contempt for our enemies, our long-term projects, our deepest self-doubts and our highest hopes... I shall call these words a person's "final vocabulary". Those words are as far as he can go with language; beyond them is only helpless passivity or a resort to force. (<i><a href="/wiki/Contingency,_Irony,_and_Solidarity" title="Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity">Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity</a></i> p. 73)<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vocabulary_growth">Vocabulary growth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Vocabulary growth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary_development" title="Vocabulary development">Vocabulary development</a></div> <p>During its infancy, a child instinctively builds a vocabulary. <a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">Infants</a> imitate words that they hear and then associate those words with objects and actions. This is the <a href="#Listening_vocabulary">listening vocabulary</a>. The <a href="#Speaking_vocabulary">speaking vocabulary</a> follows, as a child's thoughts become more reliant on their ability to self-express without relying on gestures or babbling. Once the <a href="#Reading_vocabulary">reading</a> and <a href="#Writing_vocabulary">writing vocabularies</a> start to develop, through questions and <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, the child starts to discover the anomalies and irregularities of language. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/First_grade" title="First grade">first grade</a>, a child who can read learns about twice as many words as one who cannot. Generally, this gap does not narrow later. This results in a wide range of vocabulary by age five or six, when an English-speaking child will have learned about 1500 words.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vocabulary grows throughout one's life. Between the ages of 20 and 60, people learn about 6,000 more lemmas, or one every other day.<sup id="cite_ref-HowMany2016_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HowMany2016-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> An average 20-year-old knows 42,000 lemmas coming from 11,100 word families.<sup id="cite_ref-HowMany2016_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HowMany2016-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> People expand their vocabularies by e.g. reading, playing <a href="/wiki/Word_game" title="Word game">word games</a>, and participating in vocabulary-related programs. Exposure to traditional print media teaches correct spelling and vocabulary, while exposure to text messaging leads to more relaxed word acceptability constraints.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Importance">Importance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Importance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>An extensive vocabulary aids expression and communication.</li> <li>Vocabulary size has been directly linked to <a href="/wiki/Reading_comprehension" title="Reading comprehension">reading comprehension</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stahl1999_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stahl1999-13"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></li> <li>Linguistic vocabulary is synonymous with thinking vocabulary.<sup id="cite_ref-Stahl1999_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stahl1999-13"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></li> <li>A person may be judged by others based on their vocabulary.</li> <li>Wilkins (1972) said, "Without <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, very little can be conveyed; without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vocabulary_size">Vocabulary size</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: Vocabulary size"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Native-language_vocabulary">Native-language vocabulary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Native-language vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Estimating average vocabulary size poses various difficulties and limitations due to the different definitions and methods employed such as what is the word, what is to know a word, what sample dictionaries were used, how tests were conducted, and so on.<sup id="cite_ref-HowMany2016_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HowMany2016-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GouldenNationRead1990_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GouldenNationRead1990-15"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-D&#39;AnnaZechmeisterHall1991_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D&#39;AnnaZechmeisterHall1991-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Native speakers' vocabularies also vary widely within a language, and are dependent on the level of the speaker's education. </p><p>As a result, estimates vary from 10,000 to 17,000 <a href="/wiki/Word_families" class="mw-redirect" title="Word families">word families</a><sup id="cite_ref-GouldenNationRead1990_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GouldenNationRead1990-15"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> or 17,000-42,000 <a href="/wiki/Lemma_(morphology)" title="Lemma (morphology)">dictionary words</a> for young adult native speakers of English.<sup id="cite_ref-HowMany2016_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HowMany2016-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-D&#39;AnnaZechmeisterHall1991_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D&#39;AnnaZechmeisterHall1991-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2016 study shows that 20-year-old English native speakers recognize on average 42,000 <a href="/wiki/Lemma_(morphology)" title="Lemma (morphology)">lemmas</a>, ranging from 27,100 for the lowest 5% of the population to 51,700 lemmas for the highest 5%. These lemmas come from 6,100 word families in the lowest 5% of the population and 14,900 word families in the highest 5%. 60-year-olds know on average 6,000 lemmas more. <sup id="cite_ref-HowMany2016_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HowMany2016-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to another, earlier 1995 study junior-high students would be able to recognize the meanings of about 10,000–12,000 words, whereas for college students this number grows up to about 12,000–17,000 and for elderly adults up to about 17,000 or more.