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aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Before_the_Dutch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Before_the_Dutch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Before the Dutch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Before_the_Dutch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dutch_East_Indies_Company_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dutch_East_Indies_Company_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Dutch East Indies Company rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dutch_East_Indies_Company_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dutch_conquests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dutch_conquests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Dutch conquests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dutch_conquests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultivation_System_and_Coolie_Ordinances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultivation_System_and_Coolie_Ordinances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Cultivation System and Coolie Ordinances</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultivation_System_and_Coolie_Ordinances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Njai_System" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Njai_System"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Njai System</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Njai_System-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II_and_independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II_and_independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>World War II and independence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II_and_independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Government</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Government subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Law_and_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_and_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Law and administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_and_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administrative_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Administrative divisions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_divisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armed_forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armed_forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Armed forces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armed_forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Demographics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Demographics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ethnic_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Ethnic groups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Language_and_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_and_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Language and literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_and_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visual_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Visual art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theatre_and_film" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theatre_and_film"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Theatre and film</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theatre_and_film-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cuisine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuisine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Cuisine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuisine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6</span> <span>Architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fashion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fashion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7</span> <span>Fashion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fashion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.8</span> <span>Sports</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonial_heritage_in_the_Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_heritage_in_the_Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Colonial heritage in the Netherlands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_heritage_in_the_Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Dutch East Indies</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 75 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-75" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">75 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindia_Blanda" title="Hindia Blanda – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Hindia Blanda" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Acèh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederlands-Indi%C3%AB" title="Nederlands-Indië – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Nederlands-Indië" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الهند الشرقية الهولندية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الهند الشرقية الهولندية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indies_Orientales_Neerlandeses" title="Indies Orientales Neerlandeses – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Indies Orientales Neerlandeses" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niderland_Ost-Hindi" title="Niderland Ost-Hindi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Niderland Ost-Hindi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%92%D8%BA%D9%88_%D9%87%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%A2%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="هولند دوْغو هیند آدالاری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="هولند دوْغو هیند آدالاری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindia_Belanda" title="Hindia Belanda – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Hindia Belanda" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%B8_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C" title="নেদারল্যান্ডস ইস্ট ইন্ডিজ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নেদারল্যান্ডস ইস্ট ইন্ডিজ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B4-l%C3%A2n_l%C3%A9ng_Tang_%C3%8Cn-t%C5%8D%CD%98" title="Hô-lân léng Tang Ìn-tō͘ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hô-lân léng Tang Ìn-tō͘" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9E%D1%81%D1%82-%D2%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Голландия Ост-Һиндостаны – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Голландия Ост-Һиндостаны" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%9E%D1%81%D1%82-%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Галандская Ост-Індыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Галандская Ост-Індыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Нидерландска Индия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Нидерландска Индия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indez_Nederlandat_ar_Reter" title="Indez Nederlandat ar Reter – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Indez Nederlandat ar Reter" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Dndies_Orientals_Neerlandeses" title="Índies Orientals Neerlandeses – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Índies Orientals Neerlandeses" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizozemsk%C3%A1_v%C3%BDchodn%C3%AD_Indie" title="Nizozemská východní Indie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Nizozemská východní Indie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollandsk_Ostindien" title="Hollandsk Ostindien – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Hollandsk Ostindien" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niederl%C3%A4ndisch-Indien" title="Niederländisch-Indien – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Niederländisch-Indien" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indias_Orientales_Neerlandesas" title="Indias Orientales Neerlandesas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Indias Orientales Neerlandesas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederlanda_Hindio" title="Nederlanda Hindio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nederlanda Hindio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekialdeko_Herbeheretar_Indiak" title="Ekialdeko Herbeheretar Indiak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ekialdeko Herbeheretar Indiak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%82%DB%8C_%D9%87%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF" title="هند شرقی هلند – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هند شرقی هلند" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indes_orientales_n%C3%A9erlandaises" title="Indes orientales néerlandaises – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Indes orientales néerlandaises" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederl%C3%A2nsk-Ynje" title="Nederlânsk-Ynje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Nederlânsk-Ynje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indias_Orientais_Neerlandesas" title="Indias Orientais Neerlandesas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Indias Orientais Neerlandesas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%84%A4%EB%8D%9C%EB%9E%80%EB%93%9C%EB%A0%B9_%EB%8F%99%EC%9D%B8%EB%8F%84" title="네덜란드령 동인도 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="네덜란드령 동인도" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%AB%D5%A4%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D4%B1%D6%80%D6%87%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Նիդերլանդական Արևելահնդկաստան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նիդերլանդական Արևելահնդկաստան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizozemska_Isto%C4%8Dna_Indija" title="Nizozemska Istočna Indija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nizozemska Istočna Indija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederlandan-India" title="Nederlandan-India – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Nederlandan-India" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindia_Belanda" title="Hindia Belanda – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hindia Belanda" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollensku_Austur-Ind%C3%ADur" title="Hollensku Austur-Indíur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hollensku Austur-Indíur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indie_orientali_olandesi" title="Indie orientali olandesi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Indie orientali olandesi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%95_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%97%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%94%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="איי הודו המזרחיים ההולנדיים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="איי הודו המזרחיים ההולנדיים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indhiya_N%C3%A8derlan" title="Indhiya Nèderlan – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Indhiya Nèderlan" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%B0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98" title="ჰოლანდიის ოსტინდოეთი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჰოლანდიის ოსტინდოეთი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_orientalis_Batava" title="India orientalis Batava – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="India orientalis Batava" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%ABderlandes_Austrumindija" title="Nīderlandes Austrumindija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Nīderlandes Austrumindija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindia_Belanda" title="Hindia Belanda – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Hindia Belanda" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Li Niha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland_Kelet-India" title="Holland Kelet-India – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Holland Kelet-India" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Холандска Источна Индија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Холандска Источна Индија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9C" title="नेदरलँड्स ईस्ट इंडीज – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="नेदरलँड्स ईस्ट इंडीज" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%82%DB%8C_%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF" title="هلند شرقی هند – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="هلند شرقی هند" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindia_Timur_Belanda" title="Hindia Timur Belanda – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Hindia Timur Belanda" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindia-Balando" title="Hindia-Balando – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Hindia-Balando" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederlands-Indi%C3%AB" title="Nederlands-Indië – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nederlands-Indië" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%83%80%E9%A0%98%E6%9D%B1%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89" title="オランダ領東インド – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オランダ領東インド" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederlandsk_India" title="Nederlandsk India – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nederlandsk India" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederlandsk_Austindia" title="Nederlandsk Austindia – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Nederlandsk Austindia" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%82_%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%81%D9%86%D8%AF" title="ولندیزی شرق الہند – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ولندیزی شرق الہند" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holenderskie_Indie_Wschodnie" title="Holenderskie Indie Wschodnie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Holenderskie Indie Wschodnie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Dndias_Orientais_Neerlandesas" title="Índias Orientais Neerlandesas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Índias Orientais Neerlandesas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golland_Ost-Indiyas%C4%B1" title="Golland Ost-Indiyası – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Golland Ost-Indiyası" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiile_de_Est_Neerlandeze" title="Indiile de Est Neerlandeze – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Indiile de Est Neerlandeze" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%9E%D1%81%D1%82-%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Голландская Ост-Индия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Голландская Ост-Индия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Dutch East Indies" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indit%C3%AB_Lindore_Holandeze" title="Inditë Lindore Holandeze – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Inditë Lindore Holandeze" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Dutch East Indies" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%8A%DA%86_%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%BD_%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%8A%D9%8A%D8%B2" title="ڊچ ايسٽ انڊيز – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ڊچ ايسٽ انڊيز" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizozemska_vzhodna_Indija" title="Nizozemska vzhodna Indija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Nizozemska vzhodna Indija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Холандска Индија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Холандска Индија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizozemske_Isto%C4%8Dne_Indije" title="Nizozemske Istočne Indije – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nizozemske Istočne Indije" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindia-Walanda" title="Hindia-Walanda – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Hindia-Walanda" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alankomaiden_It%C3%A4-Intia" title="Alankomaiden Itä-Intia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Alankomaiden Itä-Intia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederl%C3%A4ndska_Ostindien" title="Nederländska Ostindien – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nederländska Ostindien" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silangang_Indiyong_Olandes" title="Silangang Indiyong Olandes – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Silangang Indiyong Olandes" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%88%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%8C" title="หมู่เกาะอินเดียตะวันออกของเนเธอร์แลนด์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="หมู่เกาะอินเดียตะวันออกของเนเธอร์แลนด์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollanda_Do%C4%9Fu_Hint_Adalar%C4%B1" title="Hollanda Doğu Hint Adaları – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hollanda Doğu Hint Adaları" 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.latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Dutch_East_Indies&params=5_S_120_E_"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">5°S</span> <span class="longitude">120°E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">5°S 120°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">-5; 120</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Dutch colony in Southeast Asia and Oceania (1800–1949)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Dutch East Indies</div><div class="ib-country-names"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold"><span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">Nederlands-Indië</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>)</span><br /><span title="Indonesian-language text"><i lang="id">Hindia-Belanda</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a>)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1800–1949<br />1942–1945 (in exile)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Dutch East Indies"><img alt="Flag of Dutch East Indies" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/125px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/188px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Netherlands#Netherlands_East_Indies" title="Flag of the Netherlands">Flag</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:State_coat_of_arms_of_the_Netherlands.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of Dutch East Indies"><img alt="Coat of arms of Dutch East Indies" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/State_coat_of_arms_of_the_Netherlands.svg/85px-State_coat_of_arms_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/State_coat_of_arms_of_the_Netherlands.svg/128px-State_coat_of_arms_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/State_coat_of_arms_of_the_Netherlands.svg/170px-State_coat_of_arms_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="756" data-file-height="595" /></a></span></div> <div>Coat of arms</div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><b>Motto: </b><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Je_maintiendrai" class="mw-redirect" title="Je maintiendrai">Je maintiendrai</a></i></span> (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>)<br />("I will uphold")</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem"><b>Anthem:</b> <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl"><a href="/wiki/Wien_Ne%C3%AArlands_Bloed" title="Wien Neêrlands Bloed">Wien Neêrlands Bloed</a></i></span> (Dutch) (1815–1932)<br />("Those in whom Dutch blood")<br /><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="139" data-mwtitle="Wien-Neêrlands-Bloed.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Wien-Ne%C3%AArlands-Bloed.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/01/Wien-Ne%C3%AArlands-Bloed.ogg/Wien-Ne%C3%AArlands-Bloed.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span><br /><span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl"><a href="/wiki/Het_Wilhelmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Het Wilhelmus">Het Wilhelmus</a></i></span> (Dutch) (1932–1949)<br />("The Wilhelmus")<br /><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="66" data-mwtitle="Het-Wilhelmus.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Het-Wilhelmus.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/58/Het-Wilhelmus.ogg/Het-Wilhelmus.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Dutch_East_Indies_Expansion.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Dutch_East_Indies_Expansion.png/250px-Dutch_East_Indies_Expansion.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Dutch_East_Indies_Expansion.png/375px-Dutch_East_Indies_Expansion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Dutch_East_Indies_Expansion.png/500px-Dutch_East_Indies_Expansion.png 2x" data-file-width="923" data-file-height="447" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Map of Dutch expansion in Indonesia: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#CC0000; color:white;"> </span> 1600s</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#003399; color:white;"> </span> 1700s</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#3366CC; color:white;"> </span> 1800s</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#6699FF; color:black;"> </span> 1900–1942</div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Colony" title="Colony">Colony</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Batavia,_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Batavia, Dutch East Indies">Batavia</a><br />(now <a href="/wiki/Jakarta" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Largest city</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Surabaya" title="Surabaya">Soerabaja</a><sup id="cite_ref-howard_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-howard-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> (official)<br /><a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Indonesia" title="Languages of Indonesia">Indigenous languages</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional Religion">Traditional Religion</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Ethnic_group">Dutch East Indian</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_the_Netherlands#Batavian_Republic_(1795–1806)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of the Netherlands">Head of the Batavian Republic</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1800 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data">Augustijn Gerhard Besier</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1806 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Carel_de_Vos_van_Steenwijk" title="Carel de Vos van Steenwijk">Carel de Vos van Steenwijk</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Monarchy of the Netherlands">Monarch</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1816–1840 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/William_I_of_the_Netherlands" title="William I of the Netherlands">William I</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1948–1949 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Juliana_of_the_Netherlands" title="Juliana of the Netherlands">Juliana</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Governor-general_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Governor-general of the Dutch East Indies">Governor-General</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1800–1801 <span style="font-size:85%;">(first)</span> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pieter_Gerardus_van_Overstraten" title="Pieter Gerardus van Overstraten">Pieter Gerardus van Overstraten</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1949 <span style="font-size:85%;">(last)</span> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tony_Lovink" title="Tony Lovink">A. H. J. Lovink</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Volksraad_(Dutch_East_Indies)" title="Volksraad (Dutch East Indies)">Volksraad</a><br />(1918–1942)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Company rule in the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East India Company</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1603–1799</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Direct Dutch control </div></th><td class="infobox-data">31 December 1799</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/French_and_British_interregnum_in_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="French and British interregnum in the Dutch East Indies">French and British interregnum</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1806–1816</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1814" title="Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814">Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">13 August 1814</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1824" title="Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824">Treaty of London</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">17 March 1824</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Aceh_War" title="Aceh War">Aceh War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1873–1904</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Dutch_intervention_in_Bali_(1908)" title="Dutch intervention in Bali (1908)">Second Dutch intervention in Bali</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1908</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Japanese occupation</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1942–1945</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_Indonesian_Independence" title="Proclamation of Indonesian Independence">Proclamation of Indonesian Independence</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">17 August 1945</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1945–1949</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Dutch%E2%80%93Indonesian_Round_Table_Conference" title="Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference">Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">27 December 1949</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">1,919,440 km<sup>2</sup> (741,100 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1930 </div></th><td class="infobox-data">60,727,233</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_Indies_guilder" title="Netherlands Indies guilder">Guilder</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Company rule in the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East India Company</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/British_Bencoolen" title="British Bencoolen">British Bencoolen</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Flag_of_Aceh_Sultanate.svg/20px-Flag_of_Aceh_Sultanate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Flag_of_Aceh_Sultanate.svg/30px-Flag_of_Aceh_Sultanate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Flag_of_Aceh_Sultanate.svg/40px-Flag_of_Aceh_Sultanate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2107" data-file-height="1340" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Aceh_Sultanate" title="Aceh Sultanate">Aceh Sultanate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Flag_of_Riau-Lingga_Sultanate.svg/20px-Flag_of_Riau-Lingga_Sultanate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Flag_of_Riau-Lingga_Sultanate.svg/30px-Flag_of_Riau-Lingga_Sultanate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Flag_of_Riau-Lingga_Sultanate.svg/40px-Flag_of_Riau-Lingga_Sultanate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Riau-Lingga_Sultanate" title="Riau-Lingga Sultanate">Riau-Lingga Sultanate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Old_Flag_of_Bali.svg/20px-Old_Flag_of_Bali.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Old_Flag_of_Bali.svg/30px-Old_Flag_of_Bali.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Old_Flag_of_Bali.svg/40px-Old_Flag_of_Bali.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="270" data-file-height="180" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Bali_Kingdom" title="Bali Kingdom">Bali Kingdom</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Lanfang_Republic_Reconstructed_Flag.svg/20px-Lanfang_Republic_Reconstructed_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Lanfang_Republic_Reconstructed_Flag.svg/30px-Lanfang_Republic_Reconstructed_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Lanfang_Republic_Reconstructed_Flag.svg/40px-Lanfang_Republic_Reconstructed_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1280" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Lanfang_Republic" title="Lanfang Republic">Lanfang Republic</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Flag_of_Minang.svg/20px-Flag_of_Minang.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Flag_of_Minang.svg/30px-Flag_of_Minang.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Flag_of_Minang.svg/40px-Flag_of_Minang.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Pagaruyung_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagaruyung Kingdom">Pagaruyung Kingdom</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Bulungan.svg/20px-Flag_of_Bulungan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Bulungan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Bulungan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Bulungan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Bulungan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Bulungan" title="Sultanate of Bulungan">Sultanate of Bulungan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Late_19th_Century_Flag_of_Sulu.svg/20px-Late_19th_Century_Flag_of_Sulu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Late_19th_Century_Flag_of_Sulu.svg/30px-Late_19th_Century_Flag_of_Sulu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Late_19th_Century_Flag_of_Sulu.svg/40px-Late_19th_Century_Flag_of_Sulu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu" title="Sultanate of Sulu">Sultanate of Sulu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Banjar_Sultanate_Flag.svg/20px-Banjar_Sultanate_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Banjar_Sultanate_Flag.svg/30px-Banjar_Sultanate_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Banjar_Sultanate_Flag.svg/40px-Banjar_Sultanate_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="354" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Banjar_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Banjar Sultanate">Banjar Sultanate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_South_Sumatra.svg/20px-Flag_of_South_Sumatra.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_South_Sumatra.svg/30px-Flag_of_South_Sumatra.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_South_Sumatra.svg/40px-Flag_of_South_Sumatra.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Palembang" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Palembang">Sultanate of Palembang</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_New_Guinea" title="Japanese occupation of New Guinea">Japanese occupation of New Guinea</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Straits_Settlements" title="Straits Settlements">Straits Settlements</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_New_Guinea" title="Japanese occupation of New Guinea">Japanese occupation of New Guinea</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Indonesia" title="United States of Indonesia">United States of Indonesia</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/20px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_New_Guinea" title="Dutch New Guinea">Dutch New Guinea</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Indonesia" title="Category:History of Indonesia">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indonesia" title="History of Indonesia">History of <span class="fn org label">Indonesia</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1916_Dutch_East_Indies_-_Art.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/1916_Dutch_East_Indies_-_Art.jpg/220px-1916_Dutch_East_Indies_-_Art.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="378" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/1916_Dutch_East_Indies_-_Art.jpg/330px-1916_Dutch_East_Indies_-_Art.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/1916_Dutch_East_Indies_-_Art.jpg/440px-1916_Dutch_East_Indies_-_Art.