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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(geology)" title="Disturbance (geology)">Disturbance (geology)</a>.</div> <p>A <b>disturbance</b> is any change to an <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">archaeological site</a> due to events which occurred after the site was laid down. Disturbances may be caused by natural events or human activity, and may result in loss of archaeological value. In some cases, it can be difficult to distinguish between features caused by human activity in the period of interest, and features caused by later human activity or natural processes.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 316">: 316 </span></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disturbance_(archaeology)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_archaeological_sites#Agents_of_deterioration" title="Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites">Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites § Agents of deterioration</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_causes">Natural causes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disturbance_(archaeology)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Natural causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pocket_gopher_in_burrow_bw.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Pocket_gopher_in_burrow_bw.png/220px-Pocket_gopher_in_burrow_bw.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Pocket_gopher_in_burrow_bw.png/330px-Pocket_gopher_in_burrow_bw.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Pocket_gopher_in_burrow_bw.png/440px-Pocket_gopher_in_burrow_bw.png 2x" data-file-width="1356" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption>Transport of soil by a gopher</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abattage_cul%C3%A9e_noire_sapin_Moli%C3%A8res_13.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Abattage_cul%C3%A9e_noire_sapin_Moli%C3%A8res_13.jpg/220px-Abattage_cul%C3%A9e_noire_sapin_Moli%C3%A8res_13.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Abattage_cul%C3%A9e_noire_sapin_Moli%C3%A8res_13.jpg/330px-Abattage_cul%C3%A9e_noire_sapin_Moli%C3%A8res_13.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Abattage_cul%C3%A9e_noire_sapin_Moli%C3%A8res_13.jpg/440px-Abattage_cul%C3%A9e_noire_sapin_Moli%C3%A8res_13.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>Soil disturbed by an uprooted tree</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">soil scientist</a> <a href="/wiki/Francis_D._Hole" title="Francis D. Hole">Francis D. Hole</a> identified nine natural processes resulting in soil disturbance, including the movements of animals and plants (known as <a href="/wiki/Bioturbation" title="Bioturbation">bioturbation</a>, and including <a href="/wiki/Burrow" title="Burrow">burrowing</a>, root growth and <a href="/wiki/Tree_uprooting" title="Tree uprooting">treefalls</a>); freezing and thawing; movement under gravity (including <a href="/wiki/Earthflow" title="Earthflow">earthflow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rockslide" title="Rockslide">rockslides</a>); swelling and shrinking of <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clays</a>; the actions of wind and water; the growth and dissolution of <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a> crystals; and movement caused by <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a>. Different sites are subject to different degrees, combinations, and interactions of these processes, and archaeologists working with a given site must be familiar with the processes in play at that site to avoid the risk of misinterpretation.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 318">: 318 </span></sup> </p><p>In some environments, animal activity can completely turn over the surface soil in as few as five to six years.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 320">: 320 </span></sup> The activity of <a href="/wiki/Earthworm" title="Earthworm">earthworms</a>, in particular, can contribute to the burial, and thus preservation, of artifacts dropped on the ground – but it also frequently blurs boundaries between natural and culturally disturbed soils, and can erase vertical stratification used for <a href="/wiki/Relative_dating" title="Relative dating">dating</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 327–238">: 327–238 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Frost_heaving" title="Frost heaving">Frost heaving</a> may cause artifacts to rise or fall, depending on their <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conduction" title="Thermal conduction">heat conductivity</a>, which is a function of material. Freeze-thaw cycles can also disturb soils in several other ways, collectively called <a href="/wiki/Cryoturbation" title="Cryoturbation">cryoturbation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 339">: 339 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Downhill_creep" title="Downhill creep">Downhill creep</a> may sort artifacts by mass or density, as may flooding.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 351">: 351 </span></sup> Drying of clays may cause deep cracks that are subsequently filled with surface material. Wetting and drying of clay may cause rocks to migrate to the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 354–356">: 354–356 </span></sup> The action of winds on soil is especially common in <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">desert</a> environments.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 358">: 358 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disturbance_(archaeology)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anthropogenic <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> is altering, and in some cases accelerating, natural disturbance processes.<sup id="cite_ref-NatGeo_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NatGeo-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At Nunalleq on the southwest coast of <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>, a four-century-old <a href="/wiki/Yup%27ik" title="Yup'ik">Yup'ik</a> site is under threat from the thawing of <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a> and rising <a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">storm surges</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Bering_Sea" title="Bering Sea">Bering Sea</a>. The permafrost had preserved items normally subject to rapid decomposition, including wooden objects and grass-woven baskets and mats. Since excavation at Nunalleq began in 2009, the permafrost layer has receded 1.5 feet (0.46 m), and storm waves have torn away 35 feet (11 m) of the site. Throughout the northern latitudes, the warming climate is revealing previously unknown archaeology, while simultaneously threatening to destroy it. These sites must be prioritized for <a href="/wiki/Rescue_archaeology" title="Rescue archaeology">rescue archaeology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NatGeo_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NatGeo-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_causes">Human causes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disturbance_(archaeology)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Human causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_horse.