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id="toc-20th_and_21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_and_21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>20th and 21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_and_21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Modern applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paleobiogeography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleobiogeography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Paleobiogeography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleobiogeography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concepts_and_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concepts_and_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Concepts and fields</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Concepts_and_fields-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Concepts and fields subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Concepts_and_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Comparative_biogeography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparative_biogeography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Comparative biogeography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparative_biogeography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biogeographic_regionalisations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biogeographic_regionalisations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Biogeographic regionalisations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biogeographic_regionalisations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Biogeography</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 87 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-87" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">87 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografie" title="Biogeografie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Biogeografie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="جغرافيا حيوية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جغرافيا حيوية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioco%C4%9Frafiya" title="Biocoğrafiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Biocoğrafiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="بیوجوغرافیا – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بیوجوغرافیا" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2" title="জীবভূগোল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জীবভূগোল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seng-bu%CC%8Dt_t%C4%93-l%C3%AD-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Seng-bu̍t tē-lí-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Seng-bu̍t tē-lí-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биогеография – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Биогеография" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Біягеаграфія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Біягеаграфія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Біягеаграфія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Біягеаграфія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="जीवभूगोल – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="जीवभूगोल" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioheograpiya" title="Bioheograpiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Bioheograpiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биогеография – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Биогеография" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografija" title="Biogeografija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Biogeografija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografia" title="Biogeografia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Biogeografia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Биогеографи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Биогеографи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografie" title="Biogeografie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Biogeografie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioddaearyddiaeth" title="Bioddaearyddiaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Bioddaearyddiaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografi" title="Biogeografi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Biogeografi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeographie" title="Biogeographie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Biogeographie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeograafia" title="Biogeograafia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Biogeograafia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B5%CF%89%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Βιογεωγραφία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βιογεωγραφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeograf%C3%ADa" title="Biogeografía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Biogeografía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografio" title="Biogeografio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Biogeografio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografia" title="Biogeografia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Biogeografia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="جغرافیای زیستی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جغرافیای زیستی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biog%C3%A9ographie" title="Biogéographie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Biogéographie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bithgheografa%C3%ADocht" title="Bithgheografaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Bithgheografaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioxeograf%C3%ADa" title="Bioxeografía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Bioxeografía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC%EC%A7%80%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="생물지리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="생물지리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%AD%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Կենսաաշխարհագրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կենսաաշխարհագրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="जैव भूगोल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जैव भूगोल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografija" title="Biogeografija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Biogeografija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografio" title="Biogeografio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Biogeografio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografi" title="Biogeografi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Biogeografi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADflandafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Líflandafræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Líflandafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografia" title="Biogeografia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Biogeografia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%92%D7%90%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94" title="ביוגאוגרפיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ביוגאוגרפיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბიოგეოგრაფია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბიოგეოგრაფია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биогеография – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Биогеография" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биогеография – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Биогеография" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeographia" title="Biogeographia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Biogeographia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio%C4%A3eogr%C4%81fija" title="Bioģeogrāfija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Bioģeogrāfija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografija" title="Biogeografija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Biogeografija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografie" title="Biogeografie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Biogeografie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeogr%C3%A1fia" title="Biogeográfia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Biogeográfia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Биогеографија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Биогеографија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ജൈവഭൂമിശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജൈവഭൂമിശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბიოგეოგრაფია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბიოგეოგრაფია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografi" title="Biogeografi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Biogeografi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%95ng-%C5%ADk_D%C3%AA-l%C4%AB-h%C5%8Fk" title="Sĕng-ŭk Dê-lī-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Sĕng-ŭk Dê-lī-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografie" title="Biogeografie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Biogeografie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="生物地理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="生物地理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Биогеографи – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Биогеографи" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografi" title="Biogeografi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Biogeografi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografi" title="Biogeografi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Biogeografi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografia" title="Biogeografia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Biogeografia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografiya" title="Biogeografiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Biogeografiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D9%88%D9%86%DA%81%D9%85%DA%A9%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="ژونځمکپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ژونځمکپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografie" title="Biogeografie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Biogeografie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografia" title="Biogeografia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Biogeografia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografia" title="Biogeografia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Biogeografia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografie" title="Biogeografie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Biogeografie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawsay_allpa_saywachi" title="Kawsay allpa saywachi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Kawsay allpa saywachi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биогеография – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Биогеография" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografie" title="Biogeografie – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Biogeografie" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogjeografia" title="Biogjeografia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Biogjeografia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%9B%E0%B7%80_%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%96%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%BD_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="ජෛව භූගෝල විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජෛව භූගෝල විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Biogeography" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografia" title="Biogeografia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Biogeografia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografija" title="Biogeografija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Biogeografija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%86%D8%AC%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="بایۆجوگرافیا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بایۆجوگرافیا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Биогеографија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Биогеографија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografija" title="Biogeografija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Biogeografija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli%C3%B6maantiede" title="Eliömaantiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Eliömaantiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeografi" title="Biogeografi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Biogeografi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="உயிர்ப்புவியியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உயிர்ப்புவியியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ชีวภูมิศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ชีวภูมิศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D2%B7%D1%83%D2%93%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биоҷуғрофия – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Биоҷуғрофия" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyoco%C4%9Frafya" title="Biyocoğrafya – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Biyocoğrafya" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Біогеографія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Біогеографія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%DB%81" title="حیاتیاتی جغرافیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="حیاتیاتی جغرافیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%8Ba_l%C3%BD_sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Địa lý sinh học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Địa lý sinh học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyoheyograpiya" title="Biyoheyograpiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Biyoheyograpiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="生物地理学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="生物地理学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="生物地理學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="生物地理學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyoco%C4%9Frafya" title="Biyocoğrafya – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Biyocoğrafya" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg/360px-Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1748" data-file-height="1319" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_finches" title="Darwin's finches">Darwin's finches</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Gould" title="John Gould">John Gould</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.55em; background-color: transparent;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Main</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_evolutionary_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of evolutionary biology">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Processes and outcomes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Co-operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coextinction" title="Coextinction">Coextinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Contingency (evolutionary biology)">Contingency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Evolutionary taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">History of evolutionary theory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Overview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Before Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">Origin of Species</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">Before synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evo-devo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_research_in_evolutionary_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Current research in evolutionary biology">Current research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_speciation" title="History of speciation">History of speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_paleontology" title="Timeline of paleontology">timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Fields and applications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applications_of_evolution" title="Applications of evolution">Applications of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Evolutionary aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_computation" title="Evolutionary computation">Evolutionary computation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_game_theory" title="Evolutionary game theory">Evolutionary game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Evolutionary linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_physiology" title="Evolutionary physiology">Evolutionary physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_evolution" title="Experimental evolution">Experimental evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_genetics" title="Invasion genetics">Invasion genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_biogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Island biogeography">Island biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Selective breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_experiments_of_speciation" title="Laboratory experiments of speciation">Speciation experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Darwinism" title="Universal Darwinism">Universal Darwinism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Social implications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_as_fact_and_theory" title="Evolution as fact and theory">Evolution as fact and theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory" title="Social effects of evolutionary theory">Social effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Creation–evolution controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" title="Objections to evolution">Objections to evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Level_of_support_for_evolution" title="Level of support for evolution">Level of support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature-nurture controversy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/16px-Tree_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/24px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/32px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="915" data-file-height="760" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_biology" title="Category:Evolutionary biology">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_biology" title="Template:Evolutionary biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_biology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Biogeography</b> is the study of the <a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">distribution</a> of <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> in <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geographic space</a> and through <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">geological time</a>. Organisms and biological <a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">communities</a> often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elevation" title="Elevation">elevation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">isolation</a> and habitat <a href="/wiki/Species-area_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="Species-area curve">area</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown_University_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown_University-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a> is the branch of biogeography that studies the distribution of plants. <a href="/wiki/Zoogeography" title="Zoogeography">Zoogeography</a> is the branch that studies distribution of animals. Mycogeography is the branch that studies distribution of fungi, such as <a href="/wiki/Mushrooms" class="mw-redirect" title="Mushrooms">mushrooms</a>. </p><p>Knowledge of spatial variation in the numbers and types of organisms is as vital to us today as it was to our early human <a href="/wiki/Ancestors" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestors">ancestors</a>, as we adapt to heterogeneous but geographically predictable <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environments</a>. Biogeography is an integrative field of inquiry that unites concepts and information from <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaeontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontology">palaeontology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">climatology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dansereau_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dansereau-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cox_et_al_2016_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox_et_al_2016-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern biogeographic research combines information and ideas from many fields, from the physiological and ecological constraints on organismal <a href="/wiki/Biological_dispersal" title="Biological dispersal">dispersal</a> to <a href="/wiki/Geological" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological">geological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climatological" class="mw-redirect" title="Climatological">climatological</a> phenomena operating at global spatial scales and <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> time frames. </p><p>The short-term interactions within a habitat and species of organisms describe the ecological application of biogeography. Historical biogeography describes the long-term, evolutionary periods of time for broader classifications of organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Cox_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early scientists, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a>, contributed to the development of biogeography as a science. </p><p>The scientific theory of biogeography grows out of the work of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> (1769–1859),<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Jose_de_Caldas" class="mw-redirect" title="Francisco Jose de Caldas">Francisco Jose de Caldas</a> (1768–1816),<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hewett_Cottrell_Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="Hewett Cottrell Watson">Hewett Cottrell Watson</a> (1804–1881),<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Candolle" class="mw-redirect" title="Alphonse de Candolle">Alphonse de Candolle</a> (1806–1893),<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> (1823–1913),<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Philip_Lutley_Sclater" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Lutley Sclater">Philip Lutley Sclater</a> (1829–1913) and other biologists and explorers.<sup id="cite_ref-Browne_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browne-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Introduction">Introduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biogeography&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Introduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The patterns of species distribution across geographical areas can usually be explained through a combination of historical factors such as: <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">continental drift</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Glaciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaciation">glaciation</a>. Through observing the geographic distribution of species, we can see associated variations in <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a>, river routes, habitat, and <a href="/wiki/River_capture" class="mw-redirect" title="River capture">river capture</a>. Additionally, this science considers the geographic constraints of <a href="/wiki/Landmass" title="Landmass">landmass</a> areas and isolation, as well as the available ecosystem energy supplies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Over periods of <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecological</a> changes, biogeography includes the study of plant and animal species in: their past and/or present living <i><a href="/wiki/Refugium_(population_biology)" title="Refugium (population biology)">refugium</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a>; their interim living sites; and/or their survival locales.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As writer David Quammen put it, "...biogeography does more than ask <i>Which species?</i> and <i>Where</i>. It also asks <i>Why?</i> and, what is sometimes more crucial, <i>Why not?</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern biogeography often employs the use of <a href="/wiki/Geographic_Information_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic Information Systems">Geographic Information Systems</a> (GIS), to understand the factors affecting organism distribution, and to predict future trends in organism distribution.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often mathematical models and GIS are employed to solve ecological problems that have a spatial aspect to them.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biogeography is most keenly observed on the world's <a href="/wiki/Island" title="Island">islands</a>. These habitats are often much more manageable areas of study because they are more condensed than larger ecosystems on the mainland.<sup id="cite_ref-Mac_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mac-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Islands are also ideal locations because they allow scientists to look at habitats that new <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a> have only recently colonized and can observe how they disperse throughout the island and change it. They can then apply their understanding to similar but more complex mainland habitats. Islands are very diverse in their <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biomes</a>, ranging from the tropical to arctic climates. This diversity in habitat allows for a wide range of species study in different parts of the world. </p><p>One scientist who recognized the importance of these geographic locations was <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>, who remarked in his journal "The Zoology of Archipelagoes will be well worth examination".<sup id="cite_ref-Mac_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mac-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two chapters in <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i> were devoted to geographical distribution. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biogeography&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="18th_century">18th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biogeography&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 18th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first discoveries that contributed to the development of biogeography as a science began in the mid-18th century, as Europeans explored the world and described the biodiversity of life. During the 18th century most views on the world were shaped around religion and for many natural theologists, the bible. <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a>, in the mid-18th century, improved our classifications of organisms through the exploration of undiscovered territories by his students and disciples. When he noticed that species were not as perpetual as he believed, he developed the Mountain Explanation to explain the distribution of biodiversity; when Noah's ark landed on Mount Ararat and the waters receded, the animals dispersed throughout different elevations on the mountain. This showed different species in different climates proving species were not constant.<sup id="cite_ref-Cox_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Linnaeus' findings set a basis for ecological biogeography. Through his strong beliefs in Christianity, he was inspired to classify the living world, which then gave way to additional accounts of secular views on geographical distribution.<sup id="cite_ref-Browne_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browne-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued that the structure of an animal was very closely related to its physical surroundings. This was important to a George Louis Buffon's rival theory of distribution.<sup id="cite_ref-Browne_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browne-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Closely after Linnaeus, <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon</a> observed shifts in climate and how species spread across the globe as a result. He was the first to see different groups of organisms in different regions of the world. Buffon saw similarities between some regions which led him to believe that at one point continents were connected and then water separated them and caused differences in species. His hypotheses were described in his work, the 36 volume <i><a href="/wiki/Histoire_Naturelle" title="Histoire Naturelle">Histoire Naturelle, générale et particulière</a></i>, in which he argued that varying geographical regions would have different forms of life. This was inspired by his observations comparing the Old and New World, as he determined distinct variations of species from the two regions. Buffon believed there was a single species creation event, and that different regions of the world were homes for varying species, which is an alternate view than that of Linnaeus. Buffon's law eventually became a principle of biogeography by explaining how similar environments were habitats for comparable types of organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Browne_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browne-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Buffon also studied fossils which led him to believe that the Earth was over tens of thousands of years old, and that humans had not lived there long in comparison to the age of the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Cox_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biogeography&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the period of exploration came the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> in Europe, which attempted to explain the patterns of biodiversity observed by Buffon and Linnaeus. At the birth of the 19th century, Alexander von Humboldt, known as the "founder of plant geography",<sup id="cite_ref-Cox_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> developed the concept of physique generale to demonstrate the unity of science and how species fit together. As one of the first to contribute empirical data to the science of biogeography through his travel as an explorer, he observed differences in climate and vegetation. The Earth was divided into regions which he defined as tropical, temperate, and arctic and within these regions there were similar forms of vegetation.<sup id="cite_ref-Cox_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This ultimately enabled him to create the isotherm, which allowed scientists to see patterns of life within different climates.<sup id="cite_ref-Cox_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He contributed his observations to findings of botanical geography by previous scientists, and sketched this description of both the biotic and abiotic features of the Earth in his book, <i><a href="/wiki/Cosmos_(Humboldt)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmos (Humboldt)">Cosmos</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Browne_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browne-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Augustin_de_Candolle" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustin de Candolle">Augustin de Candolle</a> contributed to the field of biogeography as he observed species competition and the several differences that influenced the discovery of the diversity of life. He was a Swiss botanist and created the first Laws of Botanical Nomenclature in his work, Prodromus.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicolson_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicolson-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He discussed plant distribution and his theories eventually had a great impact on <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>, who was inspired to consider species adaptations and evolution after learning about botanical geography. De Candolle was the first to describe the differences between the small-scale and large-scale distribution patterns of organisms around the globe.<sup id="cite_ref-Browne_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browne-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several additional scientists contributed new theories to further develop the concept of biogeography. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a> developed the Theory of <a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a> after studying fossils. This theory explained how the world was not created by one sole catastrophic event, but instead from numerous creation events and locations.<sup id="cite_ref-Lyell_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lyell-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Uniformitarianism also introduced the idea that the Earth was actually significantly older than was previously accepted. Using this knowledge, Lyell concluded that it was possible for species to go extinct.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since he noted that Earth's climate changes, he realized that species distribution must also change accordingly. Lyell argued that climate changes complemented vegetation changes, thus connecting the environmental surroundings to varying species. This largely influenced Charles Darwin in his development of the theory of evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Browne_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browne-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> was a natural theologist who studied around the world, and most importantly in the <a href="/wiki/Galapagos_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Galapagos Islands">Galapagos Islands</a>. Darwin introduced the idea of natural selection, as he theorized against previously accepted ideas that species were static or unchanging. His contributions to biogeography and the theory of evolution were different from those of other explorers of his time, because he developed a mechanism to describe the ways that species changed. His influential ideas include the development of theories regarding the struggle for existence and natural selection. Darwin's theories started a biological segment to biogeography and empirical studies, which enabled future scientists to develop ideas about the geographical distribution of organisms around the globe.<sup id="cite_ref-Browne_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browne-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> studied the distribution of flora and fauna in the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Basin">Amazon Basin</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Archipelago" title="Malay Archipelago">Malay Archipelago</a> in the mid-19th century. His research was essential to the further development of biogeography, and he was later nicknamed the "father of Biogeography". Wallace conducted fieldwork researching the habits, breeding and migration tendencies, and feeding behavior of thousands of species. He studied butterfly and bird distributions in comparison to the presence or absence of geographical barriers. His observations led him to conclude that the number of organisms present in a community was dependent on the amount of food resources in the particular habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-Browne_10-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browne-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wallace believed species were dynamic by responding to biotic and abiotic factors. He and Philip Sclater saw biogeography as a source of support for the theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> as they used Darwin's conclusion to explain how biogeography was similar to a record of species inheritance.<sup id="cite_ref-Browne_10-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browne-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Key findings, such as the sharp difference in fauna either side of the <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Line" title="Wallace Line">Wallace Line</a>, and the sharp difference that existed between North and <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> prior to their relatively recent <a href="/wiki/Great_American_Interchange" title="Great American Interchange">faunal interchange</a>, can only be understood in this light. Otherwise, the field of biogeography would be seen as a purely descriptive one.<sup id="cite_ref-Cox_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_and_21st_century">20th and 21st century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biogeography&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 20th and 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snider-Pellegrini_Wegener_fossil_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Snider-Pellegrini_Wegener_fossil_map.svg/300px-Snider-Pellegrini_Wegener_fossil_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Snider-Pellegrini_Wegener_fossil_map.svg/450px-Snider-Pellegrini_Wegener_fossil_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Snider-Pellegrini_Wegener_fossil_map.svg/600px-Snider-Pellegrini_Wegener_fossil_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="446" /></a><figcaption>Schematic distribution of fossils on Pangea according to Wegener</figcaption></figure> <p>Moving on to the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wegener" title="Alfred Wegener">Alfred Wegener</a> introduced the Theory of <a href="/wiki/Continental_Drift" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental Drift">Continental Drift</a> in 1912, though it was not widely accepted until the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-Cox_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory was revolutionary because it changed the way that everyone thought about species and their distribution around the globe. The theory explained how continents were formerly joined in one large landmass, <a href="/wiki/Pangea" class="mw-redirect" title="Pangea">Pangea</a>, and slowly drifted apart due to the movement of the plates below Earth's surface. The evidence for this theory is in the geological similarities between varying locations around the globe, the geographic distribution of some fossils (including the <a href="/wiki/Mesosaur" title="Mesosaur">mesosaurs</a>) on various continents, and the jigsaw puzzle shape of the landmasses on Earth. Though Wegener did not know the mechanism of this concept of Continental Drift, this contribution to the study of biogeography was significant in the way that it shed light on the importance of environmental and geographic similarities or differences as a result of climate and other pressures on the planet. Importantly, late in his career Wegener recognised that testing his theory required measurement of continental movement rather than inference from fossils species distributions.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1958 <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Schultz_Martin" title="Paul Schultz Martin">Paul S. Martin</a> published <i>A Biogeography of Reptiles and Amphibians in the Gómez Farias Region, Tamaulipas, Mexico</i>, which has been described as "ground-breaking"<sup id="cite_ref-Steadman_(2011)_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steadman_(2011)-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 35 p.">: 35 p. </span></sup> and "a classic treatise in historical biogeography".