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>For native speakers of German, average absolute vocabulary sizes range from 5,900 lemmas in first grade to 73,000 for adults.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foreign-language_vocabulary">Foreign-language vocabulary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Foreign-language vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_effects_of_vocabulary_size_on_language_comprehension">The effects of vocabulary size on language comprehension</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: The effects of vocabulary size on language comprehension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The knowledge of the 3000 most frequent English word families or the 5000 most frequent words provides 95% vocabulary coverage of spoken discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> For minimal reading comprehension a threshold of 3,000 <a href="/wiki/Word_family" title="Word family">word families</a> (5,000 lexical items) was suggested<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LauferRavenhorst-Kalovski2010_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LauferRavenhorst-Kalovski2010-23"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and for reading for pleasure 5,000 word families (8,000 lexical items) are required.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> An "optimal" threshold of 8,000 word families yields the coverage of 98% (including proper nouns).<sup id="cite_ref-LauferRavenhorst-Kalovski2010_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LauferRavenhorst-Kalovski2010-23"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Second_language_vocabulary_acquisition">Second language vocabulary acquisition</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Second language vocabulary acquisition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Vocabulary_learning" title="Vocabulary learning">Learning vocabulary</a> is one of the first steps in learning a second language, but a learner never finishes vocabulary acquisition. Whether in one's native language or a second language, the acquisition of new vocabulary is an ongoing process. There are many techniques that help one acquire new vocabulary. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Memorization">Memorization</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: Memorization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although memorization can be seen as tedious or boring, associating one word in the native language with the corresponding word in the second language until memorized is considered one of the best methods of vocabulary acquisition. By the time students reach adulthood, they generally have gathered a number of personalized memorization methods. Although many argue that memorization does not typically require the complex cognitive processing that increases retention (Sagarra and Alba, 2006),<sup id="cite_ref-Spanish_p._228-243_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spanish_p._228-243-25"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> it does typically require a large amount of repetition, and <a href="/wiki/Spaced_repetition" title="Spaced repetition">spaced repetition</a> with <a href="/wiki/Flashcard" title="Flashcard">flashcards</a> is an established method for memorization, particularly used for vocabulary acquisition in <a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_language_learning" title="Computer-assisted language learning">computer-assisted language learning</a>. Other methods typically require more time and longer to recall. </p><p>Some words cannot be easily linked through association or other methods. When a word in the second language is phonologically or visually similar to a word in the native language, one often assumes they also share <a href="/wiki/Semantic_similarity" title="Semantic similarity">similar meanings</a>. Though this is frequently the case, it is not always true. When faced with a <a href="/wiki/False_friend" title="False friend">false friend</a>, memorization and repetition are the keys to mastery. If a second language learner relies solely on word associations to learn new vocabulary, that person will have a very difficult time mastering false friends. When large amounts of vocabulary must be acquired in a limited amount of time, when the learner needs to recall information quickly, when words represent abstract concepts or are difficult to picture in a mental image, or when discriminating between false friends, rote memorization is the method to use. A neural network model of novel word learning across orthographies, accounting for L1-specific memorization abilities of L2-learners has recently been introduced (Hadzibeganovic and Cannas, 2009).<sup id="cite_ref-novel_word_learning_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-novel_word_learning-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_keyword_method">The keyword method</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: The keyword method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One way of learning vocabulary is to use mnemonic devices or to create associations between words, this is known as the "keyword method" (Sagarra and Alba, 2006).<sup id="cite_ref-Spanish_p._228-243_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spanish_p._228-243-25"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> It also takes a long time to implement — and takes a long time to recollect — but because it makes a few new strange ideas connect it may help in learning.<sup id="cite_ref-Spanish_p._228-243_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spanish_p._228-243-25"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Also it presumably does not conflict with Paivio's dual coding system<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> because it uses visual and verbal mental faculties. However, this is still best used for words that represent concrete things, as abstract concepts are more difficult to remember.