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Roman_horse.png/220px-Roman_horse.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Roman_horse.png/330px-Roman_horse.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Roman_horse.png/440px-Roman_horse.png 2x" data-file-width="719" data-file-height="915" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> horse uncovered during construction in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Farming, construction, habitation, and resource extraction are leading causes of site disruption.<sup id="cite_ref-NPS-formation_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NPS-formation-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the UK, according to <a href="/wiki/English_Heritage" title="English Heritage">English Heritage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ploughing" class="mw-redirect" title="Ploughing">ploughing</a> with powerful modern tractors had done as much damage in the last six decades of the twentieth century as traditional farming did in the previous six centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-EH_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EH-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recreational activity on a site may damage archaeology in a number of ways. Amateur <a href="/wiki/Metal_detector#Uses" title="Metal detector">metal detectorists</a> may disturb or remove artifacts.<sup id="cite_ref-SAA-law_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SAA-law-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Travel over the ground surface, whether by foot, animal, bicycle, or motorized vehicle, can cause artifacts to be broken, crushed, or moved.<sup id="cite_ref-CA_parks_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CA_parks-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NPS-destruction_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NPS-destruction-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Campfire" title="Campfire">Campfires</a> can contaminate sites and cause smoke damage to <a href="/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">rock art</a>, and the heat of a fire can cause rock to <a href="/wiki/Spall" title="Spall">spall</a>. Visitors may intentionally move artifacts, either to examine and share them with others, or in an attempt to protect them; this results in a loss of <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology#context" title="Glossary of archaeology">archaeological context</a> which could provide insight into when, where, and how items were used.<sup id="cite_ref-CA_parks_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CA_parks-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KV9_graffiti_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/KV9_graffiti_1.jpg/220px-KV9_graffiti_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/KV9_graffiti_1.jpg/330px-KV9_graffiti_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/KV9_graffiti_1.jpg/440px-KV9_graffiti_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="624" /></a><figcaption>Ancient graffiti in the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Ramses_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramses V">Ramses V</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ramses_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramses VI">VI</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Defaced_Meditating_Yogi_in_Cave,_with_both_Buddha_and_Vishnu_features_3,_Badami_monuments_Karnataka.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Defaced_Meditating_Yogi_in_Cave%2C_with_both_Buddha_and_Vishnu_features_3%2C_Badami_monuments_Karnataka.jpg/220px-Defaced_Meditating_Yogi_in_Cave%2C_with_both_Buddha_and_Vishnu_features_3%2C_Badami_monuments_Karnataka.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Defaced_Meditating_Yogi_in_Cave%2C_with_both_Buddha_and_Vishnu_features_3%2C_Badami_monuments_Karnataka.jpg/330px-Defaced_Meditating_Yogi_in_Cave%2C_with_both_Buddha_and_Vishnu_features_3%2C_Badami_monuments_Karnataka.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Defaced_Meditating_Yogi_in_Cave%2C_with_both_Buddha_and_Vishnu_features_3%2C_Badami_monuments_Karnataka.jpg/440px-Defaced_Meditating_Yogi_in_Cave%2C_with_both_Buddha_and_Vishnu_features_3%2C_Badami_monuments_Karnataka.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Defaced cave sculpture in <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a> may include defacing rock art, <a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a>, or structures; digging; and removing artifacts.<sup id="cite_ref-CA_parks_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CA_parks-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, later civilizations have chosen to modify, deface, or destroy relics of older peoples, particularly when these objects honor political or religious figures that the later society has denounced. At <a href="/wiki/Burial" title="Burial">burial</a> sites, notably including the tombs of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egyptian</a> royals, <a href="/wiki/Grave_robber" class="mw-redirect" title="Grave robber">grave robbers</a> have often removed valuable artifacts and otherwise disturbed sites in the process. </p><p>Improper archaeological practices can also damage artifacts and context.<sup id="cite_ref-NPS-destruction_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NPS-destruction-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In many cases, disturbance created by later human activity on a site will have its own archaeological value. Some sites have been used, abandoned, and re-used many times, often for different purposes, with <a href="/wiki/Horizon_(archaeology)" title="Horizon (archaeology)">layers</a> from more recent periods of use sometimes cutting through or obscuring those of older periods. Building materials may be scavenged and reused as well.<sup id="cite_ref-NPS-formation_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NPS-formation-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mitigation">Mitigation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disturbance_(archaeology)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mitigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Archaeology#Protection" title="Archaeology">Archaeology § Protection</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage_management#Mitigation" title="Cultural heritage management">Cultural heritage management § Mitigation</a></div> <p>Recognized archaeological sites are generally legally protected against human disruption. In the US, removal of artifacts from federal and state lands without a permit is a crime, regardless of whether the artifacts are dug up or found on the surface. Collecting on private land requires written permission of the landowner, and may be subject to additional state and federal laws governing <a href="/wiki/Historic_preservation" title="Historic preservation">historic preservation</a>. Disturbing <a href="/wiki/Cadaver" title="Cadaver">human remains</a>, including ancient <a href="/wiki/Human_skeleton" title="Human skeleton">skeletal remains</a>, is a crime, as is the possession or disposal of remains that were retrieved illegally.