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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Writing systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognitive_benefits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_benefits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Cognitive benefits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_benefits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_of_reading_achievement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_of_reading_achievement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 State of reading achievement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_of_reading_achievement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Learning_to_read" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Learning_to_read"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Learning to read </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Learning_to_read-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Learning to read subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Learning_to_read-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spoken_language:_the_foundation_of_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spoken_language:_the_foundation_of_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Spoken language: the foundation of reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spoken_language:_the_foundation_of_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reading_to_children:_necessary_but_not_sufficient" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reading_to_children:_necessary_but_not_sufficient"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Reading to children: necessary but not sufficient </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reading_to_children:_necessary_but_not_sufficient-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Optimum_age_for_learning_to_read" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optimum_age_for_learning_to_read"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Optimum age for learning to read </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optimum_age_for_learning_to_read-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suggested_reading_instruction_by_grade_level" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suggested_reading_instruction_by_grade_level"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Suggested reading instruction by grade level </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suggested_reading_instruction_by_grade_level-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foundational_reading_skill_instruction_practices,_kindergarten_through_grade_12" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundational_reading_skill_instruction_practices,_kindergarten_through_grade_12"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Foundational reading skill instruction practices, kindergarten through grade 12 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foundational_reading_skill_instruction_practices,_kindergarten_through_grade_12-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stages_to_skilled_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stages_to_skilled_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Stages to skilled reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Stages_to_skilled_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Stages to skilled reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Stages_to_skilled_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emerging_pre-reader:_6_months_to_6_years_old" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emerging_pre-reader:_6_months_to_6_years_old"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Emerging pre-reader: 6 months to 6 years old </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emerging_pre-reader:_6_months_to_6_years_old-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Novice_reader:_6_to_7_years_old" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Novice_reader:_6_to_7_years_old"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Novice reader: 6 to 7 years old </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Novice_reader:_6_to_7_years_old-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decoding_reader:_7_to_9_years_old" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decoding_reader:_7_to_9_years_old"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Decoding reader: 7 to 9 years old </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decoding_reader:_7_to_9_years_old-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fluent,_comprehending_reader:_9_to_15_years_old" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fluent,_comprehending_reader:_9_to_15_years_old"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Fluent, comprehending reader: 9 to 15 years old </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fluent,_comprehending_reader:_9_to_15_years_old-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expert_reader:_16_years_and_older" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expert_reader:_16_years_and_older"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Expert reader: 16 years and older </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expert_reader:_16_years_and_older-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_of_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_of_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Science of reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Science_of_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Science of reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Science_of_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Simple_view_of_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Simple_view_of_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Simple view of reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Simple_view_of_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scarborough's_reading_rope" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scarborough's_reading_rope"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Scarborough's reading rope </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scarborough's_reading_rope-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Active_view_of_reading_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Active_view_of_reading_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Active view of reading model </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Active_view_of_reading_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Automaticity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Automaticity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Automaticity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Automaticity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-How_the_brain_reads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#How_the_brain_reads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 How the brain reads </div> </a> <ul id="toc-How_the_brain_reads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eye_movement_and_silent_reading_rate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eye_movement_and_silent_reading_rate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Eye movement and silent reading rate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eye_movement_and_silent_reading_rate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dual-route_hypothesis_to_reading_aloud" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dual-route_hypothesis_to_reading_aloud"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dual-route_hypothesis_to_reading_aloud-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_production_effect_(reading_out_loud)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_production_effect_(reading_out_loud)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 The production effect (reading out loud) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_production_effect_(reading_out_loud)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evidence-based_reading_instruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidence-based_reading_instruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9 Evidence-based reading instruction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evidence-based_reading_instruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reading_from_paper_vs._screens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reading_from_paper_vs._screens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.10 Reading from paper vs. screens </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reading_from_paper_vs._screens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Teacher_training_and_legislation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Teacher_training_and_legislation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.11 Teacher training and legislation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Teacher_training_and_legislation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Teaching_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Teaching_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Teaching reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Teaching_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Teaching reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Teaching_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alphabetic_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alphabetic_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Alphabetic languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alphabetic_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phonics_and_related_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonics_and_related_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Phonics and related areas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonics_and_related_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Combining_phonics_with_other_literacy_instruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Combining_phonics_with_other_literacy_instruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.1 Combining phonics with other literacy instruction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Combining_phonics_with_other_literacy_instruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effectiveness_of_programs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effectiveness_of_programs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.2 Effectiveness of programs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effectiveness_of_programs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Systematic_phonics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Systematic_phonics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.3 Systematic phonics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Systematic_phonics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analytic_phonics_and_analogy_phonics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analytic_phonics_and_analogy_phonics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.4 Analytic phonics and analogy phonics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analytic_phonics_and_analogy_phonics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Embedded_phonics_with_mini-lessons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Embedded_phonics_with_mini-lessons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.5 Embedded phonics with mini-lessons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Embedded_phonics_with_mini-lessons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonics_through_spelling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonics_through_spelling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.6 Phonics through spelling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonics_through_spelling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Synthetic_phonics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Synthetic_phonics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.7 Synthetic phonics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Synthetic_phonics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.8 Related areas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phonemic_awareness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonemic_awareness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.8.1 Phonemic awareness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonemic_awareness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.8.2 Vocabulary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sight_vocabulary_vs._sight_words" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sight_vocabulary_vs._sight_words"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.8.3 Sight vocabulary vs. sight words </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sight_vocabulary_vs._sight_words-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fluency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fluency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.8.4 Fluency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fluency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reading_comprehension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reading_comprehension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.8.5 Reading comprehension </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reading_comprehension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reading_and_spelling_(writing)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reading_and_spelling_(writing)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.8.6 Reading and spelling (writing) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reading_and_spelling_(writing)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Using_embedded_pictures,_and_mnemonic_alphabet_cards_when_teaching_phonics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Using_embedded_pictures,_and_mnemonic_alphabet_cards_when_teaching_phonics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.8.7 Using embedded pictures, and mnemonic alphabet cards when teaching phonics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Using_embedded_pictures,_and_mnemonic_alphabet_cards_when_teaching_phonics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Whole_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Whole_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Whole language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Whole_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Balanced_literacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balanced_literacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 Balanced literacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Balanced_literacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structured_literacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structured_literacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.4 Structured literacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structured_literacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three_cueing_system_(Searchlights_model)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three_cueing_system_(Searchlights_model)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.5 Three cueing system (Searchlights model) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three_cueing_system_(Searchlights_model)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three_Ps_(3Ps)_–_Pause_Prompt_Praise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three_Ps_(3Ps)_–_Pause_Prompt_Praise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.6 Three Ps (3Ps) – Pause Prompt Praise </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three_Ps_(3Ps)_–_Pause_Prompt_Praise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guided_reading,_reading_workshop,_shared_reading,_leveled_reading,_silent_reading_(and_self-teaching)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guided_reading,_reading_workshop,_shared_reading,_leveled_reading,_silent_reading_(and_self-teaching)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.7 Guided reading, reading workshop, shared reading, leveled reading, silent reading (and self-teaching) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guided_reading,_reading_workshop,_shared_reading,_leveled_reading,_silent_reading_(and_self-teaching)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logographic_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logographic_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Logographic languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logographic_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reading_wars:_phonics_vs._whole_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reading_wars:_phonics_vs._whole_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Reading wars: phonics vs. whole language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reading_wars:_phonics_vs._whole_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Requirements_for_proficient_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Requirements_for_proficient_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Requirements for proficient reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Requirements_for_proficient_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reading_difficulties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reading_difficulties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Reading difficulties </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reading_difficulties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Reading difficulties subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Reading_difficulties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decoding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decoding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Decoding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decoding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reading_rate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reading_rate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Reading rate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reading_rate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reading_fluency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reading_fluency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Reading fluency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reading_fluency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reading_comprehension_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reading_comprehension_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Reading comprehension </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reading_comprehension_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radio_reading_service" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_reading_service"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Radio reading service </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_reading_service-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reading_achievement:_national_and_international_reports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reading_achievement:_national_and_international_reports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Reading achievement: national and international reports </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reading_achievement:_national_and_international_reports-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Reading achievement: national and international reports subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Reading_achievement:_national_and_international_reports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-NAEP" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#NAEP"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 NAEP </div> </a> <ul id="toc-NAEP-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-PIAAC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#PIAAC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 PIAAC </div> </a> <ul id="toc-PIAAC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-PIRLS" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#PIRLS"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 PIRLS </div> </a> <ul id="toc-PIRLS-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-PISA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#PISA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 PISA </div> </a> <ul id="toc-PISA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-EQAO" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#EQAO"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 EQAO </div> </a> <ul id="toc-EQAO-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_learning_to_read" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_learning_to_read"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 History of learning to read </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_of_learning_to_read-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History of learning to read subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History_of_learning_to_read-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 21st century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Other terms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Gallery </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Gallery subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paintings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paintings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Paintings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paintings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photographs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photographs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Photographs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photographs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Reading</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 82 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-82" aria-hidden="true" > 82 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ady mw-list-item"><a href="https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%8D" title="Непэ – Adyghe" lang="ady" hreflang="ady" data-title="Непэ" data-language-autonym="Адыгабзэ" data-language-local-name="Adyghe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгабзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lees" title="Lees – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Lees" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1%D8%A9" title="قراءة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قراءة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B8%D5%B6%D5%A9%D5%A5%D6%80%D6%81%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ընթերցանութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ընթերցանութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llectura" title="Llectura – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llectura" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCtali%C9%99" title="Mütaliə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mütaliə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A0%E0%A6%A8" title="পঠন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পঠন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tha%CC%8Dk-chheh" title="Tha̍k-chheh – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tha̍k-chheh" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagbasa" title="Pagbasa – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Pagbasa" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Четене – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Четене" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenn_(ober)" title="Lenn (ober) – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Lenn (ober)" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lectura" title="Lectura – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Lectura" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2" title="Вулав – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Вулав" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cten%C3%AD" title="Čtení – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Čtení" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darllen" title="Darllen – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Darllen" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A6sning" title="Læsning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Læsning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesen" title="Lesen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Lesen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugemine" title="Lugemine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Lugemine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%AC%CE%B3%CE%BD%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Ανάγνωση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ανάγνωση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Ловнома – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Ловнома" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lectura_(educaci%C3%B3n)" title="Lectura (educación) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lectura (educación)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legado" title="Legado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Legado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irakurketa" title="Irakurketa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Irakurketa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86" title="خواندن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خواندن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecture" title="Lecture – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Lecture" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lectura" title="Lectura – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lectura" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%BD%EA%B8%B0" title="읽기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="읽기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B8%D5%B6%D5%A9%D5%A5%D6%80%D6%81%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ընթերցանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ընթերցանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8" title="वाचन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वाचन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Citanje" title="Čitanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Čitanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membaca" title="Membaca – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Membaca" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lectura" title="Lectura – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Lectura" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lestur" title="Lestur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Lestur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lettura" title="Lettura – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lettura" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%90%D7%94" title="קריאה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קריאה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maca" title="Maca – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Maca" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%93%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%86" title="ಓದುವಿಕೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಓದುವಿಕೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usomaji" title="Usomaji – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Usomaji" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lekti" title="Lekti – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Lekti" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lectio_(ratio)" title="Lectio (ratio) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lectio (ratio)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las%C4%AB%C5%A1ana" title="Lasīšana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Lasīšana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skaitymas" title="Skaitymas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Skaitymas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lensg" title="Lensg – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Lensg" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olvas%C3%A1s" title="Olvasás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Olvasás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%A8" title="വായന – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വായന" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8" title="वाचन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वाचन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membaca" title="Membaca – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Membaca" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%85%E1%80%AC%E1%80%96%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="စာဖတ်ခြင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="စာဖတ်ခြင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lezen" title="Lezen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Lezen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87" title="पढाइ – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="पढाइ" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%AD%E6%9B%B8" title="読書 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="読書" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesing" title="Lesing – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Lesing" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%9C%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE_(%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86)" title="ਪੜ੍ਹਨਾ (ਪ੍ਰਕਿਰਿਆ) – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪੜ੍ਹਨਾ (ਪ੍ਰਕਿਰਿਆ)" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czytanie" title="Czytanie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Czytanie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leitura" title="Leitura – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Leitura" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citire" title="Citire – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Citire" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91awiriy" title="Ñawiriy – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Ñawiriy" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Чтение – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Чтение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B2%E1%B1%A6%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9C" title="ᱯᱟᱲᱦᱟᱜ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱯᱟᱲᱦᱟᱜ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leximi" title="Leximi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Leximi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading" title="Reading – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Reading" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DA%80%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3" title="اڀياس – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="اڀياس" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8C%C3%ADtanie" title="Čítanie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Čítanie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%88%DB%8E%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95" title="خوێندنەوە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="خوێندنەوە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Читање – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Читање" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukeminen" title="Lukeminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Lukeminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4sning" title="Läsning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Läsning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagbabasa_(gawain)" title="Pagbabasa (gawain) – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagbabasa (gawain)" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="வாசித்தல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வாசித்தல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%83" title="Уку – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Уку" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a 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For the article on literacy, see <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">Literacy</a>. 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Consider <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">splitting</a> content into sub-articles, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">condensing</a> it, or adding <a href="/wiki/Help:Section#Subsections" title="Help:Section">subheadings</a>. Please discuss this issue on the article's <a href="/wiki/Talk:Reading" title="Talk:Reading">talk page</a>. (September 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border: 1px solid #9999CC"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Reading_(process)" title="Category:Reading (process)">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:none;padding-top:0;font-size:175%;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reading</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/File:Big_Book.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Big_Book.svg/125px-Big_Book.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Big_Book.svg/188px-Big_Book.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Big_Book.svg/250px-Big_Book.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="835" data-file-height="567" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Learning_to_read" class="mw-redirect" title="Learning to read">Learning to read</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reading_readiness" title="Reading readiness">Reading readiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocabulary_development" title="Vocabulary development">Vocabulary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocabulary_learning" title="Vocabulary learning">Vocabulary learning</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Scientific theories and models</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dual-route_hypothesis_to_reading_aloud" title="Dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud">Dual route theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_view_of_reading" title="Simple view of reading">Simple view of reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_reading" title="Science of reading">Science of reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scarborough%27s_Reading_Rope" class="mw-redirect" title="Scarborough's Reading Rope">Scarborough's Reading Rope</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#The_active_view_of_reading_model">The active view of reading model</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Cognitive processes</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reading_comprehension" title="Reading comprehension">Comprehension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonemic_awareness" title="Phonemic awareness">Phonemic awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_awareness" title="Phonological awareness">Phonological awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subvocalization" title="Subvocalization">Subvocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_recognition" title="Word recognition">Word recognition</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Teaching_reading">Reading instruction</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_phonics" title="Analytic phonics">Analytic phonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basal_reader" title="Basal reader">Basal reader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept-Oriented_Reading_Instruction" title="Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction">Concept-oriented</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directed_listening_and_thinking_activity" title="Directed listening and thinking activity">Directed listening and thinking activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_reading" title="Guided reading">Guided reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_reading" title="Independent reading">Independent reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_circle" title="Literature circle">Literature circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">Phonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_teaching" title="Reciprocal teaching">Reciprocal teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structured_Word_Inquiry" class="mw-redirect" title="Structured Word Inquiry">Structured word inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustained_silent_reading" title="Sustained silent reading">Sustained silent reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_phonics" title="Synthetic phonics">Synthetic phonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_language" title="Whole language">Whole language</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Reading rate</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fluency" title="Fluency">Fluency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_reading" title="Slow reading">Slow reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speed_reading" title="Speed reading">Speed reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Words_per_minute#Reading_and_comprehension" title="Words per minute">Words per minute</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Readability" title="Readability">Readability</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_readability_assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Automatic readability assessment">Automatic assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legibility" title="Legibility">Legibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Readability_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Readability test">Readability test</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Reading differences and disabilities</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">Dyslexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperlexia" title="Hyperlexia">Hyperlexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading_disability" title="Reading disability">Reading disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading_for_special_needs" title="Reading for special needs">Reading for special needs</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabetic_principle" title="Alphabetic principle">Alphabetic principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolch_word_list" title="Dolch word list">Dolch word list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">Grapheme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_printing" title="History of printing">History of printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">Morpheme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">Phoneme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sight_word" title="Sight word">Sight word</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">Written language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">Writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">Literacy</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_literacy" title="Critical literacy">Critical literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_reading" title="Close reading">Close reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distant_reading" title="Distant reading">Distant reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_literacy" title="Family literacy">Family literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_illiteracy" title="Functional illiteracy">Functional illiteracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_books" class="mw-redirect" title="Great books">Great books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_literature" title="Children's literature">Children's</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Reading" title="Template:Reading"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Reading" title="Template talk:Reading"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Reading" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Reading"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Reading is the process of taking in the sense or meaning of <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbols</a>, often specifically those of a <a href="/wiki/Written" class="mw-redirect" title="Written">written</a> language, by means of <a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">sight</a> or <a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">touch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> For educators and <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">researchers</a>, reading is a multifaceted process involving such areas as word recognition, <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a> (spelling), <a href="/wiki/Alphabetic_principle" title="Alphabetic principle">alphabetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">phonics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_awareness" title="Phonemic awareness">phonemic awareness</a>, vocabulary, comprehension, fluency, and motivation.