<sup id="cite_ref-Spanish_p._228-243_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spanish_p._228-243-25"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Word_lists">Word lists</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Word lists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several word lists have been developed to provide people with a limited vocabulary for rapid language proficiency or for effective communication. These include <a href="/wiki/Basic_English" title="Basic English">Basic English</a> (850 words), <a href="/wiki/Special_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Special English">Special English</a> (1,500 words), <a href="/wiki/General_Service_List" title="General Service List">General Service List</a> (2,000 words), and <a href="/wiki/Academic_Word_List" title="Academic Word List">Academic Word List</a>. Some <a href="/wiki/Advanced_learner%27s_dictionary" title="Advanced learner&#39;s dictionary">learner's dictionaries</a> have developed <a href="/wiki/Defining_vocabulary" title="Defining vocabulary">defining vocabularies</a> which contain only most common and basic words. As a result, word definitions in such dictionaries can be understood even by learners with a limited vocabulary.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Some publishers produce dictionaries based on word frequency<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> or thematic groups.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Swadesh_list" title="Swadesh list">Swadesh list</a> was made for investigation in <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Focal_vocabulary">Focal vocabulary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: Focal vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Focal vocabulary is a specialized set of terms and distinctions that is particularly important to a certain group: those with a particular focus of experience or activity. A lexicon, or vocabulary, is a language's dictionary: its set of names for things, events, and ideas. Some linguists believe that lexicon influences people's perception of things, the <a href="/wiki/Sapir%E2%80%93Whorf_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapir–Whorf hypothesis">Sapir–Whorf hypothesis</a>. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Nuer_people" title="Nuer people">Nuer</a> of Sudan have an elaborate vocabulary to describe cattle. The Nuer have dozens of names for cattle because of the cattle's particular histories, economies, and environments<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (March 2013)">clarification needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup>. This kind of comparison has elicited some linguistic controversy, as with the number of "<a href="/wiki/Eskimo_words_for_snow" title="Eskimo words for snow">Eskimo words for snow</a>". English speakers with relevant specialised knowledge can also display elaborate and precise vocabularies for snow and cattle when the need arises.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilingual_lexical_access" title="Bilingual lexical access">Bilingual lexical access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differences_between_American_and_British_English_(vocabulary)" class="mw-redirect" title="Differences between American and British English (vocabulary)">Differences between American and British English (vocabulary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_proficiency" title="Language proficiency">Language proficiency</a>: The ability of an individual to speak or perform in an acquired language</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">Lexicon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longest_word_in_English" title="Longest word in English">Longest word in English</a>: Many of the longest words in the English language</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_lexicon" title="Mental lexicon">Mental lexicon</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/vocabulary">"Vocabulary"</a>. <i>Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Vocabulary&amp;rft.btitle=Longman+Dictionary+of+Contemporary+English&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ldoceonline.com%2Fdictionary%2Fvocabulary&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVocabulary" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthews2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Matthews, Peter (2014). "Vocabulary". <i>The concise Oxford dictionary of linguistics</i> (3rd&#160;ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-199-67512-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-199-67512-8"><bdi>978-0-199-67512-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Vocabulary&amp;rft.btitle=The+concise+Oxford+dictionary+of+linguistics&amp;rft.edition=3rd&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-199-67512-8&amp;rft.aulast=Matthews&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVocabulary" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanesi2000" class="citation book cs1">Danesi, Marcel (2000). <i>Encyclopedic dictionary of semiotics, media, and communications</i>. Toronto studies in semiotics. Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8329-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8329-6"><bdi>978-0-8020-8329-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclopedic+dictionary+of+semiotics%2C+media%2C+and+communications&amp;rft.place=Toronto&amp;rft.series=Toronto+studies+in+semiotics&amp;rft.pub=Univ.+of+Toronto+Press&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8020-8329-6&amp;rft.aulast=Danesi&amp;rft.aufirst=Marcel&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVocabulary" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrabeStoller2018" class="citation cs2">Grabe, William; Stoller, Fredricka L. (18 January 2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0773">"Teaching Vocabulary for Reading Success"</a>, <i>The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching</i>, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, pp.