<sup id="cite_ref-Adler_(2012)_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adler_(2012)-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 311 p.">: 311 p. </span></sup> Martin applied several disciplines including <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">climatology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> dispersal routes to examine the herpetofauna of a relatively small and largely undisturbed area, but ecologically complex, situated on the threshold of <a href="/wiki/Temperate_climate" title="Temperate climate">temperate</a> – <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropical</a> (nearctic and neotropical) regions, including semiarid lowlands at 70 meters elevation and the northernmost <a href="/wiki/Cloud_forest" title="Cloud forest">cloud forest</a> in the western hemisphere at over 2200 meters.<sup id="cite_ref-Steadman_(2011)_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steadman_(2011)-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Adler_(2012)_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adler_(2012)-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Martin_(1958)_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin_(1958)-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plos_wilson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Plos_wilson.jpg/220px-Plos_wilson.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Plos_wilson.jpg/330px-Plos_wilson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Plos_wilson.jpg/440px-Plos_wilson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1240" data-file-height="1054" /></a><figcaption>Biologist <a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">Edward O. Wilson</a>, coauthored <i><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Island_Biogeography" title="The Theory of Island Biogeography">The Theory of Island Biogeography</a></i>, which helped in stimulating much research on this topic in the late 20th and 21st. centuries.</figcaption></figure> <p>The publication of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Island_Biogeography" title="The Theory of Island Biogeography">The Theory of Island Biogeography</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Robert_MacArthur" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert MacArthur">Robert MacArthur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Osborne_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Osborne Wilson">E.O. Wilson</a> in 1967<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> showed that the species richness of an area could be predicted in terms of such factors as habitat area, immigration rate and extinction rate. This added to the long-standing interest in <a href="/wiki/Island_biogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Island biogeography">island biogeography</a>. The application of island biogeography theory to <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">habitat fragments</a> spurred the development of the fields of <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">landscape ecology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Classic biogeography has been expanded by the development of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_systematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular systematics">molecular systematics</a>, creating a new discipline known as <a href="/wiki/Phylogeography" title="Phylogeography">phylogeography</a>. This development allowed scientists to test theories about the origin and dispersal of populations, such as <a href="/wiki/Endemic_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic (ecology)">island endemics</a>. For example, while classic biogeographers were able to speculate about the origins of species in the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands" title="Hawaiian Islands">Hawaiian Islands</a>, phylogeography allows them to test theories of relatedness between these populations and putative source populations on various continents, notably in <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mac_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mac-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biogeography continues as a point of study for many life sciences and geography students worldwide, however it may be under different broader titles within institutions such as ecology or evolutionary biology. </p><p>In recent years, one of the most important and consequential developments in biogeography has been to show how multiple organisms, including mammals like monkeys and reptiles like <a href="/wiki/Squamata" title="Squamata">squamates</a>, overcame barriers such as large oceans that many biogeographers formerly believed were impossible to cross.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See also <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_dispersal" title="Oceanic dispersal">Oceanic dispersal</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_applications">Modern applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biogeography&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Modern applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_biogeography_countries_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Europe_biogeography_countries_en.svg/300px-Europe_biogeography_countries_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Europe_biogeography_countries_en.svg/450px-Europe_biogeography_countries_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Europe_biogeography_countries_en.svg/600px-Europe_biogeography_countries_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3535" data-file-height="2491" /></a><figcaption>Biogeographic regions of Europe</figcaption></figure> <p>Biogeography now incorporates many different fields including but not limited to physical geography, geology, botany and plant biology, zoology, general biology, and modelling. A biogeographer's main focus is on how the environment and humans affect the distribution of species as well as other manifestations of Life such as species or genetic diversity. Biogeography is being applied to biodiversity conservation and planning, projecting global environmental changes on species and biomes, projecting the spread of infectious diseases, invasive species, and for supporting planning for the establishment of crops. Technological evolving and advances have allowed for generating a whole suite of predictor variables for biogeographic analysis, including satellite imaging and processing of the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Watts_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watts-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two main types of satellite imaging that are important within modern biogeography are Global Production Efficiency Model (GLO-PEM) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS). GLO-PEM uses satellite-imaging gives "repetitive, spatially contiguous, and time specific observations of vegetation". These observations are on a global scale.<sup id="cite_ref-Prince_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prince-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> GIS can show certain processes on the earth's surface like whale locations, <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperatures</a>, and bathymetry.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Current scientists also use coral reefs to delve into the history of biogeography through the fossilized reefs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Two global information systems are either dedicated to, or have strong focus on, biogeography (in the form of the spatial location of observations of organisms), namely the <a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">Global Biodiversity Information Facility</a> (GBIF: 2.57 billion species occurrence records reported as at August 2023)<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, for marine species only, the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_Biodiversity_Information_System" title="Ocean Biodiversity Information System">Ocean Biodiversity Information System</a> (OBIS, originally the <i>Ocean Biogeographic Information System</i>: 116 million species occurrence records reported as at August 2023),<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while at a national scale, similar compilations of species occurrence records also exist such as the U.K. <a href="/wiki/National_Biodiversity_Network" title="National Biodiversity Network">National Biodiversity Network</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_of_Living_Australia" title="Atlas of Living Australia">Atlas of Living Australia</a>, and many others. In the case of the oceans, in 2017 Costello <i>et al.</i> analyzed the distribution of 65,000 species of marine animals and plants as then documented in OBIS, and used the results to distinguish 30 distinct marine realms, split between continental-shelf and offshore deep-sea areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Costello_et_al_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Costello_et_al-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since it is self evident that compilations of species occurrence records cannot cover with any completeness, areas that have received either limited or no sampling, a number of methods have been developed to produce arguably more complete "predictive" or "modelled" distributions for species based on their associated environmental or other preferences (such as availability of food or other habitat requirements); this approach is known as either Environmental niche modelling (ENM) or <a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Species distribution modelling</a> (SDM). Depending on the reliability of the source data and the nature of the models employed (including the scales for which data are available), maps generated from such models may then provide better representations of the "real" biogeographic distributions of either individual species, groups of species, or <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> as a whole, however it should also be borne in mind that historic or recent human activities (such as <a href="/wiki/Whaling" title="Whaling">hunting of great whales</a>, or other human-induced exterminations) may have altered present-day species distributions from their potential "full" ecological footprint. Examples of predictive maps produced by niche modelling methods based on either GBIF (terrestrial) or OBIS (marine, plus some freshwater) data are the former <i>Lifemapper</i> project at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Kansas" title="University of Kansas">University of Kansas</a> (now continued as a part of <i>BiotaPhy</i><sup id="cite_ref-BiotaPhy_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BiotaPhy-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and <a href="/wiki/AquaMaps" title="AquaMaps">AquaMaps</a>, which as at 2023 contain modelled distributions for around 200,000 terrestrial, and 33,000 species of <a href="/wiki/Teleost" title="Teleost">teleosts</a>, marine mammals and invertebrates, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-BiotaPhy_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BiotaPhy-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AquaMaps_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AquaMaps-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One advantage of ENM/SDM is that in addition to showing current (or even past) modelled distributions, insertion of changed parameters such as the anticipated effects of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> can also be used to show potential changes in species distributions that may occur in the future based on such scenarios.<sup id="cite_ref-Newbold_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newbold-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Paleobiogeography">Paleobiogeography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biogeography&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Paleobiogeography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur_paleobiogeography" title="Dinosaur paleobiogeography">Dinosaur paleobiogeography</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wegener_fossils-mapped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Wegener_fossils-mapped.png/300px-Wegener_fossils-mapped.