<sup id="cite_ref-SAA-law_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SAA-law-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sites may also be <a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_immovable_cultural_property" title="Conservation and restoration of immovable cultural property">physically protected</a> from natural and human disruption. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disturbance_(archaeology)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Wood-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWoodJohnson1978" class="citation journal cs1">Wood, W. Raymond; Johnson, Donald Lee (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20170136">"A Survey of Disturbance Processes in Archaeological Site Formation"</a>. <i>Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory</i>. <b>1</b>: 315–381.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Archaeological+Method+and+Theory&rft.atitle=A+Survey+of+Disturbance+Processes+in+Archaeological+Site+Formation&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=315-381&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=W.+Raymond&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Donald+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20170136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisturbance+%28archaeology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NatGeo-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NatGeo_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NatGeo_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2017" class="citation news cs1">Williams, A.R. (April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414230523/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/artifact-melt-alaska-archaeology-climate-change">"Alaska's Thaw Reveals—and Threatens—a Culture's Artifacts"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Geographic" title="National Geographic">National Geographic</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/04/artifact-melt-alaska-archaeology-climate-change/">the original</a> on April 14, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Alaska%E2%80%99s+Thaw+Reveals%E2%80%94and+Threatens%E2%80%94a+Culture%E2%80%99s+Artifacts&rft.date=2017-04&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=A.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fmagazine%2F2017%2F04%2Fartifact-melt-alaska-archaeology-climate-change%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisturbance+%28archaeology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NPS-formation-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NPS-formation_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NPS-formation_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/archeology/afori/wharre_und.htm">"How does all that stuff get underground?"</a>. <i>Archeology for Interpreters</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Archeology+for+Interpreters&rft.atitle=How+does+all+that+stuff+get+underground%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Farcheology%2Fafori%2Fwharre_und.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisturbance+%28archaeology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EH-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EH_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050311132019/http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/upload/pdf/030725_RippingUpHistory.pdf">"Ripping up History: Arcaheology Under the Plough"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/English_Heritage" title="English Heritage">English Heritage</a>. July 2003. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/upload/pdf/030725_RippingUpHistory.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on March 11, 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ripping+up+History%3A+Arcaheology+Under+the+Plough&rft.pub=English+Heritage&rft.date=2003-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.english-heritage.org.uk%2Fupload%2Fpdf%2F030725_RippingUpHistory.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisturbance+%28archaeology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SAA-law-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SAA-law_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SAA-law_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.saa.org/about-archaeology/archaeology-law-ethics">"Archaeology Law & Ethics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Archaeology" title="Society for American Archaeology">Society for American Archaeology</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archaeology+Law+%26+Ethics&rft.pub=Society+for+American+Archaeology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.saa.org%2Fabout-archaeology%2Farchaeology-law-ethics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisturbance+%28archaeology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CA_parks-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CA_parks_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CA_parks_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CA_parks_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=24533">"Impacts to Archaeological Sites"</a>. California Department of Parks and Recreation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Impacts+to+Archaeological+Sites&rft.pub=California+Department+of+Parks+and+Recreation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.parks.ca.gov%2F%3Fpage_id%3D24533&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisturbance+%28archaeology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NPS-destruction-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NPS-destruction_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NPS-destruction_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/archeology/afori/wharre_dam.htm">"What can damage archeological resources?"</a>. <i>Archeology for Interpreters</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Archaeology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Archaeology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Archaeology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_archaeology" title="History of archaeology">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">Archaeological sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiquarian" title="Antiquarian">Antiquarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Johann Joachim Winckelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_Richard_Hoare,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir Richard Hoare, 2nd Baronet">Richard Hoare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Schliemann" title="Heinrich Schliemann">Heinrich Schliemann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Evans" title="Arthur Evans">Arthur Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lloyd_Stephens" title="John Lloyd Stephens">John Lloyd Stephens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Holmes" title="William