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Other types of reading and writing, such as <a href="/wiki/Pictograms" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictograms">pictograms</a> (e.g., a <a href="/wiki/Hazard_symbol" title="Hazard symbol">hazard symbol</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Emoji" title="Emoji">emoji</a>), are not based on speech-based <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing systems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The common link is the interpretation of symbols to extract the meaning from the visual notations or tactile signals (as in the case of <a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">braille</a>).<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muse_reading_Louvre_CA2220_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Muse_reading_Louvre_CA2220_%28cropped%29.jpg/260px-Muse_reading_Louvre_CA2220_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Muse_reading_Louvre_CA2220_%28cropped%29.jpg/390px-Muse_reading_Louvre_CA2220_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Muse_reading_Louvre_CA2220_%28cropped%29.jpg/520px-Muse_reading_Louvre_CA2220_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1648" data-file-height="1648" /></a><figcaption>A reading <a href="/wiki/Muse" class="mw-redirect" title="Muse">muse</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reading_a_newspaper._Catania,_Italy_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Reading_a_newspaper._Catania%2C_Italy_%28cropped%29.jpg/260px-Reading_a_newspaper._Catania%2C_Italy_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Reading_a_newspaper._Catania%2C_Italy_%28cropped%29.jpg/390px-Reading_a_newspaper._Catania%2C_Italy_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Reading_a_newspaper._Catania%2C_Italy_%28cropped%29.jpg/520px-Reading_a_newspaper._Catania%2C_Italy_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2496" data-file-height="1926" /></a><figcaption>There is a growing body of evidence which illustrates the importance of reading for pleasure for both educational purposes as well as personal development.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Photo: Reading a newspaper in Catania, Sicily.</figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:03282012Casa_hogar_ni%C3%B1as_tlahuac30_(cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/03282012Casa_hogar_ni%C3%B1as_tlahuac30_%28cropped%29.JPG/260px-03282012Casa_hogar_ni%C3%B1as_tlahuac30_%28cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="260" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/03282012Casa_hogar_ni%C3%B1as_tlahuac30_%28cropped%29.JPG/390px-03282012Casa_hogar_ni%C3%B1as_tlahuac30_%28cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/03282012Casa_hogar_ni%C3%B1as_tlahuac30_%28cropped%29.JPG/520px-03282012Casa_hogar_ni%C3%B1as_tlahuac30_%28cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1793" data-file-height="1788" /></a><figcaption>Volunteer reads to a girl at the Casa Hogar de las Niñas in <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_PASSENGER_ON_THE_LONE_STAR_PASSES_THE_TIME_READING_IN_HER_COMPARTMENT_AS_THE_TRAIN_CROSSES_OKLAHOMA_ENROUTE_FROM..._-_NARA_-_556033.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/A_PASSENGER_ON_THE_LONE_STAR_PASSES_THE_TIME_READING_IN_HER_COMPARTMENT_AS_THE_TRAIN_CROSSES_OKLAHOMA_ENROUTE_FROM..._-_NARA_-_556033.jpg/260px-A_PASSENGER_ON_THE_LONE_STAR_PASSES_THE_TIME_READING_IN_HER_COMPARTMENT_AS_THE_TRAIN_CROSSES_OKLAHOMA_ENROUTE_FROM..._-_NARA_-_556033.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/A_PASSENGER_ON_THE_LONE_STAR_PASSES_THE_TIME_READING_IN_HER_COMPARTMENT_AS_THE_TRAIN_CROSSES_OKLAHOMA_ENROUTE_FROM..._-_NARA_-_556033.jpg/390px-A_PASSENGER_ON_THE_LONE_STAR_PASSES_THE_TIME_READING_IN_HER_COMPARTMENT_AS_THE_TRAIN_CROSSES_OKLAHOMA_ENROUTE_FROM..._-_NARA_-_556033.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/A_PASSENGER_ON_THE_LONE_STAR_PASSES_THE_TIME_READING_IN_HER_COMPARTMENT_AS_THE_TRAIN_CROSSES_OKLAHOMA_ENROUTE_FROM..._-_NARA_-_556033.jpg/520px-A_PASSENGER_ON_THE_LONE_STAR_PASSES_THE_TIME_READING_IN_HER_COMPARTMENT_AS_THE_TRAIN_CROSSES_OKLAHOMA_ENROUTE_FROM..._-_NARA_-_556033.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2031" /></a><figcaption>Woman reading on a train ride to pass the time, <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>, U.S., June 1974</figcaption></figure> Reading is generally an individual activity, done silently, although on occasion a person reads out loud for other listeners; or reads aloud for one's own use, for better comprehension. Before the reintroduction of <a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">separated text</a> (spaces between words) in the late <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the ability to read silently was considered rather remarkable.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Major predictors of an individual's ability to read both alphabetic and non-alphabetic scripts are oral language skills,<a href="#cite_note-Seidenberg-2017-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Phonological_awareness" title="Phonological awareness">phonological awareness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rapid_automatized_naming" title="Rapid automatized naming">rapid automatized naming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Verbal_IQ" class="mw-redirect" title="Verbal IQ">verbal IQ</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> As a <a href="/wiki/Leisure_activities" class="mw-redirect" title="Leisure activities">leisure activity</a>, children and adults read because it is enjoyable and interesting. In the US, about half of all adults read one or more books for pleasure each year.<a href="#cite_note-Pinsker-2019-14">[14]</a> About 5% read more than 50 books per year.<a href="#cite_note-Pinsker-2019-14">[14]</a> Americans read more if they: have more education, read fluently and easily, are female, live in cities, and have higher <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">socioeconomic status</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pinsker-2019-14">[14]</a> Children become better readers when they know more about the world in general, and when they perceive reading as fun rather than as a chore to be performed.<a href="#cite_note-Pinsker-2019-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reading_vs._literacy">Reading vs. literacy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Reading vs. literacy">edit</a>]</div> Reading is an essential part of <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a>, yet from a historical perspective literacy is about having the ability to both read and write.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Since the 1990s, some organizations have defined literacy in a wide variety of ways that may go beyond the traditional ability to read and write. The following are some examples: <ul><li>"the ability to read and write ... in all media (print or electronic), including digital literacy"<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></li> <li>"the ability to ... understand ... using printed and written materials associated with varying contexts"<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></li> <li>"the ability to read, write, speak and listen"<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></li> <li>"having the skills to be able to read, write and speak to understand and create meaning"<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></li> <li>"the ability to ... communicate using visual, audible, and digital materials"<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></li> <li>"the ability to use printed and written information to function in society, to achieve one's goals, and to develop one's knowledge and potential".<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> It includes three types of adult literacy: prose (e.g., a newspaper article), documents (e.g., a bus schedule), and <a href="/wiki/Numeracy" title="Numeracy">quantitative literacy</a> (e.g., using arithmetic operations in a product advertisement).<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carnegie-29">[29]</a></li></ul> In the academic field, some view literacy in a more philosophical manner and propose the concept of "multiliteracies". For example, they say, "this huge shift from traditional print-based literacy to 21st century multiliteracies reflects the impact of communication technologies and multimedia on the evolving nature of texts, as well as the skills and dispositions associated with the consumption, production, evaluation, and distribution of those texts (Borsheim, Meritt, & Reed, 2008, p. 87)".<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> According to cognitive neuroscientist <a href="/wiki/Mark_Seidenberg" title="Mark Seidenberg">Mark Seidenberg</a> these "multiple literacies" have allowed educators to change the topic from reading and writing to "Literacy". He goes on to say that some educators, when faced with criticisms of how reading is taught, "didn't alter their practices, they changed the subject".<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Also, some organizations might include numeracy skills and technology skills separately but alongside of literacy skills.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> In addition, since the 1940s the term literacy is often used to mean having knowledge or skill in a particular field (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Computer_literacy" title="Computer literacy">computer literacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecological_literacy" title="Ecological literacy">ecological literacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">health literacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Media_literacy" title="Media literacy">media literacy</a>, quantitative literacy (<a href="/wiki/Numeracy" title="Numeracy">numeracy</a>)<a href="#cite_note-Carnegie-29">[29]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Visual_literacy" title="Visual literacy">visual literacy</a>).<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Writing_systems">Writing systems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Writing systems">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div> In order to understand a text, it is usually necessary to understand the spoken language associated with that text. In this way, writing systems are distinguished from many other symbolic communication systems.<a href="#cite_note-Daniels-38">[38]</a> Once established, writing systems on the whole change more slowly than their spoken counterparts, and often preserve features and expressions which are no longer current in the spoken language. The great benefit of writing systems is their ability to maintain a persistent record of information expressed in a language, which can be retrieved independently of the initial act of formulation.<a href="#cite_note-Daniels-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive_benefits">Cognitive benefits</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cognitive benefits">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_man_reading_newspaper_early_in_the_morning_at_Basantapur-IMG_6800.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Old_man_reading_newspaper_early_in_the_morning_at_Basantapur-IMG_6800.jpg/130px-Old_man_reading_newspaper_early_in_the_morning_at_Basantapur-IMG_6800.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Old_man_reading_newspaper_early_in_the_morning_at_Basantapur-IMG_6800.jpg/195px-Old_man_reading_newspaper_early_in_the_morning_at_Basantapur-IMG_6800.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Old_man_reading_newspaper_early_in_the_morning_at_Basantapur-IMG_6800.jpg/260px-Old_man_reading_newspaper_early_in_the_morning_at_Basantapur-IMG_6800.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="6000" /></a><figcaption>Senior reading a newspaper in Nepal</figcaption></figure> Reading for pleasure has been linked to increased cognitive progress in vocabulary and mathematics during adolescence. <a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Sustained high volume lifetime reading has been associated with high levels of academic attainment.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Research suggests that reading can improve stress management,<a href="#cite_note-Brown-2016-42">[42]</a> memory,<a href="#cite_note-Brown-2016-42">[42]</a> focus,<a href="#cite_note-Brown-2018-43">[43]</a> writing skills,<a href="#cite_note-Brown-2018-43">[43]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imagination" title="Imagination">imagination</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> The cognitive benefits of reading continue into mid-life and the senior years.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Research suggests that reading books and writing are among the brain-stimulating activities that can slow down cognitive decline in seniors.<a href="#cite_note-Neurology20130703-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_of_reading_achievement">State of reading achievement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: State of reading achievement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Reading_achievement:_national_and_international_reports">Reading achievement: national and international reports</a></div> Reading has been the subject of considerable research and reporting for decades. Many organizations measure and report on <a href="#Reading_achievement:_national_and_international_reports">reading achievement</a> for children and adults (e.g., <a href="/wiki/NAEP" class="mw-redirect" title="NAEP">NAEP</a>, <a href="/wiki/PIRLS" class="mw-redirect" title="PIRLS">PIRLS</a>, <a href="/wiki/PISA" class="mw-redirect" title="PISA">PISA</a> <a href="/wiki/PIAAC" class="mw-redirect" title="PIAAC">PIAAC</a>, and <a href="/wiki/EQAO" class="mw-redirect" title="EQAO">EQAO</a>). Researchers have concluded that approximately 95% of students can be taught to read by the end of the first or second year of school, yet in many countries 20% or more do not meet that expectation.<a href="#cite_note-fall2004torgesen-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Teaching_Reading_Is_Rocket_Science-50">[50]</a> A 2012 study in the U.S. found that 33% of grade three children had low reading scores – however, they comprised 63% of the children who did not graduate from high school. Poverty also had an additional negative impact on high school graduation rates.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> According to the 2019 <a href="/wiki/NAEP" class="mw-redirect" title="NAEP">Nation's Report card</a>, 34% of grade four students in the United States failed to perform at or above the Basic reading level. There was a significant difference by race and ethnicity (e.g., black students at 52% and white students at 23%). After the impact of the <a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education">COVID-19 pandemic</a> the average basic reading score dropped by 3% in 2022.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> See more about <a href="#Reading_achievement:_national_and_international_reports">the breakdown by ethnicity in 2019 and 2022 here</a>. In 2022, 30% of grade eight students failed to perform at or above the NAEP Basic level, which was 3 points lower compared to 2019.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> According to a 2023 study in California, only 46.6% of grade three students achieved the English reading standards.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Another report states that many teenagers who've spent time in California's juvenile detention facilities get high school diplomas with grade-school reading skills. "There are kids getting their high school diplomas who aren't able to even read and write." During a five-year span beginning in 2018, 85% of these students who graduated from high school did not pass a 12th-grade reading assessment.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Between 2013 and 2024, 37 US States passed laws or implemented new policies related to evidence-based reading instruction.<a href="#cite_note-Sarah_Schwartz-57">[57]</a> In 2023, New York City set about to require schools to teach reading with an emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">phonics</a>. In that city, less than half of the students from the third grade to the eighth grade of school scored as proficient on state reading exams. More than 63% of Black and Hispanic test-takers did not make the grade.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Globally, the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> created a substantial overall learning deficit in reading abilities and other academic areas. It arose early in the pandemic and persists over time, and is particularly large among children from low socio-economic backgrounds.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> In the US, several research studies show that, in the absence of additional support, there is nearly a 90 percent chance that a poor reader in Grade 1 will remain a poor reader.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> In Canada, the province of <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> reported that 27% of grade three students did not meet the provincial reading standards in 2023.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Also in Ontario, 53% of grade three students with special education needs (students who have an Individual Education Plan), were not meeting the provincial standards in 2022.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> The province of <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a> reported that 32% of grade three students did not meet the provincial reading standards in 2022.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> The province of <a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a> reported that 43.4% and 30.7% did not meet the Reading Comprehension Achievement Levels for grades four and six respectively in 2023.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (<a href="/wiki/PIRLS" class="mw-redirect" title="PIRLS">PIRLS</a>) publishes reading achievement for fourth graders in 50 countries.<a href="#cite_note-PIRLS-66">[66]</a> The five countries with the highest overall reading average are the Russian Federation, Singapore, Hong Kong SAR, Ireland and Finland. Some others are: England 10th, United States 15th, Australia 21st, Canada 23rd, and New Zealand 33rd.<a href="#cite_note-PIRLS-2016-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barclays-2017-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-PIRLS-2017-69">[69]</a> The Programme for International Student Assessment (<a href="/wiki/PISA" class="mw-redirect" title="PISA">PISA</a>) measures 15-year-old school pupils scholastic performance on mathematics, science, and reading.<a href="#cite_note-About_PISA-70">[70]</a> Critics, however, say PISA is fundamentally flawed in its underlying view of education, its implementation, and its interpretation and impact on education globally.<a href="#cite_note-Zhao,_Y._245–266-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-washingtonpost.com-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-theguardian.com-73">[73]</a> The reading levels of adults, ages 16–65, in 39 countries are reported by the <a href="/wiki/Programme_for_the_International_Assessment_of_Adult_Competencies" title="Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies">Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies</a> (PIAAC).<a href="#cite_note-PIAAC-OECD-74">[74]</a> Between 2011 and 2018, PIAAC reports the percentage of adults reading at-or-below level one (the lowest of five levels). Some examples are Japan 4.9%, Finland 10.6%, Netherlands 11.7%, Australia 12.6%, Sweden 13.3%, Canada 16.4%, England (UK) 16.4%, and the United States 16.9%.<a href="#cite_note-OECD-2013-75">[75]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, 53% of all children in low-and-middle-income countries suffer from 'learning poverty'. In 2019, using data from the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> Institute for Statistics, they published a report entitled Ending Learning Poverty: What will it take?.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Learning poverty is defined as being unable to read and understand a simple text by age 10. Although they say that all foundational skills are important, include reading, numeracy, basic reasoning ability, socio-emotional skills, and others – they focus specifically on reading. Their reasoning is that reading proficiency is an easily understood metric of learning, reading is a student's gateway to learning in every other area, and reading proficiency can serve as a proxy for foundational learning in other subjects. They suggest five pillars to reduce learning poverty: <ol><li>Learners are prepared and motivated to learn</li> <li>Teachers at all levels are effective and valued</li> <li>Classrooms are equipped for learning</li> <li>Schools are safe and inclusive spaces, and</li> <li>Education systems are well-managed.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Learning_to_read">Learning to read</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Learning to read">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Az_girl_reading_a_book._e-citizen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Az_girl_reading_a_book._e-citizen.jpg/275px-Az_girl_reading_a_book._e-citizen.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Az_girl_reading_a_book._e-citizen.jpg/413px-Az_girl_reading_a_book._e-citizen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Az_girl_reading_a_book._e-citizen.jpg/550px-Az_girl_reading_a_book._e-citizen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2669" data-file-height="1831" /></a><figcaption>Researchers have concluded that approximately 95% of students can be taught to read by the end of the first or second year of school, yet in many countries 20% or more do not meet that expectation.<a href="#cite_note-fall2004torgesen-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Teaching_Reading_Is_Rocket_Science-50">[50]</a></figcaption></figure>Learning to read or reading skills acquisition is the acquisition and practice of the skills necessary to understand the meaning behind printed words. For a skilled reader, the act of reading feels simple, effortless, and automatic.<a href="#cite_note-Rayner,_2001-77">[77]</a> However, the process of learning to read is complex and builds on cognitive, linguistic, and social skills developed from a very early age. As one of the four core language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing),<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> reading is vital to gaining a command of written language. In the United States and elsewhere, it is widely believed that students who lack proficiency in reading by the end of grade three may face obstacles for the rest of their academic career.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> For example, it is estimated that they would not be able to read half of the material they will encounter in grade four.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> In 2019, among American fourth-graders in public schools, only 58% of Asian, 45% of Caucasian, 23% of Hispanic, and 18% of Black students performed at or above the proficient level of the <a href="#Reading_achievement:_national_and_international_reports">Nation's Report Card</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto7-84">[84]</a> Also, in 2012, in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> it has been reported that 15-year-old students are reading at the level expected of 12-year-old students.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> As a result, many governments put practices in place to ensure that students are reading at grade level by the end of grade three. An example of this is the Third Grade Reading Guarantee created by the State of <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a> in 2017. This is a program to identify students from kindergarten through grade three that are behind in reading, and provide support to make sure they are on track for reading success by the end of grade three.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-OhioEdu-2017-87">[87]</a> This is also known as <a href="/wiki/Remedial_education" title="Remedial education">remedial education</a>. Another example is the policy in England whereby any pupil who is struggling to decode words properly by year three must "urgently" receive help through a "rigorous and systematic phonics programme".<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> In 2016, out of 50 countries, the United States achieved the 15th highest score in grade-four reading ability.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> The ten countries with the highest overall reading average are the Russian Federation, Singapore, Hong Kong SAR, Ireland, Finland, Poland, Northern Ireland, Norway, Chinese Taipei and England (UK). Some others are: Australia (21st), Canada (23rd), New Zealand (33rd), France (34th), Saudi Arabia (44th), and South Africa (50th). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spoken_language:_the_foundation_of_reading">Spoken language: the foundation of reading</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Spoken language: the foundation of reading">edit</a>]</div> Spoken language is the foundation of learning to read (long before children see any letters) and children's knowledge of the phonological structure of language is a good predictor of early reading ability. Spoken language is dominant for most of childhood; however, reading ultimately catches up and surpasses speech.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> By their first birthday most children have learned all the sounds in their spoken language. However, it takes longer for them to learn the phonological form of words and to begin developing a spoken vocabulary.<a href="#cite_note-Seidenberg-2017-12">[12]</a> Children acquire a spoken language in a few years. Five-to-six-year-old English learners have vocabularies of 2,500 to 5,000 words, and add 5,000 words per year for the first several years of schooling. This rapid learning rate cannot be accounted for by the instruction they receive. Instead, children learn that the meaning of a new word can be inferred because it occurs in the same context as familiar words (e.g., lion is often seen with cowardly and king).<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> As British linguist <a href="/wiki/John_Rupert_Firth" title="John Rupert Firth">John Rupert Firth</a> says, "You shall know a word by the company it keeps". The environment in which children live may also impact their ability to acquire reading skills. Children who are regularly exposed to chronic environmental noise pollution, such as highway traffic noise, have been known to show decreased ability to discriminate between <a href="/wiki/Phonemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemes">phonemes</a> (oral language sounds) as well as lower reading scores on standardized tests.<a href="#cite_note-CohenGlass1973-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reading_to_children:_necessary_but_not_sufficient">Reading to children: necessary but not sufficient</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Reading to children: necessary but not sufficient">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_literacy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Early_literacy.jpg/220px-Early_literacy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Early_literacy.jpg/330px-Early_literacy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Early_literacy.jpg/440px-Early_literacy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4562" data-file-height="3368" /></a><figcaption>Reading to children is not the same as teaching children to read; however, it does help if the children's attention is directed to the words on the page as they are being read to.<a href="#cite_note-MyersBotting2008-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Piasta-2012-97">[97]</a></figcaption></figure> Children learn to speak naturally – by listening to other people speak. However, reading is not a natural process, and many children need to learn to read through a process that involves "systematic guidance and feedback".<a href="#cite_note-NIFDI-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gough-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> So, "reading to children is not the same as teaching children to read".<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Nonetheless, reading to children is important because it socializes them to the activity of reading; it engages them; it expands their knowledge of spoken language; and it enriches their linguistic ability by hearing new and novel words and grammatical structures. However, there is some evidence that "shared reading" with children does help to improve reading if the children's attention is directed to the words on the page as they are being read to.<a href="#cite_note-MyersBotting2008-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Piasta-2012-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optimum_age_for_learning_to_read">Optimum age for learning to read</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Optimum age for learning to read">edit</a>]</div> There is some debate as to the optimum age to teach children to read. The <a href="/wiki/Common_Core_State_Standards_Initiative" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Core State Standards Initiative">Common Core State Standards Initiative</a> (CCSS) in the United States has standards for foundational reading skills in kindergarten and grade one that include instruction in print concepts, phonological awareness, phonics, word recognition, and fluency.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-103">[103]</a> However, some critics of CCSS say that "To achieve reading standards usually calls for long hours of drill and worksheets – and reduces other vital areas of learning such as math, science, social studies, art, music and creative play".<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Programme_for_International_Student_Assessment" title="Programme for International Student Assessment">PISA 2007</a> OECD data from 54 countries demonstrates "no association between school entry age ... and reading achievement at age 15".<a href="#cite_note-Suggate-105">[105]</a> Also, a German study of 50 kindergartens compared children who, at age 5, had spent a year either "academically focused", or "play-arts focused" and found that in time the two groups became inseparable in reading skill.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> The authors conclude that the effects of early reading are like "watering a garden before a rainstorm; the earlier watering is rendered undetectable by the rainstorm, the watering wastes precious water, and the watering detracts the gardener from other important preparatory groundwork".<a href="#cite_note-Suggate-105">[105]</a> Some scholars favor a <a href="/wiki/Developmentally_appropriate_practice" title="Developmentally appropriate practice">developmentally appropriate practice</a> (DAP) in which formal instruction on reading begins when children are about six or seven years old. And to support that theory some point out that children in <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> start school at age seven (Finland ranked 5th in the 2016 <a href="/wiki/PIRLS" class="mw-redirect" title="PIRLS">PIRLS</a> international grade four reading achievement.)<a href="#cite_note-auto3-107">[107]</a> In a discussion on academic kindergartens, professor of child development <a href="/wiki/David_Elkind" title="David Elkind">David Elkind</a> has argued that, since "there is no solid research demonstrating that early academic training is superior to (or worse than) the more traditional, hands-on model of early education", educators should defer to developmental approaches that provide young children with ample time and opportunity to explore the natural world on their own terms.<a href="#cite_note-Elkind-108">[108]</a> Elkind emphasized the principle that "early education must start with the child, not with the subject matter to be taught".<a href="#cite_note-Elkind-108">[108]</a> In response, <a href="/wiki/Grover_J._Whitehurst" class="mw-redirect" title="Grover J. Whitehurst">Grover J. Whitehurst</a>, Director, Brown Center on Education Policy, (part of <a href="/wiki/Brookings_Institution" title="Brookings Institution">Brookings Institution</a>)<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> said David Elkind is relying too much on philosophies of education rather than science and research. He continues to say education practices are "doomed to cycles of fad and fancy" until they become more based on <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">evidence-based practice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> On the subject of Finland's academic results, as some researchers point out, prior to starting school Finnish children must participate in one year of compulsory free pre-primary education and most are reading before they start school.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-Refsnes-2019-112">[112]</a> And, with respect to developmentally appropriate practice (DPA), in 2019 the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Education_of_Young_Children" title="National Association for the Education of Young Children">National Association for the Education of Young Children</a>, Washington, D.C., released a draft position paper on DPA saying "The notion that young children are not ready for academic subject matter is a misunderstanding of developmentally appropriate practice; particularly in grades 1 through 3, almost all subject matter can be taught in ways that are meaningful and engaging for each child".<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> And, researchers at <a href="/wiki/The_Institutes_for_the_Achievement_of_Human_Potential" title="The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential">The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential</a> say it is a myth that early readers are bored or become trouble makers in school.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Other researchers and educators favor limited amounts of literacy instruction at the age of four and five, in addition to non-academic, intellectually stimulating activities.<a href="#cite_note-vanKleeck2010-115">[115]</a> Reviews of the academic literature by the <a href="/wiki/Education_Endowment_Foundation" title="Education Endowment Foundation">Education Endowment Foundation</a> in the UK have found that starting literacy teaching in preschool has "been consistently found to have a positive effect on early learning outcomes"<a href="#cite_note-EEFliteracy-116">[116]</a> and that "beginning early years education at a younger age appears to have a high positive impact on learning outcomes".<a href="#cite_note-EEFearly-117">[117]</a> This supports current standard practice in the UK which includes developing children's phonemic awareness in preschool and teaching reading from age four. A study in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> reports that an <a href="/wiki/Early_childhood_education" title="Early childhood education">early education program</a> for children from low-income families is estimated to generate $4 to $11 of economic benefits over a child's lifetime for every dollar spent initially on the program, according to a cost-benefit analysis funded by the <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a>. The program is staffed by certified teachers and offers "instruction in reading and math, group activities and educational field trips for children ages 3 through 9".