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1720" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption" style="padding-bottom:0.3em;">"Netherlands' most precious jewel", Dutch imperial art by <a href="/wiki/Johan_Braakensiek" title="Johan Braakensiek">Johan Braakensiek</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:none;"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Indonesian_history" title="Timeline of Indonesian history">Timeline</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:none;background:gainsboro;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Indonesia" title="Prehistoric Indonesia">Prehistory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <b><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a></b></td><td style="text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Java_Man" title="Java Man">Java Man</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1,000,000 BP</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Homo_floresiensis" title="Homo floresiensis">Flores Man</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 94,000–12,000 BP</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <b><a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a></b></td><td style="text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Toba_catastrophe_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Toba catastrophe theory">Toba catastrophe</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 75,000 BP</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Buni_culture" title="Buni culture">Buni culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 400 BCE</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:none;background:gainsboro;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indonesian_monarchies" title="List of Indonesian monarchies">Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kutai" title="Kutai">Kutai kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 350–1605</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 400s–500s</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kantoli" title="Kantoli">Kantoli</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 400s-500s</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalingga kingdom">Kalingga kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 500s–600s</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Melayu_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Melayu kingdom">Melayu kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 600s–1347</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 600s–1025</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Shailendra_dynasty" title="Shailendra dynasty">Shailendra Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 600s–900s</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mataram_kingdom" title="Mataram kingdom">Mataram kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 716–1016</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bali_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Bali kingdom">Bali kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 914–1908</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sunda_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunda kingdom">Sunda kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 932–1579</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kahuripan" title="Kahuripan">Kahuripan kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1019–1045</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kediri_kingdom" title="Kediri kingdom">Kediri kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1045–1221</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dharmasraya" title="Dharmasraya">Dharmasraya kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1183–1347</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pannai" title="Pannai">Pannai kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1000s–1300s</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1222–1292</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1293–1527</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:none;background:gainsboro;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indonesian_monarchies" title="List of Indonesian monarchies">Islamic sultanates</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam_in_Indonesia" title="Spread of Islam in Indonesia">Spread of Islam</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 800–1600</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Peureulak_Sultanate" title="Peureulak Sultanate">Peureulak Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">840–1292</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Aru_kingdom" title="Aru kingdom">Aru kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1225–1613</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ternate_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ternate Sultanate">Ternate Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1257–1914</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Samudera_Pasai_Sultanate" title="Samudera Pasai Sultanate">Samudera Pasai Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1267–1521</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pagaruyung_kingdom" title="Pagaruyung kingdom">Pagaruyung kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1347–1833</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Empire">Brunei Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1368–1888</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malacca_Sultanate" title="Malacca Sultanate">Malacca Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1400–1511</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu" title="Sultanate of Sulu">Sulu Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1405–1851</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Cirebon" title="Sultanate of Cirebon">Cirebon Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1445–1677</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Demak_Sultanate" title="Demak Sultanate">Demak Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1475–1554</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Aceh_Sultanate" title="Aceh Sultanate">Aceh Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1496–1903</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Ternate" title="Sultanate of Ternate">Sultanate of Ternate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1486–1914</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Bacan" title="Sultanate of Bacan">Sultanate of Bacan</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1515–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Tidore" title="Sultanate of Tidore">Sultanate of Tidore</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1500s–1967</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Jailolo" title="Sultanate of Jailolo">Sultanate of Jailolo</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1496–1903</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Banten_Sultanate" title="Banten Sultanate">Banten Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1526–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Banjar_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Banjar Sultanate">Banjar Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1526–1863</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kalinyamat_Sultanate" title="Kalinyamat Sultanate">Kalinyamat Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1527–1599</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mataram_Sultanate" title="Mataram Sultanate">Mataram Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1586–1755</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Johor_Sultanate" title="Johor Sultanate">Johor Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1528s–1877</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kaimana" title="Kingdom of Kaimana">Kingdom of Kaimana</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1600s–1926</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Jambi_Sultanate" title="Jambi Sultanate">Jambi Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1604s–1904</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Palembang_Sultanate" title="Palembang Sultanate">Palembang Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1659–1823</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Siak_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Siak Sultanate">Siak Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1725–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Surakarta_Sunanate" title="Surakarta Sunanate">Surakarta Sunanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1745–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Yogyakarta_Sultanate" title="Yogyakarta Sultanate">Yogyakarta Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1755–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Deli_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Deli Sultanate">Deli Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1814–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Riau-Lingga_Sultanate" title="Riau-Lingga Sultanate">Riau-Lingga Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1824–1911</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:none;background:gainsboro;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indonesian_monarchies" title="List of Indonesian monarchies">Christian kingdoms</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Larantuka" title="Kingdom of Larantuka">Larantuka kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1515–1904</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bolaang_Mongondow" title="Kingdom of Bolaang Mongondow">Kingdom of Bolaang Mongondow</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1670–1950</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:none;background:gainsboro;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Kongsi_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Kongsi republic">Chinese Kongsi federations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Heshun_Confederation" class="mw-redirect" title="Heshun Confederation">Heshun Confederation</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1776–1854</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Lanfang_Republic" title="Lanfang Republic">Lanfang Republic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1777–1884</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Santiaogou_Republic" title="Santiaogou Republic">Santiaogou Republic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1777–1853</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:none;background:gainsboro;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">European colonization</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire_in_the_Indonesian_Archipelago" title="Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago">Portuguese</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1512–1850</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Spanish</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1521–1677</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company_in_the_Malay_Archipelago" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch East India Company in the Malay Archipelago">Dutch East India Company</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1602–1799</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/British_Bencoolen" title="British Bencoolen">British</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1685–1824</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_and_British_interregnum_in_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="French and British interregnum in the Dutch East Indies">French and British interregnum</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1806–1816</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dutch East Indies</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.3em">1800–1942<br />1945–1949</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:none;background:gainsboro;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Emergence of Indonesia</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Awakening" title="Indonesian National Awakening">National Awakening</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1908–1942</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Japanese occupation</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1942–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">National Revolution</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1945–1949</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Indonesia" title="United States of Indonesia">United States of Indonesia</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1949–1950</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:none;background:gainsboro;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Republic of Indonesia</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy_period_in_Indonesia" title="Liberal democracy period in Indonesia">Liberal democracy</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1950–1959</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Guided_Democracy_in_Indonesia" title="Guided Democracy in Indonesia">Guided Democracy</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1959–1966</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">Transition</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1966–1967</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/New_Order_(Indonesia)" title="New Order (Indonesia)">New Order</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1967–1998</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Post-Suharto_era_in_Indonesia" title="Post-Suharto era in Indonesia">Reform era</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1998–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:none;background:gainsboro;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Indonesia" title="Regions of Indonesia">Regions</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jakarta" title="History of Jakarta">Jakarta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bali" title="History of Bali">Bali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bogor" title="History of Bogor">Bogor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bandung" title="History of Bandung">Bandung</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:none;background:gainsboro;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By topic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of agriculture in Indonesia">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Indonesia" title="Archaeology of Indonesia">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Indonesian_rupiah" title="History of the Indonesian rupiah">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Indonesia" title="Economic history of Indonesia">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Indonesia">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javanese_historical_texts" title="Javanese historical texts">Javanese historical texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of religion in Indonesia">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Buddhism in Indonesia">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity in Indonesia">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hinduism in Indonesia">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Islam in Indonesia">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Indonesia" title="History of the Jews in Indonesia">Judaism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mass_media_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of mass media in Indonesia">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Indonesia" title="Military history of Indonesia">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of sports in Indonesia">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of women in Indonesia">Women</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/16px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/24px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indonesia" title="Portal:Indonesia">Indonesia portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Indonesia" title="Template:History of Indonesia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Indonesia" title="Template talk:History of Indonesia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Indonesia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Indonesia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Dutch East Indies</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also known as the <b>Netherlands East Indies</b> (<a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <i lang="nl">Nederlands(ch)-Indië</i>; <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a>: <i lang="id">Hindia Belanda</i>), was a <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch colony</a> with territory mostly comprising the modern state of <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_Indonesian_Independence" title="Proclamation of Indonesian Independence">declared independence</a> on 17 August 1945. Following the <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian War of Independence</a>, Indonesia and the Netherlands <a href="/wiki/Dutch%E2%80%93Indonesian_Round_Table_Conference" title="Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference">made peace</a> in 1949. In the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1824" title="Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824">Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824</a>, the Dutch ceded the governorate of <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Malacca" title="Dutch Malacca">Dutch Malacca</a> to Britain, leading to its eventual incorporation into <a href="/wiki/Malacca" title="Malacca">Malacca (state)</a> of modern <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Malaysia" title="Category:History of Malaysia">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malaysia" title="History of Malaysia">History of <span class="fn org label">Malaysia</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Johnston_S.E._Peninsula_and_Malaysia_Map_National_Atlas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Johnston_S.E._Peninsula_and_Malaysia_Map_National_Atlas.jpg/205px-Johnston_S.E._Peninsula_and_Malaysia_Map_National_Atlas.jpg" decoding="async" width="205" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Johnston_S.E._Peninsula_and_Malaysia_Map_National_Atlas.jpg/308px-Johnston_S.E._Peninsula_and_Malaysia_Map_National_Atlas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Johnston_S.E._Peninsula_and_Malaysia_Map_National_Atlas.jpg/410px-Johnston_S.E._Peninsula_and_Malaysia_Map_National_Atlas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10281" data-file-height="8421" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em; padding-top:0.5em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Malaysia" title="Prehistoric Malaysia">Prehistoric period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <b><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <span style="padding-left:1em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Lenggong" title="Lenggong">Lenggong Valley</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2,000,0000 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <span style="padding-left:1em;"> </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mansuli_Valley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mansuli Valley (page does not exist)">Mansuli Valley</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">235,000 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <b><a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <span style="padding-left:1em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Niah_National_Park" title="Niah National Park">Niah cultures</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 65,000–40,000 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <b><a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <span style="padding-left:1em;"> </span>Bewah man/woman</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 16,000 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <span style="padding-left:1em;"> </span>Perak man/woman</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 11,000–200 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <span style="padding-left:1em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Klang_Bell" title="Klang Bell">Neolithic Klang</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 500 – 200 BCE</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Early kingdoms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Kedah" title="History of Kedah">Ancient Kedah</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <100 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chi_Tu" title="Chi Tu">Chi Tu</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 100 BCE–642 CE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 100 BCE–1474 CE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gangga_Negara" title="Gangga Negara">Gangga Negara</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 100 CE–1025</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pan_Pan_(kingdom)" title="Pan Pan (kingdom)">Pan Pan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 424–775</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Kedah" title="History of Kedah">Old Kedah</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 170–1135</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Old_Pahang_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Pahang Kingdom">Old Pahang</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 449–1454</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 700s–1025</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1300s</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Rise of Muslim states</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kedah_Sultanate" title="Kedah Sultanate">Kedah Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1136–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Samudera_Pasai_Sultanate" title="Samudera Pasai Sultanate">Samudera Pasai Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1267–1521</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Empire">Brunei Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1368–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malacca_Sultanate" title="Malacca Sultanate">Malacca Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1402–1511</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu" title="Sultanate of Sulu">Sulu Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1450–1899</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pahang_Sultanate" title="Pahang Sultanate">Pahang Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1470–1623</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Aceh_Sultanate" title="Aceh Sultanate">Aceh Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1496–1903</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pattani_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pattani Kingdom">Pattani Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1516– 1902</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Johor_Sultanate" title="Johor Sultanate">Johor Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1528–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sarawak" title="Sultanate of Sarawak">Sarawak Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1599–1641</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultan_of_Selangor" title="Sultan of Selangor">Selangor Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1766–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Besut_Darul_Iman" title="Kingdom of Besut Darul Iman">Besut Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1780–1899</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Setul_Mambang_Segara" title="Kingdom of Setul Mambang Segara">Setul Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1808–1916</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Reman" title="Kingdom of Reman">Reman Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1810–1902</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kubang_Pasu_Darul_Qiyam" title="Kingdom of Kubang Pasu Darul Qiyam">Kubang Pasu Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1839–1864</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Colonial period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Malacca" title="Portuguese Malacca">Portuguese Malacca</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1511–1641</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dutch%E2%80%93Portuguese_War" title="Dutch–Portuguese War">Dutch–Portuguese War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1601–1661</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Malacca" title="Dutch Malacca">Dutch Malacca</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1641–1824</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pahang_Kingdom" title="Pahang Kingdom">Pahang Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1770–1881</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Straits_Settlements" title="Straits Settlements">Straits Settlements</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1786–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Siamese_invasion_of_Kedah" title="Siamese invasion of Kedah">Siamese invasion of Kedah</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1821–1826</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1824" title="Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824">Anglo-Dutch Treaty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1824</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Burney_Treaty" title="Burney Treaty">Burney Treaty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1826</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Naning_War" title="Naning War">Naning War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1831–1832</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Raj_of_Sarawak" title="Raj of Sarawak">Kingdom of Sarawak</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1841–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Jamalullail_(Perlis)" title="House of Jamalullail (Perlis)">Separation of Perlis from Kedah</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1843</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Labuan" title="Crown Colony of Labuan">Crown Colony of Labuan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1848–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pahang_Civil_War" title="Pahang Civil War">Pahang Civil War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1857–1863</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Larut_Wars" title="Larut Wars">Larut Wars</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1861–1874</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Klang_War" title="Klang War">Klang War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1867–1874</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pangkor_Treaty_of_1874" title="Pangkor Treaty of 1874">Pangkor Treaty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1874</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Perak_War" title="Perak War">Perak War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1875–1876</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">British Malaya</a> / <a href="/wiki/British_Borneo" title="British Borneo">Borneo</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1874–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Jementah_Civil_War" title="Jementah Civil War">Jementah Civil War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1879</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/North_Borneo" title="North Borneo">North Borneo</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1882–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pahang_Uprising" title="Pahang Uprising">Pahang Uprising</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1891–1895</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mat_Salleh_Rebellion" title="Mat Salleh Rebellion">Mat Salleh Rebellion</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1894–1905</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Federated_Malay_States" title="Federated Malay States">Federated Malay States</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1895–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Siamese_Treaty_of_1909" title="Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909">Anglo-Siamese Treaty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1909</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Unfederated_Malay_States" title="Unfederated Malay States">Unfederated Malay States</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1909–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penang" title="Battle of Penang">Battle of Penang</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1914</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kelantan_rebellion" title="Kelantan rebellion">Kelantan rebellion</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1915</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">World War II</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Japanese occupation of Malaya</a> / <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneo" title="Japanese occupation of British Borneo">Borneo</a></div></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <br />1941–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malayan_campaign" title="Malayan campaign">Malayan campaign</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1941–1942</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borneo_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Borneo (1941–1942)">Bornean Campaign</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1941–1942</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Muar" title="Battle of Muar">Battle of Muar</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1942</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Parit_Sulong_Massacre" title="Parit Sulong Massacre">Parit Sulong Massacre</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1942</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Singapore">Battle of Singapore</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1942</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1942</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Syburi" title="Syburi">Syburi</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1942</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sandakan_Death_Marches" title="Sandakan Death Marches">Sandakan Death Marches</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1942–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Si_Rat_Malai" title="Si Rat Malai">Si Rat Malai</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1943–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Jesselton_revolt" title="Jesselton revolt">Jesselton revolt</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1943–1944</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Formative period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/British_Military_Administration_(Malaya)" title="British Military Administration (Malaya)">BMA of Malaya</a>/<a href="/wiki/British_Military_Administration_(Borneo)" title="British Military Administration (Borneo)">Borneo</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1945–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_North_Borneo" title="Crown Colony of North Borneo">Crown Colony of N. Borneo</a>/<a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Sarawak" title="Crown Colony of Sarawak">Sarawak</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1946–1963</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Anti-cession_movement_of_Sarawak" title="Anti-cession movement of Sarawak">Anti-cession movement</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1946–1963</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Union" title="Malayan Union">Malayan Union</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1946–1948</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya" title="Federation of Malaya">Federation of Malaya</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1948–1963</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1948–1960</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Baling_Talks" title="Baling Talks">Baling Talks</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1955</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Independence period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Malayan Declaration of Independence">Malayan Independence</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1957</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Self-governance_of_Singapore" title="Self-governance of Singapore">Singapore self-governance</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1959</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Internal_Security_Act_1960" title="Internal Security Act 1960">ISA 1960</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1960–2012</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Sarawak Insurgency</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1962–1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/North_Borneo_Self-government_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="North Borneo Self-government Day">North Borneo self-governance</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1963</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Konfrontasi</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1963–1966</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sarawak_Independence_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarawak Independence Day">Sarawak self-governance</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1963</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Day" title="Malaysia Day">Formation of Malaysia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1963</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Singapore_in_Malaysia" title="Singapore in Malaysia">Singapore in Malaysia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1963–1965</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Declaration" title="ASEAN Declaration">ASEAN Declaration</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1967</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Second communist insurgency</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1968–1989</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Modern period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/13_May_incident" title="13 May incident">13 May incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1969</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/National_Operations_Council" title="National Operations Council">National Operations Council</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1969–1971</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rukun_Negara" title="Rukun Negara">Declaration of Rukun Negara</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1970</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_New_Economic_Policy" title="Malaysian New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1971–1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Federal_Territories_of_Malaysia" title="Federal Territories of Malaysia">Federal Territory of KL</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1974</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1977_Kelantan_Emergency" title="1977 Kelantan Emergency">1977 Kelantan Emergency</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1977</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pedra_Branca_dispute" title="Pedra Branca dispute">Pedra Branca dispute</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1979–2008</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Territorial_disputes_in_the_South_China_Sea" title="Territorial disputes in the South China Sea">South China Sea dispute</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Spratly_Islands_dispute" title="Spratly Islands dispute">Spratly</a>)</small></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1980–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Labuan" title="Labuan">Federal Territory of Labuan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1984</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Memali_Incident" title="Memali Incident">Memali incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1985</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Operation_Lalang" title="Operation Lalang">Operation Lalang</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1987</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1988_Malaysian_constitutional_crisis" title="1988 Malaysian constitutional crisis">Constitutional crisis</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1987–1988</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Peace_Agreement_of_Hat_Yai_(1989)" title="Peace Agreement of Hat Yai (1989)">Peace Agreement of Hat Yai</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1989</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1993_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Malaysia" title="1993 amendments to the Constitution of Malaysia">Royal Immunity Amendments</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1993</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis#Malaysia" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">Asian financial crisis</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1997–1998</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Reformasi_(Malaysia)" title="Reformasi (Malaysia)">Reformasi Movement</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1998–2022</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic_in_Malaysia" title="2009 swine flu pandemic in Malaysia">H1N1 flu pandemic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2009–2010</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2014_Malaysian_sedition_dragnet" title="2014 Malaysian sedition dragnet">Sedition Dragnet</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2014</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1Malaysia_Development_Berhad_scandal" title="1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal">1MDB scandal</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2015–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2018_Malaysian_general_election" title="2018 Malaysian general election">Pakatan Harapan takeover</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2018</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia">COVID-19 pandemic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2020–2022</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932022_Malaysian_political_crisis" title="2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis">Political crisis</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2020–2022</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2021_amendment_to_the_Constitution_of_Malaysia" title="2021 amendment to the Constitution of Malaysia">Bornean Amendment</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2021–2023</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Green_Wave_(Malaysia)" title="Green Wave (Malaysia)">Green Wave</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2022–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-top:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Incidents</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Brunei_revolt" title="Brunei revolt">Brunei revolt</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1962–1966</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/North_Borneo_dispute" title="North Borneo dispute">North Borneo dispute</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cross_border_attacks_in_Sabah" title="Cross border attacks in Sabah">Philippine militant attacks</a>)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1962–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1964_race_riots_in_Singapore" title="1964 race riots in Singapore">Singapore race riots</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1964</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Limbang_District" title="Limbang District">Brunei's Limbang claim</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1967–2009</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1967_Penang_Hartal_riot" title="1967 Penang Hartal riot">Penang Hartal riot</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1967</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/13_May_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="13 May Incident">13 May Incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1969</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ligitan_and_Sipadan_dispute" title="Ligitan and Sipadan dispute">Ligitan and Sipadan dispute</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1969–2002</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1971_Kuala_Lumpur_floods" title="1971 Kuala Lumpur floods">Kuala Lumpur flash floods</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1971</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_haze" title="Southeast Asian haze">Malaysian haze crisis</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1972–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1975_AIA_building_hostage_crisis" title="1975 AIA building hostage crisis">AIA building hostage crisis</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1975</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/National_Monument_(Malaysia)" title="National Monument (Malaysia)">National Monument bombing</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1975</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Campbell_Shopping_Complex_fire" title="Campbell Shopping Complex fire">Campbell Shopping Complex fire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1976</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1976_Sabah_Air_GAF_Nomad_crash" title="1976 Sabah Air GAF Nomad crash">Sabah Air GAF Nomad crash</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1976</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Japan_Air_Lines_Flight_715" title="Japan Air Lines Flight 715">Japan Airlines Flight 715 incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1977</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Airline_System_Flight_653" title="Malaysian Airline System Flight 653">MH653 incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1977</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dawn_Raid_(Malaysia)" title="Dawn Raid (Malaysia)">Dawn