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id="toc-Amazon_rainforest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amazon_rainforest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Amazon rainforest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amazon_rainforest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_succession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_succession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Effects on succession</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_succession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_usage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_usage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Other usage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efecte_de_vora" title="Efecte de vora – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Efecte de vora" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randeffekt" title="Randeffekt – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Randeffekt" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servaefekt" title="Servaefekt – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Servaefekt" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efecto_de_borde" title="Efecto de borde – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Efecto de borde" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%B1_%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%87_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87" title="اثر لبه زیستگاه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اثر لبه زیستگاه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effet_de_lisi%C3%A8re" title="Effet de lisière – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Effet de lisière" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mmet%E1%BB%A5ta_d%E1%BB%8B_n%27ak%E1%BB%A5k%E1%BB%A5" title="Mmetụta dị n'akụkụ – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Mmetụta dị n'akụkụ" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%83%83%E3%82%B8%E5%8A%B9%E6%9E%9C" title="エッジ効果 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エッジ効果" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efeito_de_borda" title="Efeito de borda – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Efeito de borda" data-language-autonym="Português" 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Edge+effects%22">"Edge effects"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Edge+effects%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Edge+effects%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Edge+effects%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Edge+effects%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Edge+effects%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edge_Effect.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Edge_Effect.jpg/250px-Edge_Effect.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Edge_Effect.jpg/375px-Edge_Effect.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Edge_Effect.jpg/500px-Edge_Effect.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>Edges arise where two or more habitat types come into contact as here in <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, United States.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosfordstreet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Rosfordstreet.jpg/250px-Rosfordstreet.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Rosfordstreet.jpg/375px-Rosfordstreet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Rosfordstreet.jpg/500px-Rosfordstreet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>And edge between an open parkland and a <a href="/wiki/Coastal_Swamp_Oak_Forest" title="Coastal Swamp Oak Forest">riparian zone</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>, Australia.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a>, <b>edge effects</b> are changes in <a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">population</a> or <a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">community</a> structures that occur at the boundary of two or more <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitats</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Areas with small <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">habitat fragments</a> exhibit especially pronounced edge effects that may extend throughout the range. As the edge effects increase, the boundary habitat allows for greater <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> is causing humans to continuously <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">fragment</a> landscapes and thus increase the edge effect. This change in <a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">landscape ecology</a> is proving to have consequences.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist</a> species, especially <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive</a> ones, have been seen to benefit from this landscape change whilst specialist species are suffering.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Alpha_diversity" title="Alpha diversity">alpha diversity</a> of edge-intolerant birds in <a href="/wiki/Lacandon_Jungle" title="Lacandon Jungle">Lacandona rainforest</a>, Mexico, is decreasing as edge effects increase.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edge_effects&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Inherent – Natural features stabilize the border location.</li> <li>Induced – Transient natural disturbances (e.g., fire or flood) or human related activities, subject borders to successional changes over time.</li> <li>Narrow – One habitat abruptly ends and another begins (e.g., an agricultural field.)</li> <li>Wide (<a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">ecotone</a>) – A large distance separates the borders of two clearly and purely definable habitats based upon their physical conditions and vegetation, and in between there exists a large transition region.</li> <li>Convoluted – The border is non-linear.</li> <li>Perforated – The border has gaps that host other habitats.</li></ul> <p>Height can create borders between patches as well.