<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> There does not appear to be any definitive research about the "magic window" to begin reading instruction.<a href="#cite_note-Refsnes-2019-112">[112]</a> However, there is also no definitive research to suggest that starting early causes any harm. <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Shanahan_(educator)" title="Timothy Shanahan (educator)">Researcher and educator Timothy Shanahan</a>, suggests, "Start teaching reading from the time you have kids available to teach, and pay attention to how they respond to this instruction – both in terms of how well they are learning what you are teaching, and how happy and invested they seem to be. If you haven't started yet, don't feel guilty, just get going".<a href="#cite_note-Refsnes-2019-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Suggested_reading_instruction_by_grade_level">Suggested reading instruction by grade level</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Suggested reading instruction by grade level">edit</a>]</div> Some education researchers suggest the teaching of the various reading components by specific grade levels.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> The following is one example from Carol Tolman, Ed.D. and Louisa Moats, Ed.D. that corresponds in many respects with the United States <a href="/wiki/Common_Core_State_Standards_Initiative" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Core State Standards Initiative">Common Core State Standards Initiative</a>:<a href="#cite_note-auto1-103">[103]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th class="unsortable">Reading instruction component </th> <th class="unsortable">Tolman & Moats </th> <th class="unsortable">US Common Core </th></tr> <tr> <td>Phonological awareness </td> <td>K–1 </td> <td>K–1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Basic phonics </td> <td>K–1 </td> <td>K–1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vocabulary </td> <td>K–6+ </td> <td>K–6+ </td></tr> <tr> <td>Comprehension </td> <td>K–6+ </td> <td>K–6+ </td></tr> <tr> <td>Written expression </td> <td>1–6+ </td> <td>K–6+ </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fluency </td> <td>1–3 </td> <td>1–5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Advanced phonics/decoding </td> <td>2–6+ </td> <td>2–5 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foundational_reading_skill_instruction_practices,_kindergarten_through_grade_12">Foundational reading skill instruction practices, kindergarten through grade 12</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Foundational reading skill instruction practices, kindergarten through grade 12">edit</a>]</div> The percentage of US students who failed to perform at or above the <a href="/wiki/National_Assessment_of_Educational_Progress" title="National Assessment of Educational Progress">Nations Report Card</a> basic reading level were grade 4 (37% in 2022), grade 8 (30% in 2022), and grade 12 (30% in 2019).<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> As a result many secondary school teachers devote some class time to activities related to foundational reading skills.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> The following chart shows the percentage of K-12 English Language Arts teachers that engaged in foundational reading activities with students (i.e., engaging every student in a class in activities related to the foundational reading skills for more than a few minutes within the past five class lessons).<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th class="unsortable">Activities / Grades </th> <th class="unsortable">K-1 </th> <th class="unsortable">2-5 </th> <th class="unsortable">6-8 </th> <th class="unsortable">9-12 </th></tr> <tr> <td>Print concepts </td> <td>73% </td> <td>56% </td> <td>35% </td> <td>40% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phonological awareness </td> <td>85% </td> <td>59% </td> <td>29% </td> <td>22% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phonics </td> <td>92% </td> <td>61% </td> <td>25% </td> <td>22% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fluency </td> <td>80% </td> <td>65% </td> <td>36% </td> <td>36% </td></tr></tbody></table> Secondary ELA teachers in states with reading legislation were significantly more likely to report frequently engaging their students in these activities than secondary ELA teachers in states without such legislation, even though only one-quarter of states with these laws include requirements around secondary ELA instruction.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stages_to_skilled_reading">Stages to skilled reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Stages to skilled reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Teaching_reading">Reading § Teaching reading</a></div> The path to skilled reading involves learning the <a href="/wiki/Alphabetic_principle" title="Alphabetic principle">alphabetic principle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_awareness" title="Phonemic awareness">phonemic awareness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">phonics</a>, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.<a href="#cite_note-National_Reading_Panel,_2000,_Summary-125">[125]</a> British psychologist <a href="/wiki/Uta_Frith" title="Uta Frith">Uta Frith</a> introduced a three-stage model to acquire skilled reading. Stage one is the logographic or pictorial stage where students attempt to grasp words as objects, an artificial form of reading. Stage two is the phonological stage where students learn the relationship between the graphemes (letters) and the phonemes (sounds). Stage three is the orthographic stage where students read familiar words more quickly than unfamiliar words, and word length gradually ceases to play a role.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Another recognized expert in this area is <a href="/wiki/Harvard" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard">Harvard</a> professor <a href="/wiki/Jeanne_Chall" title="Jeanne Chall">Jeanne Sternlicht Chall</a>. In 1983 she published a book entitled Stages of Reading Development that proposed six stages.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Subsequently, in 2008 <a href="/wiki/Maryanne_Wolf" title="Maryanne Wolf">Maryanne Wolf</a>, <a href="/wiki/UCLA_Graduate_School_of_Education_and_Information_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLA Graduate School of Education and Information Studies">UCLA Graduate School of Education and Information Studies</a>, published a book entitled Proust and the Squid in which she describes her view of the following five stages of reading development.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Normally, children will move through these stages at different rates; however, typical ages for children in the United States are shown below. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emerging_pre-reader:_6_months_to_6_years_old">Emerging pre-reader: 6 months to 6 years old</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Emerging pre-reader: 6 months to 6 years old">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:School_in_Laos_-_Reading_time.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/School_in_Laos_-_Reading_time.jpg/220px-School_in_Laos_-_Reading_time.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/School_in_Laos_-_Reading_time.jpg/330px-School_in_Laos_-_Reading_time.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/School_in_Laos_-_Reading_time.jpg/440px-School_in_Laos_-_Reading_time.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Reading time at a primary school in rural <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Lao PDR</a>, Southeast Asia. In 2017, approximately 70% of five-year-old children were not enrolled in Early Childhood Education programs, with those in hard-to-reach areas and from poor families being the most excluded.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> The daily reading period shown here uses books provided by <a href="/wiki/Big_Brother_Mouse" title="Big Brother Mouse">Big Brother Mouse</a>, a not-for-profit that promotes reading in Lao schools and villages.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></figcaption></figure> The emerging pre-reader stage, also known as <a href="/wiki/Reading_readiness" title="Reading readiness">reading readiness</a>, usually lasts for the first five years of a child's life.<a href="#cite_note-Wolf,_2007,_115–139-133">[133]</a> Children typically speak their first few words before their first birthday.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Educators and parents help learners to develop their skills in listening, speaking, reading and writing.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Reading to children helps them to develop their vocabulary, a love of reading, and <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_awareness" title="Phonemic awareness">phonemic awareness</a>, i.e. the ability to hear and manipulate the individual sounds (<a href="/wiki/Phonemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemes">phonemes</a>) of oral language. Children will often "read" stories they have memorized. However, in the late 1990s, United States' researchers found that the traditional way of reading to children made little difference in their later ability to read because children spend relatively little time actually looking at the text. Yet, in a shared reading program with four-year-old children, teachers found that directing children's attention to the letters and words (e.g. verbally or pointing to the words) made a significant difference in early reading, spelling and comprehension.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-Piasta-2012-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Novice_reader:_6_to_7_years_old">Novice reader: 6 to 7 years old</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Novice reader: 6 to 7 years old">edit</a>]</div> Novice readers continue to develop their phonemic awareness, and come to realize that the letters (<a href="/wiki/Graphemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphemes">graphemes</a>) connect to the sounds (<a href="/wiki/Phonemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemes">phonemes</a>) of the language; known as decoding, <a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">phonics</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Alphabetic_principle" title="Alphabetic principle">alphabetic principle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> They may also memorize the most common letter patterns and some of the high-frequency words that do not necessarily follow basic phonological rules (e.g. have and who). However, it is a mistake to assume a reader understands the meaning of a text merely because they can decode it. Vocabulary and oral language comprehension are also important parts of text comprehension as described in the <a href="#Simple_view_of_reading">Simple view of reading</a>, <a href="#Scarborough's_reading_rope">Scarborough's reading rope</a>, and <a href="#The_active_view_of_reading_model">The active view of reading model</a>. Reading and speech are codependent: reading promotes vocabulary development and a richer vocabulary facilitates skilled reading.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decoding_reader:_7_to_9_years_old">Decoding reader: 7 to 9 years old</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Decoding reader: 7 to 9 years old">edit</a>]</div> The transition from the novice reader stage to the decoding stage is marked by a reduction of painful pronunciations and in its place the sounds of a smoother, more confident reader.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> In this phase the reader adds at least 3,000 words to what they can decode. For example, in the English language, readers now learn the variations of the vowel-based <a href="/wiki/Syllable#Rime" title="Syllable">rimes</a> (e.g. sat, mat, cat)<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel</a> pairs (also <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraph</a>) (e.g. rain, play, boat)<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> As readers move forward, they learn the makeup of <a href="/wiki/Morphemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphemes">morphemes</a> (i.e. stems, roots, <a href="/wiki/Prefixes" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefixes">prefixes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suffixes" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffixes">suffixes</a>). They learn the common morphemes such as "s" and "ed" and see them as "sight chunks". "The faster a child can see that beheaded is be + head + ed", the faster they will become a more fluent reader. At the beginning of this stage, a child will often be devoting so much mental capacity to the process of decoding that they will have no understanding of the words being read. It is nevertheless an important stage, allowing the child to achieve their ultimate goal of becoming fluent and automatic. It is in the decoding phase that the child will get to what the story is really about, and learn to re-read a passage when necessary to truly understand it. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fluent,_comprehending_reader:_9_to_15_years_old">Fluent, comprehending reader: 9 to 15 years old</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Fluent, comprehending reader: 9 to 15 years old">edit</a>]</div> The goal of this stage is to "go below the surface of the text", and in the process the reader will build their knowledge of spelling substantially.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Teachers and parents may be tricked by fluent-sounding reading into thinking that a child understands everything that they are reading. As the content of what they can read becomes more demanding, good readers will develop knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Figurative_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Figurative language">figurative language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irony" title="Irony">irony</a> which helps them to discover new meanings in the text. Children improve their comprehension when they use a variety of tools such as connecting prior knowledge, predicting outcomes, drawing inferences, and monitoring gaps in their understanding. One of the most powerful moments is when fluent comprehending readers learn to enter into the lives of imagined heroes and heroines. When teaching comprehension, the <a href="/wiki/Educational_psychologist" title="Educational psychologist">educational psychologist</a>, <a href="/wiki/G._Michael_Pressley" title="G. Michael Pressley">G. Michael Pressley</a>, says a strong case can be made for instruction in decoding, vocabulary, word knowledge, active comprehension strategies, and self-monitoring.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> At the end of this stage, many processes are starting to become automatic, allowing the reader to focus on meaning. With the decoding process almost automatic by this point, the brain learns to integrate more <a href="/wiki/Metaphorical" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphorical">metaphorical</a>, inferential, <a href="/wiki/Analogical" class="mw-redirect" title="Analogical">analogical</a>, background, and <a href="/wiki/Experiential_knowledge" title="Experiential knowledge">experiential knowledge</a>. This stage in learning to read will often last until early adulthood.<a href="#cite_note-Wolf143-146">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expert_reader:_16_years_and_older">Expert reader: 16 years and older</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Expert reader: 16 years and older">edit</a>]</div> At the expert stage, it will usually only take a reader one-half second to read almost any word.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> The degree to which expert reading will change throughout an <a href="/wiki/Adult" title="Adult">adult's</a> life depends on what they read and how much they read. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science_of_reading">Science of reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Science of reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Science_of_reading" title="Science of reading">Science of reading</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brain_pathways_for_mirror_discrimination_learning_during_literacy_acquisition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Brain_pathways_for_mirror_discrimination_learning_during_literacy_acquisition.jpg/300px-Brain_pathways_for_mirror_discrimination_learning_during_literacy_acquisition.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Brain_pathways_for_mirror_discrimination_learning_during_literacy_acquisition.jpg/450px-Brain_pathways_for_mirror_discrimination_learning_during_literacy_acquisition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Brain_pathways_for_mirror_discrimination_learning_during_literacy_acquisition.jpg/600px-Brain_pathways_for_mirror_discrimination_learning_during_literacy_acquisition.jpg 2x" data-file-width="869" data-file-height="677" /></a><figcaption>Writing is only about 5,500 years old, unlike <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">human speech</a> which is thought to be from 50,000 years to 2 million years old.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> So, unlike speech, the brain did not evolve to read naturally. As a result, the brain adapts to the challenge of reading. The process of reading involves most of the brain, especially an interconnection between visual areas and language areas; but also neural systems related to action, emotion, decision-making, and memory.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></figcaption></figure> Science of Reading (SOR) is an interdisciplinary body of scientifically-based research about reading.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Foundational skills such as <a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">phonics</a>, decoding, and <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_awareness" title="Phonemic awareness">phonemic awareness</a> are considered to be important parts of the science of reading, but they are not the only ingredients. SOR includes any <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">research and evidence</a> about how humans learn to read, and how reading should be taught. This includes areas such as oral reading fluency, vocabulary, <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>, reading comprehension, text, spelling and pronunciation, thinking strategies, oral language proficiency, working memory training, and written language performance (e.g., cohesion, sentence combining/reducing).<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> In cognitive science, there is likely no area that has been more successful than the study of reading. Yet, in many countries reading levels are considered low. In the United States, the 2019 Nation's Report Card reported that 34% of grade-four public school students performed at or above the <a href="/wiki/NAEP" class="mw-redirect" title="NAEP">NAEP</a> proficient level (solid academic performance) and 65% performed at or above the basic level (partial mastery of the proficient level skills).<a href="#cite_note-NAEP-2019-154">[154]</a> As reported in the <a href="/wiki/PIRLS" class="mw-redirect" title="PIRLS">PIRLS</a> study, the United States ranked 15th out of 50 countries, for reading comprehension levels of fourth-graders.<a href="#cite_note-PIRLS-2016-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barclays-2017-68">[68]</a> In addition, according to the 2011–2018 <a href="/wiki/PIAAC" class="mw-redirect" title="PIAAC">PIAAC</a> study, out of 39 countries the United States ranked 19th for literacy levels of adults 16 to 65; and 16.9% of adults in the United States read at or below level one (out of five levels).<a href="#cite_note-OECD-2019-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-OECD-2013-75">[75]</a> Many researchers are concerned that low reading levels are due to how reading is taught. They point to three areas: <ol><li>Contemporary reading science has had very little impact on educational practice—mainly because of a "two-cultures problem separating science and education".</li> <li>Current teaching practice rests on outdated assumptions that make learning to read harder than it needs to be.</li> <li>Connecting <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">evidence-based practice</a> to educational practice would be beneficial， but is extremely difficult to achieve due to a lack of adequate training in the science of reading among many teachers.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-Teaching_Reading_Is_Rocket_Science-50">[50]</a></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Simple_view_of_reading">Simple view of reading</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Simple view of reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Simple_view_of_reading" title="Simple view of reading">Simple view of reading</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Simple_View_of_Reading_quadrant_visualisation.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Simple View of Reading proposes four broad categories of developing readers: typical readers; poor readers; dyslexics; and hyperlexics."><img alt="The Simple View of Reading proposes four broad categories of developing readers: typical readers; poor readers; dyslexics; and hyperlexics." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Simple_View_of_Reading_quadrant_visualisation.jpg/350px-Simple_View_of_Reading_quadrant_visualisation.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Simple_View_of_Reading_quadrant_visualisation.jpg/525px-Simple_View_of_Reading_quadrant_visualisation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Simple_View_of_Reading_quadrant_visualisation.jpg/700px-Simple_View_of_Reading_quadrant_visualisation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1554" data-file-height="1168" /></a><figcaption>The Simple View of Reading proposes four broad categories of developing readers: typical readers; poor readers; dyslexics; and hyperlexics.</figcaption></figure> The simple view of reading is a scientific theory about reading comprehension.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> According to the theory, to comprehend what they are reading students need both decoding skills and oral language (listening) comprehension ability. Neither is enough on their own.<a href="#cite_note-auto-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> It is expressed in this equation: Decoding × Oral Language Comprehension = Reading Comprehension.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scarborough's_reading_rope">Scarborough's reading rope</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Scarborough's reading rope">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Hollis_Scarborough" title="Hollis Scarborough">Hollis Scarborough</a> published the Reading Rope infographics in 2001 using strands of rope to illustrate the many ingredients involved in becoming a skilled reader. The upper strands represent language comprehension and reinforce one another. The lower strands represent word recognition and work together as the reader becomes accurate, fluent, and automatic through practice. The upper and lower strands all weave together to produce a skilled reader.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th class="unsortable">Language-comprehension (Upper strands) </th></tr> <tr> <td>Background knowledge (facts, concepts, etc.) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vocabulary (breadth, precision, links, etc.) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Language structures (syntax, semantics, etc.) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Verbal reasoning (inference, metaphor, etc.) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Literacy knowledge (print concepts, genres, etc.) </td></tr> <tr> <th class="unsortable">Word-recognition (Lower strands) </th></tr> <tr> <td>Phonological awareness (syllables, phonemes, etc.) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Decoding (alphabetic principle, spelling-sound correspondence) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sight recognition (of familiar words) </td></tr> </tbody></table> More recent research by <a href="/wiki/Laurie_Cutting" title="Laurie Cutting">Laurie E. Cutting</a> and Hollis S. Scarborough has highlighted the importance of <a href="/wiki/Executive_functions" title="Executive functions">executive function</a> processes (e.g. working memory, planning, organization, self-monitoring, and similar abilities) to reading comprehension.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Active_view_of_reading_model">Active view of reading model</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Active view of reading model">edit</a>]</div> The active view of reading (AVR) model (May 7, 2021), <a href="/wiki/Nell_K._Duke" title="Nell K. Duke">Nell K. Duke</a> and Kelly B. Cartwright,<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> offers an alternative to the <a href="#Simple_view_of_reading">simple view of reading</a> (SVR), and a proposed update to <a href="#Scarborough's_reading_rope">Scarborough's reading rope</a> (SRR). This model is more complete than the simple view of reading and does a better job of accommodating some of the knowledge about reading developed over the past several decades. The following chart shows the ingredients in the authors' infographic. In addition, the authors point out that reading is also impacted by text, task, and <a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_linguistics" title="Sociocultural linguistics">sociocultural context</a>. <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th class="unsortable">Active Self Regulation </th></tr> <tr> <td>Motivation and engagement </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Executive_functions" title="Executive functions">Executive function skills</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Strategy use (related to word recognition, comprehension, vocabulary, etc.) </td></tr> <tr> <th class="unsortable">Word recognition (WR) </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Phonological_awareness" title="Phonological awareness">Phonological awareness</a> (syllables, phonemes, etc.) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Alphabetic_principle" title="Alphabetic principle">Alphabetic principle</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">Phonics</a> knowledge </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">Decoding skills</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Phonics#Sight_words_and_sight_vocabulary" title="Phonics">Recognition of words at sight</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th class="unsortable">Bridging processes (the overlapping of WR and LC) </th></tr> <tr> <td>Print concepts </td></tr> <tr> <td>Reading fluency </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vocabulary knowledge </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphological awareness</a> (the structure of words and parts of words such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Graphophonological-semantic cognitive flexibility (letter-sound-meaning flexibility) </td></tr> <tr> <th class="unsortable">Language comprehension (LC) </th></tr> <tr> <td>Cultural and other content knowledge </td></tr> <tr> <td>Reading-specific background knowledge (genre, text, etc.) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Verbal reasoning (inference, metaphor, etc.) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Language structure (syntax, semantics, etc.) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">Theory of mind</a> (the ability to attribute mental states to ourselves and others)<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Automaticity">Automaticity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Automaticity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Automaticity" title="Automaticity">Automaticity</a></div> In the field of psychology, automaticity is the ability to do things without occupying the mind with the low-level details required, allowing it to become an automatic response pattern or <a href="/wiki/Habit" title="Habit">a habit</a>. When reading is automatic, precious <a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">working memory</a> resources can be devoted to considering the meaning of a text, etc. The unexpected finding from cognitive science is that practice does not make perfect. For a new skill to become automatic, sustained practice beyond the point of mastery is necessary.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="How_the_brain_reads">How the brain reads</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: How the brain reads">edit</a>]</div> Several researchers and neuroscientists have attempted to explain how the brain reads. They have written articles and books, and created websites and YouTube videos to help the average consumer.<a href="#cite_note-YouTube-2013-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> A study conducted at the <a href="/wiki/Medical_University_of_South_Carolina" title="Medical University of South Carolina">Medical University of South Carolina</a> (MUSC) in 2022 indicates that "greater left-brain asymmetry can predict both better and average performance on a foundational level of reading ability, depending on whether the analysis is conducted over the whole brain or in specific regions".<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> Although it is not included in most meta-analytical studies, the <a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">sensorimotor cortex</a> of the brain is the most active region of the brain during reading.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">occipital</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal lobes</a>, or more specifically <a href="/wiki/Fusiform_gyrus" title="Fusiform gyrus">fusiform gyrus</a>, include the brain's <a href="/wiki/Visual_word_form_area" title="Visual word form area">visual word form area</a> (VWFA).<a href="#cite_note-McCandliss-2003-178">[178]</a> The two major regions of the brain associated with phonological skills are the temporal-parietal region and the Perisylvian Region.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> The Perisylvian Region, which is the portion of the brain believed to connect Broca's and Wernicke's area,<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> is another region that is highly active during phonological activities where participants are asked to verbalize known and unknown words.<a href="#cite_note-Rutten-2017-181">[181]</a> The inferior frontal region is a much more complex region of the brain, and its association with reading is not necessarily linear, for it is active in several reading-related activities.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>, which is not a part of the cerebral cortex, is also believed to play an important role in reading.<a href="#cite_note-Li-2022-183">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eye_movement_and_silent_reading_rate">Eye movement and silent reading rate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Eye movement and silent reading rate">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eye_movement_in_reading" title="Eye movement in reading">Eye movement in reading</a></div> Reading is an intensive process in which the eye quickly moves to assimilate the text – seeing just accurately enough to interpret groups of symbols.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> It is necessary to understand <a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visual perception</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eye_movement_in_reading" title="Eye movement in reading">eye movement in reading</a> to understand the reading process. When reading, the eye moves continuously along a line of text but makes short rapid movements (saccades) intermingled with short stops (fixations). There is considerable variability in fixations (the point at which a saccade jumps to) and saccades between readers, and even for the same person reading a single passage of text. When reading, the eye has a perceptual span of about 20 slots. In the best-case scenario and reading English, when the eye is fixated on a letter, four to five letters to the right and three to four letters to the left can be clearly identified. Beyond that, only the general shape of some letters can be identified.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> Research published in 2019 concluded that the silent reading rate of adults in English for non-fiction is in the range of 175 to 300 <a href="/wiki/Words_per_minute" title="Words per minute">words per minute</a> (wpm), and for fiction the range is 200 to 320 words per minute.<a href="#cite_note-Research_Digest-2019-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dual-route_hypothesis_to_reading_aloud">Dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dual-route_hypothesis_to_reading_aloud" title="Dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud">Dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud</a></div> In the early 1970s, the <a href="/wiki/Dual-route_hypothesis_to_reading_aloud" title="Dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud">dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud</a> was proposed, according to which there are two separate mental mechanisms involved in reading aloud, with output from both contributing to the pronunciation of written words.<a href="#cite_note-coltheart1-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yamada_1990-189">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pritchard_2012-190">[190]</a> One mechanism is the <a href="/wiki/Dual-route_hypothesis_to_reading_aloud#lexical" title="Dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud">lexical</a> route whereby skilled readers can recognize a word as part of their <a href="/wiki/Phonics#Sight_words_and_sight_vocabulary" title="Phonics">sight vocabulary</a>. The other is the <a href="/wiki/Dual-route_hypothesis_to_reading_aloud#Nonlexical_or_Sublexical" title="Dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud">nonlexical or sublexical</a> route, in which the reader "sounds out" (decodes) written words.<a href="#cite_note-Pritchard_2012-190">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zorzi_Houghton_1998-191">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_production_effect_(reading_out_loud)">The production effect (reading out loud)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: The production effect (reading out loud)">edit</a>]</div> There is robust evidence that saying a word out loud makes it more memorable than simply reading it silently or hearing someone else say it. This is because self-reference and self-control over speaking produce more engagement with the words. The memory benefit of "hearing oneself" is referred to as the production effect.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evidence-based_reading_instruction">Evidence-based reading instruction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Evidence-based reading instruction">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">Evidence-based education</a></div> Evidence-based reading instruction refers to practices having research evidence showing their success in improving reading achievement.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> It is related to <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">evidence-based education</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reading_from_paper_vs._screens">Reading from paper vs. screens</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Reading from paper vs. screens">edit</a>]</div> A systematic review and meta‐analysis was conducted on the advantages of reading from paper vs. screens. It found no difference in reading times; however, reading from paper has a small advantage in reading performance and <a href="/wiki/Metacognition" title="Metacognition">metacognition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Teacher_training_and_legislation">Teacher training and legislation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Teacher training and legislation">edit</a>]</div> According to some researchers, having a highly qualified teacher in every classroom is an educational necessity, and a 2023 study of 512 classroom teachers in 112 schools showed that teachers' knowledge of language and literacy reliably predicted students' reading foundational skills scores, but not reading comprehension scores.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> Yet, some teachers, even after obtaining a master's degree in education, think they lack the necessary knowledge and skills to teach all students how to read.<a href="#cite_note-SOR_Spotlight-200">[200]</a> A 2019 survey of K-2 and special education teachers found that only 11 percent said they felt "completely prepared" to teach early reading after finishing their preservice programs. And, a 2021 study found that most U.S. states do not measure teachers' knowledge of the 'science of reading'.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> A survey in the United States reported that 70% of teachers believe in a <a href="#Teaching_reading">balanced literacy</a> approach to teaching reading – however, balanced literacy "is not systematic, explicit instruction".<a href="#cite_note-SOR_Spotlight-200">[200]</a> In an Education Week Research Center survey of more than 530 professors of reading instruction, only 22 percent said their philosophy of teaching early reading centered on explicit, systematic phonics with comprehension as a separate focus.<a href="#cite_note-SOR_Spotlight-200">[200]</a> As of October 2024, after <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> became the only state to improve reading results between 2017 and 2019,<a href="#cite_note-NAEP_Reading:_State_Average_Scores-202">[202]</a> 40 U.S. states and the District of Columbia have since passed laws or implemented new policies related to evidence-based reading instruction.