Raid</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1981</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1985_Lahad_Datu_ambush" title="1985 Lahad Datu ambush">1985 Lahad Datu ambush</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1985</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Memali_Incident" title="Memali Incident">Memali Incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1985</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1986_Sabah_riots" title="1986 Sabah riots">Sabah Emergency</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1986</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1987_Ming_Court_Affair" title="1987 Ming Court Affair">Ming Court Affair</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1987</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Abdul_Halim_ferry_terminal_bridge_collapse" title="Sultan Abdul Halim ferry terminal bridge collapse">Penang terminal bridge collapse</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1988</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1989_Taufiqiah_Al-Khairiah_madrasa_fire" title="1989 Taufiqiah Al-Khairiah madrasa fire">Taufiqiah Al-Khairiah madrasa fire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1989</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bright_Sparklers_Fireworks_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Bright Sparklers Fireworks disaster">Bright Sparklers disaster</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Highland_Towers_collapse" title="Highland Towers collapse">Highland Towers collapse</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1993</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Genting_Sempah%E2%80%93Genting_Highlands_Highway" title="Genting Sempah–Genting Highlands Highway">Genting landslide</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1995</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_2133" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 2133">MH2133 incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1995</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1996_Pos_Dipang_mudflow" title="1996 Pos Dipang mudflow">Pos Dipang mudflow</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1996</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tropical_Depression_Greg_(1996)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical Depression Greg (1996)">Tropical Storm Greg</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1996</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1998%E2%80%931999_Malaysia_Nipah_virus_outbreak" title="1998–1999 Malaysia Nipah virus outbreak">1998–1999 Malaysia Nipah virus outbreak</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1998–1999</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2000_Sipadan_kidnappings" title="2000 Sipadan kidnappings">2000 Sipadan kidnappings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27unah" title="Al-Ma'unah">Al-Ma'unah incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sauk_Siege" title="Sauk Siege">Sauk Siege</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2001_Kampung_Medan_riots" title="2001 Kampung Medan riots">2001 Kampung Medan riots</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2001</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2002_Taman_Hillview_landslide" title="2002 Taman Hillview landslide">2002 Taman Hillview landslide</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2002</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_the_2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_on_Malaysia" title="Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Malaysia">Indian Ocean tsunami</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2004</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2006%E2%80%932007_Southeast_Asian_floods" title="2006–2007 Southeast Asian floods">2006–2007 Southeast Asian floods</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2006–2007</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2007_Bukit_Gantang_bus_crash" title="2007 Bukit Gantang bus crash">Bukit Gantang bus crash</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2007</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2008_Bukit_Antarabangsa_landslide" title="2008 Bukit Antarabangsa landslide">Bukit Antarabangsa landslide</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2008</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic_in_Malaysia" title="2009 swine flu pandemic in Malaysia">2009 swine flu pandemic in Malaysia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2009</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2010_attacks_against_places_of_worship_in_Malaysia" title="2010 attacks against places of worship in Malaysia">Attacks against places of worship</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2010</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2010_Cameron_Highlands_bus_crash" title="2010 Cameron Highlands bus crash">Cameron Highlands bus crash</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2010</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2011_Hulu_Langat_landslide" title="2011 Hulu Langat landslide">Hulu Langat landslide</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2011</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2013_Genting_Highlands_bus_crash" title="2013 Genting Highlands bus crash">Genting Highlands bus crash</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2013</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_370" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 370">MH370 incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2014</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_17" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 17">MH17 incident</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2014</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_Malaysia_floods" class="mw-redirect" title="2014–15 Malaysia floods">2014–15 Malaysia floods</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2014–2015</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2015_Sabah_earthquake" title="2015 Sabah earthquake">Sabah earthquake</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2015</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2015_Plaza_Low_Yat_riot" title="2015 Plaza Low Yat riot">2015 Plaza Low Yat riot</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">2015</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2016_Movida_Bar_grenade_attack" title="2016 Movida Bar grenade attack">Movida Bar grenade attack</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2016</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Kim_Jong-nam" title="Assassination of Kim Jong-nam">Kim Jong-nam's Assassination</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2017</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2017_Darul_Quran_Ittifaqiyah_madrasa_fire" title="2017 Darul Quran Ittifaqiyah madrasa fire">Darul Quran madrasa fire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">2017</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sri_Maha_Mariamman_Temple_riot" title="Sri Maha Mariamman Temple riot">2018 Subang Temple riot</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2018</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_Malaysian_floods" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–21 Malaysian floods">2020-21 Malaysia floods</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2021</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2021_Kelana_Jaya_LRT_collision" title="2021 Kelana Jaya LRT collision">LRT train collision</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2021</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Malaysian_floods" title="2021–2022 Malaysian floods">2021-22 Malaysia floods</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2021–2022</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2022_Batang_Kali_landslide" title="2022 Batang Kali landslide">2022 Batang Kali landslide</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2022</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2023_Elmina_plane_crash" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 Elmina plane crash">2023 Elmina plane crash</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2023</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2024_Lumut_mid-air_collision" title="2024 Lumut mid-air collision">2024 Lumut helicopters crash</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2024</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/2024_Ulu_Tiram_police_station_attack" title="2024 Ulu Tiram police station attack">2024 Ulu Tiram police station attack</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2024</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By topic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunications_in_Malaysia" title="History of telecommunications in Malaysia">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Malaysian_Constitution" title="History of the Malaysian Constitution">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Malaysia" title="Economic history of Malaysia">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Malaysia#History" title="Immigration to Malaysia">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_legal_history" title="Malaysian legal history">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Malaysia" title="Military history of Malaysia">Military</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kedah" title="History of Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kuala_Lumpur" title="History of Kuala Lumpur">Kuala Lumpur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Penang" title="History of Penang">Penang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_George_Town,_Penang" title="History of George Town, Penang">George Town</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sabah" title="History of Sabah">Sabah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sarawak" title="History of Sarawak">Sarawak</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/16px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/24px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Malaysia" title="Portal:Malaysia">Malaysia portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Malaysia" title="Template:History of Malaysia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Malaysia" title="Template talk:History of Malaysia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Malaysia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Malaysia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>The Dutch East Indies was formed from the nationalised <a href="/wiki/Factory_(trading_post)" title="Factory (trading post)">trading posts</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a>, which came under the administration of the <a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Dutch</a> government in 1800. During the 19th century, the Dutch fought <a href="/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_East_Indies_Army" title="Royal Netherlands East Indies Army">many wars</a> against indigenous rulers and peoples, which caused hundreds of thousands of deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dutch rule reached its greatest territorial extent in the early 20th century with the occupation of <a href="/wiki/Western_New_Guinea" title="Western New Guinea">Western New Guinea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Dutch East Indies was one of the most valuable colonies under European rule,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though its profits depended on exploitative labor.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The colony contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and <a href="/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">cash crop</a> trade in the 19th century, and coal and oil exploration in the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The colonial social order was rigidly racial with the Dutch elite living separately from but linked to their native subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Etymology_of_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Etymology of Indonesia">term <i>Indonesia</i></a> was used for the geographical location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals conceived <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a>, setting the stage for an independence movement.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Japan's World War II occupation</a> dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Japanese surrender</a> on 15 August 1945, Indonesian nationalist leaders <a href="/wiki/Sukarno" title="Sukarno">Sukarno</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Hatta" title="Mohammad Hatta">Hatta</a> declared <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_Indonesian_Independence" title="Proclamation of Indonesian Independence">independence</a>, instigating the <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a>. The Dutch, aiming to re-establish control of the archipelago,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> responded by deploying roughly 220,000 troops,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who fought the Indonesian nationalists in <a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">attrition warfare</a>. The <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> threatened to terminate financial aid for the Netherlands under the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> if they did not agree to transfer sovereignty to Indonesia, leading to Dutch recognition of <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesian sovereignty</a> at the 1949 <a href="/wiki/Dutch%E2%80%93Indonesian_Round_Table_Conference" title="Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference">Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indonesia became one of the leading nations of the <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Asia" title="Decolonisation of Asia">Asian independence movement</a> after World War II. During the revolution and after Indonesian independence, almost all Dutch citizens repatriated to the Netherlands. </p><p>In 1962, the Dutch turned over their last possession in Southeast Asia, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_New_Guinea" title="Dutch New Guinea">Dutch New Guinea</a> (<a href="/wiki/Western_New_Guinea" title="Western New Guinea">Western New Guinea</a>), to Indonesia under the provisions of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Agreement" title="New York Agreement">New York Agreement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At that point, the entirety of the colony ceased to exist. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word <i>Indies</i> comes from <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">Indus</i> (<a href="/wiki/Names_for_India" title="Names for India">Names for India</a>). The original name <i>Dutch Indies</i> (<a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <i lang="nl">Nederlandsch-Indië</i>) was translated by the English as the <i>Dutch East Indies</i>, to keep it distinct from the <i><a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch West Indies">Dutch West Indies</a></i>. The name <i>Dutch Indies</i> is recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a>'s documents of the early 1620s.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars writing in English use the terms <i>Indië</i>, <i>Indies</i>, the <i>Dutch East Indies</i>, the <i>Netherlands Indies</i>, and <i>colonial Indonesia</i> interchangeably.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Indonesia" title="History of Indonesia">History of Indonesia</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Before_the_Dutch">Before the Dutch</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Before the Dutch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the time when Europeans arrived, the <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_archipelago" title="Indonesian archipelago">Indonesian archipelago</a> supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states (the most important were <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since centuries BCE the islands were part of migratory and commercial exchange within <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">east-Africa</a>. From <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a> onwards the archipelago was also a major part of the global <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a>. For centuries <a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindu-Buddhist civilizations</a> were dominant; however, increasing trade links instigated the <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam_in_Southeast_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia">spread of Islam</a>. By the 16th century, a large part of the archipelago was ruled under <a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_states_and_dynasties" title="List of Muslim states and dynasties">Islamic kingdoms</a>, except <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a> that retained a Hindu majority. Sultanates, <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city states</a>, local kingdoms and tribes were all connected through trade, creating a mixed <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Indonesia" title="Culture of Indonesia">Hindu-Buddhist-Islamic culture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> throughout the region. The islands were known to the Europeans and were sporadically visited by expeditions such as that of Italians <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a> in 1292 and <a href="/wiki/Odoric_of_Pordenone" title="Odoric of Pordenone">Odoric of Pordenone</a> in 1321. The first Europeans to establish themselves in Indonesia were the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese in 1512</a> who established a network of <a href="/wiki/Trading_post" title="Trading post">trading posts</a> and fortresses throughout the region, including at the <a href="/wiki/Spice_islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Spice islands">spice islands</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Maluku islands</a>. In 1580 <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Portugal formed a union with Spain</a>, and therewith entered <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">the war</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dutch_East_Indies_Company_rule">Dutch East Indies Company rule</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dutch East Indies Company rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Company rule in the Dutch East Indies">Company rule in the Dutch East Indies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Netherlands_(1500%E2%80%931815)" title="Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)">Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dutch_East_Indies_Expansion.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Dutch_East_Indies_Expansion.gif/320px-Dutch_East_Indies_Expansion.gif" decoding="async" width="320" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Dutch_East_Indies_Expansion.gif/480px-Dutch_East_Indies_Expansion.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Dutch_East_Indies_Expansion.gif/640px-Dutch_East_Indies_Expansion.gif 2x" data-file-width="694" data-file-height="369" /></a><figcaption>Expansion of the Dutch East Indies in the Indonesian Archipelago</figcaption></figure> <p>Following disruption of <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch</a> access to spices,<sup id="cite_ref-Ricklefs_1991,_p._27_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ricklefs_1991,_p._27-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/First_Dutch_Expedition_to_East_Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="First Dutch Expedition to East Indies">the first Dutch expedition</a> set sail to reach the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. After <a href="/wiki/First_Dutch_Expedition_to_East_Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="First Dutch Expedition to East Indies">many skirmishes and hardships</a>, only one third of the original crew made it back to Holland and other Dutch expeditions soon followed. Recognising the potential of the <a href="/wiki/East_Indies" title="East Indies">East Indies</a> trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the <a href="/wiki/United_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="United East India Company">United East India Company</a> (<i>Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie</i> or VOC).<sup id="cite_ref-Ricklefs_1991,_p._27_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ricklefs_1991,_p._27-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In March 1602 the VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, and make treaties across Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A capital was established in <a href="/wiki/Batavia,_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Batavia, Dutch East Indies">Batavia</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Jakarta" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a>), which became the center of the VOC's Asian trading network.<sup id="cite_ref-Vickers_2005,_p._10_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vickers_2005,_p._10-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To their original monopolies on <a href="/wiki/Nutmeg" title="Nutmeg">nutmeg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_peppers" class="mw-redirect" title="Black peppers">peppers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cloves" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloves">cloves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">cinnamon</a>, the company and later colonial administrations introduced non-indigenous <a href="/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">cash crops</a> like coffee, tea, cacao, tobacco, rubber, sugar and opium, and safeguarded their commercial interests by taking over surrounding territory.<sup id="cite_ref-Vickers_2005,_p._10_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vickers_2005,_p._10-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smuggling, the ongoing expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was formally dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago (including much of <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, much of <a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Maluku</a>, and the hinterlands of ports such as <a href="/wiki/Makasar" class="mw-redirect" title="Makasar">Makasar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manado" title="Manado">Manado</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kupang" title="Kupang">Kupang</a>) were nationalized under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery">Slavery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the VOC arrived in the Indonesian archipelago, they started to use and expand upon the then-existing indigenous system of slavery. In certain places slaves were used on plantations such as on the Maluku islands, namely the <a href="/wiki/Banda_Islands" title="Banda Islands">Banda islands</a> where most of the local population had been <a href="/wiki/Dutch_conquest_of_the_Banda_Islands" title="Dutch conquest of the Banda Islands">deported or exterminated</a> by the VOC to be replaced with slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dutch slaves worked in agriculture, manufacturing, and services, but most were used as domestic servants including housemaids and houseboys, cooks, seamstresses, musicians, and concubines.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slaves could be acquired through trade at indigenous slave markets or captured on raids. In certain cases the VOC stirred up ethnic tensions between rivalling populations in the hope they could cheaply buy war captives at slave markets after the conflict. Slaves were transported from islands in Indonesia itself, or from other countries such as India and China. Estimates of the scale of the slave trade in the Dutch East Indies are scant, but it is suggested that around 1 million slaves were active during its peak in the 17th and 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Punishments for slaves could be extremely harsh— for instance, runaway slaves and their accomplices could be subject to whipping, chain gangs, or death.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other punishments included the cutting of hands, ears, breasts and noses, forms of <a href="/wiki/Scaphism" title="Scaphism">scaphism</a>, being burned alive and the <a href="/wiki/Breaking_wheel" title="Breaking wheel">breaking wheel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In theory, slave masters did not have free rein to punish their own slaves as they wished. Punishments of slaves had to be decided in court, and certain punishments could only be applied when the slave was found guilty in an official court case. In reality however abuse of slaves by their masters was rampant and often went unpunished. Beatings and whippings were a commonplace punishment for disobedient slaves. Rape of female slaves by their masters was a common occurrence as well, as these women and girls were obliged to provide sexual services for their masters. Refusing to do so could result in severe physical punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slavery and its excesses did not end with the bankruptcy of the VOC in 1798, but continued under Dutch state rule. Due to growing international criticism slavery was eventually abolished in the Dutch East Indies in 1860. In reality this was mostly limited to the slaves present on Java and Madura, whose masters were financially compensated for the loss of their workforce. However, on many other islands where slave masters were more often indigenous rulers, little changed. The main reason for this was financial, as the Dutch state at that time did not want to spend the money necessary to free the slaves on the more distant islands. Another reason was to appease local rulers and to prevent political turmoil. Due to the lax policy of the Dutch state slavery persisted in parts of the Dutch East Indies well into the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dutch_conquests">Dutch conquests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dutch conquests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/First_Dutch_Expedition_to_Nusantara" class="mw-redirect" title="First Dutch Expedition to Nusantara">First Dutch Expedition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Dutch_Expedition_to_Nusantara" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Dutch Expedition to Nusantara">Second Dutch Expedition</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_and_British_interregnum_in_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="French and British interregnum in the Dutch East Indies">French and British rule</a></div> <p>From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, Dutch control over the Indonesian archipelago was always tenuous.<sup id="cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LP_23-25-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Java was dominated by the Dutch,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including <a href="/wiki/Aceh" title="Aceh">Aceh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lombok" title="Lombok">Lombok</a> and <a href="/wiki/Borneo" title="Borneo">Borneo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LP_23-25-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were numerous wars and disturbances across the archipelago as various indigenous groups resisted efforts to establish Dutch hegemony, which weakened Dutch control and tied up its military forces.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LP_23-25-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Man_poseert_tussen_megalieten_bij_Batoeberak_TMnr_10025819.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Man_poseert_tussen_megalieten_bij_Batoeberak_TMnr_10025819.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Man_poseert_tussen_megalieten_bij_Batoeberak_TMnr_10025819.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Man_poseert_tussen_megalieten_bij_Batoeberak_TMnr_10025819.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Man_poseert_tussen_megalieten_bij_Batoeberak_TMnr_10025819.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Man_poseert_tussen_megalieten_bij_Batoeberak_TMnr_10025819.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Man_poseert_tussen_megalieten_bij_Batoeberak_TMnr_10025819.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="523" /></a><figcaption>Collectie Stichting Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen Figure Megalith found year 1931 Location of the Kepaksian Pernong Sekala Brak in Hanibung Batu Brak, independent Dutch control securing British settlements in Sumatra.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1806, with the Netherlands under <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">Imperial French</a> domination, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I">Napoleon I</a> appointed his brother <a href="/wiki/Louis_Bonaparte" title="Louis Bonaparte">Louis Bonaparte</a> to the Dutch throne, which led to the 1808 appointment of Marshal <a href="/wiki/Herman_Willem_Daendels" title="Herman Willem Daendels">Herman Willem Daendels</a> as Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1811 Daendels was replaced by Governor-General <a href="/wiki/Jan_Willem_Janssens" title="Jan Willem Janssens">Jan Willem Janssens</a>, but shortly after his arrival, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Spice_Islands" title="Invasion of the Spice Islands">the Spice islands in 1810</a> and <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Java_(1811)" title="Invasion of Java (1811)">Java the following year</a>, leading to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Stamford_Raffles" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Stamford Raffles">Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles</a> becoming Lieutenant Governor. Following Napoleon's defeat at the 1815 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Battle of Waterloo</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a>, independent Dutch control was restored in 1816 on the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1814" title="Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814">Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Commissioners-General_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Commissioners-General of the Dutch East Indies">Commissioners-General of the Dutch East Indies</a> reformed the public finances of the colony and drew up a new <i>Regeringsreglement</i> that would define the government of the colony for a century.<sup id="cite_ref-oranje_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oranje-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the 1824 <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1824" title="Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824">Anglo-Dutch Treaty</a> the Dutch secured the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kepaksian_Pernong_Sekala_Brak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kepaksian Pernong Sekala Brak (page does not exist)">Kepaksian Pernong Sekala Brak</a> and British settlements such as <a href="/wiki/Bengkulu" title="Bengkulu">Bengkulu</a>, both in <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, and the British secured the Dutch settlement of <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> as well as Dutch possessions in the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Peninsula" title="Malay Peninsula">Malay Peninsula</a> (<a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">Malaya</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_India" title="Dutch India">Dutch India</a>. The resulting borders between former British and Dutch possessions remain today between modern Malaysia and Indonesia.<sup id="cite_ref-kerajaan_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kerajaan-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the establishment of the VOC in the 17th century, the expansion of Dutch territory had been a business matter. <a href="/wiki/Graaf_van_den_Bosch" class="mw-redirect" title="Graaf van den Bosch">Graaf van den Bosch</a>'s governor-generalship (1830–1835) confirmed profitability as the foundation of official policy, restricting its attention to Java, Sumatra and <a href="/wiki/Bangka_Island" title="Bangka Island">Bangka</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rickelfs131_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rickelfs131-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, from about 1840, Dutch national expansionism saw them wage a series of wars to enlarge and consolidate their possessions in the outer islands.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Motivations included the protection of areas already held, the intervention of Dutch officials ambitious for glory or promotion, and the aim to establish Dutch claims throughout the archipelago to prevent intervention from other Western powers during the <a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">European push for colonial possessions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rickelfs131_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rickelfs131-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As exploitation of Indonesian resources expanded off Java, most of the outer islands came under direct Dutch government control or influence. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicolaas_Pieneman_-_The_Submission_of_Prince_Dipo_Negoro_to_General_De_Kock.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Nicolaas_Pieneman_-_The_Submission_of_Prince_Dipo_Negoro_to_General_De_Kock.jpg/220px-Nicolaas_Pieneman_-_The_Submission_of_Prince_Dipo_Negoro_to_General_De_Kock.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Nicolaas_Pieneman_-_The_Submission_of_Prince_Dipo_Negoro_to_General_De_Kock.jpg/330px-Nicolaas_Pieneman_-_The_Submission_of_Prince_Dipo_Negoro_to_General_De_Kock.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Nicolaas_Pieneman_-_The_Submission_of_Prince_Dipo_Negoro_to_General_De_Kock.jpg/440px-Nicolaas_Pieneman_-_The_Submission_of_Prince_Dipo_Negoro_to_General_De_Kock.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6124" data-file-height="4608" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Submission_of_Prince_Dipo_Negoro_to_General_De_Kock" title="The Submission of Prince Dipo Negoro to General De Kock">The Submission of Prince Dipo Negoro to General De Koc</a> <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Merkus_de_Kock" title="Hendrik Merkus de Kock">k</a>,</i> by <a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Pieneman" title="Nicolaas Pieneman">Nicolaas Pieneman</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Dutch subjugated the <a href="/wiki/Minangkabau_people" title="Minangkabau people">Minangkabau</a> of Sumatra in the <a href="/wiki/Padri_War" title="Padri War">Padri War</a> (1821–38)<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Java_War" title="Java War">Java War</a> (1825–30) ended significant Javanese resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-Friend_p21_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friend_p21-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Banjarmasin_War" title="Banjarmasin War">Banjarmasin War</a> (1859–1863) in southeast Kalimantan resulted in the defeat of the Sultan.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After failed expeditions to conquer Bali in <a href="/wiki/Dutch_intervention_in_northern_Bali_(1846)" title="Dutch intervention in northern Bali (1846)">1846</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_intervention_in_northern_Bali_(1848)" title="Dutch intervention in northern Bali (1848)">1848</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Dutch_intervention_in_Bali_(1849)" title="Dutch intervention in Bali (1849)">1849 intervention</a> brought northern Bali under Dutch control. The most prolonged military expedition was the <a href="/wiki/Aceh_War" title="Aceh War">Aceh War</a> in which a Dutch invasion in 1873 was met with indigenous guerrilla resistance and ended with an Acehnese surrender in 1912.<sup id="cite_ref-Friend_p21_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friend_p21-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Disturbances continued to break out on both Java and <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> during the remainder of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LP_23-25-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This included the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Banten_Peasant%27s_Revolt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Banten Peasant's Revolt (page does not exist)">Banten Peasant's Revolt</a> in the aftermath of the tremendous eruption of <a href="/wiki/Krakatoa" title="Krakatoa">Krakatoa</a> in 1883.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the island of <a href="/wiki/Dutch_intervention_in_Lombok_and_Karangasem" title="Dutch intervention in Lombok and Karangasem">Lombok came under Dutch control</a> in 1894,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Batak" title="Batak">Batak</a> resistance in northern Sumatra was quashed in 1895.