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Wegener_fossils-mapped.png/450px-Wegener_fossils-mapped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Wegener_fossils-mapped.png/600px-Wegener_fossils-mapped.png 2x" data-file-width="2742" data-file-height="1628" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of four Permian and Triassic fossil groups used as biogeographic evidence for continental drift, and land bridging</figcaption></figure> <p>Paleobiogeography goes one step further to include <a href="/wiki/Paleogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleogeography">paleogeographic</a> data and considerations of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>. Using molecular analyses and corroborated by <a href="/wiki/Fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossils">fossils</a>, it has been possible to demonstrate that <a href="/wiki/Perching_birds" class="mw-redirect" title="Perching birds">perching birds</a> evolved first in the region of <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> or the adjacent <a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a> (which at that time lay somewhat further north and had a temperate climate). From there, they spread to the other <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwanan</a> continents and Southeast Asia – the part of <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a> then closest to their origin of dispersal – in the late <a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a>, before achieving a global distribution in the early <a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not knowing that at the time of dispersal, the Indian Ocean was much narrower than it is today, and that South America was closer to the Antarctic, one would be hard pressed to explain the presence of many "ancient" lineages of perching birds in Africa, as well as the mainly South American distribution of the <a href="/wiki/Suboscine" class="mw-redirect" title="Suboscine">suboscines</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Paleobiogeography also helps constrain hypotheses on the timing of biogeographic events such as <a href="/wiki/Vicariance" class="mw-redirect" title="Vicariance">vicariance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geodispersal" title="Geodispersal">geodispersal</a>, and provides unique information on the formation of regional biotas. For example, data from species-level phylogenetic and biogeographic studies tell us that the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Basin">Amazonian</a> <a href="/wiki/Teleost" title="Teleost">teleost</a> fauna accumulated in increments over a period of tens of millions of years, principally by means of allopatric speciation, and in an arena extending over most of the area of tropical South America (Albert & Reis 2011). In other words, unlike some of the well-known insular faunas (<a href="/wiki/Galapagos_finches" class="mw-redirect" title="Galapagos finches">Galapagos finches</a>, Hawaiian drosophilid flies, African rift lake <a href="/wiki/Cichlids" class="mw-redirect" title="Cichlids">cichlids</a>), the species-rich Amazonian ichthyofauna is not the result of recent <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">adaptive radiations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lovejoy,_N._R._2010_Pp._405-417_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy,_N._R._2010_Pp._405-417-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For <a href="/wiki/Freshwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater">freshwater</a> organisms, landscapes are divided naturally into discrete <a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">drainage basins</a> by <a href="/wiki/Drainage_divide" title="Drainage divide">watersheds</a>, episodically isolated and reunited by <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosional</a> processes. In regions like the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Basin">Amazon Basin</a> (or more generally Greater Amazonia, the Amazon basin, <a href="/wiki/Orinoco" title="Orinoco">Orinoco</a> basin, and <a href="/wiki/Guianas" class="mw-redirect" title="Guianas">Guianas</a>) with an exceptionally low (flat) topographic relief, the many waterways have had a highly reticulated history over <a href="/wiki/Geological_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological time">geological time</a>. In such a context, <a href="/wiki/Stream_capture" title="Stream capture">stream capture</a> is an important factor affecting the evolution and distribution of freshwater organisms. Stream capture occurs when an upstream portion of one river drainage is diverted to the downstream portion of an adjacent basin. This can happen as a result of <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_uplift" title="Tectonic uplift">tectonic uplift</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a>), natural damming created by a <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslide</a>, or headward or lateral <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> of the watershed between adjacent basins.<sup id="cite_ref-Lovejoy,_N._R._2010_Pp._405-417_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy,_N._R._2010_Pp._405-417-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concepts_and_fields">Concepts and fields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biogeography&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Concepts and fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Biogeography is a synthetic science, related to <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">soil science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">climatology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>. </p><p>Some fundamental concepts in biogeography include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">allopatric speciation</a> – the splitting of a species by evolution of geographically isolated populations</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> – change in genetic composition of a population</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a> – disappearance of a species</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_dispersal" title="Biological dispersal">dispersal</a> – movement of populations away from their point of origin, related to <a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">endemic</a> areas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodispersal" title="Geodispersal">geodispersal</a> – the erosion of barriers to <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/biotic" class="extiw" title="wikt:biotic">biotic</a> dispersal and gene flow, that permit range expansion and the merging of previously isolated <a href="/wiki/Biota_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Biota (ecology)">biotas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Range_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Range (biology)">range</a> and <a href="/wiki/Population_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Population distribution">distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicariance" class="mw-redirect" title="Vicariance">vicariance</a> – the formation of barriers to biotic dispersal and gene flow, that tend to subdivide species and biotas, leading to speciation and extinction; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vicariance_biogeography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vicariance biogeography (page does not exist)">vicariance biogeography</a> is the field that studies these patterns</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparative_biogeography">Comparative biogeography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biogeography&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Comparative biogeography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The study of comparative biogeography can follow two main lines of investigation:<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Systematic_biogeography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Systematic biogeography (page does not exist)">Systematic biogeography</a>, the study of biotic area relationships, their distribution, and hierarchical classification</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolutionary_biogeography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Evolutionary biogeography (page does not exist)">Evolutionary biogeography</a>, the proposal of evolutionary mechanisms responsible for organismal distributions. Possible mechanisms include widespread taxa disrupted by continental break-up or individual episodes of long-distance movement.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biogeographic_regionalisations">Biogeographic regionalisations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biogeography&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Biogeographic regionalisations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are many types of biogeographic units used in biogeographic <a href="/wiki/Regionalisation" title="Regionalisation">regionalisation</a> schemes,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as there are many criteria (<a href="/wiki/Species_composition" class="mw-redirect" title="Species composition">species composition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physiognomy" title="Physiognomy">physiognomy</a>, ecological aspects) and hierarchization schemes: <a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_realm" title="Biogeographic realm">biogeographic realms</a> (ecozones), <a href="/wiki/Bioregion" title="Bioregion">bioregions</a> (<i>sensu stricto</i>), <a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">ecoregions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoogeographical_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoogeographical region">zoogeographical regions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Floristic_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Floristic region">floristic regions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a> types, <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biomes</a>, etc. </p><p>The terms biogeographic unit,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> biogeographic area<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can be used for these categories, regardless of rank. </p><p>In 2008, an <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Area_Nomenclature" title="International Code of Area Nomenclature">International Code of Area Nomenclature</a> was proposed for biogeography.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Parenti_et_al._2009_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parenti_et_al._2009-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It achieved limited success; some studies commented favorably on it, but others were much more critical,<sup id="cite_ref-Zara_et_al._2009_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zara_et_al._2009-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it "has not yet gained a significant following".<sup id="cite_ref-Servais_et_al._2013_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Servais_et_al._2013-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, a set of rules for paleobiogeography<sup id="cite_ref-Cecca_&_Westermann_2003_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cecca_&_Westermann_2003-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has achieved limited success.<sup id="cite_ref-Servais_et_al._2013_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Servais_et_al._2013-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Laurin_2023_advent_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laurin_2023_advent-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2000, Westermann suggested that the difficulties in getting formal nomenclatural rules established in this field might be related to "the curious fact that neither paleo- nor neobiogeographers are organized in any formal groupings or societies, nationally (so far as I know) or internationally — an exception among active disciplines."<sup id="cite_ref-Westermann_2000_order_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Westermann_2000_order-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biogeography&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allen%27s_rule" title="Allen's rule">Allen's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bergmann%27s_rule" title="Bergmann's rule">Bergmann's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_realm" title="Biogeographic realm">Biogeographic realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology" title="Bibliography of biology">Bibliography of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography-based_optimization" title="Biogeography-based optimization">Biogeography-based optimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_of_origin" class="mw-redirect" title="Center of origin">Center of origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concepts_and_Techniques_in_Modern_Geography" title="Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography">Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distance_decay" title="Distance decay">Distance decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_land_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological land classification">Ecological land classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_ecoregions" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine ecoregions">Marine ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Carl_Wilhelm_Weber" title="Max Carl Wilhelm Weber">Max Carl Wilhelm Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miklos_Udvardy" title="Miklos Udvardy">Miklos Udvardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochorion" title="Phytochorion">Phytochorion</a> – <i>Plant region</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sky_island" title="Sky island">Sky island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_and_evolutionary_biogeography_association" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic and evolutionary biogeography association">Systematic and evolutionary biogeography association</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biogeography&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Brown_University-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brown_University_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown University, "Biogeography." Accessed February 24, 2014. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biomed.brown.edu/Courses/BIO48/29.Biogeography.HTML">"Biogeography"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141020041149/http://biomed.brown.edu/Courses/BIO48/29.Biogeography.HTML">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-10-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-04-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Biogeography&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbiomed.brown.edu%2FCourses%2FBIO48%2F29.Biogeography.HTML&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dansereau-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dansereau_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dansereau, Pierre. 1957. Biogeography; an ecological perspective. New York: Ronald Press Co.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cox_et_al_2016-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cox_et_al_2016_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoxMooreLadle2016" class="citation book cs1">Cox, C. Barry; Moore, Peter D.; Ladle, Richard J. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GP5HeCwkV2IC"><i>Biogeography:An Ecological and Evolutionary Approach</i></a>. Chichester, UK: Wiley. p. xi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118968581" title="Special:BookSources/9781118968581"><bdi>9781118968581</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biogeography%3AAn+Ecological+and+Evolutionary+Approach&rft.place=Chichester%2C+UK&rft.pages=xi&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781118968581&rft.aulast=Cox&rft.aufirst=C.+Barry&rft.au=Moore%2C+Peter+D.&rft.au=Ladle%2C+Richard+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGP5HeCwkV2IC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cox-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cox_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cox_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cox_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cox_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cox_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cox_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cox_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cox_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cox, C Barry, and Peter Moore. Biogeography : an ecological and evolutionary approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publications, 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">von Humboldt 1805. <i>Essai sur la geographie des plantes; accompagne d'un tableau physique des régions equinoxiales</i>. Levrault, Paris.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caldas F.J. 1796–1801. "La Nivelacion de las Plantas". Colombia.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Watson H.C. 1847–1859. <i>Cybele Britannica: or British plants and their geographical relations</i>. Longman, London.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">de Candolle, Alphonse 1855. <i>Géographie botanique raisonnée</i> &c. Masson, Paris.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wallace A.R. 1876. <i>The geographical distribution of animals</i>. Macmillan, London.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Browne-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Browne_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Browne_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Browne_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Browne_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Browne_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Browne_10-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Browne_10-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Browne_10-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Browne_10-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Browne_10-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowne1983" class="citation book cs1">Browne, Janet (1983). <i>The secular ark: studies in the history of biogeography</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-02460-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-02460-9"><bdi>978-0-300-02460-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+secular+ark%3A+studies+in+the+history+of+biogeography&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-300-02460-9&rft.aulast=Browne&rft.aufirst=Janet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martiny JBH et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alrlab.pdx.edu/media/HughesBiogeoNature.pdf">Microbial biogeography: putting microorganisms on the map</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100621194350/http://alrlab.pdx.edu/media/HughesBiogeoNature.pdf">Archived</a> 2010-06-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Nature: FEBRUARY 2006 | VOLUME 4</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuammen1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Quammen" title="David Quammen">Quammen, David</a> (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/songofdodoisland00quam/page/17"><i>Song of the Dodo: Island Biogeography in an Age of Extinctions</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons" title="Charles Scribner's Sons">Scribner</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/songofdodoisland00quam/page/17">17</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-82712-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-82712-4"><bdi>978-0-684-82712-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Song+of+the+Dodo%3A+Island+Biogeography+in+an+Age+of+Extinctions&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-684-82712-4&rft.aulast=Quammen&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsongofdodoisland00quam%2Fpage%2F17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cavalcanti, Mauro. (2009). Biogeography and GIS. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitaltaxonomy.infobio.net/?Software:Biogeography_and_GIS">"Digital Taxonomy Infobio"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061015021915/http://digitaltaxonomy.infobio.net/?Software:Biogeography_and_GIS">Archived</a> from the original on 2006-10-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Digital+Taxonomy+Infobio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitaltaxonomy.infobio.net%2F%3FSoftware%3ABiogeography_and_GIS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhittaker1998" class="citation book cs1">Whittaker, R. (1998). <i>Island Biogeography: Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850021-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850021-6"><bdi>978-0-19-850021-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Island+Biogeography%3A+Ecology%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Conservation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-850021-6&rft.aulast=Whittaker&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mac-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">MacArthur R.H.; Wilson E.O. 1967. <i>The theory of island biogeography</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=a10cdkywhVgC&pg=PR7">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220731031641/https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=a10cdkywhVgC&pg=PR7">Archived</a> 2022-07-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicolson-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nicolson_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolson1991" class="citation journal cs1">Nicolson, D.H. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/35570">"A History of Botanical Nomenclature"</a>. <i>Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden</i>. <b>78</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">33–</span>56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2399589">10.2307/2399589</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2399589">2399589</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210812103707/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/35570">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-08-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-06-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+Missouri+Botanical+Garden&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Botanical+Nomenclature&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E33-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2399589&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2399589%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Nicolson&rft.aufirst=D.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fpart%2F35570&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lyell-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lyell_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lyell, Charles. 1830. Principles of geology, being an attempt to explain the former changes of the Earth's surface, by reference to causes now in operation. London: John Murray. Volume 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lomolino, Mark V., and Lawrence R. Heaney. 2004. Frontiers of biogeography: new directions in the geography of nature. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrewick2016" class="citation book cs1">Trewick, Steve (2016). "Plate Tectonics in Biogeography". <i>International Encyclopedia of Geography: People, the Earth, Environment and Technology</i>. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118786352.wbieg0638">10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0638</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118786352" title="Special:BookSources/9781118786352"><bdi>9781118786352</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Plate+Tectonics+in+Biogeography&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+Geography%3A+People%2C+the+Earth%2C+Environment+and+Technology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Ltd&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118786352.wbieg0638&rft.isbn=9781118786352&rft.aulast=Trewick&rft.aufirst=Steve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Steadman_(2011)-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Steadman_(2011)_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steadman_(2011)_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Steadman, David W. 2011. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.esa.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/94/2022/02/Martin_PS.pdf">Professor Paul Schultz Martin 1928–2010</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220809110057/https://www.esa.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/94/2022/02/Martin_PS.pdf">Archived</a> 2022-08-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America. January 2011: 33-46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Adler_(2012)-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Adler_(2012)_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adler_(2012)_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Adler, Kraig. 2012. <i>Contributions to the History of Herpetology, Vol. III</i>. Contributions to Herpetology Vol. 29. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles. 564 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-916984-82-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-916984-82-3">978-0-916984-82-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Martin_(1958)-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Martin_(1958)_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin, Paul S. 1958. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/56345/MP101.pdf?sequence=1">A Biogeography of Reptiles and Amphibians in the Gómez Farias Region, Tamaulipas, Mexico</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230307213128/https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/56345/MP101.pdf?sequence=1">Archived</a> 2023-03-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Miscellaneous Publications, Museum of Zoology University of Michigan, 101: 1-102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This work expanded their 1963 paper on the same topic.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This applies to British and American academics; landscape ecology has a distinct genesis among European academics.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQueiroz,_de2014" class="citation book cs1">Queiroz, de, Alan (2014). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/monkeysvoyagehow0000dequ"><i>The Monkey's Voyage: How Improbable Journeys Shaped the History of Life</i></a></span>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rsd.gsfc.nasa.gov/rsd/RemoteSensing.html">the original</a> on 2014-04-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Remote+Sensing+Data+and+Information&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frsd.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Frsd%2FRemoteSensing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/">"Global Biodiversity Information Facility"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(September 2017)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ebach et al., 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ebach, M.C., Morrone, J.J. Parenti, L.R. & Viloria Á.L. (2008). International Code of Area Nomenclature. <i>Journal of Biogeography</i> 35 (7): 1153–1157,<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2008.01920.x/pdf">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160916022658/http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2008.01920.x/pdf">Archived</a> 2016-09-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parenti_et_al._2009-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Parenti_et_al._2009_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParentiViloriaEbachMorrone2009" class="citation journal cs1">Parenti, Lynne R.; Viloria, Ángel L.; Ebach, Malte C.; Morrone, Juan J. (August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02171.x">"On the International Code of Area Nomenclature (ICAN): a reply to Zaragüeta-Bagils et al"</a>. <i>Journal of Biogeography</i>. <b>36</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">1619–</span>1621. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JBiog..36.1619P">2009JBiog..36.1619P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2699.2009.02171.x">10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02171.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84690263">84690263</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Biogeography&rft.atitle=On+the+International+Code+of+Area+Nomenclature+%28ICAN%29%3A+a+reply+to+Zarag%C3%BCeta-Bagils+et+al.&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1619-%3C%2Fspan%3E1621&rft.date=2009-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A84690263%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-2699.2009.02171.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009JBiog..36.1619P&rft.aulast=Parenti&rft.aufirst=Lynne+R.&rft.au=Viloria%2C+%C3%81ngel+L.&rft.au=Ebach%2C+Malte+C.&rft.au=Morrone%2C+Juan+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-2699.2009.02171.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morrone, J. J. (2015). Biogeographical regionalisation of the world: a reappraisal. <i>Australian Systematic Botany</i> 28: 81–90, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrone2015" class="citation journal cs1">Morrone, Juan J. (2015). "Biogeographical regionalisation of the world: A reappraisal". <i>Australian Systematic Botany</i>. <b>28</b> (3): 81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1071%2FSB14042">10.1071/SB14042</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:83401946">83401946</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+Systematic+Botany&rft.atitle=Biogeographical+regionalisation+of+the+world%3A+A+reappraisal&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=81&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1071%2FSB14042&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A83401946%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Morrone&rft.aufirst=Juan+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zara_et_al._2009-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zara_et_al._2009_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaragüeta-BagilsBourdonUngVignes-Lebbe2009" class="citation journal cs1">Zaragüeta-Bagils, René; Bourdon, Estelle; Ung, Visotheary; Vignes-Lebbe, Régine; Malécot, Valéry (August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2699.2009.02106.x">"On the International Code of Area Nomenclature (ICAN)"</a>. <i>Journal of Biogeography</i>. <b>36</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">1617–</span>1619. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JBiog..36.1617Z">2009JBiog..36.1617Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2699.2009.02106.x">10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02106.x</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Biogeography&rft.atitle=On+the+International+Code+of+Area+Nomenclature+%28ICAN%29&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1617-%3C%2Fspan%3E1619&rft.date=2009-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-2699.2009.02106.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009JBiog..36.1617Z&rft.aulast=Zarag%C3%BCeta-Bagils&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rft.au=Bourdon%2C+Estelle&rft.au=Ung%2C+Visotheary&rft.au=Vignes-Lebbe%2C+R%C3%A9gine&rft.au=Mal%C3%A9cot%2C+Val%C3%A9ry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1365-2699.2009.02106.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Servais_et_al._2013-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Servais_et_al._2013_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Servais_et_al._2013_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFServaisCeccaHarperIsozaki2013" class="citation journal cs1">Servais, Thomas; Cecca, Fabrizio; Harper, David A. T.; Isozaki, Yukio; Mac Niocaill, Conall (January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1144/M38.3">"Chapter 3 Palaeozoic palaeogeographical and palaeobiogeographical nomenclature"</a>. <i>Geological Society, London, Memoirs</i>. <b>38</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">25–</span>33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1144%2Fm38.3">10.1144/m38.3</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54492071">54492071</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geological+Society%2C+London%2C+Memoirs&rft.atitle=Chapter+3+Palaeozoic+palaeogeographical+and+palaeobiogeographical+nomenclature&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.date=2013-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1144%2Fm38.3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54492071%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Servais&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Cecca%2C+Fabrizio&rft.au=Harper%2C+David+A.+T.&rft.au=Isozaki%2C+Yukio&rft.au=Mac+Niocaill%2C+Conall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1144%2FM38.3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cecca_&_Westermann_2003-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cecca_&_Westermann_2003_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCeccaWestermann2003" class="citation journal cs1">Cecca, F.; Westermann, GEG (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.geologyscience.ru/bitstream/handle/123456789/35292/Cecc_03.pdf?sequence=1">"Towards a guide to palaeobiogeographic classification"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology</i>. <b>201</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">179–</span>181. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PPP...201..179C">2003PPP...201..179C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0031-0182%2803%2900557-1">10.1016/S0031-0182(03)00557-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeogeography%2C+Palaeoclimatology%2C+Palaeoecology&rft.atitle=Towards+a+guide+to+palaeobiogeographic+classification&rft.volume=201&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E179-%3C%2Fspan%3E181&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0031-0182%2803%2900557-1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003PPP...201..179C&rft.aulast=Cecca&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Westermann%2C+GEG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.geologyscience.ru%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F123456789%2F35292%2FCecc_03.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Laurin_2023_advent-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Laurin_2023_advent_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurin2023" class="citation book cs1">Laurin, Michel (3 August 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.1201/9781003092827/advent-phylocode-michel-laurin"><i>The Advent of PhyloCode: The Continuing Evolution of Biological Nomenclature</i></a>. CRC Press. pp. xv + 209. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1201%2F9781003092827">10.1201/9781003092827</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-09282-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-003-09282-7"><bdi>978-1-003-09282-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Advent+of+PhyloCode%3A+The+Continuing+Evolution+of+Biological+Nomenclature&rft.pages=xv+%2B+209&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2023-08-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1201%2F9781003092827&rft.isbn=978-1-003-09282-7&rft.aulast=Laurin&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fbooks%2Fmono%2F10.1201%2F9781003092827%2Fadvent-phylocode-michel-laurin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Westermann_2000_order-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Westermann_2000_order_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestermann2000" class="citation journal cs1">Westermann, Gerd E. G (1 May 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-0182(99)00162-5">"Biochore classification and nomenclature in paleobiogeography: an attempt at order"</a>. <i>Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology</i>. <b>158</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>13. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PPP...158....1W">2000PPP...158....1W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0031-0182%2899%2900162-5">10.1016/S0031-0182(99)00162-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-0182">0031-0182</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeogeography%2C+Palaeoclimatology%2C+Palaeoecology&rft.atitle=Biochore+classification+and+nomenclature+in+paleobiogeography%3A+an+attempt+at+order&rft.volume=158&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E13&rft.date=2000-05-01&rft.issn=0031-0182&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0031-0182%2899%2900162-5&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PPP...158....1W&rft.aulast=Westermann&rft.aufirst=Gerd+E.+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%2FS0031-0182%2899%2900162-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biogeography&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Albert, J. S., & R. E. Reis (2011). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520268685">Historical Biogeography of Neotropical Freshwater Fishes</a></i>. University of California Press, Berkeley. 424 pp.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbertCrampton2010" class="citation journal cs1">Albert, J.S.; Crampton, W.G.R. (2010). "The geography and ecology of diversification in Neotropical freshwaters". <i>Nature Education</i>. <b>1</b> (10): 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Education&rft.atitle=The+geography+and+ecology+of+diversification+in+Neotropical+freshwaters&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=3&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Albert&rft.aufirst=J.S.&rft.au=Crampton%2C+W.G.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Cox, C. B. (2001). The biogeographic regions reconsidered. <i>Journal of Biogeography</i>, 28: 511–523, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304203441/http://desiguenza.net/geobotanica/tema09-Cox2001-KingdomsReconsidered.pdf">[4]</a>.</li> <li>Ebach, M.C. (2015). <i>Origins of biogeography. The role of biological classification in early plant and animal geography</i>. Dordrecht: Springer, xiv + 173 pp., <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K7UYCgAAQBAJ">[5]</a>.</li> <li>Lieberman, B. S. (2001). "Paleobiogeography: using fossils to study global change, plate tectonics, and evolution". Kluwer Academic, Plenum Publishing, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fMCsfquuCrYC&pg=PA214&q=paleobiogeography%20using%20fossils%20to%20study">[6]</a>.</li> <li>Lomolino, M. V., & Brown, J. H. (2004). <i>Foundations of biogeography: classic papers with commentaries</i>. University of Chicago Press, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KbkCgsEPv6YC">[7]</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacArthur1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_MacArthur" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert MacArthur">MacArthur, Robert H.</a> (1972). <i>Geographic Ecology</i>. New York: Harper & Row.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geographic+Ecology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=MacArthur&rft.aufirst=Robert+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarthy2009" class="citation book cs1">McCarthy, Dennis (2009). <i>Here be dragons : how the study of animal and plant distributions revolutionized our views of life and Earth</i>. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954246-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954246-8"><bdi>978-0-19-954246-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Here+be+dragons+%3A+how+the+study+of+animal+and+plant+distributions+revolutionized+our+views+of+life+and+Earth&rft.place=Oxford+%26+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954246-8&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiogeography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Millington, A., Blumler, M., & Schickhoff, U. (Eds.). (2011). <i>The SAGE handbook of biogeography.</i> Sage, London, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A2clqrhHUpIC">[8]</a>.</li> <li>Nelson, G.J. (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ib.usp.br/~silvionihei/pdf/Nelson1978_From%20Candolle%20to%20Croizat.pdf">From Candolle to Croizat: Comments on the history of biogeography</a>. <i>Journal of the History of Biology</i>, 11: 269–305.</li> <li>Udvardy, M. D. F. (1975). <i>A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world</i>. IUCN Occasional Paper no. 18. Morges, Switzerland: IUCN. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110811210836/http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/udvardy.pdf">[9]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biogeography&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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style="background:#f0f0f0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biomes" title="Template:Biomes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biomes" title="Template talk:Biomes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biomes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biomes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biogeographic_regionalisations145" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Biogeographic_regionalisations">Biogeographic regionalisations</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#329B32;">Terrestrial<br />biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#90A010;">Polar/montane</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">Tundra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">Taiga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montane_grasslands_and_shrublands" title="Montane grasslands and shrublands">Montane grasslands and shrublands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_tundra" title="Alpine tundra">Alpine tundra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;">Temperate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_coniferous_forest" title="Temperate coniferous forest">Coniferous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_broadleaf_and_mixed_forests" title="Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests">Broadleaf and mixed forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_deciduous_forest" title="Temperate deciduous forest">Deciduous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#20A010;">Tropical and<br /> <a href="/wiki/Subtropics" title="Subtropics">subtropical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">Tropical rainforest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_coniferous_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests">Coniferous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests">Moist broadleaf forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_dry_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests">Dry broadleaf forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFDC60;">Dry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_forests,_woodlands,_and_scrub" title="Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub">Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deserts_and_xeric_shrublands" title="Deserts and xeric shrublands">Deserts and xeric shrublands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">Steppe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:mediumseagreen;">Wet</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flooded_grasslands_and_savannas" title="Flooded grasslands and savannas">Flooded grasslands and savannas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_zone" title="Riparian zone">Riparian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#55AAFF;">Aquatic<br />biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritic_zone" title="Neritic zone">Neritic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:silver;">Other biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolithic zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_realm" title="Biogeographic realm">Biogeographic <br /> realms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#329B32;">Terrestrial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrotropical_realm" title="Afrotropical realm">Afrotropical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_realm" title="Antarctic realm">Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australasian_realm" title="Australasian realm">Australasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holarctic_realm" title="Holarctic realm">Holarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indomalayan_realm" title="Indomalayan realm">Indomalayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearctic_realm" title="Nearctic realm">Nearctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neotropical_realm" title="Neotropical realm">Neotropical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_realm" title="Oceanian realm">Oceanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palearctic_realm" title="Palearctic realm">Palearctic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#55AAFF;">Marine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_realm" title="Arctic realm">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Indo-Pacific" title="Central Indo-Pacific">Central Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Indo-Pacific" title="Eastern Indo-Pacific">Eastern Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Australasia" title="Temperate Australasia">Temperate Australasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Northern_Atlantic" title="Temperate Northern Atlantic">Temperate Northern Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Northern_Pacific" title="Temperate Northern Pacific">Temperate Northern Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_South_America" title="Temperate South America">Temperate South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Southern_Africa" title="Temperate Southern Africa">Temperate Southern Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Atlantic" title="Tropical Atlantic">Tropical Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Eastern_Pacific" title="Tropical Eastern Pacific">Tropical Eastern Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Indo-Pacific" title="Western Indo-Pacific">Western Indo-Pacific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biogeographic_provinces" title="List of biogeographic provinces">Biogeographic provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioregion" title="Bioregion">Bioregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">Ecoregions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ecoregions" title="Lists of ecoregions">Lists of ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_200" title="Global 200">Global 200 ecoregions</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altitudinal_zonation" title="Altitudinal zonation">Altitudinal zonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_land_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological land classification">Ecological land classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floristic_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Floristic kingdom">Floristic kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation_classification" title="Vegetation classification">Vegetation classifications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeographic_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoogeographic region">Zoogeographic regions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components279" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components279" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components285" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components285" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiaquatic" title="Semiaquatic">Semiaquatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_animal" title="Terrestrial animal">Terrestrial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<br />networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physical_geography382" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physical_geography" title="Template:Physical geography"><abbr title="View this 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title="Climatology">Climatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">Pedology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">Edaphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Land_ocean_ice_cloud_hires.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Land_ocean_ice_cloud_hires.jpg/180px-Land_ocean_ice_cloud_hires.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Land_ocean_ice_cloud_hires.jpg/270px-Land_ocean_ice_cloud_hires.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Land_ocean_ice_cloud_hires.jpg/360px-Land_ocean_ice_cloud_hires.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8192" data-file-height="4096" 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decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Physical_geography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Physical geography">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_biology59" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Template:Branches of 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title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biology858" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biology_nav" title="Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biology_nav" title="Template talk:Biology nav"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biology_nav" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biology858" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>Introduction (<a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Evolution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></li> <li>Properties (<a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a> (<a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">Self-replication</a>), <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a> (<a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a> > <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">Organelle</a> > <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a> > <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissue</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">Organ</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">Organ system</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a> > <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biocoenosis" title="Biocoenosis">Community</a> > <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism#In_science" title="Reductionism">Reductionistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence"> Emergent property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">Mechanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory"> Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law"> Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">Peer review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">Biology journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_name" title="Common name">Common name</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical basis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">Carbohydrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">Lipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">Cell cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Cell signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">Gene expression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Gene regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_modification" title="Post-transcriptional modification">Post-transcriptional modification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">Function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Diversity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Alga">Alga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant form <br /> and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis (botany)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">Phloem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Plant stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">Xylem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal form <br />and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">Breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_environment" title="Internal environment">Internal environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/140px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/210px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/280px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="2856" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">Research <br /> methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laboratory <br /> techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">Gel electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">Green fluorescent protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)" title="Vector (molecular biology)">vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">Enzyme assay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_purification" title="Protein purification">Protein purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_blot" title="Western blot">Western blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_blot" title="Northern blot">Northern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_blot" title="Southern blot">Southern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restriction_enzyme" title="Restriction enzyme">Restriction enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-hybrid_screening" title="Two-hybrid screening">Two-hybrid screening</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Field techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belt_transect" title="Belt transect">Belt transect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_and_recapture" title="Mark and recapture">mark and recapture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_discovery_curve" title="Species discovery curve">species discovery curve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li>Biogeography</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a 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