<a href="#cite_note-Sarah_Schwartz-57">[57]</a> As a result, many schools are moving away from balanced literacy programs that encourage students to guess a word, and are introducing phonics where they learn to "decode" (sound out) words.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> As more state legislatures seek to pass science of reading legislation, some teachers' unions are mounting opposition, citing concerns about mandates that would limit teachers' professional autonomy in the classroom, uneven implementation, unreasonable timelines, and the amount of time and compensation teachers receive for additional training.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> In 2021, the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Education_and_Early_Childhood_Development_(New_Brunswick)" title="Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (New Brunswick)">Department of Education and Early Childhood Development</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a> appears to be the first in Canada to revise its K-2 reading curriculum based on "research-based instructional practice". For example, it replaced the various cueing systems with "mastery in the consolidated alphabetic to skilled reader phase".<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> Some non-profit organizations, such as the Center for Development and Learning (<a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>) and the Reading League (<a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York State</a>), offer training programs for teachers to learn about the science of reading.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Teaching_reading">Teaching reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Teaching reading">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reading_with_Children_(Millais).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Reading_with_Children_%28Millais%29.png/220px-Reading_with_Children_%28Millais%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Reading_with_Children_%28Millais%29.png/330px-Reading_with_Children_%28Millais%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Reading_with_Children_%28Millais%29.png/440px-Reading_with_Children_%28Millais%29.png 2x" data-file-width="674" data-file-height="776" /></a><figcaption>Reading to children has many benefits; however, for most children it is not sufficient to teach them how to read. For that "all teaching should be initially focused on a single goal, the grasp of the alphabetic principle whereby each letter or grapheme represents a phoneme".<a href="#cite_note-Stanislas_Dehaene_228-211">[211]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alphabetic_languages">Alphabetic languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Alphabetic languages">edit</a>]</div> Educators have debated for years about which method is best to teach reading for the English language. There are three main methods, <a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">phonics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Whole_language" title="Whole language">whole language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Balanced_literacy" title="Balanced literacy">balanced literacy</a>. There are also a variety of other areas and practices such as <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_awareness" title="Phonemic awareness">phonemic awareness</a>, fluency, reading comprehension, sight words and sight vocabulary, the three-cueing system (the searchlights model in England), <a href="/wiki/Guided_reading" title="Guided reading">guided reading</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shared_reading" title="Shared reading">shared reading</a>, and <a href="#Guided_reading,_reading_workshop,_shared_reading,_leveled_reading,_silent_reading_(and_self-teaching)">leveled reading</a>. Each practice is employed in different manners depending on the country and the specific school division. In 2001, some researchers reached two conclusions: 1) "mastering the alphabetic principle is essential" and 2) "instructional techniques (namely, phonics) that teach this principle directly are more effective than those that do not". However, while they make it clear they have some fundamental disagreements with some of the claims made by whole-language advocates, some principles of whole-language have value such as the need to ensure that students are enthusiastic about books and eager to learn to read.<a href="#cite_note-Rayner,_2001-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phonics_and_related_areas">Phonics and related areas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Phonics and related areas">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">Phonics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Course_of_study_in_phonics_.._(IA_courseofstudyinp00john).pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Course_of_study_in_phonics_.._%28IA_courseofstudyinp00john%29.pdf/page1-220px-Course_of_study_in_phonics_.._%28IA_courseofstudyinp00john%29.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="359" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Course_of_study_in_phonics_.._%28IA_courseofstudyinp00john%29.pdf/page1-330px-Course_of_study_in_phonics_.._%28IA_courseofstudyinp00john%29.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Course_of_study_in_phonics_.._%28IA_courseofstudyinp00john%29.pdf/page1-440px-Course_of_study_in_phonics_.._%28IA_courseofstudyinp00john%29.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="866" data-file-height="1412" /></a><figcaption>A Course of Study in Phonics, San Francisco, U.S., 1912<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">Phonics</a> emphasizes the <a href="/wiki/Alphabetic_principle" title="Alphabetic principle">alphabetic principle</a> – the idea that letters (<a href="/wiki/Graphemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphemes">graphemes</a>) represent the sounds of speech (<a href="/wiki/Phonemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemes">phonemes</a>).<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> It is taught in a variety of ways; some are systematic and others are unsystematic. Unsystematic phonics teaches phonics on a "when needed" basis and in no particular sequence. <a href="/wiki/Phonics#Systematic_phonics" title="Phonics">Systematic phonics</a> uses a planned, sequential introduction of a set of phonic elements along with explicit teaching and practice of those elements. The <a href="/wiki/National_Reading_Panel" title="National Reading Panel">National Reading Panel</a> (NRP) concluded that systematic phonics instruction is more effective than unsystematic phonics or non-phonics instruction. Phonics approaches include analogy phonics, analytic phonics, embedded phonics with mini-lessons, phonics through spelling, and synthetic phonics.<a href="#cite_note-Neural_Representations-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ventral_and_Dorsal_Streams-215">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chinese_Ventral_and_Dorsal_Streams-216">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rayner,_2001-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-Changes_Reading_Strategies-217">[217]</a> According to a 2018 review of research related to English speaking poor readers, phonics training is effective for improving literacy-related skills, particularly the fluent reading of words and non-words, and the accurate reading of irregular words.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> In addition, phonics produces higher achievement for all beginning readers, and the greatest improvement is experienced by students who are at risk of failing to learn to read. While some children can infer these rules on their own, some need explicit instruction on phonics rules. Some phonics instruction has marked benefits such as the expansion of a student's vocabulary. Overall, children who are directly taught phonics are better at reading, spelling, and comprehension.<a href="#cite_note-Seidenberg,_Mark_2017-219">[219]</a> A challenge in teaching phonics is that in some languages, such as English, complex letter-sound correspondences can confuse beginning readers. For this reason, it is recommended that teachers of English reading begin by introducing the "most frequent sounds" and the "common spellings", and save the less frequent sounds and complex spellings for later (e.g. the sounds /s/ and /t/ before /v/ and /w/; and the spellings cake before eight and cat before duck).<a href="#cite_note-Rayner,_2001-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> Phonics is gaining <a href="/wiki/Phonics#Practices_by_country_or_region" title="Phonics">world-wide acceptance</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Combining_phonics_with_other_literacy_instruction">Combining phonics with other literacy instruction</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Combining phonics with other literacy instruction">edit</a>]</div> Phonics is taught in many different ways and it is often taught together with some of the following: oral language skills,<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> concepts about print,<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> <a href="/wiki/Phonological_awareness" title="Phonological awareness">phonological awareness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_awareness" title="Phonemic awareness">phonemic awareness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>, oral reading <a href="/wiki/Fluency" title="Fluency">fluency</a>, vocabulary, <a href="/wiki/Syllables" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllables">syllables</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reading_comprehension" title="Reading comprehension">reading comprehension</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spelling" title="Spelling">spelling</a>, word study,<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cooperative_learning" title="Cooperative learning">cooperative learning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multisensory_learning" title="Multisensory learning">multisensory learning</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guided_reading" title="Guided reading">guided reading</a>. And, phonics is often featured in discussions about <a href="#Science_of_reading">science of reading</a>,<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">evidence-based practices</a>. The <a href="/wiki/National_Reading_Panel" title="National Reading Panel">National Reading Panel</a> (U.S. 2000) is clear that "systematic phonics instruction should be integrated with other reading instruction to create a balanced reading program".<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> It suggests that phonics be taught together with phonemic awareness, oral fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Shanahan_(educator)" title="Timothy Shanahan (educator)">Researcher and educator Timothy Shanahan</a>, a member of that panel, recommends that primary students receive 60–90 minutes per day of explicit, systematic, literacy instruction time; and that it be divided equally between a) words and word parts (e.g. letters, sounds, decoding and phonemic awareness), b) oral reading fluency, c) reading comprehension, and d) writing.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> Furthermore, he states that "the phonemic awareness skills found to give the greatest reading advantage to kindergarten and first-grade children are segmenting and blending".<a href="#cite_note-Shanahan-2005-232">[232]</a> The Ontario Association of Deans of Education (Canada) published research Monograph # 37 entitled Supporting early language and literacy with suggestions for parents and teachers in helping children prior to grade one. It covers the areas of letter names and letter-sound correspondence (phonics), as well as conversation, play-based learning, print, phonological awareness, shared reading, and vocabulary.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Effectiveness_of_programs">Effectiveness of programs</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Effectiveness of programs">edit</a>]</div> Some researchers report that teaching reading without teaching phonics is harmful to large numbers of students, yet not all phonics teaching programs produce effective results. The reason is that the effectiveness of a program depends on using the right curriculum together with the appropriate approach to instruction techniques, classroom management, grouping, and other factors.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> Louisa Moats, a teacher, psychologist and researcher, has long advocated for reading instruction that is direct, explicit and systematic, covering phoneme awareness, decoding, comprehension, literature appreciation, and daily exposure to a variety of texts.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> She maintains that "reading failure can be prevented in all but a small percentage of children with serious learning disorders. It is possible to teach most students how to read if we start early and follow the significant body of research showing which practices are most effective".<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> Interest in <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">evidence-based education</a> appears to be growing.<a href="#cite_note-Events-237">[237]</a> In 2021, <a href="#Best_Evidence_Encyclopedia_(BEE)">Best evidence encyclopedia</a> (BEE) released a review of research on 51 different programs for struggling readers in elementary schools.<a href="#cite_note-BEE_2021-238">[238]</a> Many of the programs used phonics-based teaching and/or one or more of the following: <a href="/wiki/Cooperative_learning" title="Cooperative learning">cooperative learning</a>, technology-supported adaptive instruction (see <a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational technology</a>), <a href="/wiki/Metacognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Metacognitive">metacognitive</a> skills, <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_awareness" title="Phonemic awareness">phonemic awareness</a>, word reading, <a href="/wiki/Fluency" title="Fluency">fluency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multisensory_learning" title="Multisensory learning">multisensory learning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spelling" title="Spelling">spelling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guided_reading" title="Guided reading">guided reading</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reading_comprehension" title="Reading comprehension">reading comprehension</a>, word analysis, structured <a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">curriculum</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Balanced_literacy" title="Balanced literacy">balanced literacy</a> (non-phonetic approach). The BEE review concludes that a) outcomes were positive for one-to-one tutoring, b) outcomes were positive, but not as large, for one-to-small group tutoring, c) there were no differences in outcomes between teachers and teaching assistants as tutors, d) technology-supported adaptive instruction did not have positive outcomes, e) whole-class approaches (mostly cooperative learning) and whole-school approaches incorporating tutoring obtained outcomes for struggling readers as large as those found for one-to-one tutoring, and benefitted many more students, and f) approaches mixing classroom and school improvements, with tutoring for the most <a href="/wiki/At-risk_students" title="At-risk students">at-risk students</a>, have the greatest potential for the largest numbers of struggling readers.<a href="#cite_note-BEE_2021-238">[238]</a> Robert Slavin, of BEE, goes so far as to suggest that states should "hire thousands of tutors" to support students scoring far below grade level – particularly in elementary school reading. Research, he says, shows "only tutoring, both one-to-one and one-to-small group, in reading and mathematics, had an <a href="/wiki/Effect_size" title="Effect size">effect size</a> larger than +0.10 ... averages are around +0.30", and "well-trained teaching assistants using structured tutoring materials or software can obtain outcomes as good as those obtained by certified teachers as tutors".<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education#What_Works_Clearinghouse_(WWC)" title="Evidence-based education">What works clearinghouse</a> allows you to see the effectiveness of specific programs. For example, as of 2020 they have data on 231 literacy programs. If you filter them by grade 1 only, all class types, all school types, all delivery methods, all program types, and all outcomes you receive 22 programs. You can then view the program details and, if you wish, compare one with another.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education#Evidence_for_ESSA" title="Evidence-based education">Evidence for ESSA</a><a href="#cite_note-Evidence_for_ESSA-242">[242]</a> (Center for Research and Reform in Education)<a href="#cite_note-education.jhu.edu-243">[243]</a> offers free up-to-date information on current PK–12 programs in reading, writing, math, science, and others that meet the standards of the <a href="/wiki/Every_Student_Succeeds_Act" title="Every Student Succeeds Act">Every Student Succeeds Act</a> (U.S.).<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> ProvenTutoring.org<a href="#cite_note-Proven_tutoring-245">[245]</a> a non-profit organization, is a resource for educators interested in research-proven tutoring programs. The programs it lists are proven effective in rigorous research as defined in the 2015 Every Student Succeeds Act. The Center for Research and Reform in Education at Johns Hopkins University provides the technical support to inform program selection.<a href="#cite_note-education.jhu.edu-243">[243]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Systematic_phonics">Systematic phonics</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Systematic phonics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:REPORT_OF_THE_NATIONAL_READING_PANEL_(IA_gov.gpo.fdsys.CHRG-106shrg66481).pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/REPORT_OF_THE_NATIONAL_READING_PANEL_%28IA_gov.gpo.fdsys.CHRG-106shrg66481%29.pdf/page1-220px-REPORT_OF_THE_NATIONAL_READING_PANEL_%28IA_gov.gpo.fdsys.CHRG-106shrg66481%29.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/REPORT_OF_THE_NATIONAL_READING_PANEL_%28IA_gov.gpo.fdsys.CHRG-106shrg66481%29.pdf/page1-330px-REPORT_OF_THE_NATIONAL_READING_PANEL_%28IA_gov.gpo.fdsys.CHRG-106shrg66481%29.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/REPORT_OF_THE_NATIONAL_READING_PANEL_%28IA_gov.gpo.fdsys.CHRG-106shrg66481%29.pdf/page1-440px-REPORT_OF_THE_NATIONAL_READING_PANEL_%28IA_gov.gpo.fdsys.CHRG-106shrg66481%29.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="1650" /></a><figcaption>The National Reading Panel concluded that systematic phonics instruction is more effective than unsystematic phonics or non-phonics instruction.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a></figcaption></figure> Systematic phonics is not one specific method of teaching phonics; it is a term used to describe phonics approaches that are taught explicitly and in a structured, systematic manner. They are systematic because the letters and the sounds they relate to are taught in a specific sequence, as opposed to incidentally or on a "when needed" basis.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Reading_Panel" title="National Reading Panel">National Reading Panel</a> (NRP) in the U.S. concluded that systematic phonics instruction is more effective than unsystematic phonics or non-phonics instruction. The NRP also found that systematic phonics instruction is effective (with varying degrees) when delivered through one-to-one tutoring, small groups, and teaching classes of students; and is effective from kindergarten onward, the earlier the better. It helps significantly with word-reading skills and reading comprehension for kindergartners and 1st graders as well as for older struggling readers and reading-disabled students. Benefits to spelling were positive for kindergartners and 1st graders but not for older students.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> Systematic phonics is sometimes mischaracterised as "skill and drill" with little attention to meaning. However, researchers point out that this impression is false. Teachers can use engaging games or materials to teach letter-sound connections, and it can also be incorporated with the reading of meaningful text.<a href="#cite_note-Ehri-Linnea_C._2020-249">[249]</a> Phonics can be taught systematically in a variety of ways, such as analogy phonics, analytic phonics, phonics through spelling, and synthetic phonics. However, their effectiveness varies considerably because the methods differ in such areas as the range of letter-sound coverage, the structure of the lesson plans, and the time devoted to specific instructions.<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> Systematic phonics has gained increased acceptance in different parts of the world since the completion of three major studies into teaching reading; one in the US in 2000,<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-NICHD,_2006-252">[252]</a> another in Australia in 2005,<a href="#cite_note-Teaching_Reading-253">[253]</a> and the other in the UK in 2006.<a href="#cite_note-Rose-2006a-254">[254]</a> In 2009, the <a href="/wiki/Department_for_Education" title="Department for Education">Department for Education</a> in the UK published a <a href="/wiki/National_Curriculum_for_England" title="National Curriculum for England">curriculum</a> review for England that added support for systematic phonics.<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> In fact, systematic phonics in the UK is known as <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_phonics" title="Synthetic phonics">synthetic phonics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> Beginning as early as 2014, several states in the United States have changed their curriculum to include systematic phonics instruction in elementary school.<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-1b-260">[260]</a> In 2018, the State <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Victoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of Victoria">Government of Victoria</a>, Australia, published a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons.<a href="#cite_note-Effective_Reading_Instruction,_Victoria,_Australia-261">[261]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Analytic_phonics_and_analogy_phonics">Analytic phonics and analogy phonics</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Analytic phonics and analogy phonics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Analytic_phonics" title="Analytic phonics">Analytic phonics</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Analytic_phonics" title="Analytic phonics">Analytic phonics</a> does not involve pronouncing individual sounds (phonemes) in isolation and blending the sounds, as is done in synthetic phonics. Rather, it is taught at the word level and students learn to analyze letter-sound relationships once the word is identified. For example, students analyze letter-sound correspondences such as the ou spelling of <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/aʊ/</a> in shrouds. Also, students might be asked to practice saying words with similar sounds such as ball, bat and bite. Furthermore, students are taught consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) as units, such as break or shrouds.<a href="#cite_note-NRP-262">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a> Analogy phonics is a particular type of analytic phonics in which the teacher has students analyze phonic elements according to the speech sounds (<a href="/wiki/Phonogram_(linguistics)" title="Phonogram (linguistics)">phonograms</a>) in the word. For example, a type of phonogram (known in linguistics as a <a href="/wiki/Syllable_rime" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable rime">rime</a>) is composed of the vowel and the consonant sounds that follow it (e.g. in the words cat, mat and sat, the rime is "at".) Teachers using the analogy method may have students memorize a bank of phonograms, such as -at or -am, or use word families (e.g. can, ran, man, or may, play, say).<a href="#cite_note-Analogy_based_phonics,_LD_Online-264">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRP-262">[262]</a> There have been studies on the effectiveness of instruction using analytic phonics vs. synthetic phonics. Johnston et al. (2012) conducted experimental research studies that tested the effectiveness of phonics learning instruction among 10-year-old boys and girls.<a href="#cite_note-:2_2-265">[265]</a> They used comparative data from the Clackmannanshire Report and chose 393 participants to compare synthetic phonics instruction and analytic phonics instruction.<a href="#cite_note-auto6-266">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2_2-265">[265]</a> The boys taught by the synthetic phonics method had better word reading than the girls in their classes, and their spelling and reading comprehension was as good. On the other hand, with analytic phonics teaching, although the boys performed as well as the girls in word reading, they had inferior spelling and reading comprehension. Overall, the group taught by synthetic phonics had better word reading, spelling, and reading comprehension. And, synthetic phonics did not lead to any impairment in the reading of irregular words.<a href="#cite_note-:2_2-265">[265]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Embedded_phonics_with_mini-lessons">Embedded phonics with mini-lessons</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Embedded phonics with mini-lessons">edit</a>]</div> Embedded phonics, also known as incidental phonics, is the type of phonics instruction used in <a href="/wiki/Whole_language" title="Whole language">whole language</a> programs. It is not systematic phonics.<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> Although phonics skills are de-emphasised in whole language programs, some teachers include phonics "mini-lessons" when students struggle with words while reading from a book. Short lessons are included based on phonics elements the students are having trouble with, or on a new or difficult phonics pattern that appears in a class reading assignment. The focus on meaning is generally maintained, but the mini-lesson provides some time for focus on individual sounds and the letters that represent them. Embedded phonics is different from other methods because instruction is always in the context of literature rather than in separate lessons about distinct sounds and letters; and skills are taught when an opportunity arises, not systematically.<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Phonics_through_spelling">Phonics through spelling</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Phonics through spelling">edit</a>]</div> For some teachers, this is a method of teaching spelling by using the sounds (phonemes).<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> However, it can also be a method of teaching reading by focusing on the sounds and their spelling (i.e. phonemes and syllables). It is taught systematically with guided lessons conducted in a direct and explicit manner including appropriate feedback. Sometimes <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> cards containing individual sounds are used to allow the student to practice saying the sounds that are related to a letter or letters (e.g. a, e, i, o, u). Accuracy comes first, followed by speed. The sounds may be grouped by categories such as vowels that sound short (e.g. c-a-t and s-i-t). When the student is comfortable recognizing and saying the sounds, the following steps might be followed: a) the tutor says a target word and the student repeats it out loud, b) the student writes down each individual sound (letter) until the word is completely spelled, saying each sound as it is written, and c) the student says the entire word out loud. An alternate method would be to have the student use mnemonic cards to sound-out (spell) the target word. Typically, the instruction starts with sounds that have only one letter and simple CVC words such as sat and pin. Then it progresses to longer words, and sounds with more than one letter (e.g. hear and day), and perhaps even syllables (e.g. wa-ter). Sometimes the student practices by saying (or sounding-out) cards that contain entire words.<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Synthetic_phonics">Synthetic phonics</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Synthetic phonics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_phonics" title="Synthetic phonics">Synthetic phonics</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_phonics" title="Synthetic phonics">Synthetic phonics</a>, also known as blended phonics, is a systematic phonics method employed to teach students to read by sounding out the letters and then blend the sounds to form the word. This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. For example, shrouds would be read by pronouncing the sounds for each spelling, sh, r, ou, d, s (IPA <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ʃ, r, aʊ, d, z/</a>), then blending those sounds orally to produce a spoken word, sh – r – ou – d – s = shrouds (IPA <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ʃraʊdz/</a>). The goal of a synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically. Since 2005, synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading (by phonics instruction) in England, Scotland and Australia.<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> The 2005 <a href="/wiki/Rose_Report" class="mw-redirect" title="Rose Report">Rose Report</a> from the UK concluded that systematic <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_phonics" title="Synthetic phonics">synthetic phonics</a> was the most effective method for teaching reading. It also suggests the "best teaching" includes a brisk pace, engaging children's interest with <a href="/wiki/Multisensory_learning" title="Multisensory learning">multi-sensory activities</a> and stimulating resources, praise for effort and achievement; and above all, the full backing of the headteacher.<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a> It also has considerable support in some <a href="/wiki/Phonics#United_States" title="Phonics">States</a> in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-NICHD,_2006-252">[252]</a> and some support from expert panels in <a href="/wiki/Phonics#Canada" title="Phonics">Canada</a>.<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> In the US, a pilot program using the Core Knowledge Early Literacy program that used this type of phonics approach showed significantly higher results in K–3 reading compared with comparison schools.<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> In addition, several States such as California, Ohio, New York and Arkansas, are promoting the principles of synthetic phonics (see <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_phonics#United_States" title="Synthetic phonics">synthetic phonics in the United States</a>). Resources for teaching phonics are available <a href="/wiki/Phonics#Resources_for_phonics_instruction" title="Phonics">here</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Related_areas">Related areas</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Related areas">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lao_schoolgirls_reading_books.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Lao_schoolgirls_reading_books.jpg/220px-Lao_schoolgirls_reading_books.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Lao_schoolgirls_reading_books.jpg/330px-Lao_schoolgirls_reading_books.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Lao_schoolgirls_reading_books.jpg/440px-Lao_schoolgirls_reading_books.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lao_people" title="Lao people">Laotian</a> girls sit outside their school, reading books they received at a rural school book party.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Phonemic_awareness">Phonemic awareness</h6>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Phonemic awareness">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_awareness" title="Phonemic awareness">Phonemic awareness</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_awareness" title="Phonemic awareness">Phonemic awareness</a> is the process by which the <a href="/wiki/Phonemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemes">phonemes</a> (sounds of oral language) are heard, interpreted, understood and manipulated – unrelated to their <a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">grapheme</a> (written language). It is a sub-set of <a href="/wiki/Phonological_awareness" title="Phonological awareness">Phonological awareness</a> that includes the manipulation of <a href="/wiki/Rhymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhymes">rhymes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syllable_onset" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable onset">onsets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syllable_rime" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable rime">rimes</a>, and is most prevalent in alphabetic systems.<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> The specific part of speech depends on the <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing system</a> employed. The <a href="/wiki/National_Reading_Panel" title="National Reading Panel">National Reading Panel</a> (NPR) concluded that phonemic awareness improves a learner's ability to learn to read. When teaching phonemic awareness, the NRP found that better results were obtained with focused and explicit instruction of one or two elements, over five or more hours, in small groups, and using the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Graphemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphemes">graphemes</a> (letters).<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Speech_perception" title="Speech perception">Speech perception</a>. As mentioned earlier, some researchers feel that the most effective way of teaching phonemic awareness is through segmenting and blending, a key part of <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_phonics" title="Synthetic phonics">synthetic phonics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shanahan-2005-232">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h6>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Vocabulary">edit</a>]</div> A critical aspect of reading comprehension is vocabulary development.<a href="#cite_note-Justice_2002_87–106-281">[281]</a> When a reader encounters an unfamiliar word in print and decodes it to derive its spoken pronunciation, the reader understands the word if it is in the reader's spoken vocabulary. Otherwise, the reader must derive the meaning of the word using another strategy, such as context. If the development of the child's vocabulary is impeded by things such as ear infections that inhibit the child from hearing new words consistently then the development of reading will also be impaired.<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Sight_vocabulary_vs._sight_words">Sight vocabulary vs. sight words</h6>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Sight vocabulary vs. sight words">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Sight_word" title="Sight word">Sight words</a> (i.e. high-frequency or common words), sometimes called the look-say or whole-word method, are not a part of the phonics method.<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a> They are usually associated with <a href="/wiki/Whole_language" title="Whole language">whole language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Balanced_literacy" title="Balanced literacy">balanced literacy</a> where students are expected to memorize common words such as those on the <a href="/wiki/Dolch_word_list" title="Dolch word list">Dolch word list</a> and the Fry word list (e.g. a, be, call, do, eat, fall, gave, etc.).<a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> The supposition (in whole language and balanced literacy) is that students will learn to read more easily if they memorize the most common words they will encounter, especially words that are not easily decoded (i.e. exceptions). On the other hand, using sight words as a method of teaching reading in English is seen as being at odds with the <a href="/wiki/Alphabetic_principle" title="Alphabetic principle">alphabetic principle</a> and treating English as though it was a <a href="/wiki/Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">logographic</a> language (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> or <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>).<a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> In addition, according to research, whole-word memorization is "labor-intensive", requiring on average about 35 trials per word.<a href="#cite_note-Bruce_Murray_2019-287">[287]</a> Also, phonics advocates say that most words are decodable, so comparatively few words have to be memorized. And because a child will over time encounter many low-frequency words, "the phonological recoding mechanism is a very powerful, indeed essential, mechanism throughout reading development".<a href="#cite_note-Rayner,_2001-77">[77]</a> Furthermore, researchers suggest that teachers who withhold phonics instruction to make it easier on children "are having the opposite effect" by making it harder for children to gain basic word-recognition skills. They suggest that learners should focus on understanding the principles of phonics so they can recognize the phonemic overlaps among words (e.g. have, had, has, having, haven't, etc.), making it easier to decode them all.<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a> Sight vocabulary is a part of the phonics method. It describes words that are stored in long-term memory and read automatically. Skilled fully-alphabetic readers learn to store words in long-term memory without memorization (i.e. a mental dictionary), making reading and comprehension easier. "Once you know the sound-based way to decode, your mind learns what words look like, even if you're not especially trying to do so".