<sup id="cite_ref-Friend_p21_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friend_p21-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Towards the end of the 19th century, the balance of military power shifted towards the industrialising Dutch and against pre-industrial independent indigenous Indonesian <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/polity#Pronunciation" class="extiw" title="wikt:polity">polities</a> as the technology gap widened.<sup id="cite_ref-Rickelfs131_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rickelfs131-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Military leaders and Dutch politicians believed they had a moral duty to free the native Indonesian peoples from indigenous rulers who were considered oppressive, backward, or disrespectful of international law.<sup id="cite_ref-Vickers_2005,_p._14_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vickers_2005,_p._14-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although Indonesian rebellions broke out, direct colonial rule was extended throughout the rest of the archipelago from 1901 to 1910 and control taken from the remaining independent local rulers.<sup id="cite_ref-Reid_1974,_p._1_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reid_1974,_p._1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southwestern <a href="/wiki/Sulawesi" title="Sulawesi">Sulawesi</a> was occupied in 1905–06, the island of Bali was subjugated with military conquests in <a href="/wiki/Dutch_intervention_in_Bali_(1906)" title="Dutch intervention in Bali (1906)">1906</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_intervention_in_Bali_(1908)" title="Dutch intervention in Bali (1908)">1908</a>, as were the remaining independent kingdoms in Maluku, Sumatra, Kalimantan and <a href="/wiki/Nusa_Tenggara" class="mw-redirect" title="Nusa Tenggara">Nusa Tenggara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Friend_p21_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friend_p21-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vickers_2005,_p._14_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vickers_2005,_p._14-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other rulers including the Sultans of <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Tidore" title="Sultanate of Tidore">Tidore</a> in Maluku, <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Pontianak" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Pontianak">Pontianak</a> (Kalimantan) and <a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, requested Dutch protection from independent neighbours thereby avoiding Dutch military conquest and were able to negotiate better conditions under colonial rule.<sup id="cite_ref-Vickers_2005,_p._14_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vickers_2005,_p._14-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Bird%27s_Head_Peninsula" title="Bird's Head Peninsula">Bird's Head Peninsula</a> (<a href="/wiki/Western_New_Guinea" title="Western New Guinea">Western New Guinea</a>), was brought under Dutch administration in 1920. This final territorial range would form the territory of the Republic of <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. The colonial wars in the Dutch East Indies exacted a heavy toll on the Indonesian population, with around 3 to 4 million deaths including both direct war casualties and indirect victims of war due to famine and disease.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultivation_System_and_Coolie_Ordinances">Cultivation System and Coolie Ordinances</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cultivation System and Coolie Ordinances"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cultivation_System" title="Cultivation System">Cultivation System</a></div> <p>Due to the high monetary costs of several Dutch conquests in the 19th century, the Cultivation System ("Cultuurstelsel") was implemented in 1830. Under this system it was stipulated that Indonesian farmers had to use 20% of their farmland for the cultivation of cash crops for export such as indigo, coffee and sugar.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through this system considerable profits were made; the net profit for the Dutch treasury is estimated at 4% of the Dutch GDP at the time and around 50% of total state revenue. </p><p>The system proved disastrous for the local population; at its height, over 1 million farmers worked under the <i>Cultuurstelsel</i> and the extreme incentive for profit resulted in widespread abuses. Farmers were often forced to either use more than 20% of their farmland, or the most fertile land, for cultivation of cash crops.<sup id="cite_ref-Demographic_Effect_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Demographic_Effect-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system led to an increase in famine and disease among Javanese peasants in the 1840s.<sup id="cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LP_23-25-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one estimate, the mortality rates increased by as much as 30% during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-Demographic_Effect_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Demographic_Effect-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to widespread criticism of the system, it was abolished in 1870. According to one study, the mortality rate in Java would have been 10–20% higher by the late 1870s if the Cultivation system had not been abolished.<sup id="cite_ref-Demographic_Effect_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Demographic_Effect-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The introduction of trucks, railways, telegraph systems, and more coordinated distribution systems all contributed to famine elimination in Java which had historically been common. Java experienced rapid population growth during the 19th century and there were no significant famines in Java after the 1840s.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another source of profit were the so-called <a href="/wiki/Coolies" class="mw-redirect" title="Coolies">coolies</a>, a name for low-wage indentured laborers. After the abolition of the Cultivation System in 1870, the economy shifted to private companies such as the <a href="/wiki/Deli_Company" title="Deli Company">Deli Company</a>, which was founded on Sumatra in 1869. Large-scale plantations were built to grow cash crops and Javanese, Chinese, Malay, Batak and Indian people were shipped to the plantations in Sumatra and Java to perform harsh labor. It is estimated that over 500,000 coolies were transported to Sumatra during the late 19th and early 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The precise death rate among coolie laborers is hard to estimate due to scarce or unreliable records but has been estimated to be as high as 25% in certain places, with a possible death toll of many tens of thousands.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While coolies were often paid laborers who worked out of free will, in practice their circumstances often involved forced labor and more closely resembled slavery. They were often misled when signing work contracts or even forced to sign contracts. Others were kidnapped or forced to work due to debts or were criminals sentenced to forced labour by the colonial justice system. The <a href="/wiki/Poenale_sanctie" title="Poenale sanctie">Coolie Ordinances</a> ("Poenale sanctie") of 1880, which allowed the plantation owners to serve as judge, jury and executioner resulted in widespread atrocities. It included a penal sanction which allowed owners to physically punish their coolies as they saw fit. Punishments that were used against coolies included whippings or beatings, after which the open wounds were rubbed with salt.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other punishments used were electrocution, crucifixion and suspending coolies by their toes or thumbs until they broke. Medical care for the coolies was scarce and often aimed at healing punished coolies so they could return to work or be tortured more extensively. Rape of adult female coolies as well as their children was also common.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The coolie system was heavily criticized, especially after 1900 with the rise of the so-called "Ethical Politics". A critical pamphlet named "De miljoenen uit Deli" was published by J. van den Brand. The document described abuses committed against coolies including the torture and sexual abuse of a 15-year-old female coolie who had rejected sexual advances of a Dutch plantation overseer. The penal sanction was eventually abolished in 1931 and the Coolie Ordinances ended in the early 1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Njai_System">Njai System</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Njai System"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Njai" title="Njai">Njai</a></div> <p>During earlier stages of colonization female indigenous <a href="/wiki/Sex_slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex slaves">sex slaves</a> were bought by Dutch colonials, but this practice was cut short after 1860 with the abolition of slavery. In the late 19th century, increasing numbers of Dutch immigrants arrived in colonial Indonesia, leading to a shortage of available women, as most immigrants were men. The Dutch then bought the "Njai", who were indigenous women who officially served as maids but were often also used as <a href="/wiki/Concubines" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubines">concubines</a>. While officially contract workers, these women enjoyed few rights. They could be bought and sold together with the house they worked in as so-called "Indigenous Furniture" (<i>Inlands Meubel</i>). Njai were also not allowed custody of the children they had with their Dutch masters, and when they were fired, their children would be taken away.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 1910s the number of Njai had decreased, although prostitution had become more prevalent. The practice had not died out, however, by the time the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> invaded and occupied the Indies. During the occupation, the Njai and their <a href="/wiki/Indo_people" title="Indo people">mixed-race children</a> were forcefully separated from European men, who were put into internment camps. After Sukarno proclaimed an independent Indonesia, the Njai were forced to choose between going with their partners to Europe, or staying in Indonesia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II_and_independence">World War II and independence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: World War II and independence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies_campaign" title="Dutch East Indies campaign">Dutch East Indies campaign</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_nieuwe_Gouverneur-Generaal_Tjarda_van_Starkenborgh_Stachouwer_verlaat_samen_met_de_zojuist_afgetreden_G.G._B.C._de_Jonge_het_gebouw_van_de_Volksraad_waar_de_bestuursoverdracht_plaatsvond_TMnr_10018818.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_nieuwe_Gouverneur-Generaal_Tjarda_van_Starkenborgh_Stachouwer_verlaat_samen_met_de_zojuist_afgetreden_G.G._B.C._de_Jonge_het_gebouw_van_de_Volksraad_waar_de_bestuursoverdracht_plaatsvond_TMnr_10018818.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_nieuwe_Gouverneur-Generaal_Tjarda_van_Starkenborgh_Stachouwer_verlaat_samen_met_de_zojuist_afgetreden_G.G._B.C._de_Jonge_het_gebouw_van_de_Volksraad_waar_de_bestuursoverdracht_plaatsvond_TMnr_10018818.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_nieuwe_Gouverneur-Generaal_Tjarda_van_Starkenborgh_Stachouwer_verlaat_samen_met_de_zojuist_afgetreden_G.G._B.C._de_Jonge_het_gebouw_van_de_Volksraad_waar_de_bestuursoverdracht_plaatsvond_TMnr_10018818.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alidius_Tjarda_van_Starkenborgh_Stachouwer" title="Alidius Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer">Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bonifacius_Cornelis_de_Jonge" title="Bonifacius Cornelis de Jonge">B. C. de Jonge</a>, the last and penultimate <a href="/wiki/Governor-general_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Governor-general of the Dutch East Indies">governor-general of the Dutch East Indies</a>, before the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Japanese invasion</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Netherlands capitulated their European territory to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a> on May 14, 1940. The royal family fled to exile in Britain. Germany and Japan were Axis allies. On 27 September 1940, Germany, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1920%E2%80%931946)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)">Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist Italy (1922–1943)">Italy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a> signed a treaty outlining "spheres of influence". The Dutch East Indies fell into Japan's sphere. </p><p>The Netherlands, Britain and the United States tried to defend the colony from the Japanese forces as they moved south in late 1941 in search of Dutch oil.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 10 January 1942, during the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch East Indies Campaign">Dutch East Indies Campaign</a>, Japanese forces invaded the Dutch East Indies as part of the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rubber plantations and oil fields of the Dutch East Indies were considered crucial for the Japanese war effort. Allied forces were quickly overwhelmed by the Japanese and on 8 March 1942 the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Dutch_East_Indies_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Dutch East Indies Army">Royal Dutch East Indies Army</a> surrendered in Java.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fuelled by the Japanese <i>Light of Asia</i> war propaganda<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Awakening" title="Indonesian National Awakening">Indonesian National Awakening</a>, a vast majority of the indigenous Dutch East Indies population first welcomed the Japanese as liberators from the colonial Dutch empire, but this sentiment quickly changed as the occupation turned out to be far more oppressive and ruinous than the Dutch colonial government.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Japanese occupation</a> during World War II brought about the fall of the colonial state in Indonesia,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as the Japanese removed as much of the Dutch government structure as they could, replacing it with their own regime.<sup id="cite_ref-VICKERSp85_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VICKERSp85-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the top positions were held by the Japanese, the internment of all Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many leadership and administrative positions. In contrast to Dutch repression of Indonesian nationalism, the Japanese allowed indigenous leaders to forge links among the masses, and they trained and armed the younger generations.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a UN report, four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, nationalist leaders <a href="/wiki/Sukarno" title="Sukarno">Sukarno</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Hatta" title="Mohammad Hatta">Mohammad Hatta</a> declared Indonesian independence. A <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">four-and-a-half-year struggle</a> followed as the Dutch tried to re-establish their colony; although Dutch forces re-occupied most of Indonesia's territory a guerrilla struggle ensued, and the majority of Indonesians, and ultimately international opinion, favoured Indonesian independence. The Netherlands committed war crimes: summary and arbitrary killings of Indonesian villagers and farmers, torture of Indonesian prisoners and execution of prisoners. Ad van Liempt documented the mass murder of 364 Indonesians by Dutch soldiers in the village of Galoeng Galoeng. Alfred Edelstein and Karin van Coevorden, documented later the <a href="/wiki/Rawagede_massacre" title="Rawagede massacre">execution of hundreds of men in the village of Rawagede</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The independence movement during the later phases of the <a href="/wiki/Bersiap" title="Bersiap">Bersiap</a> also targeted Dutch and Eurasian civilians, particularly under the direction of <a href="/wiki/Sutomo" title="Sutomo">Sutomo</a> who personally supervised the summary executions of hundreds of civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the political situation in Indonesia devolved into a deadlock the new Dutch government, led by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Beel" title="Louis Beel">Louis Beel</a> of the Catholic People's Party, formed a <i>Commissie-Generaal voor Nederlands-Indië</i> (Commission General for the Dutch Indies) on 14 September 1946. This Commission-General consisted of <a href="/wiki/Willem_Schermerhorn" title="Willem Schermerhorn">Willem Schermerhorn</a>, Dutch Prime Minister from 1945 to 1946; F. De Boer, Liberal politician; Max van Poll, Catholic Party politician; and <a href="/wiki/Hubertus_van_Mook" title="Hubertus van Mook">Hubertus van Mook</a>, Lieutenant-Governor General (ex officio). The Commission achieved a cease-fire on 14 October (a month after its arrival in Batavia) and a draft agreement on 15 November with the negotiators for the Republik <a href="/wiki/Sutan_Sjahrir" title="Sutan Sjahrir">Sutan Sjahrir</a>, Prime Minister, <a href="/wiki/Amir_Sjarifuddin" title="Amir Sjarifuddin">Amir Sjarifuddin</a>, Defense Minister, and <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Leimena" title="Johannes Leimena">Johannes Leimena</a>, Junior Minister of Health, chairman of the Indonesian Christian Party. This so-called <a href="/wiki/Linggadjati_Agreement" title="Linggadjati Agreement">Linggadjati Agreement</a> was first "elucidated" by the Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs <a href="/wiki/Jan_Jonkman" title="Jan Jonkman">Jan Jonkman</a> on 10 December, and in this form accepted by the Dutch Parliament on 20 December 1946. It was formally signed by the parties on 25 March 1947 in Djakarta, with the Indonesian side rejecting the "elucidation".<sup id="cite_ref-tijdbalk_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tijdbalk-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After this high point in the relations between the two countries, the situation rapidly deteriorated. On both sides more extreme parties got the upper hand. The Dutch unilaterally instituted an interim government for the colony on a "federal" basis, with representation for the parts of the colony not represented by the Republik. This was unacceptable to Sukarno. Sjahrir proposed a compromise, but this was rejected by the Dutch. Sjahrir resigned and was replaced by Sjarifuddin. Sukarno declared a state of emergency in the areas that were in the hands of the Republik and assumed charge of the negotiations. The situation deteriorated further, and the Dutch resorted to military intervention under <a href="/wiki/Operation_Product" title="Operation Product">Operation Product</a> (or <i>first "politionele actie"</i>). The Commission General was dissolved on 15 November 1947 after Schermerhorn and Van Poll resigned. The <i>Politionele Actie</i> did not achieve its goals,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Which goals? (December 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and international pressure forced the Dutch government to accept a cease-fire and the <a href="/wiki/Renville_Agreement" title="Renville Agreement">Renville Agreement</a> (17 January 1948). This agreement, however, did not lead to a solution. Provocative actions from both sides led to a tense military situation, and the Dutch for the second time resorted to military intervention with the second <i>politionele actie,</i> or <a href="/wiki/Operation_Kraai" title="Operation Kraai">Operation Kraai</a>, in December 1948. This was militarily successful (the Dutch managed to capture Sukarno), but again international political pressure forced the Dutch to back down and be party to the <a href="/wiki/Roem%E2%80%93Van_Roijen_Agreement" title="Roem–Van Roijen Agreement">Roem–Van Roijen Agreement</a> (7 May 1949). The <a href="/wiki/Dutch%E2%80%93Indonesian_Round_Table_Conference" title="Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference">Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference</a> then started on 22 August 1949, which led to the agreement to transfer sovereignty to a Republic of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Indonesia" title="United States of Indonesia">United States of Indonesia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-tijdbalk_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tijdbalk-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In December 1949 the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian sovereignty with the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_New_Guinea" title="Dutch New Guinea">Dutch New Guinea</a> (<a href="/wiki/Western_New_Guinea" title="Western New Guinea">Western New Guinea</a>). <a href="/wiki/Sukarno" title="Sukarno">Sukarno</a>'s government campaigned for Indonesian control of the territory, and with pressure from the United States, the Netherlands agreed to the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Agreement" title="New York Agreement">New York Agreement</a> which ceded the territory to Indonesian administration in May 1963.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2013 the Netherlands government apologised for the violence used against the Indonesian people, an apology repeated by King <a href="/wiki/Willem-Alexander" class="mw-redirect" title="Willem-Alexander">Willem-Alexander</a> on a state visit in 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To this day, the colonial war is commonly referred to as "police actions" in the Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law_and_administration">Law and administration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Law and administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies">Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_paleis_van_de_gouverneur-generaal_aan_het_Koningsplein_in_Batavia_TMnr_60025394.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_paleis_van_de_gouverneur-generaal_aan_het_Koningsplein_in_Batavia_TMnr_60025394.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_paleis_van_de_gouverneur-generaal_aan_het_Koningsplein_in_Batavia_TMnr_60025394.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_paleis_van_de_gouverneur-generaal_aan_het_Koningsplein_in_Batavia_TMnr_60025394.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_paleis_van_de_gouverneur-generaal_aan_het_Koningsplein_in_Batavia_TMnr_60025394.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_paleis_van_de_gouverneur-generaal_aan_het_Koningsplein_in_Batavia_TMnr_60025394.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_paleis_van_de_gouverneur-generaal_aan_het_Koningsplein_in_Batavia_TMnr_60025394.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="577" /></a><figcaption>The governor-general's palace in Batavia (1880–1900)</figcaption></figure> <p>Since the VOC era, the highest Dutch authority in the colony resided with the office of the governor-general. During the Dutch East Indies era the governor-general functioned as chief executive president of colonial government and served as <a href="/wiki/Commander-in-chief" title="Commander-in-chief">commander-in-chief</a> of the colonial army (<a href="/wiki/KNIL" class="mw-redirect" title="KNIL">KNIL</a>). Until 1903 all government officials and organisations were formal agents of the governor-general and were entirely dependent on the central administration of the 'office of the governor-general' for their budgets.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until 1815 the governor-general had the absolute right to ban, censor or restrict any publication in the colony. The so-called <i>exorbitant powers</i> of the governor-general allowed him to exile anyone regarded as subversive and dangerous to peace and order, without involving any Court of Law.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Until 1848 the governor-general was directly appointed by the Dutch monarch, and in later years via the Crown and on advice of the Dutch metropolitan cabinet. During two periods (1815–1835 and 1854–1925) the governor-general ruled jointly with an advisory board called the <i>Raad van Indie</i> (Indies Council). Colonial policy and strategy were the responsibility of the Ministry of Colonies based in <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a>. From 1815 to 1848 the ministry was under direct authority of the Dutch king. In the 20th century the colony gradually developed as a state distinct from the Dutch metropole with its treasury separated in 1903, public loans being contracted by the colony from 1913, and quasi-diplomatic ties were established with Arabia<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Arabia meaning Ottoman Empire, Hejaz, Saudi Arabia, or something else? (December 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> to manage the Haji pilgrimage from the Dutch East Indies. In 1922 the colony came on equal footing with the Netherlands in the Dutch constitution, while remaining under the Ministry of Colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_huis_van_de_resident_in_Surabaya_TMnr_3728-839.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_huis_van_de_resident_in_Surabaya_TMnr_3728-839.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_huis_van_de_resident_in_Surabaya_TMnr_3728-839.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_huis_van_de_resident_in_Surabaya_TMnr_3728-839.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_huis_van_de_resident_in_Surabaya_TMnr_3728-839.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_huis_van_de_resident_in_Surabaya_TMnr_3728-839.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_huis_van_de_resident_in_Surabaya_TMnr_3728-839.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption>House of the Resident (colonial administrator) in <a href="/wiki/Surabaya" title="Surabaya">Surabaya</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The governor-general led a hierarchy of Dutch officials: the residents, the assistant residents, and district officers called <i>controllers</i>. Traditional rulers who survived displacement by the Dutch conquests were installed as regents and indigenous aristocracy became an indigenous civil service. While they lost de facto control, their wealth and splendour under the Dutch grew.<sup id="cite_ref-Reid_1974,_p._1_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reid_1974,_p._1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This indirect rule did not disturb the peasantry and was cost-effective for the Dutch; in 1900, only 250 European and 1,500 indigenous civil servants, and 16,000 Dutch officers and men and 26,000 hired native troops, were required to rule 35 million colonial subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1910, the Dutch created the most centralised state power in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Friend_p21_42-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friend_p21-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Politically, the highly centralised power structure established by the Dutch administration, including the exorbitant powers of exile and censorship,<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was carried over into the new Indonesian republic.<sup id="cite_ref-Friend_p21_42-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friend_p21-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A People's Council called the <i><a href="/wiki/Volksraad_(Dutch_East_Indies)" title="Volksraad (Dutch East Indies)">Volksraad</a></i> for the Dutch East Indies commenced in 1918. The <i>Volksraad</i> was limited to an advisory role and only a small portion of the indigenous population was able to vote for its members. The council comprised 30 indigenous members, 25 European and 5 from Chinese and other populations, and was reconstituted every four years. In 1925 the Volksraad was made a semilegislative body; although decisions were still made by the Dutch government, the governor-general was expected to consult the <i>Volksraad</i> on major issues. The <i>Volksraad</i> was dissolved in 1942 during the Japanese occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The legal system was divided by the three main ethnic groups classified under the Dutch colonial administration— Europeans, Foreign Orientals (Arabs and the Chinese) and the indigenous— which were subject to their own legal systems that were all simultaneously in force.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_%27Het_Hooggerechtshof_en_het_Paleis_van_Daendels_het_%27Grote_Huis%27_aan_het_Waterlooplein_te_Batavia%27_TMnr_10015231.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_%27Het_Hooggerechtshof_en_het_Paleis_van_Daendels_het_%27Grote_Huis%27_aan_het_Waterlooplein_te_Batavia%27_TMnr_10015231.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_%27Het_Hooggerechtshof_en_het_Paleis_van_Daendels_het_%27Grote_Huis%27_aan_het_Waterlooplein_te_Batavia%27_TMnr_10015231.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_%27Het_Hooggerechtshof_en_het_Paleis_van_Daendels_het_%27Grote_Huis%27_aan_het_Waterlooplein_te_Batavia%27_TMnr_10015231.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_%27Het_Hooggerechtshof_en_het_Paleis_van_Daendels_het_%27Grote_Huis%27_aan_het_Waterlooplein_te_Batavia%27_TMnr_10015231.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_%27Het_Hooggerechtshof_en_het_Paleis_van_Daendels_het_%27Grote_Huis%27_aan_het_Waterlooplein_te_Batavia%27_TMnr_10015231.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_%27Het_Hooggerechtshof_en_het_Paleis_van_Daendels_het_%27Grote_Huis%27_aan_het_Waterlooplein_te_Batavia%27_TMnr_10015231.jpg 2x" data-file-width="691" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>The Supreme Court Building, Batavia</figcaption></figure> <p>The Dutch government adapted the Dutch codes of law in its colony. The highest court of law, the Supreme Court in Batavia, dealt with appeals and monitored judges and courts throughout the colony. Six councils of justice <i>(Raad van Justitie)</i> dealt mostly with crime committed by people in the European legal class<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and only indirectly with the indigenous population. The land councils <i>(Landraden)</i> dealt with civil matters and less serious offences like estate divorces, and matrimonial disputes. The indigenous population was subject to their respective <a href="/wiki/Adat" title="Adat">adat</a> law and to indigenous regents and district courts, unless cases were escalated before Dutch judges.<sup id="cite_ref-Virtueel_Indi_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Virtueel_Indi-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following Indonesian independence, the Dutch legal system was adopted and gradually a national legal system based on Indonesian precepts of law and justice was established.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1920 the Dutch had established 350 prisons throughout the colony. The <a href="/wiki/Jatinegara" title="Jatinegara">Meester Cornelis</a> prison in Batavia incarcerated the unruliest inmates. In the <a href="/wiki/Sawahlunto" title="Sawahlunto">Sawahlunto</a> prison on Sumatra prisoners had to perform manual labour in the coal mines. Separate prisons were built for juveniles (West Java) and for women. In the Bulu women's prison in Semarang inmates had the opportunity to learn a profession during their detention, such as sewing, weaving and making <a href="/wiki/Batik" title="Batik">batik</a>. This training was held in high esteem and helped re-socialise women once they were outside the correctional facility.<sup id="cite_ref-Virtueel_Indi_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Virtueel_Indi-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to the communist uprising of 1926 the prison camp <i><a href="/wiki/Boven-Digoel_concentration_camp" title="Boven-Digoel concentration camp">Boven-Digoel</a></i> was established in <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>. As of 1927, political prisoners, including indigenous Indonesians espousing Indonesian independence, were 'exiled' to the outer islands.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_divisions">Administrative divisions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Administrative divisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Administrative divisions of the Dutch East Indies">Administrative divisions of the Dutch East Indies</a></div> <p>The Dutch East Indies was divided into three <i>gouvernementen</i>—Groot Oost, Borneo and Sumatra—and three <i>provincies</i> in Java. <i>Provincies</i> and <i>gouvernementen</i> were both divided into residencies, but while the residencies under the provincies were divided again into <i>regentschappen</i>, residencies under <i>gouvermenten</i> were divided into <i>afdeelingen</i> first before being subdivided into <i>regentschappen</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Armed_forces">Armed forces</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Armed forces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_East_Indies_Army" title="Royal Netherlands East Indies Army">Royal Netherlands East Indies Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_East_Indies_Army_Air_Force" title="Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force">Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Government_Navy" title="Government Navy">Government Navy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lombok_1894_J._Hoynck_van_Papendrecht_1858_1933.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Lombok_1894_J._Hoynck_van_Papendrecht_1858_1933.jpg/220px-Lombok_1894_J._Hoynck_van_Papendrecht_1858_1933.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Lombok_1894_J._Hoynck_van_Papendrecht_1858_1933.jpg/330px-Lombok_1894_J._Hoynck_van_Papendrecht_1858_1933.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Lombok_1894_J._Hoynck_van_Papendrecht_1858_1933.jpg/440px-Lombok_1894_J._Hoynck_van_Papendrecht_1858_1933.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3625" data-file-height="2575" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dutch_intervention_in_Lombok_and_Karangasem" title="Dutch intervention in Lombok and Karangasem">Dutch intervention in Lombok and Karangasem</a>, 1894.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_East_Indies_Army" title="Royal Netherlands East Indies Army">Royal Netherlands East Indies Army</a> (KNIL) and its air arm, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_East_Indies_Army_Air_Force" title="Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force">Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force</a> (ML-KNIL), were established in 1814 and 1915, respectively. Naval forces of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Navy" title="Royal Netherlands Navy">Royal Netherlands Navy</a> were based in <a href="/wiki/Surabaya" title="Surabaya">Surabaya</a>, supplemented by the colonial <a href="/wiki/Government_Navy" title="Government Navy">Government Navy</a>. </p><p>The KNIL was not part of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Army" title="Royal Netherlands Army">Royal Netherlands Army</a>, but a separate military arm commanded by the governor-general and funded by the colonial budget. The KNIL was not allowed to recruit Dutch conscripts and had the nature of a '<a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_volunteers" title="List of foreign volunteers">Foreign Legion</a>' recruiting not only Dutch volunteers, but many other European nationalities (especially German, Belgian and Swiss mercenaries).<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While most officers were Europeans, the majority of soldiers were indigenous Indonesians, the largest contingent of which were <a href="/wiki/Javanese_people" title="Javanese people">Javanese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sundanese_people" title="Sundanese people">Sundanese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dutch policy before the 1870s was to take full charge of strategic points and work out treaties with the local leaders elsewhere so they would remain in control and co-operate. The policy failed in <a href="/wiki/Aceh" title="Aceh">Aceh</a>, in northern Sumatra, where the Sultan tolerated pirates who raided commerce in the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca" title="Strait of Malacca">Strait of Malacca</a>. Britain was a protector of Aceh and it granted the Dutch request to conduct their anti-piracy campaign. The campaign quickly drove out the Sultan, but across Aceh numerous local Muslim leaders mobilised and fought the Dutch in four decades of expensive guerrilla war, with high levels of atrocities on both sides.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colonial military authorities tried to forestall a war against the population by means of a 'strategy of awe'. When a guerrilla war did take place the Dutch used either a slow, violent occupation or a campaign of destruction.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elf_Javaanse_KNIL,K,_SFA022800558.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Elf_Javaanse_KNIL%2CK%2C_SFA022800558.jpg/220px-Elf_Javaanse_KNIL%2CK%2C_SFA022800558.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Elf_Javaanse_KNIL%2CK%2C_SFA022800558.jpg/330px-Elf_Javaanse_KNIL%2CK%2C_SFA022800558.