&#160;1–7, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118784235.eelt0773">10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0773</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-78422-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-78422-8"><bdi>978-1-118-78422-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Teaching+Vocabulary+for+Reading+Success&amp;rft.btitle=The+TESOL+Encyclopedia+of+English+Language+Teaching&amp;rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&amp;rft.pages=1-7&amp;rft.pub=Wiley&amp;rft.date=2018-01-18&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118784235.eelt0773&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-118-78422-8&amp;rft.aulast=Grabe&amp;rft.aufirst=William&amp;rft.au=Stoller%2C+Fredricka+L.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1002%2F9781118784235.eelt0773&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVocabulary" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorsini2002" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Corsini, Raymond J. (2002). <i>The dictionary of psychology</i>. New York: Brunner–Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-583-91328-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-583-91328-4"><bdi>978-1-583-91328-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Brunner%E2%80%93Routledge&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-583-91328-4&amp;rft.aulast=Corsini&amp;rft.aufirst=Raymond+J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVocabulary" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Missing or empty <code class="cs1-code">&#124;title=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#citation_missing_title" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brysbaert M, Stevens M, Mandera P and Keuleers E (2016) How Many Words Do We Know? Practical Estimates of Vocabulary Size Dependent on Word Definition, the Degree of Language Input and the Participant's Age. Front. Psychol. 7:1116. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01116 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01116/full">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barnhart, Clarence L. (1968).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The World Book Dictionary</i>. Clarence L. Barnhart. 1968 Edition. Published by Thorndike-Barnhart, Chicago, Illinois.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190406123521/https://www.open.edu/openlearn/education/educational-technology-and-practice/educational-technology/introducing-ethics-information-and-computer-sciences/content-section-1.6">"Final vocabulary"</a>. OpenLearn. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.open.edu/openlearn/education/educational-technology-and-practice/educational-technology/introducing-ethics-information-and-computer-sciences/content-section-1.6">the original</a> on 6 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Final+vocabulary&amp;rft.pub=OpenLearn&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.open.edu%2Fopenlearn%2Feducation%2Feducational-technology-and-practice%2Feducational-technology%2Fintroducing-ethics-information-and-computer-sciences%2Fcontent-section-1.6&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVocabulary" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Vocabulary". Sebastian Wren, Ph.D. BalancedReading.com <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.balancedreading.com/vocabulary.html">http://www.balancedreading.com/vocabulary.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091217161736/http://www.balancedreading.com/vocabulary.html">Archived</a> 17 December 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HowMany2016-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HowMany2016_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HowMany2016_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HowMany2016_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HowMany2016_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HowMany2016_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrysbaertStevensManderaKeuleers2016" class="citation journal cs1">Brysbaert, Marc; Stevens, Michaël; Mandera, Paweł; Keuleers, Emmanuel (29 July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4965448">"How Many Words Do We Know? 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(April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/April2010/articles/laufer.pdf">"Lexical threshold revisited: Lexical text coverage, learners' vocabulary size and reading comprehension"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Reading in a Foreign Language</i>. <b>22</b> (1): 15–30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Reading+in+a+Foreign+Language&amp;rft.atitle=Lexical+threshold+revisited%3A+Lexical+text+coverage%2C+learners%27+vocabulary+size+and+reading+comprehension&amp;rft.volume=22&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=15-30&amp;rft.date=2010-04&amp;rft.aulast=Laufer&amp;rft.aufirst=Batia&amp;rft.au=Ravenhorst-Kalovski%2C+Geke+C.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnflrc.hawaii.edu%2Frfl%2FApril2010%2Farticles%2Flaufer.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVocabulary" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirshNation1992" class="citation journal cs1">Hirsh, D.; Nation, I.S.P. 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(1986). <i>Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach</i>. New York: Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBogaards2010" class="citation journal cs1">Bogaards, Paul (July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160928131012/http://kdictionaries.com/kdn/kdn18.pdf">"The evolution of learners' dictionaries and <i>Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's English Dictionary</i>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Kernerman Dictionary News</i> (18): 6–15. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kdictionaries.com/kdn/kdn18.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 28 September 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Kernerman+Dictionary+News&amp;rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+learners%27+dictionaries+and+Merriam-Webster%27s+Advanced+Learner%27s+English+Dictionary&amp;rft.issue=18&amp;rft.pages=6-15&amp;rft.date=2010-07&amp;rft.aulast=Bogaards&amp;rft.aufirst=Paul&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkdictionaries.com%2Fkdn%2Fkdn18.