<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> The process, called <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthographic</a> mapping, involves decoding, crosschecking, mental marking and rereading. It takes significantly less time than memorization. This process works for fully-alphabetic readers when reading simple decodable words from left to right through the word. Irregular words pose more of a challenge, yet research in 2018 concluded that "fully-alphabetic students" learn irregular words more easily when they use a process called hierarchical decoding. In this process, students, rather than decode from left to right, are taught to focus attention on the irregular elements such as a vowel-digraph and a silent-e; for example, break (b – r – ea – k), height (h – eigh – t), touch (t – ou – ch), and make (m – a – ke). Consequentially, they suggest that teachers and tutors should focus on "teaching decoding with more advanced vowel patterns before expecting young readers to tackle irregular words". Others recommend teaching the high-frequency words (i.e. Fry word list) by "focusing on the sound-symbol relations" (i.e. phonics).<a href="#cite_note-Bruce_Murray_2019-287">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Fluency">Fluency</h6>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Fluency">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fluency" title="Fluency">Fluency</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Fluency" title="Fluency">Fluency</a> is the ability to read orally with speed, accuracy, and <a href="/wiki/Vocal" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocal">vocal</a> expression. The ability to read fluently is one of several critical factors necessary for reading comprehension. If a reader is not fluent, it may be difficult to remember what has been read and to relate the ideas expressed in the text to their background knowledge. This accuracy and <a href="/wiki/Automaticity" title="Automaticity">automaticity</a> of reading serves as a bridge between decoding and comprehension.<a href="#cite_note-Rasinski,_T-294">[294]</a> One way to improve fluency is rereading (the student rereads a passage aloud several times with vocal expression). Another is assisted reading (the student visually reads a text while simultaneously hearing someone else fluently read the same text).<a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Reading_comprehension">Reading comprehension</h6>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Reading comprehension">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reading_comprehension" title="Reading comprehension">Reading comprehension</a></div> The NRP describes reading comprehension as a complex <a href="/wiki/Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">cognitive</a> process in which a reader intentionally and interactively engages with the text. The <a href="#Science_of_reading">science of reading</a> says that reading comprehension is heavily dependent on word recognition (i.e., phonological awareness, decoding, etc.) and oral language comprehension (i.e., background knowledge, vocabulary, etc.).<a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a> Phonological awareness and rapid naming predict reading comprehension in second grade but oral language skills account for an additional 13.8% of the variance.<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a> It has also been found that sustained content literacy intervention instruction that gradually builds thematic connections may help young children transfer their knowledge to related topics, leading to improved comprehension.<a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a> The American educator, <a href="/wiki/E._D._Hirsch" title="E. D. Hirsch">Eric "E. D." Donald Hirsch Jr.</a>, suggests that students need to learn about something in order to read well.<a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a> However, some researchers say reading comprehension instruction has become "content agnostic", focused on skill practice (such as "finding the main idea"), to the detriment of learning about science, history, and other disciplines. Instead, they say teachers should find ways to integrate content knowledge with reading and writing instruction. One approach is to merge the two – to embed literacy instruction into social studies and science. Another approach is to build content knowledge into reading classes, often called "high-quality or "content-rich" curricula.<a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a> However, according to <a href="/wiki/Natalie_Wexler" title="Natalie Wexler">Natalie Wexler</a>, in her book The Knowledge Gap, "making the shift to knowledge is as much about changing teachers' beliefs and daily practice as about changing the materials they're supposed to use".<a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a> <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Shanahan_(educator)" title="Timothy Shanahan (educator)">Researcher and educator Timothy Shanahan</a> believes the most effective way to improve reading comprehension skills is to teach students to summarize, develop an understanding of text structure, and paraphrase.<a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Reading_and_spelling_(writing)">Reading and spelling (writing)</h6>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Reading and spelling (writing)">edit</a>]</div> Evidence supports the strong synergy between reading (decoding) and <a href="/wiki/Spelling" title="Spelling">spelling</a> (encoding), especially for children in kindergarten or grade one and elementary school students at risk for literacy difficulties. Students receiving encoding instruction and guided practice that included using (a) manipulatives such as letter tiles to learn phoneme-grapheme relationships and words and (b) writing phoneme-grapheme relationships and words made from these correspondences significantly outperformed contrast groups not receiving encoding instruction.<a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Using_embedded_pictures,_and_mnemonic_alphabet_cards_when_teaching_phonics">Using embedded pictures, and mnemonic alphabet cards when teaching phonics</h6>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Using embedded pictures, and mnemonic alphabet cards when teaching phonics">edit</a>]</div> Research supports the use of embedded, picture <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> (memory support) alphabet cards when teaching letters and sounds, but not words.<a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Whole_language">Whole language</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Whole language">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Whole_language" title="Whole language">Whole language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bookandpencil.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Bookandpencil.png/220px-Bookandpencil.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Bookandpencil.png/330px-Bookandpencil.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Bookandpencil.png/440px-Bookandpencil.png 2x" data-file-width="636" data-file-height="742" /></a><figcaption>Although widely used, whole-word methods are not supported by science.<a href="#cite_note-Stanislas_Dehaene_222–228-309">[309]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rayner,_2001-77">[77]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Whole_language" title="Whole language">Whole language</a> has the reputation of being a meaning-based method of teaching reading that emphasizes literature and text comprehension. It discourages any significant use of phonics, if at all.<a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a> Instead, it trains students to focus on words, sentences and paragraphs as a whole rather than letters and sounds. Students are taught to use context and pictures to "guess" words they do not recognize, or even just skip them and read on. It aims to make reading fun, yet many students struggle to figure out the specific rules of the language on their own, which causes the student's decoding and spelling to suffer. The following are some features of the whole language philosophy: <ul><li>Children are expected to learn to read and write as they learned to talk, that is gradually, without a great deal of direct instruction. (However, researchers and neuroscientists say that learning to read, unlike learning to talk, is not a natural process and many learners require explicit instruction. They point out that millions of adults can speak their language just fine, yet they cannot read their language.)<a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a><a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rayner,_2001-77">[77]</a></li> <li>Learning is emphasized more than teaching. It is assumed that the students will learn to read and write, and the teacher facilitates that growth.</li> <li>Students read and write every day in a variety of situations.</li> <li>Reading, writing, and spoken language are not considered separate components of the curriculum or merely ends in themselves; rather they permeate everything the students are doing.</li> <li>There is no division between first learning to read and later reading to learn.<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stanovich-314">[314]</a></li></ul> As of 2020, whole language is widely used in the US and Canada (often as balanced literacy); however, in some US States and many other <a href="/wiki/Phonics#Practices_by_country_or_region" title="Phonics">countries</a>, such as Australia and the United Kingdom, it has lost favor or been abandoned because it is not supported by evidence.<a href="#cite_note-Seidenberg-315">[315]</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto5-317">[317]</a> Some notable researchers have clearly stated their disapproval of whole language and whole-word teaching. In his 2009 book, Reading in the brain, cognitive neuroscientist, <a href="/wiki/Stanislas_Dehaene" title="Stanislas Dehaene">Stanislas Dehaene</a>, said "cognitive psychology directly refutes any notion of teaching via a 'global' or 'whole language' method". He goes on to talk about "the myth of whole-word reading", saying it has been refuted by recent experiments. "We do not recognize a printed word through a holistic grasping of its contours, because our brain breaks it down into letters and graphemes".<a href="#cite_note-Stanislas_Dehaene_222–228-309">[309]</a> In addition, cognitive neuroscientist <a href="/wiki/Mark_Seidenberg" title="Mark Seidenberg">Mark Seidenberg</a>, in his 2017 book Language at the speed of light, refers to whole language as a "theoretical zombie" because it persists despite a lack of supporting evidence.<a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a><a href="#cite_note-Seidenberg-2023-319">[319]</a><a href="#cite_note-Seidenberg-315">[315]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Balanced_literacy">Balanced literacy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Balanced literacy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Balanced_literacy" title="Balanced literacy">Balanced literacy</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Balanced_literacy" title="Balanced literacy">Balanced literacy</a> is not well defined; however, it is intended as a method that combines elements of both phonics and whole language.<a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a> According to a survey in 2010, 68% of elementary school teachers in the United States profess to use balanced literacy.<a href="#cite_note-Education_Week-2010-321">[321]</a> However, only 52% of teachers in the United States include phonics in their definition of balanced literacy. The National Reading Panel concluded that phonics must be integrated with instruction in phonemic awareness, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. And, some studies indicate that "the addition of language activities and tutoring to phonics produced larger effects than any of these components in isolation". They suggest that this may be a constructive way to view balanced reading instruction.<a href="#cite_note-322">[322]</a> However, balanced literacy has received criticism from researchers and others suggesting that, in many instances, it is merely whole language by another name.<a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a><a href="#cite_note-324">[324]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shanahanon-2014-325">[325]</a><a href="#cite_note-326">[326]</a><a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a> According to phonics advocate and cognitive neuroscientist <a href="/wiki/Mark_Seidenberg" title="Mark Seidenberg">Mark Seidenberg</a>, balanced literacy allows educators to diffuse the <a href="/wiki/Phonics#The_Reading_Wars_–_phonics_vs._whole_language" title="Phonics">reading wars</a> while not making specific recommendations for change.<a href="#cite_note-Seidenberg,_Mark_2017-219">[219]</a> He goes on to say that, in his opinion, the high number of struggling readers in the United States is the result of how teachers are taught to teach reading.<a href="#cite_note-328">[328]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto3-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-329">[329]</a><a href="#cite_note-330">[330]</a> He also says that struggling readers should not be encouraged to skip a challenging word, nor rely on pictures or semantic and syntactic cues to "guess at" a challenging word. Instead, they should use <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">evidence-based</a> decoding methods such as <a href="/wiki/Phonics#Systematic_phonics" title="Phonics">systematic phonics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Language_at_the_speed_of_sight,_pag-331">[331]</a><a href="#cite_note-332">[332]</a><a href="#cite_note-333">[333]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Structured_literacy">Structured literacy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Structured literacy">edit</a>]</div> Structured literacy has many of the elements of <a href="#Teaching_reading">systematic phonics</a> and few of the elements of balanced literacy.<a href="#cite_note-334">[334]</a> It is defined as explicit, systematic teaching that focuses on phonological awareness, word recognition, phonics and decoding, spelling, and syntax at the sentence and paragraph levels. It is considered to be beneficial for all early literacy learners, especially those with <a href="/wiki/Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">dyslexia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-335">[335]</a><a href="#cite_note-336">[336]</a><a href="#cite_note-337">[337]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/International_Dyslexia_Association" title="International Dyslexia Association">International Dyslexia Association</a>, structured literacy contains the elements of <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_awareness" title="Phonemic awareness">phonemic awareness</a>, sound-symbol association (the <a href="/wiki/Alphabetic_principle" title="Alphabetic principle">alphabetic principle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">phonics</a>), <a href="/wiki/Syllables" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllables">syllables</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a>. The elements are taught using methods that are systematic, cumulative, explicit, <a href="/wiki/Multisensory_learning" title="Multisensory learning">multisensory</a>, and use diagnostic assessment.<a href="#cite_note-338">[338]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Three_cueing_system_(Searchlights_model)">Three cueing system (Searchlights model)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Three cueing system (Searchlights model)">edit</a>]</div> The three-cueing system (the searchlights model in England) is a theory that has been circulating since the 1980s, yet it is not supported by research.<a href="#cite_note-Timothy_Shanahan,_Reading_Rockets-339">[339]</a> Its roots are in the theories proposed in the 1960s by <a href="/wiki/Ken_Goodman" title="Ken Goodman">Ken Goodman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marie_Clay" title="Marie Clay">Marie Clay</a> that eventually became <a href="/wiki/Whole_language" title="Whole language">whole language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reading_recovery" class="mw-redirect" title="Reading recovery">reading recovery</a> and guided reading (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Fountas_and_Pinnell" class="mw-redirect" title="Fountas and Pinnell">Fountas and Pinnell</a> early reading programs).<a href="#cite_note-340">[340]</a> As of 2010, 75% of teachers in the United States teach the three-cueing system.<a href="#cite_note-Education_Week-2010-321">[321]</a> It proposes that children who are stuck on a word should use various "cues" to figure it out and determine (guess) its meaning. The "meaning cues" are semantic ("does it make sense in the context?"), syntactic (is it a noun, verb, etc.?) and graphophonic (what are the letter-sound relationships?). It is also known as MSV (Meaning, Sentence structure/syntax and Visual information such as the letters in the words). According to some, three-cueing is not the most effective way for beginning readers to learn how to decode printed text.<a href="#cite_note-341">[341]</a> While a cueing system does help students to "make better guesses", it does not help when the words become more sophisticated; and it reduces the amount of practice time available to learn essential decoding skills. They also say that students should first decode the word, "then they can use context to figure out the meaning of any word they don't understand". Consequently, researchers such as cognitive neuroscientists <a href="/wiki/Mark_Seidenberg" title="Mark Seidenberg">Mark Seidenberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Shanahan_(educator)" title="Timothy Shanahan (educator)">Timothy Shanahan</a> do not support the theory. They say the three-cueing system's value in reading instruction "is a magnificent work of the imagination", and it developed not because teachers lack integrity, commitment, motivation, sincerity, or intelligence, but because they "were poorly trained and advised" about the <a href="#Science_of_reading">science of reading</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mark_Seidenberg_2017_300–304-342">[342]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dr_Kerry_Hempenstall,_Senior_Industry_Fellow,_School_of_Education,_RMIT_University,_Melbourne,_Australia-343">[343]</a> In England, the <a href="/wiki/Simple_view_of_reading" title="Simple view of reading">simple view of reading</a> and <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_phonics" title="Synthetic phonics">synthetic phonics</a> are intended to replace "the searchlights multi-cueing model".<a href="#cite_note-Edu_England-2006-344">[344]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rose-2006-345">[345]</a> On the other hand, some researchers suggest that "context" can be useful, not to guess a word, but to confirm a word after it has been phonetically decoded.<a href="#cite_note-International_Literacy_Association-346">[346]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Three_Ps_(3Ps)_–_Pause_Prompt_Praise">Three Ps (3Ps) – Pause Prompt Praise</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Three Ps (3Ps) – Pause Prompt Praise">edit</a>]</div> The three Ps approach is used by teachers, tutors, and parents to guide oral reading practice with a struggling reader.<a href="#cite_note-347">[347]</a> For some, it is merely a variation of the above-mentioned three-cueing system. However, for others it is very different.<a href="#cite_note-348">[348]</a> For example: when a student encounters a word they do not know or get it wrong, the three steps are: 1) pause to see if they can fix it themselves, even letting them read on a little, 2) prompt them with strategies to find the correct pronunciation, and 3) praise them directly and genuinely. In the prompt step, the tutor does not suggest the student skip the word or guess the word based on the pictures or the first sound. Instead, they encourage students to use their decoding training to sound out the word and use the context (meaning) to confirm they have found the correct word. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Guided_reading,_reading_workshop,_shared_reading,_leveled_reading,_silent_reading_(and_self-teaching)">Guided reading, reading workshop, shared reading, leveled reading, silent reading (and self-teaching)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Guided reading, reading workshop, shared reading, leveled reading, silent reading (and self-teaching)">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Guided_reading" title="Guided reading">Guided reading</a> is small group reading instruction that is intended to allow for the differences in students' reading abilities.<a href="#cite_note-349">[349]</a> While they are reading, students are encouraged to use strategies from the three-cueing system, the searchlights model, or MSV. It is no longer supported by the <a href="/wiki/Primary_National_Strategy" title="Primary National Strategy">Primary National Strategy</a> in England as <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_phonics" title="Synthetic phonics">synthetic phonics</a> is the officially recognized method for teaching reading.<a href="#cite_note-350">[350]</a><a href="#cite_note-351">[351]</a> In the United States, guided reading is part of the Reading Workshop model of reading instruction.<a href="#cite_note-352">[352]</a> The reading workshop model provides students with a collection of books, allows them the choice of what to read, limits students' reading to texts that can be easily read by them, provides teaching through mini-lessons, and monitors and supports reading comprehension development through one-on-one teacher-student conferences. Some reports state that it is 'unlikely to lead to literacy success' for all students, particularly those lacking foundational skills.<a href="#cite_note-353">[353]</a><a href="#cite_note-354">[354]</a> Shared (oral) reading is an activity whereby the teacher and students read from a shared text that is determined to be at the students' reading level. Leveled reading involves students reading from "leveled books" at an appropriate reading level. A student who struggles with a word is encouraged to use a cueing system (e.g. three-cueing, searchlights model or MSV) to guess its meaning. Many systems purport to gauge the students' reading levels using scales incorporating numbers, letters, colors, and lexile readability scores.<a href="#cite_note-355">[355]</a> Silent reading (and self-teaching) is a common practice in elementary schools. A 2007 study in the United States found that, on average only 37% of class time was spent on active reading instruction or practice, and the most frequent activity was students reading silently. Based on the limited available studies on <a href="/wiki/Silent_reading" title="Silent reading">silent reading</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_Reading_Panel" title="National Reading Panel">NRP</a> concluded that independent silent reading did not prove an effective practice when used as the only type of reading instruction to develop fluency and other reading skills – particularly with students who have not yet developed critical alphabetic and word reading skills.<a href="#cite_note-356">[356]</a> Other studies indicate that, unlike silent reading, "oral reading increases phonological effects". According to some, the classroom method called DEAR (Drop everything and read) is not the best use of classroom time for students who are not yet fluent.<a href="#cite_note-357">[357]</a> However, according to the self-teaching hypothesis, when fluent readers practice decoding words while reading silently, they learn what whole words look like (spelling), leading to improved fluency and comprehension.<a href="#cite_note-358">[358]</a><a href="#cite_note-359">[359]</a> The suggestion is: "if some students are fluent readers, they could read silently while the teacher works with the struggling readers". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logographic_languages">Logographic languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Logographic languages">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abydos-Bold-hieroglyph-A22.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Abydos-Bold-hieroglyph-A22.png" decoding="async" width="72" height="93" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="72" data-file-height="93" /></a><figcaption>Hieroglyph, one of the earliest forms of writing</figcaption></figure> Languages such as <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> and Japanese are normally written (fully or partly) in <a href="/wiki/Logograms" class="mw-redirect" title="Logograms">logograms</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hanzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanzi">hanzi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">kanji</a>, respectively), which represent a whole word or <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> with a single character. There are a large number of characters, and the sound that each makes must be learned directly or from other characters that contain "hints" in them. For example, in Japanese, the <a href="/wiki/On_reading#On'yomi_(Chinese_reading)" class="mw-redirect" title="On reading">On-reading</a> of the kanji 民 is min and the related kanji 眠 shares the same On-reading, min: the right-hand part shows the character's pronunciation. However, this is not true for all characters. <a href="/wiki/Kun_reading" class="mw-redirect" title="Kun reading">Kun readings</a>, on the other hand, have to be learned and memorized as there is no way to tell from each character. <a href="/wiki/Ruby_character" title="Ruby character">Ruby characters</a> are used in textbooks to help children learn the sounds that each logogram makes. These are written in a smaller size, using an alphabetic or <a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">syllabic</a> script. For example, <a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">hiragana</a> is typically used in Japanese, and the <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a> <a href="/wiki/Romanization" title="Romanization">romanization</a> into Latin alphabet characters is used in Chinese. <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <table> <tbody><tr> <td style="line-height:1em; font-size:2em">漢 </td> <td style="line-height:1em; font-size:0.8em">か ん </td></tr> <tr> <td style="line-height:1em; font-size:2em">字 </td> <td style="line-height:1em; font-size:0.8em">じ </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td style="padding:0 1.5em">or</td> <td> <table> <tbody><tr> <td style="line-height:1em; font-size:0.8em; text-align:center">かん </td> <td style="line-height:1em; font-size:0.8em; text-align:center">じ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="line-height:1em; font-size:2em">漢 </td> <td style="line-height:1em; font-size:2em">字 </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> The examples above each spell the word kanji, which is made up of two kanji characters: 漢 (kan, written in hiragana as かん), and 字 (ji, written in hiragana as じ). Textbooks are sometimes edited as a cohesive set across grades so that children will not encounter characters they are not yet expected to have learned. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reading_wars:_phonics_vs._whole_language">Reading wars: phonics vs. whole language</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Reading wars: phonics vs. whole language">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#History_of_learning_to_read">Reading § History of learning to read</a></div> For decades, the merits of phonics vs. <a href="/wiki/Whole_language" title="Whole language">whole language</a> have been debated. It is sometimes referred to as the reading wars.<a href="#cite_note-360">[360]</a><a href="#cite_note-361">[361]</a> Phonics was a popular way to learn reading in the 19th century. <a href="/wiki/William_Holmes_McGuffey" title="William Holmes McGuffey">William Holmes McGuffey</a> (1800–1873), an American educator, author, and Presbyterian minister who had a lifelong interest in teaching children, compiled the first four of the <a href="/wiki/McGuffey_Readers" title="McGuffey Readers">McGuffey Readers</a> in 1836.<a href="#cite_note-William_McGuffey-362">[362]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:McGuffey%27s_Primer_1836.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/McGuffey%27s_Primer_1836.jpg/330px-McGuffey%27s_Primer_1836.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/McGuffey%27s_Primer_1836.jpg/495px-McGuffey%27s_Primer_1836.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/McGuffey%27s_Primer_1836.jpg/660px-McGuffey%27s_Primer_1836.jpg 2x" data-file-width="725" data-file-height="556" /></a><figcaption>McGuffey's Primer 1836</figcaption></figure> In 1841 <a href="/wiki/Horace_Mann" title="Horace Mann">Horace Mann</a>, the Secretary of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Board_of_Education" title="Massachusetts Board of Education">Massachusetts Board of Education</a>, advocated for a whole-word method of teaching reading to replace phonics. Others advocated for a return to phonics, such as <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Flesch" title="Rudolf Flesch">Rudolf Flesch</a> in his book <a href="/wiki/Why_Johnny_Can%27t_Read" title="Why Johnny Can't Read">Why Johnny Can't Read</a> (1955). The whole-word method received support from <a href="/wiki/Ken_Goodman" title="Ken Goodman">Kenneth J. Goodman</a> who wrote an article in 1967 entitled Reading: A psycholinguistic guessing game. In it, he says efficient reading is the result of the "skill in selecting the fewest, most productive cues necessary to produce guesses which are right the first time".<a href="#cite_note-363">[363]</a> Although not supported by scientific studies, the theory became very influential as the <a href="/wiki/Whole_language" title="Whole language">whole language</a> method.<a href="#cite_note-364">[364]</a><a href="#cite_note-Seidenberg-2023-319">[319]</a> Since the 1970s some whole language supporters such as <a href="/wiki/Frank_Smith_(psycholinguist)" title="Frank Smith (psycholinguist)">Frank Smith</a>, are unyielding in arguing that phonics should be taught little, if at all.<a href="#cite_note-365">[365]</a> Yet, other researchers say instruction in phonics and <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_awareness" title="Phonemic awareness">phonemic awareness</a> are "critically important" and "essential" to developing early reading skills.<a href="#cite_note-Language_at_the_speed_of_sight,_pag-331">[331]</a><a href="#cite_note-366">[366]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rayner,_2001-77">[77]</a> In 2000, the <a href="/wiki/National_Reading_Panel" title="National Reading Panel">National Reading Panel</a> (U.S.) identified five ingredients of effective reading instruction, of which phonics is one; the other four are phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.<a href="#cite_note-National_Reading_Panel,_2000,_Summary-125">[125]</a> Reports from other countries, such as the Australian report on Teaching reading (2005)<a href="#cite_note-Teaching_Reading-253">[253]</a> and the U.K. <a href="/wiki/Independent_review_of_the_teaching_of_early_reading_(Rose_Report_2006)" title="Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006)">Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006)</a> have also supported the use of phonics. Some notable researchers such as <a href="/wiki/Stanislas_Dehaene" title="Stanislas Dehaene">Stanislas Dehaene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mark_Seidenberg" title="Mark Seidenberg">Mark Seidenberg</a> have clearly stated their disapproval of whole language.<a href="#cite_note-Dehaene-367">[367]</a><a href="#cite_note-Seidenberg-2017a-368">[368]</a> Furthermore, a 2017 study in the UK that compared teaching with phonics vs. teaching whole written words concluded that phonics is more effective, saying "our findings suggest that interventions aiming to improve the accuracy of reading aloud and/or comprehension in the early stages of learning should focus on the systematicity present in print-to-sound relationships, rather than attempting to teach direct access to the meanings of whole written words".<a href="#cite_note-369">[369]</a> More recently, some educators have advocated for the theory of <a href="/wiki/Balanced_literacy" title="Balanced literacy">balanced literacy</a> purported to combine phonics and whole language yet not necessarily consistently or systematically. It may include elements such as word study and phonics mini-lessons, differentiated learning, cueing, leveled reading, shared reading, guided reading, independent reading, and sight words.<a href="#cite_note-Zammit-2019-370">[370]</a><a href="#cite_note-districtadministration.com-371">[371]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gonser-2020-372">[372]</a><a href="#cite_note-4_reasons_to_use_balanced_literacy-373">[373]</a> According to a survey in 2010, 68% of K–2 teachers in the United States practice balanced literacy; however, only 52% of teachers included phonics in their definition of balanced literacy. In addition, 75% of teachers teach the <a href="#Three_cueing_system_(Searchlights_model)">three-cueing system</a> (i.e., meaning/structure/visual or semantic/syntactic/graphophonic) that has its roots in whole language.<a href="#cite_note-Education_Week-2010-321">[321]</a><a href="#cite_note-374">[374]</a> In addition, some phonics supporters assert that balanced literacy is merely whole language by another name.<a href="#cite_note-375">[375]</a> And critics of whole language and sceptics of balanced literacy, such as neuroscientist <a href="/wiki/Mark_Seidenberg" title="Mark Seidenberg">Mark Seidenberg</a>, state that struggling readers should not be encouraged to skip words they find puzzling or rely on semantic and syntactic cues to guess words.<a href="#cite_note-Language_at_the_speed_of_sight,_pag-331">[331]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shanahanon-2014-325">[325]</a><a href="#cite_note-376">[376]</a> Over time a growing number of countries and states have put greater emphasis on phonics and other <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">evidence-based practices</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Phonics#Practices_by_country_or_region" title="Phonics">Phonics practices by country or region</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Requirements_for_proficient_reading">Requirements for proficient reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Requirements for proficient reading">edit</a>]</div> According to the report by the US <a href="/wiki/National_Reading_Panel" title="National Reading Panel">National Reading Panel</a> (NRP) in 2000,<a href="#cite_note-National_Reading_Panel,_2000,_Summary-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-National_Reading_Panel,_2000,_Subgroups-377">[377]</a> the elements required for proficient reading of <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabetic</a> languages are <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_awareness" title="Phonemic awareness">phonemic awareness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">phonics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fluency" title="Fluency">fluency</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Rasinski,_T-294">[294]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Justice_2002_87–106-281">[281]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reading_comprehension" title="Reading comprehension">text comprehension</a>. In non-Latin languages, proficient reading does not necessarily require <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_awareness" title="Phonemic awareness">phonemic awareness</a>, but rather an awareness of the individual parts of speech, which may also include the whole word (as in Chinese characters) or syllables (as in Japanese) as well as others depending on the writing system being employed. The <a href="/wiki/Independent_review_of_the_teaching_of_early_reading_(Rose_Report_2006)" title="Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006)">Rose Report</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Department_for_Education" title="Department for Education">Department for Education</a> in England makes it clear that, in their view, <a href="/wiki/Phonics#Systematic_phonics" title="Phonics">systematic phonics</a>, specifically <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_phonics" title="Synthetic phonics">synthetic phonics</a>, is the best way to ensure that children learn to read; such that it is now the law.<a href="#cite_note-Rose-2006a-254">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-378">[378]</a><a href="#cite_note-OFSTED-2014-379">[379]</a><a href="#cite_note-YouTube-2010-380">[380]</a> In 2005 the government of <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> published a report stating "The evidence is clear ... that direct systematic instruction in phonics during the early years of schooling is an essential foundation for teaching children to read".<a href="#cite_note-Australia-2011-381">[381]</a> Phonics has been gaining acceptance in many other countries as can be seen from this page <a href="/wiki/Phonics#Practices_by_country_or_region" title="Phonics">Practices by country or region</a>. Other important elements are: <a href="/wiki/Rapid_automatized_naming" title="Rapid automatized naming">rapid automatized naming</a> (RAN),<a href="#cite_note-Lervåg-382">[382]</a><a href="#cite_note-Denckla_MB_1974-383">[383]</a> a general understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a> of the language, and practice. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_automatized_naming" title="Rapid automatized naming">Rapid automatized naming</a>, the ability to say quickly the names of letters, objects and colors, predicts an individual's ability to read. This might be linked to the importance of quick retrieval of <a href="/wiki/Phonological" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological">phonological</a> representations from <a href="/wiki/Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">long-term memory</a> in reading and the importance of object-naming circuits in the left <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_hemisphere" title="Cerebral hemisphere">cerebral hemisphere</a> that are recruited to underpin a learner's word-recognition abilities.