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Elf_Javaanse_KNIL%2CK%2C_SFA022800558.jpg/440px-Elf_Javaanse_KNIL%2CK%2C_SFA022800558.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3541" data-file-height="2531" /></a><figcaption>Decorated indigenous KNIL soldiers, 1927</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1900 the archipelago was considered "pacified" and the KNIL was mainly involved with military police tasks. The nature of the KNIL changed in 1917 when the colonial government introduced obligatory <a href="/wiki/Military_service" title="Military service">military service</a> for all male conscripts in the European legal class<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 1922 a supplemental legal enactment introduced the creation of a 'Home guard' (<a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <i lang="nl">Landstorm</i>) for European conscripts older than 32.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Petitions by Indonesian nationalists to establish military service for indigenous people were rejected. In July 1941 the <i>Volksraad</i> passed law creating a native militia of 18,000 by a majority of 43 to 4, with only the moderate Great Indonesia Party objecting. After the declaration of war with Japan, over 100,000 natives volunteered.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The KNIL hastily and inadequately attempted to transform them into a modern military force able to protect the Dutch East Indies from Imperial Japanese invasion. On the eve of the Japanese invasion in December 1941, Dutch regular troops in the East Indies comprised about 1,000 officers and 34,000 men, of whom 28,000 were indigenous. During the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies_campaign" title="Dutch East Indies campaign">Dutch East Indies campaign</a> of 1941–42 the KNIL and the Allied forces were quickly defeated.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All European soldiers, which in practice included all able bodied Indo-European males, were interned by the Japanese as <a href="/wiki/POW" class="mw-redirect" title="POW">POWs</a>. Twenty-five percent of the POWs did not survive their internment. </p><p>Following World War II, a reconstituted KNIL joined with Dutch Army troops to re-establish colonial "law and order". Despite <a href="/wiki/Police_actions_(Indonesia)" title="Police actions (Indonesia)">two successful military campaigns</a> in 1947 and 1948–1949, Dutch efforts to re-establish their colony failed and the Netherlands recognised Indonesian sovereignty in December 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The KNIL was disbanded by 26 July 1950 with its indigenous personnel being given the option of demobilising or joining the <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Armed_Forces" title="Indonesian National Armed Forces">Indonesian military</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time of disbandment the KNIL numbered 65,000, of whom 26,000 were incorporated into the new Indonesian Army. The remainder were either demobilised or transferred to the Netherlands Army.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Key officers in the <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Armed_Forces" title="Indonesian National Armed Forces">Indonesian National Armed Forces</a> that were former KNIL soldiers included: <a href="/wiki/Suharto" title="Suharto">Suharto</a>, second president of Indonesia; <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Haris_Nasution" title="Abdul Haris Nasution">A. H. Nasution</a>, commander of the <a href="/wiki/Siliwangi_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="Siliwangi Division">Siliwangi Division</a> and Chief of Staff of the Indonesian army; and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Evert_Kawilarang" title="Alexander Evert Kawilarang">A. E. Kawilarang</a>, founder of the elite special forces <a href="/wiki/Kopassus" title="Kopassus">Kopassus</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Demographics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Ethical_Policy" title="Dutch Ethical Policy">Dutch Ethical Policy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Leden_van_de_Volksraad_in_1918_D._Birnie_(benoemd)_Kan_Hok_Hoei_(benoemd)_R._Sastro_Widjono_(gekozen)_en_mas_ngab%C3%A8hi_Dwidjo_Sewojo_(benoemd)_TMnr_10001376.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Leden_van_de_Volksraad_in_1918_D._Birnie_%28benoemd%29_Kan_Hok_Hoei_%28benoemd%29_R._Sastro_Widjono_%28gekozen%29_en_mas_ngab%C3%A8hi_Dwidjo_Sewojo_%28benoemd%29_TMnr_10001376.jpg/170px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Leden_van_de_Volksraad_in_1918_D._Birnie_%28benoemd%29_Kan_Hok_Hoei_%28benoemd%29_R._Sastro_Widjono_%28gekozen%29_en_mas_ngab%C3%A8hi_Dwidjo_Sewojo_%28benoemd%29_TMnr_10001376.jpg/255px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Leden_van_de_Volksraad_in_1918_D._Birnie_%28benoemd%29_Kan_Hok_Hoei_%28benoemd%29_R._Sastro_Widjono_%28gekozen%29_en_mas_ngab%C3%A8hi_Dwidjo_Sewojo_%28benoemd%29_TMnr_10001376.jpg/340px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="505" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Volksraad_(Dutch_East_Indies)" title="Volksraad (Dutch East Indies)">Volksraad</a> members in 1918: D. Birnie (Dutch), <a href="/wiki/Hok_Hoei_Kan" title="Hok Hoei Kan">Kan Hok Hoei</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_Indonesian" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Indonesian">Chinese</a>), R. Sastro Widjono and M. N. Dwidjo Sewojo (<a href="/wiki/Javanese_people" title="Javanese people">Javanese</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1898, the population of Java numbered 28 million with another 7 million on Indonesia's outer islands.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first half of 20th century saw large-scale immigration of Dutch and other Europeans to the colony, where they worked in either the government or private sectors. By 1930, there were more than 240,000 people with European legal status in the colony, making up less than 0.5% of the total population.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Almost 75% of these Europeans were in fact native Eurasians known as <a href="/wiki/Indos_in_colonial_history" title="Indos in colonial history">Indo-Europeans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnic_groups">Ethnic groups</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ethnic groups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>1930 census of the Dutch East Indies<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Rank</th> <th>Group</th> <th>Number</th> <th>Percentage </th></tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Native_Indonesians" title="Native Indonesians">Indigenous islanders (Pribumi)</a></td> <td>59,138,067</td> <td>97.4% </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Indonesians" title="Chinese Indonesians">Chinese</a></td> <td>1,233,214</td> <td>2.0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Indo_people" title="Indo people">Dutch people and Eurasians</a></td> <td>240,417</td> <td>0.4% </td></tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td>Other foreign orientals</td> <td>115,535</td> <td>0.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td><b>Total</b></td> <td><b>60,727,233</b></td> <td><b>100%</b> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Dutch colonialists formed a privileged upper social class of soldiers, administrators, managers, teachers and pioneers. They lived together with the natives, but at the top of a rigid social and racial <a href="/wiki/Caste_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Caste system">caste system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Dutch East Indies had two legal classes of citizens; European and indigenous. A third class, Foreign Easterners, was added in 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1901 the Dutch adopted what they called the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Ethical_Policy" title="Dutch Ethical Policy">Ethical Policy</a>, under which the colonial government had a duty to further the welfare of the Indonesian people in health and education. Other new measures under the policy included irrigation programs, <a href="/wiki/Transmigration_program" title="Transmigration program">transmigration</a>, communications, flood mitigation, industrialisation and protection of native industry.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a> did not significantly affect the majority of Indonesians, and Indonesia remained an agricultural colony; by 1930, there were 17 cities with populations over 50,000 and their combined populations numbered 1.87 million of the colony's 60 million.<sup id="cite_ref-Reid_1974,_p._1_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reid_1974,_p._1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Leerlingen_van_de_School_tot_Opleiding_van_Indische_Artsen_(STOVIA)_Doctor_Jawa_TMnr_60047128.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Leerlingen_van_de_School_tot_Opleiding_van_Indische_Artsen_%28STOVIA%29_Doctor_Jawa_TMnr_60047128.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Leerlingen_van_de_School_tot_Opleiding_van_Indische_Artsen_%28STOVIA%29_Doctor_Jawa_TMnr_60047128.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Leerlingen_van_de_School_tot_Opleiding_van_Indische_Artsen_%28STOVIA%29_Doctor_Jawa_TMnr_60047128.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Leerlingen_van_de_School_tot_Opleiding_van_Indische_Artsen_%28STOVIA%29_Doctor_Jawa_TMnr_60047128.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Leerlingen_van_de_School_tot_Opleiding_van_Indische_Artsen_%28STOVIA%29_Doctor_Jawa_TMnr_60047128.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Leerlingen_van_de_School_tot_Opleiding_van_Indische_Artsen_%28STOVIA%29_Doctor_Jawa_TMnr_60047128.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="528" /></a><figcaption>Students of the <i>School Tot Opleiding Van Indische Artsen</i> (STOVIA) aka Sekolah Doctor Jawa</figcaption></figure> <p>The Dutch school system was extended to Indonesians with the most prestigious schools admitting Dutch children and those of the Indonesian upper class. A second tier of schooling was based on ethnicity with separate schools for Indonesians, Arabs, and Chinese being taught in Dutch and with a Dutch curriculum. Ordinary Indonesians were educated in <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> in Roman alphabet with "link" schools preparing bright Indonesian students for entry into the Dutch-language schools.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_2003,_p._286_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor_2003,_p._286-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vocational schools and programs were set up by the Indies government to train indigenous Indonesians for specific roles in the colonial economy. Chinese and Arabs, officially termed "foreign orientals", could not enrol in either the vocational schools or primary schools.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Graduates of Dutch schools opened their own schools modelled on the Dutch school system, as did Christian missionaries, Theosophical Societies and Indonesian cultural associations. This proliferation of schools was further boosted by new Muslim schools in the Western mould that also offered secular subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_2003,_p._286_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor_2003,_p._286-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the 1930 census, 6% of Indonesians were literate; however, this figure recognised only graduates from Western schools and those who could read and write in a language in the Roman alphabet. It did not include graduates of non-Western schools or those who could read but not write <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, Malay or Dutch, or those who could write in non-Roman alphabets such as <a href="/wiki/Batak_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Batak language">Batak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a>, Chinese or Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_2003,_p._286_110-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor_2003,_p._286-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Professoren_der_Rechts_Hogeschool_in_Batavia_TMnr_60012567.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Professoren_der_Rechts_Hogeschool_in_Batavia_TMnr_60012567.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Professoren_der_Rechts_Hogeschool_in_Batavia_TMnr_60012567.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Professoren_der_Rechts_Hogeschool_in_Batavia_TMnr_60012567.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Professoren_der_Rechts_Hogeschool_in_Batavia_TMnr_60012567.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Professoren_der_Rechts_Hogeschool_in_Batavia_TMnr_60012567.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Professoren_der_Rechts_Hogeschool_in_Batavia_TMnr_60012567.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="529" /></a><figcaption>Dutch, Eurasian and Javanese professors of law at the opening of the <i>Rechts Hogeschool</i> in 1924</figcaption></figure> <p>Some higher education institutions were also established. In 1898 the Dutch East Indies government established a school to train <a href="/wiki/Medical_doctor" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical doctor">medical doctors</a>, named <i>School tot Opleiding van Inlandsche Artsen</i> (STOVIA). Many STOVIA graduates later played important roles in <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Awakening" title="Indonesian National Awakening">Indonesia's national movement</a> toward independence as well in developing medical education in Indonesia, such as Dr. Wahidin Soedirohoesodo, who established the <a href="/wiki/Budi_Utomo" title="Budi Utomo">Budi Utomo</a> political society. <i>De Technische Hogeschool te Bandung</i> was established in 1920 by the Dutch colonial administration to meet the needs of technical resources at its colony. One <i>Technische Hogeschool</i> graduate was <a href="/wiki/Sukarno" title="Sukarno">Sukarno</a>, whom later would lead the <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a>. In 1924, the colonial government again decided to open a new tertiary-level educational facility, the <i>Rechts Hogeschool</i> (RHS), to train civilian officers and servants. In 1927, STOVIA's status was changed to that of a full tertiary-level institution and its name was changed to <i>Geneeskundige Hogeschool</i> (GHS). The GHS occupied the same main building and used the same teaching hospital as the current Faculty of Medicine of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Indonesia" title="University of Indonesia">University of Indonesia</a>. The old links between the Netherlands and Indonesia are still clearly visible in such technological areas as <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> design. To this day, the ideas of Dutch colonial irrigation engineers continue to exert a strong influence over Indonesian design practices.<sup id="cite_ref-tudelft.nl_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tudelft.nl-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the two highest-internationally ranking universities of Indonesia— the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Indonesia" title="University of Indonesia">University of Indonesia</a>, established in 1898, and the <a href="/wiki/Bandung_Institute_of_Technology" title="Bandung Institute of Technology">Bandung Institute of Technology</a>, established in 1920— were both founded during the colonial era.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Education reforms, and modest political reform, resulted in a small elite of highly educated indigenous Indonesians, who promoted the idea of an independent and unified "Indonesia" that would bring together disparate indigenous groups of the Dutch East Indies. A period termed the <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revival" class="mw-redirect" title="Indonesian National Revival">Indonesian National Revival</a>, the first half of the 20th century saw the nationalist movement develop strongly, but also face Dutch oppression.<sup id="cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LP_23-25-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cultivation_System" title="Cultivation System">Cultivation System</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Period_(Dutch_East_Indies)" title="Liberal Period (Dutch East Indies)">Liberal Period (Dutch East Indies)</a></div> <p>The economic history of the colony was closely related to the economic health of the Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite increasing returns from the Dutch system of land tax, Dutch finances had been severely affected by the cost of the <a href="/wiki/Java_War" title="Java War">Java War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Padri_War" title="Padri War">Padri War</a>, and the Dutch loss of Belgium in 1830 brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. In 1830, a new <a href="/wiki/Governor-general_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Governor-general of the Dutch East Indies">governor-general</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_van_den_Bosch" title="Johannes van den Bosch">Johannes van den Bosch</a>, was appointed to exploit the Indies through Dutch appropriation of its resources. With the Dutch achieving political domination throughout Java for the first time in 1830,<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was possible to introduce an agricultural policy of government-controlled forced cultivation. Termed <i>cultuurstelsel</i> (cultivation system) in Dutch and <i>tanam paksa</i> (forced plantation) in Indonesia, farmers were required to deliver, as a form of tax, fixed amounts of specified crops, such as sugar or coffee.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_2003,_p._240_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor_2003,_p._240-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of Java became a Dutch plantation and revenue rose continually through the 19th century, which was reinvested into the Netherlands to save it from bankruptcy.<sup id="cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LP_23-25-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_2003,_p._240_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor_2003,_p._240-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1830 and 1870, 840 million guilder (€8 billion in 2018<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) were taken from the East Indies, on average making a third of the annual Dutch government budget.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Cultivation System, however, brought much economic hardship to Javanese peasants, who suffered famine and epidemics in the 1840s.<sup id="cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LP_23-25-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_hoofdkantoor_van_de_Deli_Maatschappij_TMnr_60006949.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_hoofdkantoor_van_de_Deli_Maatschappij_TMnr_60006949.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_hoofdkantoor_van_de_Deli_Maatschappij_TMnr_60006949.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_hoofdkantoor_van_de_Deli_Maatschappij_TMnr_60006949.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_hoofdkantoor_van_de_Deli_Maatschappij_TMnr_60006949.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_hoofdkantoor_van_de_Deli_Maatschappij_TMnr_60006949.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_hoofdkantoor_van_de_Deli_Maatschappij_TMnr_60006949.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="409" /></a><figcaption>Headquarters of the <a href="/wiki/Deli_Company" title="Deli Company">Deli Company</a> in <a href="/wiki/Medan" title="Medan">Medan</a> circa 1925</figcaption></figure> <p>Critical public opinion in the Netherlands led to much of the Cultivation System's excesses being eliminated under the agrarian reforms of the "Liberal Period". According to one study, the mortality rate in Java would have been 10–20% higher by the late 1870s if the system of forced labor had not been abolished.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dutch private capital flowed in after 1850, especially in tin mining and plantation estate agriculture. The Martavious Company's tin mines off the eastern Sumatra coast was financed by a syndicate of Dutch entrepreneurs, including the younger brother of King <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_the_Netherlands" title="William III of the Netherlands">William III</a>. Mining began in 1860. In 1863 <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Nienhuys" title="Jacob Nienhuys">Jacob Nienhuys</a> obtained a concession from the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Deli" title="Sultanate of Deli">Sultanate of Deli</a> (<a href="/wiki/East_Sumatra" class="mw-redirect" title="East Sumatra">East Sumatra</a>) for a large tobacco estate (<a href="/wiki/Deli_Company" title="Deli Company">Deli Company</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1870, the Indies were opened up to private enterprise. Due to the <a href="/wiki/Poenale_sanctie" title="Poenale sanctie">exploitation of Chinese migrant labourers</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">coolies</a>, Dutch businessmen were able to set up large, profitable plantations. Sugar production doubled between 1870 and 1885; new crops such as tea and cinchona flourished, and rubber was introduced, leading to dramatic increases in Dutch profits. Changes were not limited to Java, or agriculture; oil from Sumatra and <a href="/wiki/Kalimantan" title="Kalimantan">Kalimantan</a> became a valuable resource for industrialising Europe. Dutch commercial interests expanded off Java to the outer islands with increasingly more territory coming under direct Dutch control or dominance in the latter half of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LP_23-25-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the resulting scarcity of land for rice production, combined with dramatically increasing populations, especially in Java, led to further hardships.<sup id="cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LP_23-25-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Kantoor_van_de_Javasche_Bank_in_Bandjermasin_TMnr_10015481.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Kantoor_van_de_Javasche_Bank_in_Bandjermasin_TMnr_10015481.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Kantoor_van_de_Javasche_Bank_in_Bandjermasin_TMnr_10015481.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Kantoor_van_de_Javasche_Bank_in_Bandjermasin_TMnr_10015481.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Kantoor_van_de_Javasche_Bank_in_Bandjermasin_TMnr_10015481.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Kantoor_van_de_Javasche_Bank_in_Bandjermasin_TMnr_10015481.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Kantoor_van_de_Javasche_Bank_in_Bandjermasin_TMnr_10015481.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="449" /></a><figcaption>De Javasche Bank in <a href="/wiki/Banjarmasin" title="Banjarmasin">Banjarmasin</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The colonial exploitation of Indonesia's population and wealth contributed to the industrialisation of the Netherlands, while simultaneously laying the foundation for the industrialisation of Indonesia. The Dutch introduced coffee, tea, cacao, tobacco and rubber, and large expanses of Java became plantations cultivated by Javanese peasants, collected by Chinese intermediaries, and sold on overseas markets by European merchants.<sup id="cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LP_23-25-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 19th century economic growth was based on heavy world demand for tea, coffee and cinchona. The government invested heavily in a railroad network (240 km or 150 mi long in 1873, 1,900 km or 1,200 mi in 1900), as well as telegraph lines, and entrepreneurs opened banks, shops and newspapers. The Dutch East Indies produced most of the world's supply of quinine and pepper, over a third of its rubber, a quarter of its coconut products, and a fifth of its tea, sugar, coffee and oil. The profit from the Dutch East Indies made the Netherlands one of the world's most significant colonial powers.<sup id="cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LP_23-25-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Koninklijke_Paketvaart-Maatschappij" title="Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij">Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij</a> shipping line supported the unification of the colonial economy and brought inter-island shipping through to Batavia, rather than through Singapore, thus focusing more economic activity on Java.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Arbeiders_poseren_bij_een_in_aanbouw_zijnde_spoorwegtunnel_in_de_bergen_TMnr_60047638.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Arbeiders_poseren_bij_een_in_aanbouw_zijnde_spoorwegtunnel_in_de_bergen_TMnr_60047638.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Arbeiders_poseren_bij_een_in_aanbouw_zijnde_spoorwegtunnel_in_de_bergen_TMnr_60047638.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Arbeiders_poseren_bij_een_in_aanbouw_zijnde_spoorwegtunnel_in_de_bergen_TMnr_60047638.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Arbeiders_poseren_bij_een_in_aanbouw_zijnde_spoorwegtunnel_in_de_bergen_TMnr_60047638.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Arbeiders_poseren_bij_een_in_aanbouw_zijnde_spoorwegtunnel_in_de_bergen_TMnr_60047638.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Arbeiders_poseren_bij_een_in_aanbouw_zijnde_spoorwegtunnel_in_de_bergen_TMnr_60047638.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="541" /></a><figcaption>Workers pose at the site of a railway tunnel under construction in the mountains, 1910</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Long_Depression" title="Long Depression">worldwide recession of the late 1880s and early 1890s</a> saw the commodity prices on which the colony depended collapse. Journalists and civil servants observed that the majority of the Indies population were no better off than under the previous regulated Cultivation System economy and tens of thousands starved.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commodity prices recovered from the recession, leading to increased investment in the colony. The sugar, tin, <a href="/wiki/Copra" title="Copra">copra</a> and coffee trade on which the colony had been built thrived, and rubber, tobacco, tea and oil also became principal exports.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Political reform increased the autonomy of the local colonial administration, moving away from central control from the Netherlands, whilst power was also diverted from the central Batavia government to more localised governing units. </p><p>The world economy recovered in the late 1890s and prosperity returned. Foreign investment, especially by the British, were encouraged. By 1900, foreign-held assets in the Netherlands Indies totalled about 750 million guilders ($300 million), mostly in Java.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Besides slavery and forced plantation work, the Dutch added to the exploitation of the population by means of <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">involuntary servitude</a>. This started under the reign of <a href="/wiki/Herman_Willem_Daendels" title="Herman Willem Daendels">governor-general Daendels</a> who forced tens of thousands of locals to work on the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Post_Road" title="Great Post Road">great post road</a> across Java and extended throughout the entire colonial period. During the 19th century, involuntary servitude was increased for the construction of roads and railroads, other infrastructure such as bridges and canals, and many other economic activities. Compulsory service could be enforced to fifty-two days per year per person. On Java and Madura combined, the total number of forced labour was some twenty millions days around 1895.<sup id="cite_ref-pure.knaw.nl_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pure.knaw.nl-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another source of free labour was obtained through the penal system. The local population was subjected to <a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">police law</a>, by which local administrators could sentence minor offenders directly to <a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">forced labour</a>, without any <a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a>. Also, long term convicts were subjected to forced labour for constructing infrastructure, including irrigation works, work at coal and tin mines, agricultural production and deployed for military campaigns. The abolishment of forced labour of <a href="/wiki/Cultivation_System" title="Cultivation System">the cultuurstelsel</a> was directly followed by a steep increase in short term sentencing to forced labour, from 70,000 persons in 1870 to 275,000 in 1900. In that same period the prison population also increased from 80,000 to 320,000 for prison labour and forced labour in especially coal mines.<sup id="cite_ref-pure.knaw.nl_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pure.knaw.nl-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1950 a road network with 12,000 km of asphalted surface, 41,000 km of metalled road area and 16,000 km of gravel surfaces had been built.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition 7,500 kilometres (4,700 mi) of railways, bridges, irrigation systems covering 1.4 million hectares (5,400 sq mi) of rice fields, several harbours, and 140 public drinking water systems had been built. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_and_literature">Language and literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Language and literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Indies_literature" title="Dutch Indies literature">Dutch Indies literature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MuseumSumpahPemuda-20-PerhimpunanPelajarPelajarIndonesia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/MuseumSumpahPemuda-20-PerhimpunanPelajarPelajarIndonesia.jpg/220px-MuseumSumpahPemuda-20-PerhimpunanPelajarPelajarIndonesia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/MuseumSumpahPemuda-20-PerhimpunanPelajarPelajarIndonesia.jpg/330px-MuseumSumpahPemuda-20-PerhimpunanPelajarPelajarIndonesia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/MuseumSumpahPemuda-20-PerhimpunanPelajarPelajarIndonesia.jpg/440px-MuseumSumpahPemuda-20-PerhimpunanPelajarPelajarIndonesia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2954" data-file-height="2001" /></a><figcaption><i>Perhimpunan Pelajar-Pelajar Indonesia</i> (Indonesian Students Union) delegates in <a href="/wiki/Youth_Pledge" title="Youth Pledge">Youth Pledge</a>, an important event where <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian language</a> was decided to be the national language, 1928</figcaption></figure> <p>Across the archipelago, hundreds of native languages are used, and <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> or <a href="/wiki/Portuguese-based_creole_languages" title="Portuguese-based creole languages">Portuguese Creole</a>, the existing languages of trade, were adopted. Prior to 1870, when Dutch colonial influence was largely restricted to Java, Malay was used in government schools and training programs such that graduates could communicate with groups from other regions who immigrated to Java.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The colonial government sought to standardise Malay based on the version from Riau and Malacca, and dictionaries were commissioned for governmental communication and schools for indigenous peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 20th century, Indonesia's independence leaders adopted a form of Malay from Riau, and called it <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a>. In the latter half of the 19th century, the rest of the archipelago, in which hundreds of language groups were used, was brought under Dutch control. In extending the native education program to these areas, the government stipulated this "standard Malay" as the language of the colony.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> was not made the official language of the colony and was not widely used by the indigenous Indonesian population.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of legally acknowledged Dutchmen were bilingual Indo-Eurasians.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dutch was used by only a limited educated elite, and in 1942, around two percent of the total population in the Dutch East Indies spoke Dutch, including over 1 million indigenous Indonesians.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of Dutch <a href="/wiki/Loan_word" class="mw-redirect" title="Loan word">loan words</a> are used in present-day Indonesian, particularly technical terms (see <a href="/wiki/List_of_loanwords_in_Indonesian#From_Dutch" title="List of loanwords in Indonesian">List of Dutch loan words in Indonesian</a>). These words generally had no alternative in Malay and were adopted into the Indonesian vocabulary giving a linguistic insight into which concepts are part of the Dutch colonial heritage. Hendrik Maier of the University of California says that about a fifth of the contemporary <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian language</a> can be traced to Dutch.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Indies_literature" title="Dutch Indies literature">Dutch language literature</a> has been inspired by both colonial and postcolonial Indies from the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age" title="Dutch Golden Age">Dutch Golden Age</a> to the present day. It includes Dutch, Indo-European, and Indonesian authors. Its subject matter thematically revolves around the Dutch colonial era, but also includes <a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_literature" title="Postcolonial literature">postcolonial</a> discourse. Masterpieces of this genre include <a href="/wiki/Multatuli" title="Multatuli">Multatuli</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Max_Havelaar" title="Max Havelaar">Max Havelaar: Or The Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading Company</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Couperus" title="Louis Couperus">Louis Couperus</a>'s <i>Hidden Force</i>, <a href="/wiki/E._du_Perron" title="E. du Perron">E. du Perron</a>'s <i>Country of Origin</i>, and <a href="/wiki/Maria_Dermo%C3%BBt" title="Maria Dermoût">Maria Dermoût</a>'s <i>The Ten Thousand Things</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most Dutch literature was written by Dutch and Indo-European authors. However, in the first half of the 20th century under the Ethical Policy, indigenous Indonesian authors and intellectuals came to the Netherlands to study and work. They wrote Dutch language literary works and published literature in literary reviews such as <i>Het Getij</i>, <i>De Gemeenschap</i>, <i>Links Richten</i> and <i>Forum</i>. By exploring new literary themes and focusing on indigenous protagonists, they drew attention to indigenous culture and the indigenous plight. Examples include the Javanese prince and poet <a href="/wiki/Noto_Soeroto" title="Noto Soeroto">Noto Soeroto</a>, a writer and journalist, and the Dutch language writings of <a href="/wiki/Soewarsih_Djojopoespito" class="mw-redirect" title="Soewarsih Djojopoespito">Soewarsih Djojopoespito</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chairil_Anwar" title="Chairil Anwar">Chairil Anwar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kartini" title="Kartini">Kartini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sutan_Sjahrir" title="Sutan Sjahrir">Sutan Sjahrir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sukarno" title="Sukarno">Sukarno</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of the <a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_literature" title="Postcolonial literature">postcolonial discourse</a> in Dutch Indies literature has been written by Indo-European authors led by the "avant garde visionary" <a href="/wiki/Tjalie_Robinson" title="Tjalie Robinson">Tjalie Robinson</a>, who is the best-read Dutch author in contemporary Indonesia,<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and second generation Indo-European immigrants such as <a href="/wiki/Marion_Bloem" title="Marion Bloem">Marion Bloem</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual_art">Visual art</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Visual art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Olieverfschildering_voorstellend_de_grote_postweg_bij_Buitenzorg_TMnr_1012-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Olieverfschildering_voorstellend_de_grote_postweg_bij_Buitenzorg_TMnr_1012-1.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Olieverfschildering_voorstellend_de_grote_postweg_bij_Buitenzorg_TMnr_1012-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Olieverfschildering_voorstellend_de_grote_postweg_bij_Buitenzorg_TMnr_1012-1.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Olieverfschildering_voorstellend_de_grote_postweg_bij_Buitenzorg_TMnr_1012-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Olieverfschildering_voorstellend_de_grote_postweg_bij_Buitenzorg_TMnr_1012-1.