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVocabulary" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/about/oxford3000">"The Oxford 3000"</a>. <i>Oxford Learner's Dictionaries</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Oxford+Learner%27s+Dictionaries&amp;rft.atitle=The+Oxford+3000&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com%2Fabout%2Foxford3000&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVocabulary" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.macmillandictionary.com/learn/clear-definitions.html">"Clear Definitions"</a>. <i>Macmillan Dictionary</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Macmillan+Dictionary&amp;rft.atitle=Clear+Definitions&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.macmillandictionary.com%2Flearn%2Fclear-definitions.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVocabulary" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Routledge-Frequency-Dictionaries/book-series/RFD">Routledge Frequency Dictionaries</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in German)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.langenscheidt.de/Langenscheidt-Grundwortschatz">Langenscheidt Grundwortschatz</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170806102918/http://www.langenscheidt.de/Langenscheidt-Grundwortschatz">Archived</a> 6 August 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in German)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.langenscheidt.de/Langenscheidt-Grund-und-Aufbauwortschatz">Langenscheidt Grund- und Aufbauwortschatz</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in German)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shop.hueber.de/de/catalogsearch/result/?q=Grundwortschatz">Hueber Grundwortschatz</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170806101241/https://shop.hueber.de/de/catalogsearch/result/?q=Grundwortschatz">Archived</a> 6 August 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller (1989)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lenkeit</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Barnhart, Clarence Lewis (ed.) (1968). <i>The World Book Dictionary</i>. Chicago: Thorndike-Barnhart, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/437494">437494</a></li> <li>Brysbaert M, Stevens M, Mandera P and Keuleers E (2016) How Many Words Do We Know? Practical Estimates of Vocabulary Size Dependent on Word Definition, the Degree of Language Input and the Participant's Age. Front. Psychol. 7:1116. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01116.</li> <li>Flynn, James Robert (2008). <i>Where have all the liberals gone?&#160;: race, class, and ideals in America</i>. Cambridge University Press; 1st edition. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-49431-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-49431-1">978-0-521-49431-1</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/231580885">231580885</a></li> <li>Lenkeit, Roberta Edwards (2007) <i>Introducing cultural anthropology</i> Boston: McGraw-Hill (3rd. ed.) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/64230435">64230435</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiuNation1985" class="citation journal cs1">Liu, Na; Nation, I. S. P. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ac.aua.am/lena_simonyan/Public/RELC%20journal/Liu%20Na,1985.Factors%20Affecting%20Guessing%20Vocabulary%20in%20Context.pdf">"Factors affecting guessing vocabulary in context"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>RELC Journal</i>. <b>16</b>: 33–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F003368828501600103">10.1177/003368828501600103</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145695274">145695274</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=RELC+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Factors+affecting+guessing+vocabulary+in+context&amp;rft.volume=16&amp;rft.pages=33-42&amp;rft.date=1985&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F003368828501600103&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145695274%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Liu&amp;rft.aufirst=Na&amp;rft.au=Nation%2C+I.+S.+P.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fac.aua.am%2Flena_simonyan%2FPublic%2FRELC%2520journal%2FLiu%2520Na%2C1985.Factors%2520Affecting%2520Guessing%2520Vocabulary%2520in%2520Context.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVocabulary" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Miller, Barbara D. (1999). <i>Cultural Anthropology</i>(4th ed.) Boston: Allyn and Bacon, p.&#160;315 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/39101950">39101950</a></li> <li>Schonell, Sir Fred Joyce, Ivor G. Meddleton and B. A. Shaw, <i>A study of the oral vocabulary of adults&#160;: an investigation into the spoken vocabulary of the Australian worker</i>, University of Queensland Press, Brisbane, 1956. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/606593777">606593777</a></li> <li>West, Michael (1953). <i>A general service list of English words, with semantic frequencies and a supplementary word-list for the writing of popular science and technology</i> London, New York: Longman, Green <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/318957">318957</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocabulary&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vocabulary" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:vocabulary">vocabulary</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/resources/vocrefs/bibliography.aspx">Bibliography on vocabulary</a> I.S.P. Nation's extensive collection of research on vocabulary.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lognostics.co.uk/varga/">Vocabulary Acquisition Research Group Archive</a> An bibliographic database on vocabulary acquisition at Swansea University.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-field_dictionary" title="Sub-field dictionary">Sub-field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_dictionary" title="Visual dictionary">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary" title="International scientific vocabulary">International scientific vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lexicographers" title="List of lexicographers">List of lexicographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_online_dictionaries" title="List of online dictionaries">List of online dictionaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" 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