<a href="#cite_note-Lervåg-382">[382]</a><a href="#cite_note-Denckla_MB_1974-383">[383]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a> describes or defines the set of symbols used in a language, and the rules about how to write these symbols (i.e., the conventional spelling system of a language). Orthographic Development proceeds in increasing complexity as a person learns to read. Some of the first things to be learnt are the orthographic conventions such as the direction of reading and that there are differing typefaces and capitalization for each symbol. In general, this means that to read proficiently, the reader has to understand the elements of a written language. In the United States, a limited amount of spelling is taught up to grade four, and beyond that "we gain orthographic expertise by reading"; so the amount and variety of texts that children read is important.<a href="#cite_note-384">[384]</a></li> <li>Practice: Repeated exposure to print improves many aspects of learning to read and most importantly the knowledge of individual words. It increases the speed at which high-frequency words are recognized which allows for increased <a href="/wiki/Fluency" title="Fluency">fluency</a> in reading. It also supports orthographic development, <a href="/wiki/Reading_comprehension" title="Reading comprehension">reading comprehension</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary_development" title="Vocabulary development">vocabulary development</a>. Research suggests there is value in reading words both in isolation and in context. Reading words in isolation promotes faster reading times and better memory for spellings; whereas, reading words in context improves semantic knowledge and comprehension.<a href="#cite_note-385">[385]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reading_difficulties">Reading difficulties</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Reading difficulties">edit</a>]</div> Difficulties in reading typically involve difficulty with one or more of the following: decoding, reading rate, reading fluency, or reading comprehension. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decoding">Decoding</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Decoding">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">Dyslexia</a></div> Brain activity in young and older children can be used to predict future reading skills. Cross-model mapping between the orthographic and phonologic areas in the brain is critical in reading. Thus, the amount of activation in the left dorsal inferior frontal gyrus while performing reading tasks can be used to predict later reading ability and advancement. Young children with higher phonological word characteristic processing have significantly better reading skills later on than older children who focus on whole-word orthographic representation.<a href="#cite_note-386">[386]</a> Difficulty with decoding is marked by having not acquired the <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a>-<a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">grapheme</a> mapping concept. One specific disability characterized by poor decoding is <a href="/wiki/Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">dyslexia</a>, a brain-based learning disability that specifically impairs a person's ability to read.<a href="#cite_note-nih-387">[387]</a> These individuals typically read at levels significantly lower than expected despite having normal intelligence. It can also be inherited in some families, and recent studies have identified a number of genes that may predispose an individual to developing dyslexia. Although the symptoms vary from person to person, common characteristics among people with dyslexia are difficulty with spelling, phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), and/or rapid visual-verbal responding.<a href="#cite_note-nih-387">[387]</a> Adults can have either developmental dyslexia<a href="#cite_note-Heim-388">[388]</a><a href="#cite_note-Facoetti_A_185–91-389">[389]</a><a href="#cite_note-anchoring-390">[390]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chung_KK-391">[391]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Alexia_(condition)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexia (condition)">acquired dyslexia</a> which occurs after a <a href="/wiki/Brain_injury" title="Brain injury">brain injury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a><a href="#cite_note-Cherney_LR_2004_22–36-392">[392]</a><a href="#cite_note-post-stroke_language_disorders-393">[393]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">dementia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-394">[394]</a><a href="#cite_note-395">[395]</a><a href="#cite_note-Facoetti_A_185–91-389">[389]</a><a href="#cite_note-anchoring-390">[390]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cherney_LR_2004_22–36-392">[392]</a><a href="#cite_note-post-stroke_language_disorders-393">[393]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reading_rate">Reading rate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Reading rate">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reading_speed_by_age.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Reading_speed_by_age.jpg/220px-Reading_speed_by_age.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Reading_speed_by_age.jpg/330px-Reading_speed_by_age.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Reading_speed_by_age.jpg/440px-Reading_speed_by_age.jpg 2x" data-file-width="972" data-file-height="797" /></a><figcaption>Average reading rate in words per minute (wpm) depending on age and measured with different tests in English, French and German</figcaption></figure> Individuals with reading rate difficulties tend to have accurate word recognition and normal comprehension abilities, but their reading speed is below grade level.<a href="#cite_note-396">[396]</a> Strategies such as <a href="/wiki/Guided_reading" title="Guided reading">guided reading</a> (guided, repeated oral-reading instruction), may help improve a reader's reading rate.<a href="#cite_note-397">[397]</a> Many studies show that increasing reading speed improves comprehension.<a href="#cite_note-398">[398]</a> Reading speed requires a long time to reach adult levels. According to Carver (1990), children's reading speed increases throughout the school years. On average, from grade 2 to college, the reading rate increases 14 standard-length words per minute each year (where one standard-length word is defined as six characters in text, including punctuation and spaces).<a href="#cite_note-399">[399]</a> Scientific studies have demonstrated that <a href="/wiki/Speed_reading" title="Speed reading">speed reading</a> – defined here as capturing and decoding words faster than 900 wpm – is not feasible given the limits set by the anatomy of the eye.<a href="#cite_note-400">[400]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reading_fluency">Reading fluency</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Reading fluency">edit</a>]</div> Individuals with reading fluency difficulties fail to maintain a fluid, smooth pace when reading. Strategies used for overcoming reading rate difficulties are also useful in addressing reading fluency issues.<a href="#cite_note-National_Reading_Panel,_2000,_Subgroups-377">[377]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reading_comprehension_2">Reading comprehension</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Reading comprehension">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reading_comprehension" title="Reading comprehension">Reading comprehension</a></div> Individuals with <a href="/wiki/Reading_comprehension" title="Reading comprehension">reading comprehension</a> difficulties are commonly described as poor comprehenders.<a href="#cite_note-401">[401]</a> They have normal decoding skills as well as a fluid rate of reading, but have difficulty comprehending text when reading. The <a href="/wiki/Simple_view_of_reading" title="Simple view of reading">simple view of reading</a> holds that reading comprehension requires both decoding skills and oral language comprehension ability.<a href="#cite_note-readingrockets.org-402">[402]</a> Increasing vocabulary knowledge, listening skills, and teaching basic comprehension techniques may help facilitate better reading comprehension. It is suggested that students receive brief, explicit instruction in reading comprehension strategies in the areas of vocabulary, noticing understanding, and connecting ideas.<a href="#cite_note-403">[403]</a> <a href="#Scarborough's_reading_rope">Scarborough's Reading Rope</a> and <a href="#The_active_view_of_reading_model">The active view of reading model</a> also outline some of the essential ingredients of reading comprehension. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radio_reading_service">Radio reading service</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Radio reading service">edit</a>]</div> In some countries, a <a href="/wiki/Radio_reading_service" title="Radio reading service">radio reading service</a> provides a service for <a href="/wiki/Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment">blind</a> people and others who choose to hear <a href="/wiki/Newspaper" title="Newspaper">newspapers</a>, books, and other printed material read aloud, typically by volunteers. An example is <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Radio_Print_Handicapped_Network" title="Radio Print Handicapped Network">Radio Print Handicapped Network</a> with stations in capital cities and some other areas. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reading_achievement:_national_and_international_reports">Reading achievement: national and international reports</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Reading achievement: national and international reports">edit</a>]</div> The following organizations measure and report on reading achievement in the United States and internationally: <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="NAEP">NAEP</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: NAEP">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/NAEP" class="mw-redirect" title="NAEP">NAEP</a></div> In the United States, the National Assessment of Educational Progress or <a href="/wiki/NAEP" class="mw-redirect" title="NAEP">NAEP</a> ("The Nation's Report Card") is the national assessment of what students know and can do in various subjects. Four of these subjects – reading, writing, mathematics, and science – are assessed most frequently and reported at the state and district level, usually for grades 4 and 8.<a href="#cite_note-404">[404]</a> In 2019, with respect to the reading skills of the nation's grade-four public school students, 35% performed at or above the NAEP Proficient level (solid academic performance), and 65% performed at or above the NAEP Basic level (partial mastery of the proficient level skills). It is believed that students who read below the basic level do not have sufficient support to complete their schoolwork.<a href="#cite_note-405">[405]</a> Reading scores for the individual States and Districts are available on the NAEP site. Between 2017 and 2019 <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> was the only State that had a grade-four reading score increase and 17 States had a score decrease.<a href="#cite_note-Hanford-2019-406">[406]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education">COVID-19 pandemic</a> had a significant impact on reading results in the United States. In 2022 the average basic-level reading score among elementary schoolchildren was 3 points lower compared to 2019 (the previous assessment year) and roughly equivalent to the first reading assessment in 1992. Students of all ethnic groups other than Asians saw their scores decline. However, "black, Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska Native (AIAN) students and students in high-poverty schools were disproportionately impacted". (This was substantiated by other sources).<a href="#cite_note-407">[407]</a> In 2022, no states had a reading score increase and 30 states had a score decrease.<a href="#cite_note-408">[408]</a> The results by race or ethnicity were as follows:<a href="#cite_note-auto7-84">[84]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th class="unsortable">Race / Ethnicity </th> <th class="unsortable">2019 – Proficient level </th> <th class="unsortable">2022 – Proficient level </th> <th class="unsortable">2019 – Basic level </th> <th class="unsortable">2022 – Basic level </th></tr> <tr> <td>Asian </td> <td>57% </td> <td>58% </td> <td>82% </td> <td>83% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Asian/Pacific Islander </td> <td>55% </td> <td>56% </td> <td>81% </td> <td>81% </td></tr> <tr> <td>White </td> <td>45% </td> <td>42% </td> <td>77% </td> <td>73% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Two or more races </td> <td>40% </td> <td>38% </td> <td>72% </td> <td>68% </td></tr> <tr> <td>National Average </td> <td>35% </td> <td>33% </td> <td>65% </td> <td>63% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander </td> <td>25% </td> <td>23% </td> <td>58% </td> <td>50% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hispanic </td> <td>23% </td> <td>21% </td> <td>55% </td> <td>50% </td></tr> <tr> <td>American Indian/Alaska Native </td> <td>19% </td> <td>18% </td> <td>50% </td> <td>43% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Black </td> <td>18% </td> <td>17% </td> <td>48% </td> <td>44% </td></tr> </tbody></table> NAEP reading assessment results are reported as average scores on a 0–500 scale.<a href="#cite_note-409">[409]</a> The Basic Level is 208 and the Proficient Level is 238.<a href="#cite_note-410">[410]</a> The average reading score for grade-four public school students was 219.<a href="#cite_note-NCES-2022-411">[411]</a> Female students had an average score that was 7 points higher than male students. Students who were eligible for the <a href="/wiki/National_School_Lunch_Act" title="National School Lunch Act">National School Lunch Program (NSLP)</a> had an average score that was 28 points lower than that for students who were not eligible. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="PIAAC">PIAAC</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: PIAAC">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/PIAAC" class="mw-redirect" title="PIAAC">PIAAC</a></div> The Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (<a href="/wiki/PIAAC" class="mw-redirect" title="PIAAC">PIAAC</a>) is an international study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (<a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a>) of cognitive and workplace skills in 39 countries between 2011 and 2018.<a href="#cite_note-PIAAC-OECD-74">[74]</a> The Survey measures adults' proficiency in key information-processing skills – literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving. The focus is on the working-age population between the ages of 16 and 65. For example, the study shows the ranking of 38 countries as to the literacy proficiency among adults. According to the 2019 OECD report, the five countries with the highest ranking are Japan, Finland, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Australia; whereas Canada is 12th, England (UK) is 16th, and the United States is 19th.<a href="#cite_note-OECD-2019-155">[155]</a> It is also worth noting that the PIAAC table A2.1 (2013) shows the percentage of adults reading at-or-below level one (out of five levels). Some examples are Japan 4.9%, Finland 10.6%, Netherlands 11.7%, Australia 12.6%, Sweden 13.3%, Canada 16.4%, England 16.4%, and the United States 16.9%.<a href="#cite_note-OECD-2013-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="PIRLS">PIRLS</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: PIRLS">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/PIRLS" class="mw-redirect" title="PIRLS">PIRLS</a></div> The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (<a href="/wiki/PIRLS" class="mw-redirect" title="PIRLS">PIRLS</a>) is an international study of reading (comprehension) achievement in fourth graders.<a href="#cite_note-412">[412]</a> It is designed to measure children's reading literacy achievement, to provide a baseline for future studies of trends in achievement, and to gather information about children's home and school experiences in learning to read. The 2021 PIRLS report shows the 4th-grade reading achievement by country in two categories (literary and informational). The ten countries with the highest overall reading average (with scores) are Singapore (587), Ireland (577), Hong Kong SAR (573), Russian Federation (567), Northern Ireland (566), England (UK) (558), Croatia (557), Lithuania (552), Finland (549), and Poland (549). Some others are the United States (548) 11th and Australia (548) 13th. Among the benchmarking participants are the four Canadian provinces of Alberta (539), British Columbia (535), Newfoundland and Labrador (523), and Quebec (551).<a href="#cite_note-413">[413]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="PISA">PISA</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: PISA">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/PISA" class="mw-redirect" title="PISA">PISA</a></div> The Programme for International Student Assessment (<a href="/wiki/PISA" class="mw-redirect" title="PISA">PISA</a>) measures 15-year-old school pupils scholastic performance on mathematics, science, and reading.<a href="#cite_note-About_PISA-70">[70]</a> In 2018, of the 79 participating countries/economies, on average, students in Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang (China), and Singapore outperformed students from all other countries in reading, mathematics, and science. 21 countries have reading scores above the OECD average scores and many of the scores are not statistically different.<a href="#cite_note-414">[414]</a><a href="#cite_note-415">[415]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PISA_Reading_Scores_(2018).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/PISA_Reading_Scores_%282018%29.png" decoding="async" width="843" height="593" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="843" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> Critics, however, say PISA is fundamentally flawed in its underlying view of education, its implementation, and its interpretation and impact on education globally.<a href="#cite_note-Zhao,_Y._245–266-71">[71]</a> In 2014, more than 100 academics from around the world called for a moratorium on PISA.<a href="#cite_note-washingtonpost.com-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-theguardian.com-73">[73]</a> According to a 2023 book, PISA is failing in its mission. It suggests that flatlined student outcomes and policy shortcomings have much to do with PISA's implicit ideological biases, structural impediments such as union advocacy, and conflicts of interest.<a href="#cite_note-416">[416]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="EQAO">EQAO</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: EQAO">edit</a>]</div> The Education Quality and Accountability Office, <a href="/wiki/EQAO" class="mw-redirect" title="EQAO">EQAO</a>, is an agency of the government of Ontario, Canada that reports on the publicly funded school system.<a href="#cite_note-417">[417]</a> In 2022, it reported that 77% of grade three students in Ontario's English language schools met the provincial standard in reading in 2018–2019. This decreased to 73% in 2021–2022 and 2022–2023.<a href="#cite_note-418">[418]</a> 53% of grade three students with special needs met the standard in 2018–2019, and this reduced to 48% in 2021–2022. 72% of grade three students who are English language learners met the standard in 2018–2019, and this reduced to 67% in 2021–2022.<a href="#cite_note-419">[419]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Austria_-_Heiligenkreuz_Abbey_-_1726.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Austria_-_Heiligenkreuz_Abbey_-_1726.jpg/280px-Austria_-_Heiligenkreuz_Abbey_-_1726.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Austria_-_Heiligenkreuz_Abbey_-_1726.jpg/420px-Austria_-_Heiligenkreuz_Abbey_-_1726.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Austria_-_Heiligenkreuz_Abbey_-_1726.jpg/560px-Austria_-_Heiligenkreuz_Abbey_-_1726.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4368" data-file-height="2912" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Catholic_monk" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic monk">Catholic monk</a> reading in a monastery library</figcaption></figure> The history of reading dates back to the <a href="/wiki/Invention_of_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Invention of writing">invention of writing</a> during the 4th millennium BC. Although reading <a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">print</a> text is now an important way for the general population to access information, this has not always been the case. With <a href="/wiki/Literacy#Classical_and_post-classical_literacy" title="Literacy">some exceptions</a>, only a small percentage of the population in many countries was considered <a href="/wiki/Literate" class="mw-redirect" title="Literate">literate</a> before the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. Some of the pre-modern societies with generally high literacy rates included <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">classical Athens</a> and the Islamic <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliphate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-420">[420]</a> Scholars assume that reading aloud (Latin clare legere) was the more common practice in antiquity, and that reading silently (legere tacite or legere sibi) was unusual.<a href="#cite_note-Carruthers-421">[421]</a> In his <a href="/wiki/Confessions_(St._Augustine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Confessions (St. Augustine)">Confessions</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 400), <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Saint Augustine</a> remarks on <a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Saint Ambrose</a>'s unusual habit of reading in silence.<a href="#cite_note-Carruthers-421">[421]</a><a href="#cite_note-422">[422]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Certeau" title="Michel de Certeau">Michel de Certeau</a> argued that while the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> initially promoted the virtue of reading, writing was still considered a superior activity, due to a belief among social elites that writing was constructive and a sign of social initiative, while reading was straightforward consumption of what had already made; as such, readers were <a href="/wiki/Passive_citizens" class="mw-redirect" title="Passive citizens">passive citizens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Certeau,_Michel_1984-423">[423]</a> Before the mid-18th century, children's books in England usually focused on instruction or religious themes. Over time, a greater number of books were written with the intent of delighting children; for example, children's novels became increasingly popular over the 18th century. By 1800, the area of children's literature was flourishing, with perhaps as many as 50 books being printed every year in major cities.<a href="#cite_note-424">[424]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicoline_Tuxen_-_Portrait_of_a_woman_reading_in_bed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Nicoline_Tuxen_-_Portrait_of_a_woman_reading_in_bed.jpg/220px-Nicoline_Tuxen_-_Portrait_of_a_woman_reading_in_bed.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Nicoline_Tuxen_-_Portrait_of_a_woman_reading_in_bed.jpg/330px-Nicoline_Tuxen_-_Portrait_of_a_woman_reading_in_bed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Nicoline_Tuxen_-_Portrait_of_a_woman_reading_in_bed.jpg/440px-Nicoline_Tuxen_-_Portrait_of_a_woman_reading_in_bed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="707" data-file-height="543" /></a><figcaption>Nicoline Tuxen - Portrait of a woman reading in bed</figcaption></figure> In 18th-century Europe, some considered the then-new practice of reading alone in bed to be dangerous and immoral, for a time. As reading became a less communal, largely silent activity, some raised concerns that reading in bed presented various dangers, such as fires caused by bedside candles of people reading before sleep. Some modern critics speculate that these concerns were rooted partially in fear that readers – especially women readers – would shirk their obligations to their family and community, and even transgress moral boundaries via the private fantasy afforded by books.<a href="#cite_note-425">[425]</a> Also during the 18th century in England, reading novels was often criticized as a time-wasting pastime, when contrasted with the cultural seriousness carried by reading history, classical literature or poetry.<a href="#cite_note-British_Library-426">[426]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chapbook" title="Chapbook">Chapbooks</a> were small, cheap forms of literature for children and adults that were sold on the streets, and covered a range of subjects such as ghost stories, crime, fantasy, politics, and disaster updates. They provided simple reading matter and were commonplace across England from the 17th to the 19th century. They are known to have been passed down through the generations. Their readership would have been largely among the poor, and among children of the middle class.<a href="#cite_note-427">[427]</a> Reading became even more pronounced in the 19th century with public notes, broadsides, catchpennies, and printed songs becoming common street literature, it informed and entertained the public before newspapers became readily available. Advertisements and local news, such as offers of rewards for catching criminals or for the return of stolen goods, appeared on public notices and handbills, while cheaply printed sheets – broadsheets and ballads – covered political or criminal news such as murders, trials, executions, disasters, and rescues.<a href="#cite_note-428">[428]</a> Technological improvements during the Industrial Revolution in printing and paper production; and new distribution networks enabled by improved roads and rail helped push an increased demand for printed (reading) matter. Besides this, social and educational changes (such as wider schooling rates) along with increasing literacy rates, particularly among the middle and working classes, helped boost a new mass market for printed material.<a href="#cite_note-429">[429]</a> The arrival of gas and electric lighting in private homes meant that reading after dark no longer had to take place by oil lamp or candlelight.<a href="#cite_note-British_Library-426">[426]</a> In 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, reading practices were highly varied, as people from a wide range of social statuses read Russian and foreign-language texts ranging from high literature to the peasant <a href="/wiki/Lubok" title="Lubok">lubok</a>.<a href="#cite_note-430">[430]</a> Provincial readers such as Andrei Chikhachev give evidence of the omnivorous appetite for fiction and non-fiction alike among middling landowners.<a href="#cite_note-431">[431]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_learning_to_read">History of learning to read</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: History of learning to read">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_learning_to_read" title="History of learning to read">History of learning to read</a></div> The history of learning to read dates back to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">invention of writing</a> during the 4th millennium BC.<a href="#cite_note-432">[432]</a> Concerning the English language in the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">phonics</a> principle of teaching reading was first presented by <a href="/wiki/John_Hart_(spelling_reformer)" title="John Hart (spelling reformer)">John Hart</a> in 1570, who suggested the teaching of reading should focus on the relationship between what is now referred to as <a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">graphemes</a> (letters) and <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> (sounds).<a href="#cite_note-433">[433]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">colonial times</a> of the United States, reading material was not written specifically for children, so instruction material consisted primarily of the Bible and some patriotic essays. The most influential early textbook was <a href="/wiki/The_New_England_Primer" title="The New England Primer">The New England Primer</a>, published in 1687. There was little consideration given to the best ways to teach reading or assess reading comprehension.<a href="#cite_note-Adams,_1990-434">[434]</a><a href="#cite_note-435">[435]</a> Phonics was a popular way to learn reading in the 1800s. <a href="/wiki/William_Holmes_McGuffey" title="William Holmes McGuffey">William Holmes McGuffey</a> (1800–1873), an American educator, author, and Presbyterian minister who had a lifelong interest in teaching children, compiled the first four of the <a href="/wiki/McGuffey_Readers" title="McGuffey Readers">McGuffey Readers</a> in 1836.<a href="#cite_note-William_McGuffey-362">[362]</a> The whole-word method was introduced into the English-speaking world by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hopkins_Gallaudet" title="Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet">Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet</a>, the director of the <a href="/wiki/American_School_for_the_Deaf" title="American School for the Deaf">American School for the Deaf</a>.<a href="#cite_note-436">[436]</a> It was designed to educate deaf people by placing a word alongside a picture.<a href="#cite_note-437">[437]</a> In 1830, Gallaudet described his method of teaching children to recognize a total of 50 sight words written on cards.<a href="#cite_note-438">[438]</a><a href="#cite_note-439">[439]</a> <a href="/wiki/Horace_Mann" title="Horace Mann">Horace Mann</a>, the Secretary of the Board of Education of Massachusetts, U.S., favored the method for everyone, and by 1837 the method was adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> Primary School Committee.<a href="#cite_note-pbs.org-440">[440]</a> By 1844 the defects of the whole-word method became so apparent to Boston schoolmasters that they urged the Board to return to phonics.<a href="#cite_note-441">[441]</a> In 1929, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Orton" title="Samuel Orton">Samuel Orton</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Neuropathology" title="Neuropathology">neuropathologist</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iowa" title="Iowa">Iowa</a>, concluded that the cause of children's reading problems was the new sight method of reading. His findings were published in the February 1929 issue of the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Educational_Psychology" title="Journal of Educational Psychology">Journal of Educational Psychology</a> in the article "The Sight Reading Method of Teaching Reading as a Source of Reading Disability".<a href="#cite_note-442">[442]</a> The meaning-based curriculum came to dominate reading instruction by the second quarter of the 20th century. In the 1930s and 1940s, reading programs became very focused on comprehension and taught children to read whole words by sight. Phonics was taught as a last resort.<a href="#cite_note-Adams,_1990-434">[434]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dolch_word_list" title="Dolch word list">Edward William Dolch</a> developed his list of <a href="/wiki/Sight_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Sight words">sight words</a> in 1936 by studying the most frequently occurring words in children's books of that era. Children are encouraged to memorize the words with the idea that it will help them read more fluently. Many teachers continue to use this list, although some researchers consider the theory of sight word reading to be a "myth". Researchers and literacy organizations suggest it would be more effective if students learned the words using a phonics approach.<a href="#cite_note-Stanislas_Dehaene_222–228-309">[309]</a><a href="#cite_note-443">[443]</a><a href="#cite_note-444">[444]</a> In 1955, <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Flesch" title="Rudolf Flesch">Rudolf Flesch</a> published a book entitled Why Johnny Can't Read, a passionate argument in favor of teaching children to read using phonics, adding to the reading debate among educators, researchers, and parents.<a href="#cite_note-Flesch,_R-445">[445]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Land_on_the_Moon_7_21_1969-repair.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Land_on_the_Moon_7_21_1969-repair.jpg/220px-Land_on_the_Moon_7_21_1969-repair.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Land_on_the_Moon_7_21_1969-repair.jpg/330px-Land_on_the_Moon_7_21_1969-repair.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Land_on_the_Moon_7_21_1969-repair.jpg/440px-Land_on_the_Moon_7_21_1969-repair.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2356" data-file-height="2795" /></a><figcaption>An American girl reading a newspaper (1969)</figcaption></figure> Government-funded research on reading instruction in the United States and elsewhere began in the 1960s. In the 1970s and 1980s, researchers began publishing studies with evidence on the effectiveness of different instructional approaches. During this time, researchers at the <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> (NIH) conducted studies that showed early reading acquisition depends on the understanding of the connection between sounds and letters (i.e. phonics). However, this appears to have had little effect on educational practices in public schools.<a href="#cite_note-Adams,_Marilyn_Jager_1994-446">[446]</a><a href="#cite_note-447">[447]</a> In the 1970s, the <a href="/wiki/Whole_language" title="Whole language">whole language</a> method was introduced. This method de-emphasizes the teaching of phonics out of context (e.g. reading books), and is intended to help readers "guess" the right word.<a href="#cite_note-448">[448]</a> It teaches that guessing individual words should involve three systems (letter clues, meaning clues from context, and the syntactical structure of the sentence). It became the primary method of reading instruction in the 1980s and 1990s. However, it is falling out of favor. The neuroscientist <a href="/wiki/Mark_Seidenberg" title="Mark Seidenberg">Mark Seidenberg</a> refers to it as a "theoretical zombie" because it persists despite a lack of supporting evidence.<a href="#cite_note-Seidenberg-2017a-368">[368]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto5-317">[317]</a> It is still widely practiced in related methods such as <a href="#Sight_vocabulary_vs._sight_words">sight words</a>, the <a href="#Three_cueing_system_(Searchlights_model)">three-cueing system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Balanced_literacy" title="Balanced literacy">balanced literacy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-449">[449]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adams,_Marilyn_Jager_1994-446">[446]</a><a href="#cite_note-LDOnline-450">[450]</a> In the 1980s the <a href="#three-cueing_system">three-cueing system</a> (the searchlights model in England) emerged. According to a 2010 survey 75% of teachers in the United States teach the three-cueing system.<a href="#cite_note-Education_Week-2010-321">[321]</a> It teaches children to guess a word by using "meaning cues" (semantic, syntactic and graphophonic). While the system does help students to "make better guesses", it does not help when the words become more sophisticated; and it reduces the amount of practice time available to learn essential decoding skills. Consequently, present-day researchers such as cognitive neuroscientists <a href="/wiki/Mark_Seidenberg" title="Mark Seidenberg">Mark Seidenberg</a> and professor <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Shanahan_(educator)" title="Timothy Shanahan (educator)">Timothy Shanahan</a> do not support the theory.<a href="#cite_note-Timothy_Shanahan,_Reading_Rockets-339">[339]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mark_Seidenberg_2017_300–304-342">[342]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dr_Kerry_Hempenstall,_Senior_Industry_Fellow,_School_of_Education,_RMIT_University,_Melbourne,_Australia-343">[343]</a> In England, <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_phonics" title="Synthetic phonics">synthetic phonics</a> is intended to replace "the searchlights multi-cueing model".<a href="#cite_note-Edu_England-2006-344">[344]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rose-2006-345">[345]</a> In the 1990s <a href="/wiki/Balanced_literacy" title="Balanced literacy">Balanced literacy</a> arose. It is a theory of teaching reading and writing that is not clearly defined. It may include elements such as word study and phonics mini-lessons, differentiated learning, cueing, leveled reading, shared reading, guided reading, independent reading and sight words.<a href="#cite_note-Zammit-2019-370">[370]</a><a href="#cite_note-districtadministration.com-371">[371]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gonser-2020-372">[372]</a><a href="#cite_note-4_reasons_to_use_balanced_literacy-373">[373]</a> For some, balanced literacy strikes a balance between <a href="/wiki/Whole_language" title="Whole language">whole language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">phonics</a>. Others say balanced literacy in practice usually means the whole language approach to reading.<a href="#cite_note-451">[451]</a> According to a survey in 2010, 68% of K–2 teachers in the United States practice balanced literacy. Furthermore, only 52% of teachers included phonics in their definition of balanced literacy.<a href="#cite_note-Education_Week-2010-321">[321]</a> In 1996 the <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> Department of Education took an increased interest in using phonics in schools.<a href="#cite_note-452">[452]</a> And in 1997 the department called for grade one teaching in concepts about print, phonemic awareness, decoding and word recognition, and vocabulary and concept development.<a href="#cite_note-453">[453]</a> By 1998 in the U.K. whole language instruction and the searchlights model were still the norm; however, there was some attention to teaching phonics in the early grades, as seen in the National Literacy Strategies.