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Olieverfschildering_voorstellend_de_grote_postweg_bij_Buitenzorg_TMnr_1012-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="525" /></a><figcaption>The romantic depiction of <a href="/wiki/Great_Post_Road" title="Great Post Road"><i>De Grote Postweg</i></a> near <a href="/wiki/Buitenzorg" class="mw-redirect" title="Buitenzorg">Buitenzorg</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The natural beauty of East Indies has inspired the works of artists and painters, that mostly capture the romantic scenes of colonial Indies. The term <i>Mooi Indië</i> (Dutch for "Beautiful Indies") was originally coined as the title of 11 reproductions of Du Chattel's watercolor paintings which depicted the scene of East Indies published in Amsterdam in 1930. The term became famous in 1939 after S. Sudjojono used it to mock the painters that merely depict all pretty things about Indies.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Mooi Indië</i> later would identified as the genre of painting that occurred during the colonial East Indies that capture the romantic depictions of the Indies as the main themes; mostly natural scenes of mountains, volcanoes, rice paddies, river valleys, villages, with scenes of native servants, nobles, and sometimes bare-chested native women. Some of the notable <i>Mooi Indië</i> painters are European artists: F. J. du Chattel, Manus Bauer, Nieuwkamp, Isaac Israel, PAJ Moojen, Carel Dake and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Romualdo_Locatelli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Romualdo Locatelli (page does not exist)">Romualdo Locatelli</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romualdo_Locatelli" class="extiw" title="it:Romualdo Locatelli">it</a>]</sup>; East Indies-born Dutch painters: Henry van Velthuijzen, Charles Sayers, Ernest Dezentje, Leonard Eland and Jan Frank; Native painters: <a href="/wiki/Raden_Saleh" title="Raden Saleh">Raden Saleh</a>, Mas Pirngadi, Abdullah Surisubroto, Wakidi, <a href="/wiki/Basuki_Abdullah" title="Basuki Abdullah">Basuki Abdullah</a>, Mas Soeryo Soebanto and Henk Ngantunk; and also Chinese painters: <a href="/wiki/Lee_Man_Fong" title="Lee Man Fong">Lee Man Fong</a>, Oei Tiang Oen and Siauw Tik Kwie. These painters usually exhibit their works in art galleries such as Bataviasche Kuntkringgebouw, Theosofie Vereeniging, Kunstzaal Kolff & Co and <a href="/wiki/Hotel_des_Indes_(Batavia)" title="Hotel des Indes (Batavia)">Hotel Des Indes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theatre_and_film">Theatre and film</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Theatre and film"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_films_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="List of films of the Dutch East Indies">List of films of the Dutch East Indies</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_film_producers_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="List of film producers of the Dutch East Indies">List of film producers of the Dutch East Indies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_film_directors_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="List of film directors of the Dutch East Indies">List of film directors of the Dutch East Indies</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Bioscoop_Mimosa_in_Batoe_TMnr_60052449.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Bioscoop_Mimosa_in_Batoe_TMnr_60052449.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Bioscoop_Mimosa_in_Batoe_TMnr_60052449.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Bioscoop_Mimosa_in_Batoe_TMnr_60052449.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Bioscoop_Mimosa_in_Batoe_TMnr_60052449.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Bioscoop_Mimosa_in_Batoe_TMnr_60052449.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Bioscoop_Mimosa_in_Batoe_TMnr_60052449.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="487" /></a><figcaption><i>Bioscoop Mimosa</i> cinema in <a href="/wiki/Batu_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Batu (city)">Batu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>, 1941</figcaption></figure> <p>A total of 112 <a href="/wiki/Fictional_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Fictional film">fictional films</a> are known to have been produced in the Dutch East Indies between 1926 and the colony's dissolution in 1949. The earliest motion pictures, imported from abroad, were shown in late 1900,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiran200927_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran200927-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by the early 1920s imported <a href="/wiki/Serial_film" title="Serial film">serials</a> and fictional films were being shown, often with localised names.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiran200935_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran200935-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dutch companies were also producing documentary films about the Indies to be shown in the Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiran200954_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran200954-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first locally produced film, <i><a href="/wiki/Loetoeng_Kasaroeng" title="Loetoeng Kasaroeng">Loetoeng Kasaroeng</a></i>, was directed by L. Heuveldorp and released on 31 December 1926.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiran200961,_68_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran200961,_68-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1926 and 1933 numerous other local productions were released. During the mid-1930s, production dropped as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiran2009145_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2009145-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rate of production declined again after the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Japanese occupation</a> beginning in early 1942, closing all but one film studio.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiran2009319,_332_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2009319,_332-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of films produced during the occupation were <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Japan_during_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War_and_World_War_II" title="Propaganda in Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II">Japanese propaganda shorts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiran2009334,_340_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2009334,_340-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_Indonesian_Independence" title="Proclamation of Indonesian Independence">Proclamation of Indonesian Independence</a> in 1945 and during the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">revolution</a> several films were made, by both pro-Dutch and pro-Indonesian backers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiran2009367–370_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2009367–370-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahin1952445_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahin1952445-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Generally films produced in the Indies dealt with traditional stories or were adapted from existing works.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early films were <a href="/wiki/Silent_film" title="Silent film">silent</a>, with <i><a href="/wiki/Karnadi_Anemer_Bangkong" title="Karnadi Anemer Bangkong">Karnadi Anemer Bangkong</a></i> (<i>Karnadi the Frog Contractor</i>; 1930) generally considered the first <a href="/wiki/Talkie" class="mw-redirect" title="Talkie">talkie</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrayogo200914_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrayogo200914-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="Bachelor theses are generally not considered a reliable source, see WP:SCHOLARSHIP. (February 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> later films would be in Dutch, Malay, or an <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Indonesia" title="Languages of Indonesia">indigenous language</a>. All were <a href="/wiki/Black-and-white" title="Black-and-white">black-and-white</a>. The American visual anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Karl_G._Heider" title="Karl G. Heider">Karl G. Heider</a> writes that all films from before 1950 are <a href="/wiki/Lost_film" title="Lost film">lost</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, JB Kristanto's <i>Katalog Film Indonesia</i> (<i>Indonesian Film Catalogue</i>) records several as having survived at <a href="/wiki/Sinematek_Indonesia" title="Sinematek Indonesia">Sinematek Indonesia</a>'s archives, and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands_Government_Information_Service" title="Netherlands Government Information Service">Netherlands Government Information Service</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiran2009351_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2009351-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Theatre plays by playwrights such as <a href="/wiki/Victor_Ido" title="Victor Ido">Victor Ido</a> (1869–1948) were performed at the <i>Schouwburg Weltevreden</i>, now known as <a href="/wiki/Gedung_Kesenian_Jakarta" class="mw-redirect" title="Gedung Kesenian Jakarta">Gedung Kesenian Jakarta</a>. A less elite form of theatre, popular with both European and indigenous people, were the travelling <a href="/wiki/Indo_people" title="Indo people">Indo</a> theatre shows known as <a href="/wiki/Komedie_Stamboel" class="mw-redirect" title="Komedie Stamboel">Komedie Stamboel</a>, made popular by Auguste Mahieu (1865–1903). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science">Science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_Zo%C3%B7logisch_Museum_en_laboratorium_van_%27s_Lands_Plantentuin_te_Buitenzorg_West-Java_TMnr_10010799.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_Zo%C3%B7logisch_Museum_en_laboratorium_van_%27s_Lands_Plantentuin_te_Buitenzorg_West-Java_TMnr_10010799.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_Zo%C3%B7logisch_Museum_en_laboratorium_van_%27s_Lands_Plantentuin_te_Buitenzorg_West-Java_TMnr_10010799.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_Zo%C3%B7logisch_Museum_en_laboratorium_van_%27s_Lands_Plantentuin_te_Buitenzorg_West-Java_TMnr_10010799.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_Zo%C3%B7logisch_Museum_en_laboratorium_van_%27s_Lands_Plantentuin_te_Buitenzorg_West-Java_TMnr_10010799.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_Zo%C3%B7logisch_Museum_en_laboratorium_van_%27s_Lands_Plantentuin_te_Buitenzorg_West-Java_TMnr_10010799.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_Zo%C3%B7logisch_Museum_en_laboratorium_van_%27s_Lands_Plantentuin_te_Buitenzorg_West-Java_TMnr_10010799.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>Museum and lab of the <a href="/wiki/Bogor_Botanical_Gardens" title="Bogor Botanical Gardens">Buitenzorg Plantentuin</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The rich nature and culture of the Dutch East Indies attracted European intellectuals, scientists and researchers. Some notable scientists that conducted most of their important research in the East Indies archipelago are <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Elias_Teijsmann" title="Johannes Elias Teijsmann">Teijsmann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Wilhelm_Junghuhn" title="Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn">Junghuhn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eijkman" class="mw-redirect" title="Eijkman">Eijkman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Dubois" title="Eugène Dubois">Dubois</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Wallace</a>. Many important art, culture and science institutions were established in Dutch East Indies. For example, the <i>Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen</i> (<a href="/wiki/Royal_Batavian_Society_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Royal Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences">Royal Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences</a>), the predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Indonesia" title="National Museum of Indonesia">National Museum of Indonesia</a>, was established in 1778 with the aim to promote research and publish findings in the field of arts and sciences, especially <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Bogor_Botanical_Gardens" title="Bogor Botanical Gardens">Bogor Botanical Gardens</a> with <i>Herbarium Bogoriense</i> and <i>Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense</i> was a major centre for <a href="/wiki/Botanical_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Botanical research">botanical research</a> established in 1817, with the aim to study the flora and fauna of the archipelago. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Java_Man" title="Java Man">Java Man</a> was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Dubois" title="Eugène Dubois">Eugène Dubois</a> in 1891. The <a href="/wiki/Komodo_dragon" title="Komodo dragon">Komodo dragon</a> was first described by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ouwens" title="Peter Ouwens">Peter Ouwens</a> in 1912, after an aeroplane crash accident in 1911 and rumours about living <a href="/wiki/Dinosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinosaurs">dinosaurs</a> in <a href="/wiki/Komodo_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Komodo Island">Komodo Island</a> in 1910. <a href="/wiki/Thiamine" title="Thiamine">Vitamin B<sub>1</sub></a> and its relation to <a href="/wiki/Beriberi" class="mw-redirect" title="Beriberi">beriberi</a> disease was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Eijkman" class="mw-redirect" title="Eijkman">Eijkman</a> during his work in the Indies. </p><p>With growing interest in scientific research, the government of the Dutch East Indies established the <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">Natuurwetenschappelijke Raad voor Nederlandsch-Indië</i></span> (Scientific Council of the Dutch East Indies) in 1928.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It operated as the country's main research organization until the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">World War II in Asia Pacific</a> in 1942. In 1948 the institute was renamed <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">Organisatie voor Natuurwetenschappelijk Onderzoek</i></span> (Organisation for Scientific Research). This organization was the predecessor of the current <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_Institute_of_Sciences" title="Indonesian Institute of Sciences">Indonesian Institute of Sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuisine">Cuisine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Cuisine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_cuisine" title="Indonesian cuisine">Indonesian cuisine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_familie_C.H._Japing_met_tante_Jet_en_oom_Jan_Breeman_aan_de_rijsttafel_Bandoeng_TMnr_10030167.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_familie_C.H._Japing_met_tante_Jet_en_oom_Jan_Breeman_aan_de_rijsttafel_Bandoeng_TMnr_10030167.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_familie_C.H._Japing_met_tante_Jet_en_oom_Jan_Breeman_aan_de_rijsttafel_Bandoeng_TMnr_10030167.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_familie_C.H._Japing_met_tante_Jet_en_oom_Jan_Breeman_aan_de_rijsttafel_Bandoeng_TMnr_10030167.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_familie_C.H._Japing_met_tante_Jet_en_oom_Jan_Breeman_aan_de_rijsttafel_Bandoeng_TMnr_10030167.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_familie_C.H._Japing_met_tante_Jet_en_oom_Jan_Breeman_aan_de_rijsttafel_Bandoeng_TMnr_10030167.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_familie_C.H._Japing_met_tante_Jet_en_oom_Jan_Breeman_aan_de_rijsttafel_Bandoeng_TMnr_10030167.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="501" /></a><figcaption>Dutch family enjoying a large <a href="/wiki/Rijsttafel" title="Rijsttafel">Rijsttafel</a> dinner, 1936</figcaption></figure> <p>Dutch colonial families, through their domestic servants and cooks, were exposed to Indonesian cuisine, and as a result they developed a taste for native tropical spices and dishes. A notable Dutch East Indies colonial dish is <a href="/wiki/Rijsttafel" title="Rijsttafel">rijsttafel</a>, a rice table consisting of 7 to 40 popular dishes from across the colony. More an extravagant banquet than a dish, the Dutch colonials introduced the rice table not only so they could enjoy a wide array of dishes at a single setting but also to impress visitors with the exotic abundance of their colony.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout the colonial period the Dutch introduced European dishes such as <a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">bread</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cheese" title="Cheese">cheese</a>, barbecued <a href="/wiki/Steak" title="Steak">steak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pancake" title="Pancake">pancake</a>. As the producer of cash crops; <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a> and tea were also popular in the colonial East Indies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Ambiguous meaning (December 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Bread, <a href="/wiki/Butter" title="Butter">butter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Margarine" title="Margarine">margarine</a>, sandwiches filled with ham, cheese or fruit jam, <a href="/wiki/Poffertjes" title="Poffertjes">poffertjes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pannekoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Pannekoek">pannekoek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_cheese" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch cheese">Dutch cheeses</a> were commonly consumed by colonial Dutch and <a href="/wiki/Indo_people" title="Indo people">Indos</a> during the colonial era. Some of the native upperclass <i>ningrat</i> (nobles) and a few educated native were exposed to European cuisine, and it was held with high esteem as the cuisine of upperclass elite of Dutch East Indies society. This led to the adoption and fusion of European cuisine into Indonesian cuisine. Some dishes which were created during the colonial era are Dutch-influenced: they include <a href="/wiki/Selat_solo" title="Selat solo">selat solo</a> (solo salad), bistik jawa (Javanese beef steak), <a href="/wiki/Semur_(Indonesian_stew)" title="Semur (Indonesian stew)">semur</a> (from Dutch <i>smoor</i>), sayur kacang merah (brenebon) and <a href="/wiki/Oxtail_soup" title="Oxtail soup">sop buntut</a>. Cakes and cookies also can trace their origin to Dutch influences; such as kue bolu (tart), <a href="/wiki/Pandan_cake" title="Pandan cake">pandan cake</a>, lapis legit (<a href="/wiki/Spekkoek" title="Spekkoek">spekkoek</a>), spiku (lapis Surabaya), <a href="/wiki/Klappertaart" title="Klappertaart">klappertaart</a> (coconut tart) and <a href="/wiki/Kaasstengels" title="Kaasstengels">kaasstengels</a> (cheese cookies). <a href="/wiki/Kue_cubit" title="Kue cubit">Kue cubit</a> commonly found in front of schools and marketplaces are believed to be derived from poffertjes.<sup id="cite_ref-dutchfood.about.com_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dutchfood.about.com-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Colonial_architecture_of_Indonesia" title="Colonial architecture of Indonesia">Colonial architecture of Indonesia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_buildings_and_structures_in_Jakarta" class="mw-redirect" title="List of colonial buildings and structures in Jakarta">List of colonial buildings and structures in Jakarta</a></div> <p>The 16th- and 17th-century arrivals of European powers in Indonesia introduced <a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">masonry</a> construction to Indonesia where previously timber and its by-products had been almost exclusively used. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Batavia was a fortified brick and masonry city.<sup id="cite_ref-Schoppert_38-39_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schoppert_38-39-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For almost two centuries, the colonialists did little to adapt their European architectural habits to the tropical climate.<sup id="cite_ref-d8_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-d8-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They built row houses which were poorly ventilated with small windows, which was thought as protection against tropical diseases coming from tropical air.<sup id="cite_ref-d8_159-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-d8-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Years later the Dutch had learnt to adapt their architectural styles with local building features (long eaves, <a href="/wiki/Verandah" class="mw-redirect" title="Verandah">verandahs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portico" title="Portico">porticos</a>, large windows and ventilation openings),<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the 18th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Indies_country_houses" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Indies country houses">Dutch Indies country houses</a></i> was one of the first colonial buildings to incorporate Indonesian architectural elements and adapt to the climate, then known as Indies Style.<sup id="cite_ref-Schoppert_1997,_pp._72-77_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schoppert_1997,_pp._72-77-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ITB_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/ITB_1.jpg/220px-ITB_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/ITB_1.jpg/330px-ITB_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/ITB_1.jpg/440px-ITB_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="633" /></a><figcaption>Ceremonial Hall, <a href="/wiki/Bandung_Institute_of_Technology" title="Bandung Institute of Technology">Bandung Institute of Technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bandung" title="Bandung">Bandung</a>, designed by architect Henri Maclaine-Pont</figcaption></figure> <p>From the end of the 19th century, significant improvements to technology, communications and transportation brought new wealth to Java. Modernistic buildings, including train stations, business hotels, factories and office blocks, hospitals and education institutions, were influenced by international styles. The early-20th-century trend was for <a href="/wiki/Modernist" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernist">modernist</a> influences—such as <a href="/wiki/Art-deco" class="mw-redirect" title="Art-deco">art-deco</a>—being expressed in essentially European buildings with Indonesian trim. Practical responses to the environment carried over from the earlier Indies Style, included overhanging eaves, larger windows and ventilation in the walls, which gave birth to the <a href="/wiki/New_Indies_Style" class="mw-redirect" title="New Indies Style">New Indies Style</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest stock of colonial era buildings are in the large cities of Java, such as Bandung, <a href="/wiki/Jakarta" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semarang" title="Semarang">Semarang</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Surabaya" title="Surabaya">Surabaya</a>. Notable architects and planners include <a href="/wiki/Albert_Aalbers" title="Albert Aalbers">Albert Aalbers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Karsten" title="Thomas Karsten">Thomas Karsten</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henri_Maclaine_Pont" title="Henri Maclaine Pont">Henri Maclaine Pont</a>, J. Gerber and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Prosper_Wolff_Schoemaker" title="Charles Prosper Wolff Schoemaker">C. P. W. Schoemaker</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the first three decades of the 20th century, the Department of Public Works funded major public buildings and introduced a town planning program under which the main towns and cities in Java and Sumatra were rebuilt and extended.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A lack of development in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, the turmoil of the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesia's independence struggle</a> of the 1940s, and economic stagnation during the politically turbulent 1950s and 1960s meant that much colonial architecture has been preserved through to recent decades.<sup id="cite_ref-Schoppert_1997,_p._105_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schoppert_1997,_p._105-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colonial homes were almost always the preserve of the wealthy Dutch, Indonesian and Chinese elites; however, the styles were often rich and creative combinations of two cultures, so much so that the homes remain sought after into the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-Schoppert_1997,_pp._72-77_161-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schoppert_1997,_pp._72-77-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Native architecture was influenced by the introduction of European styles, and Western elements remain an influence on Indonesia's contemporary built environment.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="The current source is insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS). (January 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fashion">Fashion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Fashion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Vorstelijk_echtpaar_Kangdjeng_Pangeran_Angabei_Sakalijan_met_echtgenote._TMnr_60002322.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Vorstelijk_echtpaar_Kangdjeng_Pangeran_Angabei_Sakalijan_met_echtgenote._TMnr_60002322.jpg/170px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Vorstelijk_echtpaar_Kangdjeng_Pangeran_Angabei_Sakalijan_met_echtgenote._TMnr_60002322.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Vorstelijk_echtpaar_Kangdjeng_Pangeran_Angabei_Sakalijan_met_echtgenote._TMnr_60002322.jpg/255px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Vorstelijk_echtpaar_Kangdjeng_Pangeran_Angabei_Sakalijan_met_echtgenote._TMnr_60002322.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Vorstelijk_echtpaar_Kangdjeng_Pangeran_Angabei_Sakalijan_met_echtgenote._TMnr_60002322.jpg/340px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Vorstelijk_echtpaar_Kangdjeng_Pangeran_Angabei_Sakalijan_met_echtgenote._TMnr_60002322.jpg 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Javanese nobles adopted and mixed some aspects of European fashion, such as this couple in 1890.</figcaption></figure> <p>Within the colony of the Dutch East Indies, fashion played an important role to define ones' status and social class. The European colonials wore European fashion straight out of the Netherlands, or even Paris, while the natives wore their traditional clothing that is distinct in every region. As the years progressed and Dutch influence became stronger, many natives began mixing European styles within their traditional clothing. High-ranking natives within the colony, as well as nobility, would wear European-style suits with their batik sarongs for special occasions and even for everyday use. Increasingly, native Indonesians began to dress more European. This came with the idea that those who wore European clothing were more progressive and open towards a European society and the etiquette that came with it. More and more the European influence was gaining precedence within native Indonesians. This probably stems from the fact that many natives were treated better if they wore European clothing. Their European counterparts acknowledged them, and that in turn was most likely a catalyst for adoption western clothing into traditional Indonesian clothing.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Studioportret_van_een_Europees_echtpaar_gekleed_in_saroeng_kabaja_en_ochtendbroek_TMnr_60048827.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Studioportret_van_een_Europees_echtpaar_gekleed_in_saroeng_kabaja_en_ochtendbroek_TMnr_60048827.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Studioportret_van_een_Europees_echtpaar_gekleed_in_saroeng_kabaja_en_ochtendbroek_TMnr_60048827.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Studioportret_van_een_Europees_echtpaar_gekleed_in_saroeng_kabaja_en_ochtendbroek_TMnr_60048827.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Studioportret_van_een_Europees_echtpaar_gekleed_in_saroeng_kabaja_en_ochtendbroek_TMnr_60048827.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Studioportret_van_een_Europees_echtpaar_gekleed_in_saroeng_kabaja_en_ochtendbroek_TMnr_60048827.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Studioportret_van_een_Europees_echtpaar_gekleed_in_saroeng_kabaja_en_ochtendbroek_TMnr_60048827.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1373" data-file-height="974" /></a><figcaption>Dutch colonial couple in the early 20th century wearing native <a href="/wiki/Batik" title="Batik">batik</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kebaya" title="Kebaya">kebaya</a> fashion</figcaption></figure> <p>The fashion influences between colonials and natives were a reciprocal phenomenon. Just as the Europeans influenced the natives, the natives too influenced the European colonials. For example, the thick European fabrics was considered too hot to wear in tropical climate. Thus, the light clothing of thin <a href="/wiki/Kebaya" title="Kebaya">kebaya</a> fabrics and the comfortable and easy to wear <a href="/wiki/Batik" title="Batik">batik</a> <a href="/wiki/Sarong" title="Sarong">sarong</a> were considered quite suitable for everyday clothing in hot and humid climate of the East Indies, though the Dutch typically wore European clothes for more formal occasions.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later on in the history of the Dutch East Indies, as a new wave of Europeans were brought into the colony, many adopted Indonesian styles, and many even went so far as to wear traditional Javanese kebaya at home.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kebaya and batik sarong became increasingly popular among the resident Dutch over time, though the Dutch distinguished their own with expensive fabrics and European patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_168-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Batik was also a big influence for the Dutch. The technique was so fascinating to them that they brought it to their colonies in Africa where it was adopted with African patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sports">Sports</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Sports"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Association_football" title="Association football">Football</a> experienced significant growth in the Dutch East Indies starting in the last decade of the 19th century, with the emergence of the first football clubs on Java. The existence of city championships was initially documented in the early 1900s, coinciding with the establishment of local and regional football federations. However, many of these federations were short-lived, often dissolving shortly after their formation.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Notably, the <a href="/wiki/Indonesia_national_football_team#Beginning" title="Indonesia national football team">Dutch East Indies national football team</a> participated in the <a href="/wiki/1938_FIFA_World_Cup" title="1938 FIFA World Cup">1938 World Cup in France</a>, making them the first Asian country to participate in a <a href="/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup" title="FIFA World Cup">FIFA World Cup</a>. However, their journey was cut short in the first round, as they suffered a 0–6 defeat against the <a href="/wiki/Hungary_national_football_team" title="Hungary national football team">Hungary national football team</a> at <a href="/w/index.php?title=V%C3%A9lodrome_Municipal_Stadium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vélodrome Municipal Stadium (page does not exist)">Vélodrome Municipal Stadium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reims" title="Reims">Reims</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Colonial_heritage_in_the_Netherlands">Colonial heritage in the Netherlands</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Colonial heritage in the Netherlands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1916_Dutch_East_Indies_-_Art.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/1916_Dutch_East_Indies_-_Art.jpg/170px-1916_Dutch_East_Indies_-_Art.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/1916_Dutch_East_Indies_-_Art.jpg/255px-1916_Dutch_East_Indies_-_Art.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/1916_Dutch_East_Indies_-_Art.jpg/340px-1916_Dutch_East_Indies_-_Art.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1720" /></a><figcaption>Dutch imperial imagery representing the Dutch East Indies (1916). The text reads "Netherlands' most precious jewel."</figcaption></figure> <p>When the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_royal_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch royal family">Dutch royal family</a> was established in 1815, much of its wealth came from colonial trade.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Universities such as the Royal <a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden University</a> founded in the 16th century have developed into leading knowledge centres about Southeast Asian and Indonesian studies.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leiden University has produced academics such as Colonial adviser <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Snouck_Hurgronje" title="Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje">Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje</a> who specialised in native oriental (Indonesian) affairs, and it still has academics who specialise in Indonesian languages and cultures. <a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden University</a> and in particular <a href="/wiki/KITLV" class="mw-redirect" title="KITLV">KITLV</a> are educational and scientific institutions that to this day share both an intellectual and historical interest in Indonesian studies. Other scientific institutions in the Netherlands include the Amsterdam <a href="/wiki/Tropenmuseum" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropenmuseum">Tropenmuseum</a>, an anthropological museum with massive collections of Indonesian art, culture, ethnography and anthropology.<sup id="cite_ref-tudelft.nl_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tudelft.nl-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The traditions of the KNIL are maintained by the <a href="/wiki/Regiment_Van_Heutsz" class="mw-redirect" title="Regiment Van Heutsz">Regiment Van Heutsz</a> of the modern <a href="/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Army" title="Royal Netherlands Army">Royal Netherlands Army</a> and the dedicated <i><a href="/wiki/Bronbeek" title="Bronbeek">Bronbeek</a> Museum</i>, a former home for retired KNIL soldiers, exists in <a href="/wiki/Arnhem" title="Arnhem">Arnhem</a> to this day. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_2" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Indisch_tuinfeest_op_Arendsdorp_Weeknummer_27-15_-_Open_Beelden_-_16627.ogv/150px--Indisch_tuinfeest_op_Arendsdorp_Weeknummer_27-15_-_Open_Beelden_-_16627.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="150" height="123" data-durationhint="141" data-mwtitle="Indisch_tuinfeest_op_Arendsdorp_Weeknummer_27-15_-_Open_Beelden_-_16627.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Indisch_tuinfeest_op_Arendsdorp_Weeknummer_27-15_-_Open_Beelden_-_16627.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/26/Indisch_tuinfeest_op_Arendsdorp_Weeknummer_27-15_-_Open_Beelden_-_16627.ogv/Indisch_tuinfeest_op_Arendsdorp_Weeknummer_27-15_-_Open_Beelden_-_16627.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="352" data-height="288" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Indisch_tuinfeest_op_Arendsdorp_Weeknummer_27-15_-_Open_Beelden_-_16627.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="352" data-height="288" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/26/Indisch_tuinfeest_op_Arendsdorp_Weeknummer_27-15_-_Open_Beelden_-_16627.ogv/Indisch_tuinfeest_op_Arendsdorp_Weeknummer_27-15_-_Open_Beelden_-_16627.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="176" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/26/Indisch_tuinfeest_op_Arendsdorp_Weeknummer_27-15_-_Open_Beelden_-_16627.ogv/Indisch_tuinfeest_op_Arendsdorp_Weeknummer_27-15_-_Open_Beelden_-_16627.