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edge_effects&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Biodiversity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Environmental conditions enable certain species of plants and animals to colonize habitat <a href="/wiki/Geographic_range_limit" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic range limit">borders</a>. Plants that colonize forest edges tend to be <a href="/wiki/Shade_tolerance" title="Shade tolerance">shade-intolerant</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These plants also tend to be <a href="/wiki/Desiccation_tolerance" title="Desiccation tolerance">tolerant of dry conditions</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Shrubs" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrubs">shrubs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vines" class="mw-redirect" title="Vines">vines</a>. Animals that colonize tend to be those that require two or more habitats, such as white-tailed and <a href="/wiki/Mule_deer" title="Mule deer">mule deer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elk" title="Elk">elk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cottontail_rabbits" class="mw-redirect" title="Cottontail rabbits">cottontail rabbits</a>, blue jays, and <a href="/wiki/American_robin" title="American robin">robins</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Some animals travel between habitats, while edge species are restricted to edges. Larger patches have increased native species biodiversity compared to smaller patches.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The width of the patch also influences diversity: an edge patch must be more pronounced than just a stark border in order to develop gradients of edge effects. </p><p>Animals traveling between communities can create travel lanes along borders, which in turn increases light reaching plants along the lanes and promotes <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary production</a>. As more light reaches the plants, greater numbers and sizes can thrive. Increased primary production can increase numbers of herbivorous insects, followed by nesting birds and so on up the <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">trophic levels</a>. </p><p>In the case of wide and/or overgrown borders, some species can become restricted to one side of the border despite having the ability to inhabit the other. Sometimes, the edge effects result in <a href="/wiki/Abiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Abiotic">abiotic</a> and biotic conditions which diminish natural variation and threaten the original ecosystem. Detrimental edge effects are also seen in physical and chemical conditions of border species. For instance, fertilizer from an agricultural field could invade a bordering forest and contaminate the habitat. The three factors affecting edges can be summarized: </p> <ul><li>Abiotic effect—Changes in the environmental conditions that result from the proximity to a structurally dissimilar matrix</li> <li>Direct biological effects—Changes in <a href="/wiki/Species_abundance" class="mw-redirect" title="Species abundance">species abundance</a> and distribution caused directly by physical conditions near the edge</li> <li>Indirect biological effects which involve changes in species interactions such as <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Brood_parasitism" title="Brood parasitism">brood parasitism</a>, competition, <a href="/wiki/Herbivory" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivory">herbivory</a>, and biotic <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">seed dispersal</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_effects">Human effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edge_effects&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Human effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Human activity creates edges through development and agriculture. Often, the changes are detrimental to both the size of the habitat and to species. Examples of human impacts include: </p> <ul><li>Introduction of <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasives</a>/exotics</li> <li>Higher severity and frequency of fires</li> <li>Companion animals (pets) acting as predators and competitors</li> <li>Trails</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss">Loss</a> of foraging habitats</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> and land use change</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edge_effects&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When edges divide any <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">natural</a> ecosystem and the area outside the boundary is a disturbed or unnatural system, the natural ecosystem can be seriously affected for some distance in from the edge. In 1971, Odum wrote, 'The tendency for increased variety and diversity at community junctions is known as the <i>edge effect</i>... It is common knowledge that the density of songbirds is greater on estates, campuses and similar settings...as compared with tracts of uniform forest.'. In a forest where the adjacent land has been cut, creating an open/forest boundary, <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">wind</a> penetrate to a much greater extent, drying out the interior of the <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forest</a> close to the edge and encouraging growth of opportunistic <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> there. Air temperature, <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure_deficit" class="mw-redirect" title="Vapor pressure deficit">vapor pressure deficit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_content" title="Water content">soil moisture</a>, light intensity and levels of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetically_active_radiation" title="Photosynthetically active radiation">photosynthetically active radiation</a> (PAR) all change at edges. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amazon_rainforest">Amazon rainforest</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edge_effects&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Amazon rainforest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One study estimated that the amount of <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Basin">Amazon Basin</a> area modified by edge effects exceeded the area that had been cleared.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "In studies of Amazon forest fragments, micro-climate effects were evident up to 100m (330ft.) into the forest interior."<sup id="cite_ref-Corlett2011_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corlett2011-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The smaller the fragment, the more susceptible it is to fires spreading from nearby cultivated fields. Forest fires are more common close to edges due to increased light availability that leads to increased desiccation and increased <a href="/wiki/Understory" title="Understory">understory</a> growth. Increased understory <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> provides fuel that allows pasture fires to spread into the forests. Increased fire frequency since the 1990s is among the edge effects that are slowly transforming Amazonian forests. The changes in temperature, humidity and light levels promote invasion of non-forest species, including <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>. The overall effect of these fragment processes is that all forest fragments tend to lose native <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> depending on fragment size and shape, isolation from other forest areas, and the forest matrix.