<a href="#cite_note-454">[454]</a><a href="#cite_note-455">[455]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: 21st century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anonymous_-_Die_Andacht_(%22The_Devotion%22)_-_1937.376.1_-_Reading_Public_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Anonymous_-_Die_Andacht_%28%22The_Devotion%22%29_-_1937.376.1_-_Reading_Public_Museum.jpg/170px-Anonymous_-_Die_Andacht_%28%22The_Devotion%22%29_-_1937.376.1_-_Reading_Public_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Anonymous_-_Die_Andacht_%28%22The_Devotion%22%29_-_1937.376.1_-_Reading_Public_Museum.jpg/255px-Anonymous_-_Die_Andacht_%28%22The_Devotion%22%29_-_1937.376.1_-_Reading_Public_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Anonymous_-_Die_Andacht_%28%22The_Devotion%22%29_-_1937.376.1_-_Reading_Public_Museum.jpg/340px-Anonymous_-_Die_Andacht_%28%22The_Devotion%22%29_-_1937.376.1_-_Reading_Public_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="848" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>In 2000 the <a href="/wiki/National_Reading_Panel" title="National Reading Panel">National Reading Panel</a> in the U.S. identified five ingredients of effective reading instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.</figcaption></figure> Beginning in 2000, several reading research reports were published: <ul><li>2000 – The <a href="/wiki/National_Reading_Panel" title="National Reading Panel">National Reading Panel</a> (U.S.) that identified five ingredients of effective reading instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.<a href="#cite_note-National_Reading_Panel,_2000,_Summary-125">[125]</a></li> <li>2005 – The <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australian</a> report on Teaching reading that supports the use of <a href="/wiki/Systematic_Phonics" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic Phonics">systematic phonics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Teaching_Reading-253">[253]</a></li> <li>2006 – The <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <a href="/wiki/Independent_review_of_the_teaching_of_early_reading_(Rose_Report_2006)" title="Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006)">Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006)</a> that supports <a href="/wiki/Phonics#Synthetic_phonics" title="Phonics">systematic synthetic phonics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-456">[456]</a></li></ul> For more on this, see the main article <a href="/wiki/History_of_learning_to_read" title="History of learning to read">History of learning to read</a> For more information on reading educational developments, see <a href="/wiki/Phonics#Practices_by_country_or_region" title="Phonics">Phonics practices by country or region</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_terms">Other terms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Other terms">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subvocalization" title="Subvocalization">Subvocalization</a> is the sense that a reader is combining silent reading with internal sounding of the words. Advocates of speed reading claim it can be a bad habit that slows reading and comprehension, but some researchers say this is a fallacy since there is no actual speaking involved. Instead, it may help skilled readers to read since they are utilizing the phonological code to understand words (e.g., the difference between PERmit and perMIT).<a href="#cite_note-457">[457]</a><a href="#cite_note-458">[458]</a><a href="#cite_note-459">[459]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speed_reading" title="Speed reading">Speed reading</a> is the claim that you can increase reading speed without experiencing an unacceptable reduction in comprehension or retention. Methods include skimming or the <a href="/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)" title="Chunking (psychology)">chunking</a> of words in a body of text to increase the rate of reading. However, cognitive neuroscientists such as <a href="/wiki/Stanislas_Dehaene" title="Stanislas Dehaene">Stanislas Dehaene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mark_Seidenberg" title="Mark Seidenberg">Mark Seidenberg</a> say that claims of reading up to 1,000 words per minute 'must be viewed with skepticism' and that 'people are as likely to read thousands of words per minute as they are to run faster than the speed of light'".<a href="#cite_note-Stanislas_Dehaene_222–228-309">[309]</a><a href="#cite_note-460">[460]</a> It is estimated that the average reading speed for adults in English is from 175 to 320 words per minute.<a href="#cite_note-Research_Digest-2019-186">[186]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proofreading" title="Proofreading">Proofreading</a> is a kind of reading for the purpose of detecting <a href="/wiki/Typographical_error" title="Typographical error">typographical errors</a>. It is not reading in the usual sense, as they may largely suspend comprehension while doing so.<a href="#cite_note-461">[461]</a></li> <li>Rereading is reading a book more than once. "One cannot read a book: one can only reread it," <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Nabokov" title="Vladimir Nabokov">Vladimir Nabokov</a> once said.<a href="#cite_note-462">[462]</a></li> <li>Analytical reading, popularized by <a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Adler" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortimer Adler">Mortimer Adler</a> in <a href="/wiki/How_to_Read_a_Book" title="How to Read a Book">How to Read a Book</a>, mainly for non-fiction works, in which one analyzes a writing according to three dimensions: 1) the structure and purpose of the work, 2) the logical propositions made, and 3) evaluation of the merits of the arguments and conclusions. This method involves <a href="/wiki/Suspension_of_judgment" title="Suspension of judgment">suspending judgment</a> of the work or its arguments until they are fully understood.<a href="#cite_note-463">[463]</a></li> <li>Survey-question-read-recite-review (<a href="/wiki/SQ3R" title="SQ3R">SQ3R</a>) method, often taught in public schools, which involves reading so as to be able to teach what is read, and is appropriate for instructors preparing to teach material without referring to notes.<a href="#cite_note-464">[464]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_serial_visual_presentation" title="Rapid serial visual presentation">Rapid serial visual presentation</a> (RSVP) reading involves presenting the words in a sentence one word at a time at the same location on the display screen, at a specified eccentricity; for studying the timing of vision.<a href="#cite_note-465">[465]</a></li> <li>In-depth reading is a method that is used to gain deeper meaning and comprehension of a text, research detailed information for this assignment, and read very difficult sections of a text. Five strategies include the RAP strategy, the RIDA strategy, the Five S method, and SQ3R. This is also known as exploratory reading, which allows multiple people a narrower purpose, to understand the concepts or arguments of a text.<a href="#cite_note-466">[466]</a><a href="#cite_note-467">[467]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Gallery">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paintings">Paintings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: Paintings">edit</a>]</div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 164.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 162.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Fritz_von_Uhde_-_Das_Bilderbuch_I_(1889).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Girl Reading (1889), by Fritz von Uhde. Oil paint on canvas."><img alt="Girl Reading (1889), by Fritz von Uhde. Oil paint on canvas." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Fritz_von_Uhde_-_Das_Bilderbuch_I_%281889%29.jpg/244px-Fritz_von_Uhde_-_Das_Bilderbuch_I_%281889%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="163" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Fritz_von_Uhde_-_Das_Bilderbuch_I_%281889%29.jpg/366px-Fritz_von_Uhde_-_Das_Bilderbuch_I_%281889%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Fritz_von_Uhde_-_Das_Bilderbuch_I_%281889%29.jpg/488px-Fritz_von_Uhde_-_Das_Bilderbuch_I_%281889%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1107" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Girl Reading (1889), by <a href="/wiki/Fritz_von_Uhde" title="Fritz von Uhde">Fritz von Uhde</a>. Oil paint on canvas.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 135.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 133.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Goodwin_Kilburne_Young_girl_reading.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Young Girl Reading (1924) by George Goodwin Kilburne"><img alt="Young Girl Reading (1924) by George Goodwin Kilburne" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/George_Goodwin_Kilburne_Young_girl_reading.jpg/200px-George_Goodwin_Kilburne_Young_girl_reading.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/George_Goodwin_Kilburne_Young_girl_reading.jpg/300px-George_Goodwin_Kilburne_Young_girl_reading.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/George_Goodwin_Kilburne_Young_girl_reading.jpg/400px-George_Goodwin_Kilburne_Young_girl_reading.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2016" data-file-height="3024" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Young Girl Reading (1924) by <a href="/wiki/George_Goodwin_Kilburne" title="George Goodwin Kilburne">George Goodwin Kilburne</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 178.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 176.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Renoir_-_Young_Girls_Reading,_1891.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Young Girls Reading (1891) by Auguste Renoir"><img alt="Young Girls Reading (1891) by Auguste Renoir" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Renoir_-_Young_Girls_Reading%2C_1891.jpg/265px-Renoir_-_Young_Girls_Reading%2C_1891.jpg" decoding="async" width="177" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Renoir_-_Young_Girls_Reading%2C_1891.jpg/398px-Renoir_-_Young_Girls_Reading%2C_1891.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Renoir_-_Young_Girls_Reading%2C_1891.jpg/530px-Renoir_-_Young_Girls_Reading%2C_1891.jpg 2x" data-file-width="905" data-file-height="1024" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Young Girls Reading (1891) by <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Auguste_Renoir" title="Pierre-Auguste Renoir">Auguste Renoir</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 161.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 159.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Fragonard,_The_Reader.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Young Girl Reading (c. 1770), oil painting by Jean-Honoré Fragonard"><img alt="A Young Girl Reading (c. 1770), oil painting by Jean-Honoré Fragonard" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Fragonard%2C_The_Reader.jpg/239px-Fragonard%2C_The_Reader.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Fragonard%2C_The_Reader.jpg/358px-Fragonard%2C_The_Reader.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Fragonard%2C_The_Reader.jpg/477px-Fragonard%2C_The_Reader.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3182" data-file-height="4000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/A_Young_Girl_Reading" title="A Young Girl Reading">A Young Girl Reading</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1770), oil painting by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Honor%C3%A9_Fragonard" title="Jean-Honoré Fragonard">Jean-Honoré Fragonard</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 166.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 164.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Lavery_Maiss_Auras.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Miss Auras, by John Lavery, depicts a woman reading a book."><img alt="Miss Auras, by John Lavery, depicts a woman reading a book." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Lavery_Maiss_Auras.jpg/247px-Lavery_Maiss_Auras.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Lavery_Maiss_Auras.jpg/371px-Lavery_Maiss_Auras.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Lavery_Maiss_Auras.jpg/494px-Lavery_Maiss_Auras.jpg 2x" data-file-width="618" data-file-height="750" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Miss Auras, by <a href="/wiki/John_Lavery" title="John Lavery">John Lavery</a>, depicts a woman reading a book.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 145.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 143.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Girl_Reading_page_308.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A girl reading from the public domain image book, "What Shall We Do?" "Five Hundred Games and Pastimes" by Dorothy Canfield published in 1907 by Frederick A Stokes Company of New York"><img alt="A girl reading from the public domain image book, "What Shall We Do?" "Five Hundred Games and Pastimes" by Dorothy Canfield published in 1907 by Frederick A Stokes Company of New York" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Girl_Reading_page_308.jpg/215px-Girl_Reading_page_308.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Girl_Reading_page_308.jpg/323px-Girl_Reading_page_308.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Girl_Reading_page_308.jpg/431px-Girl_Reading_page_308.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1283" data-file-height="1786" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A girl reading from the public domain image book, "What Shall We Do?" "Five Hundred Games and Pastimes" by Dorothy Canfield published in 1907 by Frederick A Stokes Company of New York</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 128.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 126.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Riza-yi-Abbasi_008.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Youth reading, Persian miniature by Reza Abbasi (1625–26)"><img alt="Youth reading, Persian miniature by Reza Abbasi (1625–26)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Riza-yi-Abbasi_008.jpg/190px-Riza-yi-Abbasi_008.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Riza-yi-Abbasi_008.jpg/285px-Riza-yi-Abbasi_008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Riza-yi-Abbasi_008.jpg/379px-Riza-yi-Abbasi_008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1582" data-file-height="2500" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Youth reading, <a href="/wiki/Persian_miniature" title="Persian miniature">Persian miniature</a> by <a href="/wiki/Reza_Abbasi" title="Reza Abbasi">Reza Abbasi</a> (1625–26)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 143.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 141.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Honor%C3%A9_Daumier_007.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Reader, a painting by Honoré Daumier"><img alt="Reader, a painting by Honoré Daumier" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier_007.jpg/212px-Honor%C3%A9_Daumier_007.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier_007.jpg/319px-Honor%C3%A9_Daumier_007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier_007.jpg/425px-Honor%C3%A9_Daumier_007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="2225" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Reader, a painting by <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier" title="Honoré Daumier">Honoré Daumier</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photographs">Photographs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Photographs">edit</a>]</div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 276px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 274px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Three_girls_reading_in_1880.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Three girls reading (1880)"><img alt="Three girls reading (1880)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Three_girls_reading_in_1880.jpg/411px-Three_girls_reading_in_1880.jpg" decoding="async" width="274" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Three_girls_reading_in_1880.jpg/617px-Three_girls_reading_in_1880.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Three_girls_reading_in_1880.jpg/823px-Three_girls_reading_in_1880.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1494" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Three girls reading (1880)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Girl_Reading(GN08755).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Girl reading a book featuring the title "The Children's Hour" and a photograph of a Hippopotamus in Thebarton Primary School, South Australia (1945)"><img alt="Girl reading a book featuring the title "The Children's Hour" and a photograph of a Hippopotamus in Thebarton Primary School, South Australia (1945)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Girl_Reading%28GN08755%29.jpg/400px-Girl_Reading%28GN08755%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Girl_Reading%28GN08755%29.jpg/600px-Girl_Reading%28GN08755%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Girl_Reading%28GN08755%29.jpg/800px-Girl_Reading%28GN08755%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Girl reading a book featuring the title "The Children's Hour" and a photograph of a Hippopotamus in Thebarton Primary School, South Australia (1945)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Students_reading_in_leisure_time.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Students reading in leisure time at Government Primary school Asir, Sirsa, Haryana province of India"><img alt="Students reading in leisure time at Government Primary school Asir, Sirsa, Haryana province of India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Students_reading_in_leisure_time.jpg/400px-Students_reading_in_leisure_time.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Students_reading_in_leisure_time.jpg/600px-Students_reading_in_leisure_time.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Students_reading_in_leisure_time.jpg/800px-Students_reading_in_leisure_time.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Students reading in leisure time at Government Primary school Asir, <a href="/wiki/Sirsa" title="Sirsa">Sirsa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a> province of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Diploma_icon.png/42px-Diploma_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Diploma_icon.png/56px-Diploma_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Education">Education portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Noun-linguistics.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/25px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/38px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/51px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="29" data-file-height="32" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" 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class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/read">"read"</a>. Merriam-Webster. 17 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=read&rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster&rft.date=2023-07-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fread&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/read">"Definition of 'read'"</a>. Collins English Dictionary.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Definition+of+%27read%27&rft.btitle=Collins+English+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fread&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Read: Reproduce mentally or vocally the written or printed words by following the symbols with the eyes or fingers". The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English. The concise Oxford Dictionary. 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Harper Perennial. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-093384-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-093384-5"><bdi>978-0-06-093384-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proust+and+the+Squid&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-06-093384-5&rft.au=Maryanne+Wolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.harpercollins.com%2Fproducts%2Fproust-and-the-squid-maryanne-wolf%3Fvariant%3D32122454671394&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theliteracybug.com/stages">"Five Stages of Reading Development"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theroadmap.ualberta.ca/readings/parents/49-60">the original</a> on 2021-08-02. Retrieved 2021-01-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=theroadmap.ualberta.ca&rft.atitle=Handbook+of+Language+and+Literacy+Development+%E2%80%93+A+Roadmap+from+0+to+60+Months+%E2%80%93+Reading+%E2%80%93+Parent%2FCaregiver&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheroadmap.ualberta.ca%2Freadings%2Fparents%2F49-60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaryanne_Wolf2008" class="citation book cs1">Maryanne Wolf (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.harpercollins.com/products/proust-and-the-squid-maryanne-wolf?variant=32122454671394">Proust and the Squid</a>. 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Harper Perennial. pp. 136–143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-093384-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-093384-5"><bdi>978-0-06-093384-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proust+and+the+Squid&rft.pages=136-143&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-06-093384-5&rft.au=Maryanne+Wolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.harpercollins.com%2Fproducts%2Fproust-and-the-squid-maryanne-wolf%3Fvariant%3D32122454671394&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ldonline.org/ld-topics/ieps/comprehension-instruction-what-works">"Comprehension Instruction: What Works, LD Online"</a>. 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Comprehension+Instruction%3A+What+Works%2C+LD+Online&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ldonline.org%2Fld-topics%2Fieps%2Fcomprehension-instruction-what-works&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wolf143-146"><a href="#cite_ref-Wolf143_146-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolf,_MaryanneStoodley,_Catherine_J.2007" class="citation book cs1">Wolf, Maryanne, Stoodley, Catherine J. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf">Proust and the squid: the story and science of the reading brain</a>. New York: Harper. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf/page/139">139–143</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-018639-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-018639-5"><bdi>978-0-06-018639-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/471015779">471015779</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proust+and+the+squid%3A+the+story+and+science+of+the+reading+brain&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=139-143&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F471015779&rft.isbn=978-0-06-018639-5&rft.au=Wolf%2C+Maryanne&rft.au=Stoodley%2C+Catherine+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fproustsquidstory00wolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaryanne_Wolf2008" class="citation book cs1">Maryanne Wolf (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.harpercollins.com/products/proust-and-the-squid-maryanne-wolf?variant=32122454671394">Proust and the Squid</a>. 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The New York Times. 22 May 1996.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=California+Leads+Revival+Of+Teaching+by+Phonics&rft.date=1996-05-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1996%2F05%2F22%2Fus%2Fcalifornia-leads-revival-of-teaching-by-phonics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-453"><a href="#cite_ref-453">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cde.ca.gov/be/st/ss/documents/elacontentstnds.pdf">"English–Language Arts Content Standards for California Public Schools"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=English%E2%80%93Language+Arts+Content+Standards+for+California+Public+Schools&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cde.ca.gov%2Fbe%2Fst%2Fss%2Fdocuments%2Felacontentstnds.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-454"><a href="#cite_ref-454">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rrf.org.uk/2018/07/30/phonics-developments-in-england-from-1998-to-2018-by-jenny-chew/">"Phonics Developments in England from 1998 to 2018 by Jenny Chew, Reading reform foundation UK"</a>. 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Phonics+Developments+in+England+from+1998+to+2018+by+Jenny+Chew%2C+Reading+reform+foundation+UK&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frrf.org.uk%2F2018%2F07%2F30%2Fphonics-developments-in-england-from-1998-to-2018-by-jenny-chew%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-455"><a href="#cite_ref-455">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/175408/DFE-00032-2011.pdf">"The National Strategies 1997–2011, Department for Education, England"</a> (PDF). 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+National+Strategies+1997%E2%80%932011%2C+Department+for+Education%2C+England&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fassets.publishing.service.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fuploads%2Fsystem%2Fuploads%2Fattachment_data%2Ffile%2F175408%2FDFE-00032-2011.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-456"><a href="#cite_ref-456">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRose2006" class="citation web cs1">Rose J (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130321055757/https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf">"Independent review of the teaching of early reading"</a> (PDF). Department for Education and Skills. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2013-03-21. Retrieved 2011-08-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Department+for+Education+and+Skills&rft.atitle=Independent+review+of+the+teaching+of+early+reading&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Rose&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.education.gov.uk%2Fpublications%2FeOrderingDownload%2F0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-457"><a href="#cite_ref-457">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeidenberg,_Mark2017" class="citation book cs1">Seidenberg, Mark (2017). Language at the speed of sight. New York: Basic Books. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5416-1715-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5416-1715-5"><bdi>978-1-5416-1715-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+at+the+speed+of+sight&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-5416-1715-5&rft.au=Seidenberg%2C+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-458"><a href="#cite_ref-458">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoidel1998" class="citation book cs1">Moidel S (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/speedreadingforb00stev">Speed Reading for Business</a>. Hauppauge, NY: Barron's Educational. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/speedreadingforb00stev/page/n28">23</a>–24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7641-0401-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7641-0401-5"><bdi>978-0-7641-0401-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Speed+Reading+for+Business&rft.place=Hauppauge%2C+NY&rft.pages=23-24&rft.pub=Barron%27s+Educational&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7641-0401-5&rft.aulast=Moidel&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspeedreadingforb00stev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-459"><a href="#cite_ref-459">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRayner1995" class="citation book cs1">Rayner K (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/psychologyofread0000rayn_e6n1">The Psychology of Reading</a>. 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Basic Books. pp. 70–84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-08065-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-08065-6"><bdi>978-0-465-08065-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+at+the+Speed+of+Sight%3A+How+We+Read%2C+Why+So+Many+Can%27t%2C+and+What+Can+Be+Done+About+It&rft.pages=70-84&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-465-08065-6&rft.au=Mark+Seidenberg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxTBnAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-461"><a href="#cite_ref-461">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/grammarpunct/proofreading/">"Proofreading"</a>. 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XX. Linking letter recognition to reading speed in central and peripheral vision"</a>. Vision Research. 41 (6): 725–743. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0042-6989%2800%2900295-9">10.1016/S0042-6989(00)00295-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11248262">11248262</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17429516">17429516</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vision+Research&rft.atitle=Psychophysics+of+reading.+XX.+Linking+letter+recognition+to+reading+speed+in+central+and+peripheral+vision&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=725-743&rft.date=2001-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17429516%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11248262&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0042-6989%2800%2900295-9&rft.aulast=Legge&rft.aufirst=GE&rft.au=Mansfield%2C+JS&rft.au=Chung%2C+ST&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252FS0042-6989%252800%252900295-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-466"><a href="#cite_ref-466">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://owll.massey.ac.nz/study-skills/in-depth-reading.php#:~:text=In-depth%20reading%20is%20used,difficult%20sections%20of%20a%20text">"In-depth reading – OWLL – Massey University"</a>. owll.massey.ac.nz. Retrieved 2022-09-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=owll.massey.ac.nz&rft.atitle=In-depth+reading+%E2%80%93+OWLL+%E2%80%93+Massey+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fowll.massey.ac.nz%2Fstudy-skills%2Fin-depth-reading.php%23%3A~%3Atext%3DIn-depth%2520reading%2520is%2520used%2Cdifficult%2520sections%2520of%2520a%2520text&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-467"><a href="#cite_ref-467">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wisc.pb.unizin.org/esl117/chapter/focused-reading-and-note-taking/">"In-Depth Reading"</a>. ESL Program. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison" title="University of Wisconsin–Madison">UW-Madison</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ESL+Program&rft.atitle=In-Depth+Reading&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwisc.pb.unizin.org%2Fesl117%2Fchapter%2Ffocused-reading-and-note-taking%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBainbridge,_JoyceMalicky,_Grace2000" class="citation book cs1">Bainbridge, Joyce, Malicky, Grace (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/constructingmean0000bain_02ed">Constructing meaning: balancing elementary language arts</a>. Toronto: Harcourt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7747-3660-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7747-3660-2"><bdi>978-0-7747-3660-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constructing+meaning%3A+balancing+elementary+language+arts&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=Harcourt&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7747-3660-2&rft.au=Bainbridge%2C+Joyce&rft.au=Malicky%2C+Grace&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconstructingmean0000bain_02ed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBanaiHornickelSkoeNicol2009" class="citation journal cs1">Banai K, Hornickel J, Skoe E, Nicol T, Zecker S, Kraus N (November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2758683">"Reading and subcortical auditory function"</a>. Cerebral Cortex. 19 (11): 2699–2707. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcercor%2Fbhp024">10.1093/cercor/bhp024</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2758683">2758683</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19293398">19293398</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cerebral+Cortex&rft.atitle=Reading+and+subcortical+auditory+function&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=2699-2707&rft.date=2009-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2758683%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19293398&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fcercor%2Fbhp024&rft.aulast=Banai&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Hornickel%2C+J&rft.au=Skoe%2C+E&rft.au=Nicol%2C+T&rft.au=Zecker%2C+S&rft.au=Kraus%2C+N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2758683&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBullingWardGellersenTröster2008" class="citation conference cs1">Bulling A, Ward JA, Gellersen H, Tröster G (2008). 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Cambridge, UK: Polity. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-2375-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-2375-7"><bdi>978-0-7456-2375-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+social+history+of+the+media%3A+from+Gutenberg+to+the+Internet&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Polity&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7456-2375-7&rft.au=Burke%2C+Peter&rft.au=Briggs%2C+Asa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsocialhistoryofm0000brig_k2q8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastlesColtheartWilsonValpied2009" class="citation journal cs1">Castles A, Coltheart M, Wilson K, Valpied J, Wedgwood J (September 2009). 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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 102 (24): 8781–8785. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PNAS..102.8781T">2005PNAS..102.8781T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0503523102">10.1073/pnas.0503523102</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1150863">1150863</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15939871">15939871</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Reading+depends+on+writing%2C+in+Chinese&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=8781-8785&rft.date=2005-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1150863%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15939871&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0503523102&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005PNAS..102.8781T&rft.aulast=Tan&rft.aufirst=LH&rft.au=Spinks%2C+JA&rft.au=Eden%2C+GF&rft.au=Perfetti%2C+CA&rft.au=Siok%2C+WT&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1150863&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurkeltaubFlowersLyonEden2008" class="citation journal cs1">Turkeltaub PE, Flowers DL, Lyon LG, Eden GF (December 2008). "Development of ventral stream representations for single letters". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1145 (1): 13–29. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008NYASA1145...13T">2008NYASA1145...13T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1196%2Fannals.1416.026">10.1196/annals.1416.026</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19076386">19076386</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20801906">20801906</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Development+of+ventral+stream+representations+for+single+letters&rft.volume=1145&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13-29&rft.date=2008-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1196%2Fannals.1416.026&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A20801906%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19076386&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008NYASA1145...13T&rft.aulast=Turkeltaub&rft.aufirst=PE&rft.au=Flowers%2C+DL&rft.au=Lyon%2C+LG&rft.au=Eden%2C+GF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValdoisHabibCohen2008" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Valdois S, Habib M, Cohen L (May 2008). "[The reader brain: natural and cultural story]". Revue Neurologique (in French). 