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="294" data-height="240" /></video></span><figcaption>Dutch newsreel dated 1927 showing a Dutch East Indian fair in the Netherlands featuring <a href="/wiki/Indo_people" title="Indo people">Indo</a> and Indigenous people from the Dutch East Indies performing traditional dance and music in traditional attire<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Many surviving colonial families and their descendants who moved back to the Netherlands after independence tended to look back on the colonial era with a sense of the power and prestige they had in the colony, with such items as the 1970s book <i>Tempo Doeloe</i> (Old times) by author <a href="/wiki/Rob_Nieuwenhuys" title="Rob Nieuwenhuys">Rob Nieuwenhuys</a>, and other books and materials that became quite common in the 1970s and 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, since the 18th century Dutch literature has a large number of established authors, such as <a href="/wiki/Louis_Couperus" title="Louis Couperus">Louis Couperus</a>, the writer of "The Hidden Force", taking the colonial era as an important source of inspiration.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, one of the great masterpieces of <a href="/wiki/Dutch_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch literature">Dutch literature</a> is the book "<a href="/wiki/Max_Havelaar" title="Max Havelaar">Max Havelaar</a>", written by <a href="/wiki/Multatuli" title="Multatuli">Multatuli</a> in 1860 as criticism of exploitative Dutch policies in Java.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The majority of Dutchmen that repatriated to the Netherlands after and during the Indonesian revolution are <a href="/wiki/Indo_people" title="Indo people">Indo</a> (Eurasian), native to the islands of the Dutch East Indies. This relatively large Eurasian population had developed over a period of 400 years and were classified by colonial law as belonging to the European legal community.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> they are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Indo_people" title="Indo people">Indo</a> (short for Indo-European). Of the 296,200 so-called Dutch 'repatriants' only 92,200 were expatriate Dutchmen born in the Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Including their second-generation descendants, they are currently the largest foreign born group in the Netherlands. In 2008, the Dutch Census Bureau for Statistics (CBS)<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> registered 387,000 first- and second-generation Indos living in the Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although considered fully assimilated into Dutch society, as the main ethnic minority in the Netherlands, these 'Repatriants' have played a pivotal role in introducing elements of Indonesian culture into Dutch mainstream culture. Practically every town in the Netherlands has a '<a href="/wiki/Toko_(shop)" title="Toko (shop)">Toko</a>' (Dutch Indonesian Shop) or Indonesian restaurant<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many '<a href="/wiki/Pasar_Malam" class="mw-redirect" title="Pasar Malam">Pasar Malam</a>' (night market in Malay/Indonesian) fairs are organised throughout the year. </p><p>Many Indonesian dishes and foodstuffs have become commonplace in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_cuisine" title="Dutch cuisine">Dutch cuisine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rijsttafel" title="Rijsttafel">Rijsttafel</a>, a colonial culinary concept, and dishes such as <a href="/wiki/Nasi_goreng" title="Nasi goreng">nasi goreng</a> and <a href="/wiki/Satay" title="Satay">sate</a> are still very popular in the Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-dutchfood.about.com_157-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dutchfood.about.com-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/48px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 1.5x, 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/New_guinea_blank.svg/32px-New_guinea_blank.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/New_guinea_blank.svg/48px-New_guinea_blank.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/New_guinea_blank.svg/64px-New_guinea_blank.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="867" data-file-height="452" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:New_Guinea" title="Portal:New Guinea">New Guinea portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freemasonry_in_the_Dutch_East_Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Freemasonry in the Dutch East Indies">Freemasonry in the Dutch East Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poenale_sanctie" title="Poenale sanctie">Poenale sanctie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the Dutch East Indies">Postage stamps and postal history of the Dutch East Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Portuguese_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="The Portuguese in Indonesia">The Portuguese in Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_Indies_guilder" title="Netherlands Indies guilder">Netherlands Indies guilder</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">as High Commissioner</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The port of <a href="/wiki/Malacca" title="Malacca">Malacca</a> was part of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Malacca" title="Dutch Malacca">Dutch East Indies</a> from 1818 - 1825</span> </li> </ol></div></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note: The European legal class was not solely based on race restrictions and included Dutch people, other Europeans, but also native <a href="/wiki/Indo_people" title="Indo people">Indo-Europeans</a>, Indo-Chinese and indigenous people.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note: Adat law communities were formally established throughout the archipelago e.g. <a href="/wiki/Minangkabau_people" title="Minangkabau people">Minangkabau</a>. See: Cribb, R.B., Kahin, p. 140</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note: The Bulu women's prison in Semarang, which housed both European and indigenous women, had separate sleeping rooms with cots and mosquito nets for elite indigenous women and women in the European legal class. Sleeping on the floor like the female peasantry was considered an intolerable aggravation of the legal sanction. See: Baudet, H., Brugmans I.J. <i>Balans van beleid. Terugblik op de laatste halve eeuw van Nederlands-Indië.</i> (Publisher: Van Gorcum, Assen, 1984)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note: In 2010, according to University Ranking by Academic Performance (URAP), <i>Universitas Indonesia</i> was the best university in Indonesia.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note: In December 1958, American <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time magazine</a> praised the translation of <a href="/wiki/Maria_Dermo%C3%BBt" title="Maria Dermoût">Maria Dermoût</a>'s <i>The Ten Thousand Things</i>, and named it one of the best books of the year, among several (other) iconic literary works of 1958: 'Breakfast at Tiffany's' by Truman Capote, 'Doctor Zhivago' by Pasternak and 'Lolita' by Nabokov. See: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mariadermout.wordpress.com/wetenswaardigheden/">Official Maria Dermout Website.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120402103102/http://mariadermout.wordpress.com/wetenswaardigheden/">Archived</a> 2 April 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some of the university faculties still include: Indonesian Languages and Cultures; Southeast Asia and Oceania Languages and Cultures; Cultural Anthropology</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note: 1927 garden party, at the country estate <i>Arendsdorp</i> on the <i>Wassenaarse weg</i> near The Hague, for the benefit of the victims of the storm disaster of 2 June 1927 in the Netherlands. The market is opened by the minister of Colonies dr. <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Christiaan_Koningsberger" title="Jacob Christiaan Koningsberger">J.C. Koningsberger</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-howard-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-howard_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDick2002" class="citation book cs1">Dick, Howard W. (2002). <i>Surabaya City Of Work: A Socioeconomic History, 1900–2000 (Ohio RIS Southeast Asia Series)</i>. Ohio University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0896802216" title="Special:BookSources/978-0896802216"><bdi>978-0896802216</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surabaya+City+Of+Work%3A+A+Socioeconomic+History%2C+1900%E2%80%932000+%28Ohio+RIS+Southeast+Asia+Series%29&rft.pub=Ohio+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0896802216&rft.aulast=Dick&rft.aufirst=Howard+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_1st_ed._v._18.djvu/816">"Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 18.djvu/816 - Wikisource, the free online library"</a>. <i>en.wikisource.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181224170608/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_1st_ed._v._18.djvu/816">Archived</a> from the original on 24 December 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=en.wikisource.org&rft.atitle=Page%3AThe+New+International+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+1st+ed.+v.+18.djvu%2F816+-+Wikisource%2C+the+free+online+library&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FPage%3AThe_New_International_Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_1st_ed._v._18.djvu%2F816&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150527195154/http://www.delcampe.net/page/item/id,203658033,var,INDES-NEERLANDAISES-Passeport-1931-DUTCH-EAST-INDIES-Passport--Revenues,language,E.html">"INDES NEERLANDAISES Passeport 1931 DUTCH EAST INDIES Passport - Revenues - Delcampe.net"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.delcampe.net/page/item/id,203658033,var,INDES-NEERLANDAISES-Passeport-1931-DUTCH-EAST-INDIES-Passport--Revenues,language,E.html">the original</a> on 27 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=INDES+NEERLANDAISES+Passeport+1931+DUTCH+EAST+INDIES+Passport+-+Revenues+-+Delcampe.net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.delcampe.net%2Fpage%2Fitem%2Fid%2C203658033%2Cvar%2CINDES-NEERLANDAISES-Passeport-1931-DUTCH-EAST-INDIES-Passport--Revenues%2Clanguage%2CE.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRicklefs2008" class="citation book cs1">Ricklefs, M. C. (2008). <i>A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1200</i> (4th ed.). Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. p. 142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-6130-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-6130-7"><bdi>978-0-8047-6130-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+modern+Indonesia+since+c.+1200&rft.place=Stanford%2C+Calif&rft.pages=142&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-6130-7&rft.aulast=Ricklefs&rft.aufirst=M.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRicklefs2008" class="citation book cs1">Ricklefs, M. C. (2008). <i>A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1200</i> (4th ed.). Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. pp. 168–169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-6130-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-6130-7"><bdi>978-0-8047-6130-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+modern+Indonesia+since+c.+1200&rft.place=Stanford%2C+Calif&rft.pages=168-169&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-6130-7&rft.aulast=Ricklefs&rft.aufirst=M.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart2008" class="citation book cs1">Hart, Jonathan (26 February 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LnevC1FYdnEC&pg=PA201"><i>Empires and Colonies</i></a>. Polity. p. 200. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780745626130" title="Special:BookSources/9780745626130"><bdi>9780745626130</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150318220854/http://books.google.com/books?id=LnevC1FYdnEC&pg=PA201">Archived</a> from the original on 18 March 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empires+and+Colonies&rft.pages=200&rft.pub=Polity&rft.date=2008-02-26&rft.isbn=9780745626130&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLnevC1FYdnEC%26pg%3DPA201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Booth, Anne, et al. <i>Indonesian Economic History in the Dutch Colonial Era</i> (1990), Ch 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R.B. Cribb and A. Kahin, p. 118</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Elson, <i>The idea of Indonesia: A history</i> (2008) pp 1–12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRicklefs2008" class="citation book cs1">Ricklefs, M. C. (2008). <i>A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1200</i> (4th ed.). Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. pp. 248–249. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-6130-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-6130-7"><bdi>978-0-8047-6130-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+modern+Indonesia+since+c.+1200&rft.place=Stanford%2C+Calif&rft.pages=248-249&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-6130-7&rft.aulast=Ricklefs&rft.aufirst=M.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historibersama.com/how-studying-1945-1949-wars-can-benefit-indonesia-the-jakarta-post/">"How studying 1945-1949 wars can benefit Indonesia - The Jakarta Post"</a>. <i>Histori Bersama</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230926100626/https://historibersama.com/how-studying-1945-1949-wars-can-benefit-indonesia-the-jakarta-post/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Histori+Bersama&rft.atitle=How+studying+1945-1949+wars+can+benefit+Indonesia+-+The+Jakarta+Post&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistoribersama.com%2Fhow-studying-1945-1949-wars-can-benefit-indonesia-the-jakarta-post%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ehne.fr/en/encyclopedia/themes/europe-europeans-and-world/europeans-and-decolonisations/decolonization-dutch-east-indiesindonesia">"Decolonization of the Dutch East Indies/Indonesia | EHNE"</a>. <i>ehne.fr</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231121180119/https://ehne.fr/en/encyclopedia/themes/europe-europeans-and-world/europeans-and-decolonisations/decolonization-dutch-east-indiesindonesia">Archived</a> from the original on 21 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ehne.fr&rft.atitle=Decolonization+of+the+Dutch+East+Indies%2FIndonesia+%7C+EHNE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fehne.fr%2Fen%2Fencyclopedia%2Fthemes%2Feurope-europeans-and-world%2Feuropeans-and-decolonisations%2Fdecolonization-dutch-east-indiesindonesia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRicklefs1991" class="citation book cs1">Ricklefs, M C (1991). <i>A History of Modern Indonesian since c.1300</i> (Second ed.). Houndmills, Baingstoke, Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Limited. pp. 271, 297. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-57690-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-57690-X"><bdi>0-333-57690-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Indonesian+since+c.1300&rft.place=Houndmills%2C+Baingstoke%2C+Hampshire+and+London&rft.pages=271%2C+297&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=The+Macmillan+Press+Limited&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-333-57690-X&rft.aulast=Ricklefs&rft.aufirst=M+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Dagh-register gehouden int Casteel Batavia vant passerende daer ter plaetse als over geheel Nederlandts-India anno 1624–1629</i> [<i>The official register at Castle Batavia, of the census of the Dutch East Indies</i>]. Vol. VOC. 1624.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dagh-register+gehouden+int+Casteel+Batavia+vant+passerende+daer+ter+plaetse+als+over+geheel+Nederlandts-India+anno+1624%E2%80%931629.&rft.date=1624&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gouda, Frances. <i>Dutch Culture Overseas: Colonial Practice in the Netherlands Indies, 1900–1942</i> (1996) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/37803874/dutch-culture-overseas-colonial-practice-in-the-netherlands">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2023">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171109045615/https://www.questia.com/read/37803874/dutch-culture-overseas-colonial-practice-in-the-netherlands">Archived</a> 9 November 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2023">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor (2003)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ricklefs_1991,_p._27-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ricklefs_1991,_p._27_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ricklefs_1991,_p._27_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ricklefs (1991), p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRicklefs2008" class="citation book cs1">Ricklefs, M. C. (2008). <i>A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1200</i> (4th ed.). Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-6130-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-6130-7"><bdi>978-0-8047-6130-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+modern+Indonesia+since+c.+1200&rft.place=Stanford%2C+Calif&rft.pages=30&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-6130-7&rft.aulast=Ricklefs&rft.aufirst=M.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vickers_2005,_p._10-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vickers_2005,_p._10_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vickers_2005,_p._10_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vickers (2005), p. 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ricklefs (1991), p. 110; Vickers (2005), p. 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRicklefs2008" class="citation book cs1">Ricklefs, M. C. (2008). <i>A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1200</i> (4th ed.). Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-6130-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-6130-7"><bdi>978-0-8047-6130-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+modern+Indonesia+since+c.+1200&rft.place=Stanford%2C+Calif&rft.pages=32&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-6130-7&rft.aulast=Ricklefs&rft.aufirst=M.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVink2003" class="citation journal cs1">Vink, Markus (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20079204">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"The World's Oldest Trade": Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century"</a>. <i>Journal of World History</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 160. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1045-6007">1045-6007</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20079204">20079204</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201113112521/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20079204">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.atitle=%22The+World%27s+Oldest+Trade%22%3A+Dutch+Slavery+and+Slave+Trade+in+the+Indian+Ocean+in+the+Seventeenth+Century&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=160&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20079204%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=1045-6007&rft.aulast=Vink&rft.aufirst=Markus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20079204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.parool.nl/nederland/indonesie-krijgt-geen-excuses-terwijl-de-slavenhandel-daar-juist-floreerde~b34839be/?referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F">"Indonesië krijgt geen excuses, terwijl de slavenhandel daar juist floreerde"</a>. 14 December 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230213165309/https://www.parool.nl/nederland/indonesie-krijgt-geen-excuses-terwijl-de-slavenhandel-daar-juist-floreerde~b34839be/?referrer=https://www.google.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indonesi%C3%AB+krijgt+geen+excuses%2C+terwijl+de+slavenhandel+daar+juist+floreerde&rft.date=2022-12-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.parool.nl%2Fnederland%2Findonesie-krijgt-geen-excuses-terwijl-de-slavenhandel-daar-juist-floreerde~b34839be%2F%3Freferrer%3Dhttps%253A%252F%252Fwww.google.com%252F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVink2003" class="citation journal cs1">Vink, Markus (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20079204">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"The World's Oldest Trade": Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century"</a>. <i>Journal of World History</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 175. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1045-6007">1045-6007</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20079204">20079204</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201113112521/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20079204">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.atitle=%22The+World%27s+Oldest+Trade%22%3A+Dutch+Slavery+and+Slave+Trade+in+the+Indian+Ocean+in+the+Seventeenth+Century&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=175&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20079204%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=1045-6007&rft.aulast=Vink&rft.aufirst=Markus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20079204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Baay(2021), Daar werd wat gruwelijks verricht: Slavernij in Nederlands-Indië, Athenaeum, 4de editie, page 13, 104, 109, 110,113</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Baay(2021), Daar werd wat gruwelijks verricht: Slavernij in Nederlands-Indië, Athenaeum, 4de editie, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/EAN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EAN (identifier)">EAN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eandata.com/lookup/9789025313319">9789025313319</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://decorrespondent.nl/7479/over-deze-nederlandse-slavernijgeschiedenis-hebben-we-het-nooit/2875454899416-c1a34e1a">"Over deze Nederlandse slavernijgeschiedenis hebben we het nooit"</a>. 19 October 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230213165310/https://decorrespondent.nl/7479/over-deze-nederlandse-slavernijgeschiedenis-hebben-we-het-nooit/2875454899416-c1a34e1a">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Over+deze+Nederlandse+slavernijgeschiedenis+hebben+we+het+nooit&rft.date=2017-10-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdecorrespondent.nl%2F7479%2Fover-deze-nederlandse-slavernijgeschiedenis-hebben-we-het-nooit%2F2875454899416-c1a34e1a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationaalarchief.nl/onderzoeken/zoekhulpen/slavernij-en-slavenhandel-in-nederlands-indie-1820-1900#collapse-1340">"Slavernij en slavenhandel in Nederlands-Indië (1820–1900)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230213165310/https://www.nationaalarchief.nl/onderzoeken/zoekhulpen/slavernij-en-slavenhandel-in-nederlands-indie-1820-1900#collapse-1340">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Slavernij+en+slavenhandel+in+Nederlands-Indi%C3%AB+%281820%E2%80%931900%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationaalarchief.nl%2Fonderzoeken%2Fzoekhulpen%2Fslavernij-en-slavenhandel-in-nederlands-indie-1820-1900%23collapse-1340&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LP_23-25-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LP_23-25_31-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">*<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitton2003" class="citation book cs1">Witton, Patrick (2003). <i>Indonesia</i>. Melbourne: Lonely Planet. pp. 23–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-74059-154-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-74059-154-2"><bdi>1-74059-154-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indonesia&rft.place=Melbourne&rft.pages=23-25&rft.pub=Lonely+Planet&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-74059-154-2&rft.aulast=Witton&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luc Nagtegaal, <i>Riding the Dutch Tiger: The Dutch East Indies Company and the Northeast Coast of Java, 1680–1743</i> (1996)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwarz1994" class="citation book cs1">Schwarz, A. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw/page/3"><i>A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s</i></a>. Westview Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw/page/3">3–4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86373-635-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-86373-635-2"><bdi>1-86373-635-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Nation+in+Waiting%3A+Indonesia+in+the+1990s&rft.pages=3-4&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=1-86373-635-2&rft.aulast=Schwarz&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnationinwaitingi00schw%2Fpage%2F3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKumar1997" class="citation book cs1">Kumar, Ann (1997). <i>Java</i>. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-593-244-5" title="Special:BookSources/962-593-244-5"><bdi>962-593-244-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Java&rft.place=Hong+Kong&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Periplus+Editions&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=962-593-244-5&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ricklefs (1991), pp. 111–114</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oranje-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-oranje_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOranje,_D.J.P.1936" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Oranje, D.J.P. (1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bibliotheek.nl/catalogus/titel.416526179.html/het-beleid-der-commissie-generaal/">"Het beleid der Commissie Generaal; de uitwerking der beginselen van 1815 in het Regeerings Reglement van 1818 (dissertation)"</a>. <i>bibliotheek.nl</i> (in Dutch). Utrecht. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231116064833/https://www.bibliotheek.nl/catalogus/titel.416526179.html/het-beleid-der-commissie-generaal/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bibliotheek.nl&rft.atitle=Het+beleid+der+Commissie+Generaal%3B+de+uitwerking+der+beginselen+van+1815+in+het+Regeerings+Reglement+van+1818+%28dissertation%29&rft.date=1936&rft.au=Oranje%2C+D.J.P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bibliotheek.nl%2Fcatalogus%2Ftitel.416526179.html%2Fhet-beleid-der-commissie-generaal%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kerajaan-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kerajaan_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ZGDy-Ftgj1rWSK3qlID3p5mKlLwPLtfT/view?usp=sharing">"KERAJAAN ADAT KEPAKSIAN PERNONG SEKALA BRAK MENJAWAB SEJARAH_compressed.PDF"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220727051545/https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ZGDy-Ftgj1rWSK3qlID3p5mKlLwPLtfT/view?usp=sharing">Archived</a> from the original on 27 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=KERAJAAN+ADAT+KEPAKSIAN+PERNONG+SEKALA+BRAK+MENJAWAB+SEJARAH_compressed.PDF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdrive.google.com%2Ffile%2Fd%2F1ZGDy-Ftgj1rWSK3qlID3p5mKlLwPLtfT%2Fview%3Fusp%3Dsharing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cahayaagung.id/2022/02/11/paksi-pak-skala-brakgedung-dalam-kepaksian-pernong/">"Paksi Pak Skala Brak"Gedung Dalam Kepaksian Pernong"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. 11 February 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221019015932/https://cahayaagung.id/2022/02/11/paksi-pak-skala-brakgedung-dalam-kepaksian-pernong/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Paksi+Pak+Skala+Brak%22Gedung+Dalam+Kepaksian+Pernong%22&rft.date=2022-02-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcahayaagung.id%2F2022%2F02%2F11%2Fpaksi-pak-skala-brakgedung-dalam-kepaksian-pernong%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rickelfs131-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rickelfs131_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rickelfs131_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rickelfs131_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ricklefs (1991), p. 131</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vickers (2005), p. 10; Ricklefs (1991), p. 131</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ricklefs (1991), p. 142</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Friend_p21-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Friend_p21_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friend_p21_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friend_p21_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friend_p21_42-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friend_p21_42-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friend_p21_42-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friend (2003), p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ricklefs (1991), pp. 138–139</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinchester2005" class="citation book cs1">Winchester, Simon (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/61770835"><i>Krakatoa : the day the world exploded, August 27, 1883</i></a>. New York: HarperCollins. pp. Ch. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-083859-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-083859-0"><bdi>0-06-083859-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/61770835">61770835</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231116064835/https://search.worldcat.org/title/61770835">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Krakatoa+%3A+the+day+the+world+exploded%2C+August+27%2C+1883&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=Ch.+9&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F61770835&rft.isbn=0-06-083859-0&rft.aulast=Winchester&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F61770835&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vickers (2005), p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vickers_2005,_p._14-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vickers_2005,_p._14_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vickers_2005,_p._14_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vickers_2005,_p._14_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vickers (2005), p. 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reid_1974,_p._1-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reid_1974,_p._1_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reid_1974,_p._1_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reid_1974,_p._1_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Reid (1974), p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. Hagen (2018), Koloniale oorlogen in Indonesie. <i>Vijf eeuwen verzet tegen vreemde overheersing</i>, De Arbeiderspers.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phijffer, Tom (2000). <i>Het gelijk van Multatuli : het handelen van Eduard Douwes Dekker in rechtshistorisch perspectief</i> (in Dutch). Amsterdam: Lubberhuizen. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-76314-42-X" title="Special:BookSources/90-76314-42-X">90-76314-42-X</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/782917895">782917895</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Demographic_Effect-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Demographic_Effect_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Demographic_Effect_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Demographic_Effect_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">P. de Zwart, D. Gallardo-Albarrán, A.: 'The Demographic Effects of Colonialism: Forced Labor and Mortality in Java 1834–1879', Wageningen University & Research (WUR) & Universiteit Utrecht, 2021</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2003" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean"><i>Indonesia: Peoples and Histories</i></a></span>. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 254. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10518-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10518-6"><bdi>978-0-300-10518-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indonesia%3A+Peoples+and+Histories&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pages=254&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-300-10518-6&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Jean+Gelman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Findonesia00jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van Klaveren M., Death among Coolies: Mortality of Chinese and Javanese Labourers on Sumatra in the Early Years of Recruitment, 1882–1909, Cambridge Journals, 1997</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iisg.amsterdam/files/2018-12/IISG%20Lesmateriaal%20GedwongenArbeid%20Leerlingen%20D%2018-20-E828%20LR.pdf">"De geschiedenis van gedwongen arbeid in Nederlands-Indië"</a> [The History of Forced Labor in the Dutch East Indies] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Dutch). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231019215318/https://iisg.amsterdam/files/2018-12/IISG%20Lesmateriaal%20GedwongenArbeid%20Leerlingen%20D%2018-20-E828%20LR.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 19 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=De+geschiedenis+van+gedwongen+arbeid+in+Nederlands-Indi%C3%AB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiisg.amsterdam%2Ffiles%2F2018-12%2FIISG%2520Lesmateriaal%2520GedwongenArbeid%2520Leerlingen%2520D%252018-20-E828%2520LR.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Breman, Controversial Views on Writing Colonial History,2011, Cambridge University Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Baay, Daar werd wat gruwelijks verricht, page 242, Uitgeverij Atheneum, 4de druk(2021)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Makdoembaks N., Foute dokters en de tabaksindustrie van Sumatra, Uitgeverij de Woordenwinkel, 2019</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van den Brand J., De miljoenen uit Deli, 1902</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Breman J.C., Koelies, planters en koloniale politiek. Het arbeidsregime op de grootlandbouwondernemingen aan Sumatra's Oostkust in het begin van de twintigste eeuw (Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk instituut voor taal-, land- en volkenkunde CXXIII; Dordrecht: Foris Publications, 1987</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baay, Reggie (2010). <i>Nyai & Pergundikan di Hindia Belanda</i> [Nyai & Concubinage in the Dutch East Indies] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Komunitas Bambu. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-979-3731-78-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-979-3731-78-0">978-979-3731-78-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jack Ford, "The Forlorn Ally—The Netherlands East Indies in 1942," <i>War & Society</i> (1993) 11#1 pp: 105–127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herman Theodore Bussemaker, "Paradise in Peril: The Netherlands, Great Britain and the Defence of the Netherlands East Indies, 1940–41," <i>Journal of Southeast Asian Studies</i> (2000) 31#1 pp: 115–136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morison (1948), p. 191</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ricklefs (1991), p. 195</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">L., Klemen, 1999–2000, <i>The Netherlands East Indies 1941–42</i>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/index.html">Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110726053035/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/index.html">Archived</a> 26 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shigeru Satō: War, nationalism, and peasants: Java under the Japanese occupation, 1942–1945 (1997), p. 43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEncyclopædia_Britannica_Online2007" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica Online</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-22819/Indonesia">"Indonesia :: Japanese occupation"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070209085508/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-22819/Indonesia">Archived</a> from the original on 9 February 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 January</span> 2007</span>. <q>Though initially welcomed as liberators, the Japanese gradually established themselves as harsh overlords. Their policies fluctuated according to the exigencies of the war, but in general their primary object was to make the Indies serve Japanese war needs.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indonesia+%3A%3A+Japanese+occupation&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-22819%2FIndonesia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGert_Oostindie_and_Bert_Paasman1998" class="citation journal cs1">Gert Oostindie and Bert Paasman (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.knaw.nl/ws/files/488440/16390.pdf">"Dutch Attitudes towards Colonial Empires, Indigenous Cultures, and Slaves"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Eighteenth-Century Studies</i>. <b>31</b> (3): 349–355. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fecs.1998.0021">10.1353/ecs.1998.0021</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11755%2Fc467167b-2084-413c-a3c7-f390f9b3a092">20.500.11755/c467167b-2084-413c-a3c7-f390f9b3a092</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161921454">161921454</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180719193031/https://pure.knaw.nl/ws/files/488440/16390.