<sup id="cite_ref-Corlett2011_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corlett2011-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edge_effects&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The amount of <a href="/wiki/Forest_edge" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest edge">forest edge</a> is orders of magnitude greater now in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> than when the <a href="/wiki/European_ethnic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="European ethnic groups">Europeans</a> first began settling <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>. Some species have benefited from this fact, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Brown-headed_cowbird" title="Brown-headed cowbird">brown-headed cowbird</a>, which is a <a href="/wiki/Brood_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Brood parasite">brood parasite</a> that lays its <a href="/wiki/Egg_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg (biology)">eggs</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Bird_nest" title="Bird nest">nests</a> of <a href="/wiki/Songbird" title="Songbird">songbirds</a> nesting in forest near the forest boundary.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example of a species benefiting from the proliferation of forest edge is <a href="/wiki/Poison_ivy_(plant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poison ivy (plant)">poison ivy</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Conversely, <a href="/wiki/Dragonfly" title="Dragonfly">Dragonflies</a> eat <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquitoes</a>, but have more trouble than mosquitoes surviving around the edges of human habitation. Thus, trails and hiking areas near human settlements often have more mosquitoes than do deep forest habitats. <a href="/wiki/Grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Grass">Grasses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huckleberry" title="Huckleberry">huckleberries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ribes_sanguineum" title="Ribes sanguineum">flowering currants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shade-tolerant_and_-intolerant_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Shade-tolerant and -intolerant species">shade-intolerant</a> trees such as the <a href="/wiki/Douglas-fir" class="mw-redirect" title="Douglas-fir">Douglas-fir</a> all thrive in edge habitats. </p><p>In the case of developed lands juxtaposed to wild lands, problems with <a href="/wiki/Invasive_exotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasive exotic">invasive exotics</a> often result. Species such as <a href="/wiki/Kudzu" title="Kudzu">kudzu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_honeysuckle" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese honeysuckle">Japanese honeysuckle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Multiflora_rose" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiflora rose">multiflora rose</a> have damaged natural ecosystems. Beneficially, the open spots and edges provide places for species that thrive where there is more light and vegetation that is close to the ground. Deer and elk benefit particularly<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> as their principal diet is that of grass and shrubs which are found only on the edges of forested areas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_on_succession">Effects on succession</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edge_effects&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Effects on succession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Edge effects also apply to <a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">succession</a>, when vegetation spreads rather than losing to competitors. Different species are suited either to the edges or to central sections of the habitat, resulting in a varied distribution. Edges also vary with orientation: edges on the north or south receive less or more sun than the opposite side (depending on hemisphere and convex or concave relief), producing varying vegetation patterns. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_usage">Other usage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edge_effects&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Other usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The phenomenon of increased variety of plants as well as animals at the community junction (<a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">ecotone</a>) is also called the edge effect and is essentially due to a locally broader range of suitable environmental conditions or ecological niches. </p><p>Edge effects in <a href="/wiki/Biological_assay" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological assay">biological assays</a> refer to artifacts in data that are caused by the position of the wells on a screening plate rather than a biological effect.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The edge effect in <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Scanning electron microscopy">scanning electron microscopy</a> is the phenomenon in which the number of secondary and/or backscattered electrons that escape the sample and reach the detector is higher at an edge than at a surface. The interaction volume spreads far below the surface, but secondary electrons can only escape when close to the surface (generally about 10 nm, although this depends on the material). However, when the electron beam impacts an area close to the edge, electrons that are generated below an impact point that is close to an edge but that is far below the surface may be able to escape through the vertical surface instead.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edge_effects&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruderal_species" title="Ruderal species">Ruderal species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_edge" title="Woodland edge">Woodland edge</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edge_effects&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLevin2009" class="citation book cs1">Levin, Simon A. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-12-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tree&rft.atitle=Edge+effects+in+fragmented+forests%3Aimplications+for+conservation&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E58-%3C%2Fspan%3E62&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0169-5347%2800%2988977-6&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21236953&rft.aulast=Murcia&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fowa.stevenson.edu%2Fowa%2Fredir.aspx%3FC%3Df92c3d2bbd1746e4a1ff9899aeb03e1f%26URL%3Dhttp%253a%252f%252fresearch.eeescience.utoledo.edu%252flees%252fTeaching%252fEEES4760_05%252fMurcia95.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdge+effects" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkoleC._Tucker1994" class="citation journal cs1">Skole, D. L.; C. Tucker (1994). "Tropical deforestation and habitat loss fragmentation in the Amazon: satellite data from 1978-1988". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>260</b> (5116): <span class="nowrap">1905–</span>1910. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.260.5116.1905">10.1126/science.260.5116.1905</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10535%2F3304">10535/3304</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17836720">17836720</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12853752">12853752</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Tropical+deforestation+and+habitat+loss+fragmentation+in+the+Amazon%3A+satellite+data+from+1978-1988&rft.volume=260&rft.issue=5116&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1905-%3C%2Fspan%3E1910&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10535%2F3304&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12853752%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17836720&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.260.5116.1905&rft.aulast=Skole&rft.aufirst=D.+L.&rft.au=C.+Tucker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdge+effects" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Corlett2011-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Corlett2011_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Corlett2011_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorlettRichard_B._Primack2011" class="citation book cs1">Corlett, Richard, T; Richard B. Primack (2011). <i>Tropical Rain Forests an Ecological and Biogeographical Comparison</i> (Second ed.). John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The atrium, Southern Fate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. <span class="nowrap">266–</span>267. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3254-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3254-4"><bdi>978-1-4443-3254-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tropical+Rain+Forests+an+Ecological+and+Biogeographical+Comparison&rft.place=John+Wiley+%26+Sons+Ltd%2C+The+atrium%2C+Southern+Fate%2C+Chichester%2C+West+Sussex%2C+PO19+8SQ&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E266-%3C%2Fspan%3E267&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-3254-4&rft.aulast=Corlett&rft.aufirst=Richard%2C+T&rft.au=Richard+B.+Primack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdge+effects" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowellDijakThompson2007" class="citation journal cs1">Howell, Christine A.; Dijak, William D.; Thompson, Frank R. (2007-02-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-006-9022-1">"Landscape context and selection for forest edge by breeding Brown-headed Cowbirds"</a>. <i>Landscape Ecology</i>. <b>22</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">273–</span>284. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10980-006-9022-1">10.1007/s10980-006-9022-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1572-9761">1572-9761</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2775157">2775157</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230731180239/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10980-006-9022-1">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-02-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Landscape+Ecology&rft.atitle=Landscape+context+and+selection+for+forest+edge+by+breeding+Brown-headed+Cowbirds&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E273-%3C%2Fspan%3E284&rft.date=2007-02-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2775157%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1572-9761&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10980-006-9022-1&rft.aulast=Howell&rft.aufirst=Christine+A.&rft.au=Dijak%2C+William+D.&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Frank+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs10980-006-9022-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdge+effects" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFraver1994" class="citation journal cs1">Fraver, Shawn (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210131222233/https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08030822.x">"Vegetation Responses along Edge-to-Interior Gradients in the Mixed Hardwood Forests of the Roanoke River Basin, North Carolina"</a>. <i>Conservation Biology</i>. <b>8</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">822–</span>832. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1523-1739.1994.08030822.x">10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08030822.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1523-1739">1523-1739</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08030822.x">the original</a> on 2021-01-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-01-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conservation+Biology&rft.atitle=Vegetation+Responses+along+Edge-to-Interior+Gradients+in+the+Mixed+Hardwood+Forests+of+the+Roanoke+River+Basin%2C+North+Carolina&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E822-%3C%2Fspan%3E832&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1523-1739.1994.08030822.x&rft.issn=1523-1739&rft.aulast=Fraver&rft.aufirst=Shawn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fconbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1046%2Fj.1523-1739.1994.08030822.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdge+effects" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edge_effects&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 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href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components279" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components285" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components285" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" 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