164 (Suppl 3): S77–S82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0035-3787%2808%2973295-8">10.1016/S0035-3787(08)73295-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18675051">18675051</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+Neurologique&rft.atitle=%5BThe+reader+brain%3A+natural+and+cultural+story%5D&rft.volume=164&rft.issue=Suppl+3&rft.pages=S77-S82&rft.date=2008-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0035-3787%2808%2973295-8&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18675051&rft.aulast=Valdois&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Habib%2C+M&rft.au=Cohen%2C+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillingham,_Daniel_T.2017" class="citation book cs1">Willingham, Daniel T. (2017). The reading mind: a cognitive approach to understanding how the mind reads. Jossey-Bass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-30137-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-119-30137-0"><bdi>978-1-119-30137-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+reading+mind%3A+a+cognitive+approach+to+understanding+how+the+mind+reads&rft.pub=Jossey-Bass&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-119-30137-0&rft.au=Willingham%2C+Daniel+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReading" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reading&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Reading at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Reading" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Reading">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Reading" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Reading">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Reading" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Reading">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Reading" class="extiw" title="q:Reading">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Reading" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Reading">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Reading" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Reading">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Reading" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Reading">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.literacyworldwide.org">The International Literacy Association (ILA) official website</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thereadingleague.org">The reading league</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://amplify.com/science-of-reading-the-podcast/">Science of reading – the podcast</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/edu/">Journal of Educational Psychology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/home/rer">Review of Educational Research</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.triplesr.org/index.php">Society for the Scientific Study of Reading</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_phonologies" title="Template:Language phonologies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_phonologies" title="Template talk:Language phonologies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_phonologies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language phonologies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Phonologies_of_the_world&#039;s_languages" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonologies</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_languages" title="Lists of languages">world's languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Phonologies</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_orthographies" title="Template:Language orthographies">Orthographies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_grammars" title="Template:Language grammars">Grammars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_adjectives" title="Template:Language adjectives">Adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_determiners" title="Template:Language determiners">Determiners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_nouns" title="Template:Language nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_prepositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Language prepositions">Prepositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_pronouns" title="Template:Language pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_verbs" title="Template:Language verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">A–E</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_phonology" title="Abkhaz phonology">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acehnese_phonology" title="Acehnese phonology">Acehnese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_phonology" title="Adyghe phonology">Adyghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_phonology" title="Afrikaans phonology">Afrikaans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language_phonology" title="American Sign Language phonology">American Sign Language</a></li> <li>Arabic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">Modern Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic_phonology" title="Egyptian Arabic phonology">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic_phonology" title="Hejazi Arabic phonology">Hejazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_phonology" title="Levantine Arabic phonology">Levantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic#Phonology" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic_phonology" title="Tunisian Arabic phonology">Tunisian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_phonology" title="Avestan phonology">Avestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_phonology" title="Belarusian phonology">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_phonology" title="Bengali phonology">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_phonology" title="Bulgarian phonology">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_phonology" title="Burmese phonology">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_phonology" title="Catalan phonology">Catalan</a></li> <li>Chinese <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese_phonology" title="Standard Chinese phonology">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_phonology" title="Cantonese phonology">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien_phonology" title="Hokkien phonology">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu_phonology" title="Northern Wu phonology">Northern Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese_phonology" title="Old Chinese phonology">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Chinese_phonology" title="Historical Chinese phonology">Historical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukchi_phonology" title="Chukchi phonology">Chukchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_phonology" title="Cornish phonology">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_phonology" title="Czech phonology">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_phonology" title="Danish phonology">Danish</a></li> <li>Dutch <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_phonology" title="Dutch phonology">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orsmaal-Gussenhoven_dialect_phonology" title="Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect phonology">Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_phonology" title="English phonology">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_English_phonology" title="Australian English phonology">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_American_English" title="General American English">General American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_English_phonology" title="New Zealand English phonology">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_English_regional_phonology" title="North American English regional phonology">Regional North American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_South_African_English_phonology" title="White South African English phonology">White South African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Canadian_English" title="Standard Canadian English">Standard Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_phonology" title="Old English phonology">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English_phonology" title="Middle English phonology">Middle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_phonology" title="Esperanto phonology">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_phonology" title="Estonian phonology">Estonian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">F–L</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_phonology" title="Faroese phonology">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_phonology" title="Finnish phonology">Finnish</a></li> <li>French <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_phonology" title="French phonology">Parisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_French_phonology" title="Quebec French phonology">Quebec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_phonology" title="Galician phonology">Galician</a></li> <li>German <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_German_phonology" title="Standard German phonology">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernese_German_phonology" title="Bernese German phonology">Bernese</a></li></ul></li> <li>Greek <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_phonology" title="Modern Greek phonology">Standard Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_phonology" title="Ancient Greek phonology">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek_phonology" title="Koine Greek phonology">Koine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_phonology" title="Greenlandic phonology">Greenlandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_phonology" title="Gujarati phonology">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_phonology" title="Hawaiian phonology">Hawaiian</a></li> <li>Hebrew <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_phonology" title="Modern Hebrew phonology">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew#Phonology" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew#Phonology" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew#Phonology" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_phonology" title="Hindustani phonology">Hindustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_phonology" title="Hungarian phonology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_phonology" title="Icelandic phonology">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrian_phonology" title="Ingrian phonology">Ingrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_phonology" title="Inuit phonology">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_phonology" title="Irish phonology">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_phonology" title="Italian phonology">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_phonology" title="Japanese phonology">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiowa_phonology" title="Kiowa phonology">Kiowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkani_phonology" title="Konkani phonology">Konkani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_phonology" title="Korean phonology">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_phonology" title="Kurdish phonology">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_phonology" title="Kyrgyz phonology">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latgalian_phonology" title="Latgalian phonology">Latgalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_phonology_and_orthography" title="Latin phonology and orthography">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_phonology" title="Latvian phonology">Latvian</a></li> <li>Limburgish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maastrichtian_dialect_phonology" title="Maastrichtian dialect phonology">Maastrichtian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_phonology" title="Lithuanian phonology">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_phonology" title="Luxembourgish phonology">Luxembourgish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">M–S</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phonology" title="Macedonian phonology">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_phonology" title="Malay phonology">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_phonology" title="Maldivian phonology">Maldivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_phonology" title="Māori phonology">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_phonology" title="Marathi phonology">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_phonology" title="Massachusett phonology">Massachusett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medumba_phonology" title="Medumba phonology">Medumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_phonology" title="Navajo phonology">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_phonology" title="Nepali phonology">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_phonology" title="Norwegian phonology">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occitan_phonology" title="Occitan phonology">Occitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_phonology" title="Ojibwe phonology">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon_phonology" title="Old Saxon phonology">Old Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_phonology" title="Oromo phonology">Oromo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottawa_phonology" title="Ottawa phonology">Ottawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_phonology" title="Pashto phonology">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_phonology" title="Persian phonology">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_phonology" title="Polish phonology">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_phonology" title="Portuguese phonology">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Proto-Indo-European</a></li> <li>Ripuarian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_phonology" title="Colognian phonology">Colognian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerkrade_dialect_phonology" title="Kerkrade dialect phonology">Kerkrade dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_phonology" title="Romanian phonology">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_phonology" title="Russian phonology">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_phonology" title="Sardinian phonology">Sardinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Scots" title="Phonological history of Scots">Scots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_phonology_and_orthography" title="Scottish Gaelic phonology and orthography">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_phonology" title="Serbo-Croatian phonology">Serbo-Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_phonology" title="Slovak phonology">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_phonology" title="Slovene phonology">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_phonology" title="Somali phonology">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotho_phonology" title="Sotho phonology">Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_phonology" title="Spanish phonology">Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_dialects_and_varieties" title="Spanish dialects and varieties">Dialects and varieties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_phonology" title="Swedish phonology">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">T–Z</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_phonology" title="Tagalog phonology">Tagalog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_phonology" title="Tamil phonology">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taos_phonology" title="Taos phonology">Taos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_phonology" title="Turkish phonology">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubykh_phonology" title="Ubykh phonology">Ubykh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_phonology" title="Ukrainian phonology">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_phonology" title="Uyghur phonology">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology" title="Vietnamese phonology">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_phonology" title="Welsh phonology">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_phonology" title="West Frisian phonology">West Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_phonology" title="Yiddish phonology">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_phonology" title="Zuni phonology">Zuni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Writing_systems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Writing_systems" title="Template:Writing systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Writing_systems" title="Template talk:Writing systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Writing_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Writing systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Writing_systems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Index_of_language_articles" title="Index of language articles">Index of language articles</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_alphabet" title="History of the alphabet">History of the alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">Graphemes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Script_(Unicode)" title="Script (Unicode)">Scripts in Unicode</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Writing systems</a></li> <li>Languages by writing system / <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_first_written_account" title="List of languages by first written account">by first written account</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_text_corpora" title="Ancient text corpora">Ancient languages corpuses by size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undeciphered_writing_systems" title="Undeciphered writing systems">Undeciphered writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems" title="List of creators of writing systems">Creators of writing systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">Abjads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">Abugidas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Featural_writing_system" title="Featural writing system">Featural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">Ideogrammic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">Logographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numeral_system" title="Numeral system">Numeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonogram_(linguistics)" title="Phonogram (linguistics)">Phonogrammic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-syllabary" title="Semi-syllabary">Semi-syllabaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shorthand" title="Shorthand">Shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">Syllabaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current examples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian syllabics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Writing_systems_of_Africa" title="Writing systems of Africa">In Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_systems_of_Southeast_Asia" title="Writing systems of Southeast Asia">In Southeast Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Books" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Books" title="Template:Books"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Books" title="Template talk:Books"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Books" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Books"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Books" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Book" title="Book">Books</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bookbinding" title="Bookbinding">Binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_cover" title="Book cover">Covers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dust_jacket" title="Dust jacket">dust jackets</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_design" title="Book design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Editing" title="Editing">Editing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_illustration" title="Book illustration">Illustration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">Illuminated manuscripts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">Printing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edition_(book)" title="Edition (book)">edition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_printing" title="History of printing">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incunable" title="Incunable">incunabula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant_book" title="Instant book">instant book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited-edition_book" class="mw-redirect" title="Limited-edition book">limited edition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publishing" title="Publishing">Publishing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advance_copy" title="Advance copy">advance copy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardcover" title="Hardcover">hardcover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paperback" title="Paperback">paperback</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_size" title="Book size">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typesetting" title="Typesetting">Typesetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_(bibliography)" title="Volume (bibliography)">Volume (bibliography)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collection_(publishing)" title="Collection (publishing)">Collection (publishing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_series" title="Book series">Book series</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Consumption</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literary_award" title="Literary award">Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bestseller" title="Bestseller">Bestsellers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_best-selling_books" title="List of best-selling books">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography" title="Bibliography">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliomania" title="Bibliomania">Bibliomania</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tsundoku" title="Tsundoku">tsundoku</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliophilia" title="Bibliophilia">Bibliophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliotherapy" title="Bibliotherapy">Bibliotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bookmark" title="Bookmark">Bookmarks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bookselling" title="Bookselling">Bookselling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blurb" title="Blurb">blurbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_town" title="Book town">book towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_bookselling" title="History of bookselling">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Used_book" title="Used book">used</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_censorship" title="Book censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_discussion_club" title="Book discussion club">Clubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_collecting" title="Book collecting">Collecting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_scanning" title="Book scanning">Digitizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bookworm_(insect)" title="Bookworm (insect)">Bookworm (insect)</a></li> <li>Furniture <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bookcase" title="Bookcase">bookcases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bookend" title="Bookend">bookends</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library" title="Library">Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Print_culture" title="Print culture">Print culture</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reading</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_review" title="Book review">Reviews</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Books_in_Brazil" title="Books in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_in_France" title="Books in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_in_Germany" title="Books in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_in_Italy" title="Books in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Was%C5%8Dbon" title="Wasōbon">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_in_the_Netherlands" title="Books in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_and_publishing_in_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Books and publishing in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_in_Spain" title="Books in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Books in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_in_the_United_States" title="Books in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Genres <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fictional_book" title="Fictional book">fictional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miniature_book" title="Miniature book">miniature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pop-up_book" title="Pop-up book">pop-up</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textbook" title="Textbook">textbook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grimoire" title="Grimoire">Grimoire</a></li> <li>Formats <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audiobook" title="Audiobook">audiobooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebook" title="Ebook">Ebooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folio" title="Folio">Folio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_table_book" title="Coffee table book">Coffee table book</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_banned_books" title="Lists of banned books">Banned books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_burning" title="Book burning">Book burning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_book-burning_incidents" title="List of book-burning incidents">incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_book_burnings" title="Nazi book burnings">Nazi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_curse" title="Book curse">Book curses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_packaging" title="Book packaging">Book packaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_swapping" title="Book swapping">Book swapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_tour" title="Book tour">Book tour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_books,_manuscripts,_documents_and_ephemera" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation and restoration of books, manuscripts, documents and ephemera">Conservation and restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_ears" title="Dog ears">Dog ears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_books" title="History of books">History of books</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">scroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">codex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">Novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_books" title="Outline of books">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preservation_(library_and_archive)" title="Preservation (library and archive)">Preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Philobiblon" title="The Philobiblon">The Philobiblon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Book_Day" title="World Book Day">World Book Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Book_Capital" title="World Book Capital">World Book Capital</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_books" title="Outline of books">Outline</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Books" title="Category:Books">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Books" title="Portal:Books">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Communication_studies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Communication_studies" title="Template:Communication studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Communication_studies" title="Template talk:Communication studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Communication_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Communication studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Communication_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication_studies" title="History of communication studies">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_communication" title="Outline of communication">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Topics and terminology</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biocommunication_(science)" title="Biocommunication (science)">Biocommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation" title="Conversation">Conversation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_communication" title="Intercultural communication">Intercultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_communication" title="Interpersonal communication">Interpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrapersonal_communication" title="Intrapersonal communication">Intrapersonal </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy_of_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning (philosophy of language)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_(communication)" title="Media (communication)">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ecology" title="Media ecology">Media ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-communication" title="Meta-communication">Meta-communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_communication" title="Models of communication">Models of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">New media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_communication" title="Nonverbal communication">Nonverbal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonviolent communication">Nonviolent communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_symbols" title="List of symbols">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_and_conversation_theory" title="Text and conversation theory">Text and conversation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">Writing</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Encoding_communication.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Encoding communication"><img alt="Encoding communication" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/120px-Encoding_communication.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/180px-Encoding_communication.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/240px-Encoding_communication.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="345" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closed-loop_communication" title="Closed-loop communication">Closed-loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_design" title="Communication design">Communication design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_theory" title="Communication theory">Communication theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communicology" title="Communicology">Communicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_communication" title="Crisis communication">Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication" title="Cross-cultural communication">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_communication" title="Development communication">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_communication" title="Environmental communication">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Study_of_global_communication" title="Study of global communication">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_communication" title="International communication">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_communication" title="Mass communication">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_cross-border_communication" title="Mediated cross-border communication">Mediated cross-border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_communication" title="Organizational communication">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_communication" title="Political communication">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_communication" title="Risk communication">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_communication" title="Technical communication">Technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_communication" title="Visual communication">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Castells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_T._Craig" title="Robert T. Craig">Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ellul" title="Jacques Ellul">Ellul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fisher_(professor)" title="Walter Fisher (professor)">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vil%C3%A9m_Flusser" title="Vilém Flusser">Flusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Gerbner" title="George Gerbner">Gerbner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Horkheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Huxley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Innis" title="Harold Innis">Innis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Jakobson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Janis" title="Irving Janis">Janis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Johnson" title="Wendell Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._Lawrence_Kincaid" title="D. Lawrence Kincaid">Kincaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Lippmann" title="Walter Lippmann">Lippman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Morgan" title="Nick Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Ong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vance_Packard" title="Vance Packard">Packard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Postman" title="Neil Postman">Postman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nora_C._Quebral" title="Nora C. Quebral">Quebral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everett_Rogers" title="Everett Rogers">Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilbur_Schramm" title="Wilbur Schramm">Schramm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_W._Tankard_Jr." title="James W. Tankard Jr.">Tankard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Tannen" title="Deborah Tannen">Tannen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Wertheimer" title="Max Wertheimer">Wertheimer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Communication_studies" title="Category:Communication studies">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Dyslexia_and_related_specific_developmental_disorders" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Dyslexia_and_specific_developmental_disorders" title="Template:Dyslexia and specific developmental disorders"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Dyslexia_and_specific_developmental_disorders" title="Template talk:Dyslexia and specific developmental disorders"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dyslexia_and_specific_developmental_disorders" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Dyslexia and specific developmental disorders"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Dyslexia_and_related_specific_developmental_disorders" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">Dyslexia</a> and related <a href="/wiki/Specific_developmental_disorder" title="Specific developmental disorder">specific developmental disorders</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speech_and_language_impairment" title="Speech and language impairment">Speech, language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Communication_disorder" title="Communication disorder">communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_language_disorder" title="Expressive language disorder">Expressive language disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantile_speech" title="Infantile speech">Infantile speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landau%E2%80%93Kleffner_syndrome" title="Landau–Kleffner syndrome">Landau–Kleffner syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_disorder" title="Language disorder">Language disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisp" title="Lisp">Lisp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_receptive-expressive_language_disorder" title="Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder">Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_language_impairment" title="Specific language impairment">Specific language impairment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_and_language_impairment" title="Speech and language impairment">Speech and language impairment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_disorder" title="Speech disorder">Speech disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_error" title="Speech error">Speech error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_sound_disorder" title="Speech sound disorder">Speech sound disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuttering" title="Stuttering">Stuttering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">Tip of the tongue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Learning_disability" title="Learning disability">Learning disability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">Dyslexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyscalculia" title="Dyscalculia">Dyscalculia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgraphia" title="Dysgraphia">Dysgraphia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disorder_of_written_expression" title="Disorder of written expression">Disorder of written expression</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Motor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_coordination_disorder" title="Developmental coordination disorder">Developmental coordination disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_verbal_dyspraxia" title="Developmental verbal dyspraxia">Developmental verbal dyspraxia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sensory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder" title="Auditory processing disorder">Auditory processing disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_processing_disorder" title="Sensory processing disorder">Sensory processing disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dyslexia_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyslexia research">Dyslexia research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_Ally" title="Learning Ally">Learning Ally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_problems_in_childhood_cancer" title="Learning problems in childhood cancer">Learning problems in childhood cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">Literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_dyslexia" title="Management of dyslexia">Management of dyslexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multisensory_integration" title="Multisensory integration">Multisensory integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuropsychology" title="Clinical neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_to_read" class="mw-redirect" title="Learning to read">Reading acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spelling" title="Spelling">Spelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artistic_depictions_of_dyslexia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of artistic depictions of dyslexia">Dyslexia in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_with_dyslexia" title="List of people with dyslexia">People with dyslexia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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