Henry Holmes">William Henry Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_Pitt_Rivers" title="Augustus Pitt Rivers">Augustus Pitt Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flinders_Petrie" title="Flinders Petrie">Flinders Petrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Wheeler" title="Mortimer Wheeler">Mortimer Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Garrod" title="Dorothy Garrod">Dorothy Garrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Uhle" title="Max Uhle">Max Uhle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_V._Kidder" title="Alfred V. Kidder">Alfred V. Kidder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Method and theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_theory" title="Archaeological theory">Archaeological theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Philosophy of archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_diving" title="Archaeological diving">Archaeological diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_ethics" title="Archaeological ethics">Archaeological ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_archaeological_sites" title="Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites">Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(archaeology)" title="Survey (archaeology)">Survey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_survey_(archaeology)" title="Geophysical survey (archaeology)">geophysical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_survey" title="Electrical resistance survey">electrical resistance survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sondage" title="Sondage">Sondage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnt_layer" title="Burnt layer">Burnt layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_excavation" title="Archaeological excavation">Excavation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">Lithic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-excavation_analysis" title="Post-excavation analysis">Post-excavation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subfields_of_archaeology" title="Subfields of archaeology">Sub-disciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chronological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_archaeology" title="Prehistoric archaeology">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">Protohistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_archaeology" title="Biblical archaeology">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_archaeology" title="Classical archaeology">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_archaeology" title="Medieval archaeology">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-medieval_archaeology" title="Post-medieval archaeology">Post-Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_archaeology" title="Historical archaeology">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_archaeology" title="Contemporary archaeology">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_archaeology" title="African archaeology">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_the_Americas" title="Archaeology of the Americas">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeology_in_Asia" title="Category:Archaeology in Asia">Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian archaeology">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_in_Oceania" title="Archaeology in Oceania">Oceanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Eastern_archaeology" title="Near Eastern archaeology">Near Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubiology" title="Nubiology">Nubian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methodological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">Archaeogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_bioarchaeology" title="Medieval bioarchaeology">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Eastern_bioarchaeology" title="Near Eastern bioarchaeology">Near Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopathology" title="Paleopathology">Paleopathology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calceology" title="Calceology">Calceology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_archaeology" title="Digital archaeology">Digital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeogaming" title="Archaeogaming">Archaeogaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_archaeology" title="Computational archaeology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_archaeology" title="Virtual archaeology">Virtual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_archaeology" title="Environmental archaeology">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geoarchaeology" title="Geoarchaeology">Geoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">Paleoethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Thematic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_science" title="Archaeological science">Archaeometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlefield_archaeology" title="Battlefield archaeology">Battlefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_archaeology" title="Conflict archaeology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funerary_archaeology" title="Funerary archaeology">Funerary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_archaeology" title="Gender archaeology">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_archaeology" title="Indigenous archaeology">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_archaeology" title="Industrial archaeology">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_archaeology" title="Landscape archaeology">Landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortuary_archaeology" title="Mortuary archaeology">Mortuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_archaeology" title="Music archaeology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_archaeology" title="Nazi archaeology">Nazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(archaeology)" title="Phenomenology (archaeology)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_archaeology" title="Queer archaeology">Queer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_archaeology" title="Transgender archaeology">Transgender</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Sites <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_by_country" title="List of archaeological sites by country">by country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods" title="List of archaeological periods">Periods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeologists" title="List of archaeologists">Archaeologists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptologists" title="List of Egyptologists">Egyptologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyriologists" title="List of Assyriologists">Assyriologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittitology" title="Hittitology">Hittitologists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeology_journals" title="List of archaeology journals">Journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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