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 19 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eighteenth-Century+Studies&rft.atitle=Dutch+Attitudes+towards+Colonial+Empires%2C+Indigenous+Cultures%2C+and+Slaves&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=349-355&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.11755%2Fc467167b-2084-413c-a3c7-f390f9b3a092&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161921454%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fecs.1998.0021&rft.au=Gert+Oostindie+and+Bert+Paasman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpure.knaw.nl%2Fws%2Ffiles%2F488440%2F16390.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRicklefs1993" class="citation book cs1">Ricklefs, M.C. (1993). <i>History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, second edition</i>. London: MacMillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-57689-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-57689-6"><bdi>0-333-57689-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Modern+Indonesia+Since+c.1300%2C+second+edition&rft.place=London&rft.pub=MacMillan&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-333-57689-6&rft.aulast=Ricklefs&rft.aufirst=M.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VICKERSp85-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VICKERSp85_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vickers (2005), page 85</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ricklefs (1991), p. 199</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cited in: Dower, John W. <i>War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War</i> (1986; Pantheon; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-75172-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-75172-8">0-394-75172-8</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://besacenter.org/perspectives-papers/netherlands-war-crimes/">"How the Netherlands Hid Its War Crimes for Decades"</a>. 31 August 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200901084513/https://besacenter.org/perspectives-papers/netherlands-war-crimes/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+the+Netherlands+Hid+Its+War+Crimes+for+Decades&rft.date=2020-08-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbesacenter.org%2Fperspectives-papers%2Fnetherlands-war-crimes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/10/22/who-responsible-bersiap.html">Who is responsible for 'Bersiap'?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161128195700/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/10/22/who-responsible-bersiap.html">Archived</a> 28 November 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> The Jakarta Post</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Meijer, Hans. 'In Indie geworteld, de Geschiedenis van Indische Nederlanders, de twintigste eeuw.' (Publisher Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, 2004) P.245 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-351-2617-3" title="Special:BookSources/90-351-2617-3">90-351-2617-3</a>. Note: Citing Dutch newspaper 'De Haagsche Post', article dated 4 December 1954.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111210090742/http://dutcheastindies.web.id/extremists-run-amok-against-indische-nederlanders.html">"Extremists Run Amok Against Indische-Nederlanders | Dutch-Indonesian Community"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dutcheastindies.web.id/extremists-run-amok-against-indische-nederlanders.html">the original</a> on 10 December 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Extremists+Run+Amok+Against+Indische-Nederlanders+%26%23124%3B+Dutch-Indonesian+Community&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdutcheastindies.web.id%2Fextremists-run-amok-against-indische-nederlanders.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tijdbalk-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tijdbalk_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tijdbalk_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.parlement.com/id/vhnnmt7myvxl/tijdbalk_indonesische_kwestie">"Tijdbalk Indonesische kwestie"</a>. <i>Parlement.com</i> (in Dutch). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230322042122/https://www.parlement.com/id/vhnnmt7myvxl/tijdbalk_indonesische_kwestie">Archived</a> from the original on 22 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Parlement.com&rft.atitle=Tijdbalk+Indonesische+kwestie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.parlement.com%2Fid%2Fvhnnmt7myvxl%2Ftijdbalk_indonesische_kwestie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJatmiko" class="citation news cs1">Jatmiko, Andi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/world-news/dutch-king-apologises-for-colonial-killings-in-indonesia-39032071.html">"Dutch king apologises for colonial killings in Indonesia"</a>. <i>Belfasttelegraph</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210818083537/https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/world-news/dutch-king-apologises-for-colonial-killings-in-indonesia-39032071.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Belfasttelegraph&rft.atitle=Dutch+king+apologises+for+colonial+killings+in+Indonesia&rft.aulast=Jatmiko&rft.aufirst=Andi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.belfasttelegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld-news%2Fdutch-king-apologises-for-colonial-killings-in-indonesia-39032071.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Der_MeulenSorters2005" class="citation journal cs1">Van Der Meulen, Jan; Sorters, Joseph (1 July 2005). "Dutch Courage: The Politics of Acceptable Risks. Armed Forces and Society". <i>Armed Forces & Society</i>. <b>31</b> (4): 537–558. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0095327X0503100405">10.1177/0095327X0503100405</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145692923">145692923</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Armed+Forces+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Dutch+Courage%3A+The+Politics+of+Acceptable+Risks.+Armed+Forces+and+Society&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=537-558&rft.date=2005-07-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0095327X0503100405&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145692923%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Van+Der+Meulen&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft.au=Sorters%2C+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R.B. Cribb and A. Kahin, p. 108</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R.B. Cribb and A. Kahin, p. 140</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R.B. Cribb and A. Kahin, pp. 87, 295</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vickers (2005), p. 15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cribb, R.B., Kahin, pp. 140 & 405</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harry J. Benda, S.L. van der Wal, "De Volksraad en de staatkundige ontwikkeling van Nederlandsch-Indië: The Peoples Council and the political development of the Netherlands-Indies." (With an introduction and survey of the documents in English). (Publisher: J.B. Wolters, Leiden, 1965.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTagliacozzo2009" class="citation book cs1">Tagliacozzo, Eric (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S3nlvRJyjUEC"><i>Southeast Asia and the Middle East: Islam, Movement, and the Longue Durée</i></a>. NUS Press. p. 177. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9971-69-424-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-9971-69-424-1"><bdi>978-9971-69-424-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231116064831/https://books.google.com/books?id=S3nlvRJyjUEC">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Southeast+Asia+and+the+Middle+East%3A+Islam%2C+Movement%2C+and+the+Longue+Dur%C3%A9e&rft.pages=177&rft.pub=NUS+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9971-69-424-1&rft.aulast=Tagliacozzo&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS3nlvRJyjUEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Virtueel_Indi-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Virtueel_Indi_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Virtueel_Indi_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.virtueelindie.nl/index.php?pagina=virtueelindie&locatie=7">"Virtueel Indi"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120331060935/http://www.virtueelindie.nl/index.php?pagina=virtueelindie&locatie=7">Archived</a> from the original on 31 March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Terugblik op de laatste halve eeuw van Nederlands-Indië.</i> (Publisher: Van Gorcum, Assen, 1984) P.76, 121, 130</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120119042918/http://www.indonesianhistory.info/pages/chapter-4.html">"Chapter 4: The Netherlands Indies, 1800–1942 | Digital Atlas of Indonesian History – by Robert Cribb"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indonesianhistory.info/pages/chapter-4.html">the original</a> on 19 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chapter+4%3A+The+Netherlands+Indies%2C+1800%E2%80%931942+%26%23124%3B+Digital+Atlas+of+Indonesian+History+%E2%80%93+by+Robert+Cribb&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indonesianhistory.info%2Fpages%2Fchapter-4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span>, sourced from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCribb,_R._B2010" class="citation cs2">Cribb, R. B (2010), <i>Digital atlas of Indonesian history</i>, Nias, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-91114-66-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-91114-66-3"><bdi>978-87-91114-66-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Digital+atlas+of+Indonesian+history&rft.pub=Nias&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-87-91114-66-3&rft.au=Cribb%2C+R.+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span> from the earlier volume <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCribb,_R._BNordic_Institute_of_Asian_Studies2000" class="citation cs2">Cribb, R. B; Nordic Institute of Asian Studies (2000), <i>Historical atlas of Indonesia</i>, Curzon; Singapore : New Asian Library, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0985-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0985-4"><bdi>978-0-7007-0985-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+atlas+of+Indonesia&rft.pub=Curzon%3B+Singapore+%3A+New+Asian+Library&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-0985-4&rft.au=Cribb%2C+R.+B&rft.au=Nordic+Institute+of+Asian+Studies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blakely, Allison (2001). Blacks in the Dutch World: The Evolution of Racial Imagery in a Modern Society. Indiana University Press. p. 15 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-31191-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-31191-8">0-253-31191-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cribb, R.B. (2004) 'Historical dictionary of Indonesia.' Scarecrow Press, Lanham, US.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0%2B8108%2B4935%2B6" title="Special:BookSources/0+8108+4935+6">0 8108 4935 6</a>, p. 221 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SawyrExg75cC&q=number+of+javanese+in+KNIL">[1]</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160423234130/https://books.google.com/books?id=SawyrExg75cC&dq=number+of+javanese+in+KNIL&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Archived</a> 23 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; [Note: The KNIL statistics of 1939 show at least 13,500 Javanese and Sundanese under arms compared to 4,000 Ambonese soldiers]. Source: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.defensie.nl/nimh/geschiedenis/tijdbalk/1814-1914_nederlands-indi/">Netherlands Ministry of Defense</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111001011455/http://www.defensie.nl/nimh/geschiedenis/tijdbalk/1814-1914_nederlands-indi/">Archived</a> 1 October 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholas_Tarling1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Tarling" title="Nicholas Tarling">Nicholas Tarling</a>, ed. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pBfsaw64rjMC&pg=PA104"><i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: Volume 2, the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521355063" title="Special:BookSources/9780521355063"><bdi>9780521355063</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160423234134/https://books.google.com/books?id=pBfsaw64rjMC&pg=PA104">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Southeast+Asia%3A+Volume+2%2C+the+Nineteenth+and+Twentieth+Centuries&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780521355063&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpBfsaw64rjMC%26pg%3DPA104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroen2012" class="citation journal cs1">Groen, Petra (2012). "Colonial warfare and military ethics in the Netherlands East Indies, 1816–1941". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Genocide_Research" title="Journal of Genocide Research">Journal of Genocide Research</a></i>. <b>14</b> (3): 277–296. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14623528.2012.719365">10.1080/14623528.2012.719365</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145012445">145012445</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Genocide+Research&rft.atitle=Colonial+warfare+and+military+ethics+in+the+Netherlands+East+Indies%2C+1816%E2%80%931941&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=277-296&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14623528.2012.719365&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145012445%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Groen&rft.aufirst=Petra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Willems, Wim 'Sporen van een Indisch verleden (1600–1942).' (COMT, Leiden, 1994). Chapter I, P.32-33 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-71042-44-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-71042-44-8">90-71042-44-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Willems, Wim 'Sporen van een Indisch verleden (1600–1942).' (COMT, Leiden, 1994). Chapter I, P.32-36 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-71042-44-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-71042-44-8">90-71042-44-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Sydenham Furnivall, <i>Colonial Policy and Practice: A Comparative Study of Burma and Netherlands India</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1948), 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlemen1999–2000" class="citation web cs1">Klemen, L (1999–2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/index.html">"Dutch East Indies 1941–1942"</a>. Dutch East Indies Campaign. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110726053035/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dutch+East+Indies+1941%E2%80%931942&rft.pub=Dutch+East+Indies+Campaign&rft.date=1999%2F2000&rft.aulast=Klemen&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwarfare.gq%2Fdutcheastindies%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Last Post – the End of Empire in the Far East", John Keay <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7195-5589-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7195-5589-2">0-7195-5589-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cgi.omroep.nl/cgi-bin/streams?%2Ftv%2Fvpro%2FGE%2Fsb.Plechtighedendjakartapolygoon.asf%3Ftitle=De">"plechtigheden in Djakarta bij de opheffing van het KNIL Polygoon 1950 3 min. 20;embed=1 Video footage showing the official ceremony disbanding the KNIL"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927025253/http://cgi.omroep.nl/cgi-bin/streams?%2Ftv%2Fvpro%2FGE%2Fsb.Plechtighedendjakartapolygoon.asf%3Ftitle=De">Archived</a> from the original on 27 September 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=plechtigheden+in+Djakarta+bij+de+opheffing+van+het+KNIL+Polygoon+1950+3+min.+20%3Bembed%3D1+Video+footage+showing+the+official+ceremony+disbanding+the+KNIL&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcgi.omroep.nl%2Fcgi-bin%2Fstreams%3F%252Ftv%252Fvpro%252FGE%252Fsb.Plechtighedendjakartapolygoon.asf%253Ftitle%3DDe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Keegan, page 314 "World Armies", <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-17236-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-17236-1">0-333-17236-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFurnivall1967" class="citation book cs1">Furnivall, J.S. (1967) [1939]. <i>Netherlands India: a Study of Plural Economy</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-54262-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-54262-6"><bdi>0-521-54262-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Netherlands+India%3A+a+Study+of+Plural+Economy&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=0-521-54262-6&rft.aulast=Furnivall&rft.aufirst=J.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span> Cited in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVicker2005" class="citation book cs1">Vicker, Adrian (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri/page/9"><i>A History of Modern Indonesia</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri/page/9">9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-54262-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-54262-6"><bdi>0-521-54262-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Indonesia&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-521-54262-6&rft.aulast=Vicker&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofmoderni00adri%2Fpage%2F9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beck, Sanderson, (2008) South Asia, 1800–1950 – World Peace Communications <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9792532-3-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-9792532-3-3">0-9792532-3-3</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9792532-3-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9792532-3-2">978-0-9792532-3-2</a> – By 1930 more European women had arrived in the colony, and they made up 113,000 out of the 240,000 Europeans.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van Nimwegen, Nico <i>De demografische geschiedenis van Indische Nederlanders</i>, Report no.64 (Publisher: NIDI, The Hague, 2002) P.36 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789070990923" title="Special:BookSources/9789070990923">9789070990923</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Nimwegen2002" class="citation book cs1">Van Nimwegen, Nico (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723103734/http://www.nidi.knaw.nl/Content/NIDI/output/reports/nidi-report-64.pdf">"64"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>De demografische geschiedenis van Indische Nederlanders</i> [<i>The demography of the Dutch in the East Indies</i>]. <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a>: NIDI. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789070990923" title="Special:BookSources/9789070990923"><bdi>9789070990923</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nidi.knaw.nl/Content/NIDI/output/reports/nidi-report-64.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 23 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=64&rft.btitle=De+demografische+geschiedenis+van+Indische+Nederlanders&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=NIDI&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9789070990923&rft.aulast=Van+Nimwegen&rft.aufirst=Nico&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nidi.knaw.nl%2FContent%2FNIDI%2Foutput%2Freports%2Fnidi-report-64.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vickers (2005), p. 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reid (1974), p. 170, 171</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornelis2008" class="citation book cs1">Cornelis, Willem, Jan (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tongtong.nl/indische-school/contentdownloads/tjiook_09web.pdf"><i>De Privaatrechterlijke Toestand: Der Vreemde Oosterlingen Op Java En Madoera </i>( The private law situation: Java and Madoera<i>)</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Bibiliobazaar. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-559-23498-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-559-23498-9"><bdi>978-0-559-23498-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110724170817/http://www.tongtong.nl/indische-school/contentdownloads/tjiook_09web.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 24 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Privaatrechterlijke+Toestand%3A+Der+Vreemde+Oosterlingen+Op+Java+En+Madoera+%28+The+private+law+situation%3A+Java+and+Madoera%29&rft.pub=Bibiliobazaar&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-559-23498-9&rft.aulast=Cornelis&rft.aufirst=Willem%2C+Jan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tongtong.nl%2Findische-school%2Fcontentdownloads%2Ftjiook_09web.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cribb, Robert, 'Development policy in the early 20th century [Indonesia]' in Jan-Paul Dirkse, Frans Hüsken and Mario Rutten, eds, <i>Development and social welfare: Indonesia's experiences under the New Order</i> (1993) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://works.bepress.com/robert_cribb/5/">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180623061719/https://works.bepress.com/robert_cribb/5/">Archived</a> 23 June 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor_2003,_p._286-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_2003,_p._286_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_2003,_p._286_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_2003,_p._286_110-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor (2003), p. 286</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor (2003), p. 287</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tudelft.nl-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tudelft.nl_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tudelft.nl_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tudelft.nl/live/pagina.jsp?id=890cbbcf-a9ce-4ea6-9b38-4fdbecbee3ce&lang=en">"TU Delft Colonial influence remains strong in Indonesia"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225140856/https://www.tudelft.nl/live/pagina.jsp?id=890cbbcf-a9ce-4ea6-9b38-4fdbecbee3ce&lang=en">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TU+Delft+Colonial+influence+remains+strong+in+Indonesia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tudelft.nl%2Flive%2Fpagina.jsp%3Fid%3D890cbbcf-a9ce-4ea6-9b38-4fdbecbee3ce%26lang%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.urapcenter.org/2010">"URAP – University Ranking by Academic Performance"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006190032/http://www.urapcenter.org/2010/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=URAP+%E2%80%93+University+Ranking+by+Academic+Performance&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.urapcenter.org%2F2010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dick, et al. (2002)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ricklefs (1991), p 119</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor_2003,_p._240-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_2003,_p._240_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_2003,_p._240_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor (2003), p. 240</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/calculate2-nl.php">"Waarde van de gulden / euro"</a>. <i>iisg.nl</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200507213957/http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/calculate2-nl.php">Archived</a> from the original on 7 May 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iisg.nl&rft.atitle=Waarde+van+de+gulden+%2F+euro&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iisg.nl%2Fhpw%2Fcalculate2-nl.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kivi.nl/afdelingen/telecommunicatie/nieuws/artikel/promotie-huib-ekkelenkamp-op-9-april-2019-tu-delft">"Promotie Huib Ekkelenkamp op 9 april 2019 TU Delft"</a>. <i>KIVI</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308170608/https://www.kivi.nl/afdelingen/telecommunicatie/nieuws/artikel/promotie-huib-ekkelenkamp-op-9-april-2019-tu-delft">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=KIVI&rft.atitle=Promotie+Huib+Ekkelenkamp+op+9+april+2019+TU+Delft&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kivi.nl%2Fafdelingen%2Ftelecommunicatie%2Fnieuws%2Fartikel%2Fpromotie-huib-ekkelenkamp-op-9-april-2019-tu-delft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121124023601/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/opinion/indonesias-infrastructure-problems-a-legacy-from-dutch-colonialism/437111">"Indonesia's Infrastructure Problems: A Legacy From Dutch Colonialism"</a>. <i>The Jakarta Globe</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/opinion/indonesias-infrastructure-problems-a-legacy-from-dutch-colonialism/437111">the original</a> on 24 November 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Jakarta+Globe&rft.atitle=Indonesia%27s+Infrastructure+Problems%3A+A+Legacy+From+Dutch+Colonialism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thejakartaglobe.com%2Fopinion%2Findonesias-infrastructure-problems-a-legacy-from-dutch-colonialism%2F437111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZwartGallardo-AlbarránRijpma2022" class="citation journal cs1">Zwart, Pim de; Gallardo-Albarrán, Daniel; Rijpma, Auke (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050721000577">"The Demographic Effects of Colonialism: Forced Labor and Mortality in Java, 1834–1879"</a>. <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>82</b>: 211–249. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050721000577">10.1017/S0022050721000577</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0507">0022-0507</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247012562">247012562</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+Demographic+Effects+of+Colonialism%3A+Forced+Labor+and+Mortality+in+Java%2C+1834%E2%80%931879&rft.volume=82&rft.pages=211-249&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A247012562%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0022-0507&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050721000577&rft.aulast=Zwart&rft.aufirst=Pim+de&rft.au=Gallardo-Albarr%C3%A1n%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Rijpma%2C+Auke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0022050721000577&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dick, et al. (2002), p. 95</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vickers (2005), p. 20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vickers (2005), p. 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vickers (2005), p. 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dick, et al. (2002), p. 97</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pure.knaw.nl-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pure.knaw.nl_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pure.knaw.nl_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Rossum2018" class="citation journal cs1">van Rossum, Matthias (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.knaw.nl/ws/files/7152548/carceral_colony_colonial_exploitation_coercion_and_control_in_the_dutch_east_indies_1810s1940s.pdf/">"The Carceral Colony: Colonial Exploitation, Coercion, and Control in the Dutch East Indies, 1810s-1940s"</a>. <i>International Review of Social History</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020859018000226">10.1017/S0020859018000226</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231019215313/https://pure.knaw.nl/ws/files/7152548/carceral_colony_colonial_exploitation_coercion_and_control_in_the_dutch_east_indies_1810s1940s.pdf/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Review+of+Social+History&rft.atitle=The+Carceral+Colony%3A+Colonial+Exploitation%2C+Coercion%2C+and+Control+in+the+Dutch+East+Indies%2C+1810s-1940s&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020859018000226&rft.aulast=van+Rossum&rft.aufirst=Matthias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpure.knaw.nl%2Fws%2Ffiles%2F7152548%2Fcarceral_colony_colonial_exploitation_coercion_and_control_in_the_dutch_east_indies_1810s1940s.pdf%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFten_Horn-van_NispenRavesteijn2009" class="citation journal cs1">ten Horn-van Nispen, Marie-Louise; Ravesteijn, Wim (2009). 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Kodansha America. p. 203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56836-249-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-56836-249-8"><bdi>1-56836-249-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231116064832/https://books.google.com/books?id=8oEHVFx6YD0C&q=The+Scents+of+Eden">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 October</span> 2020</span>. <q>The Portuguese language rolled more easily off Malay tongues than did Dutch or English. Ironically, if any European tongue was the language of merchant intercourse, even in Batavia, it was Portuguese.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scents+of+Eden%3A+A+History+of+the+Spice+Trade&rft.pages=203&rft.pub=Kodansha+America&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-56836-249-8&rft.aulast=Corn&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8oEHVFx6YD0C%26q%3DThe%2BScents%2Bof%2BEden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Meijer, Hans (2004) In Indie geworteld. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=About&rft.atitle=Dutch+Food+Influences+%E2%80%93+History+of+Dutch+Food+%E2%80%93+Culinary+Influences+on+the+Dutch+Kitchen&rft.au=Karin+Engelbrecht&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdutchfood.about.com%2Fod%2Faboutdutchcooking%2Fa%2FFoodInfluences.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schoppert_38-39-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schoppert_38-39_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schoppert (1997), pp. 38–39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-d8-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-d8_159-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-d8_159-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dawson, B., Gillow, J., <i>The Traditional Architecture of Indonesia</i>, p. 8, 1994 Thames and Hudson Ltd, London, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-34132-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-34132-X">0-500-34132-X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._Wangsadinata_and_T.K._Djajasudarma1995" class="citation conference cs1">W. Wangsadinata and T.K. Djajasudarma (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070614232909/http://www.wiratman.co.id/ximages/architecture.pdf">"Architectural Design Consideration for Modern Buildings in Indonesia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>INDOBEX Conf. on Building Construction Technology for the Future: Construction Technology for Highrises & Intelligence Buildings</i>. Jakarta. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wiratman.co.id/ximages/architecture.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 14 June 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Architectural+Design+Consideration+for+Modern+Buildings+in+Indonesia&rft.btitle=INDOBEX+Conf.+on+Building+Construction+Technology+for+the+Future%3A+Construction+Technology+for+Highrises+%26+Intelligence+Buildings&rft.place=Jakarta&rft.date=1995&rft.au=W.+Wangsadinata+and+T.K.+Djajasudarma&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wiratman.co.id%2Fximages%2Farchitecture.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schoppert_1997,_pp._72-77-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schoppert_1997,_pp._72-77_161-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schoppert_1997,_pp._72-77_161-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Schoppert (1997), pp. 72–77</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schoppert (1997), pp. 104–105</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schoppert (1997), pp. 102–105</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vickers (2005), p. 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schoppert_1997,_p._105-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schoppert_1997,_p._105_165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schoppert (1997), p. 105</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://factofindonesia.wordpress.com/2015/11/15/the-architecture-of-indonesia/">"The Architecture of Indonesia"</a>. <i>The Fact of Indonesia</i>. 15 November 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240115162059/https://factofindonesia.wordpress.com/2015/11/15/the-architecture-of-indonesia/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 January 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Fact+of+Indonesia&rft.atitle=The+Architecture+of+Indonesia&rft.date=2015-11-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffactofindonesia.wordpress.com%2F2015%2F11%2F15%2Fthe-architecture-of-indonesia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPentasari2007" class="citation book cs1">Pentasari, R (2007). <i>Chic in kebaya: catatan inspiratif untuk tampil anggun berkebaya</i>. Jakarta: Esensi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chic+in+kebaya%3A+catatan+inspiratif+untuk+tampil+anggun+berkebaya&rft.place=Jakarta&rft.pub=Esensi&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Pentasari&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_168-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_168-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLukmanPiliangSunarto2013" class="citation journal cs1">Lukman, Christine Claudia; Piliang, Yasraf Amir; Sunarto, Priyanto (30 October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/display/234685846">"Kebaya Encim as the Phenomenon of Mimicry in East Indies Dutch Colonial's Culture"</a>. <i>International Institute for Science, Technology and Education (IISTE): E-Journals</i>: 16. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240114033102/https://core.ac.uk/display/234685846">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2024</span> – via CORE.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Institute+for+Science%2C+Technology+and+Education+%28IISTE%29%3A+E-Journals&rft.atitle=Kebaya+Encim+as+the+Phenomenon+of+Mimicry+in+East+Indies+Dutch+Colonial%27s+Culture&rft.pages=16&rft.date=2013-10-30&rft.aulast=Lukman&rft.aufirst=Christine+Claudia&rft.au=Piliang%2C+Yasraf+Amir&rft.au=Sunarto%2C+Priyanto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdisplay%2F234685846&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLegêneDijk2011" class="citation book cs1">Legêne, S.; Dijk, J. V (2011). <i>The Netherlands East Indies at the Tropenmuseum: a colonial history</i>. Amsterdam: KIT. p. 146.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Netherlands+East+Indies+at+the+Tropenmuseum%3A+a+colonial+history&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=KIT&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Leg%C3%AAne&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Dijk%2C+J.+V&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/indonesian-batik-00170">"Indonesian Batik – intangible heritage – Culture Sector"</a>. UNESCO. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170503201756/http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/indonesian-batik-00170">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indonesian+Batik+%E2%80%93+intangible+heritage+%E2%80%93+Culture+Sector&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unesco.org%2Fculture%2Fich%2Fen%2FRL%2Findonesian-batik-00170&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStokkermans" class="citation web cs1">Stokkermans, Karel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rsssf.org/tablesi/indiechamp.html#intro">"Dutch East Indies – Football History"</a>. The Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230623164834/https://www.rsssf.org/tablesi/indiechamp.html#intro">Archived</a> from the original on 23 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dutch+East+Indies+%E2%80%93+Football+History&rft.pub=The+Rec.Sport.Soccer+Statistics+Foundation&rft.aulast=Stokkermans&rft.aufirst=Karel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rsssf.org%2Ftablesi%2Findiechamp.html%23intro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fifa.com/fifaplus/en/articles/did-you-know-dutch-east-indies-erstwhile-indonesia-were-the-first-flagbearers-of-asia-in-fifa-world-cup">"Did you know Dutch East Indies, erstwhile Indonesia, were the first flagbearers of Asia in FIFA World Cup?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/FIFA" title="FIFA">FIFA</a>. 3 March 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230713132722/https://www.fifa.com/fifaplus/en/articles/did-you-know-dutch-east-indies-erstwhile-indonesia-were-the-first-flagbearers-of-asia-in-fifa-world-cup">Archived</a> from the original on 13 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Did+you+know+Dutch+East+Indies%2C+erstwhile+Indonesia%2C+were+the+first+flagbearers+of+Asia+in+FIFA+World+Cup%3F&rft.pub=FIFA&rft.date=2023-03-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fifa.com%2Ffifaplus%2Fen%2Farticles%2Fdid-you-know-dutch-east-indies-erstwhile-indonesia-were-the-first-flagbearers-of-asia-in-fifa-world-cup&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_de_Vooren2022" class="citation web cs1">van de Vooren, Jurryt (8 February 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://footballmakeshistory.eu/the-dutch-east-indies-a-colonial-team-at-a-world-cup/">"The Dutch East Indies, a colonial team at a World Cup"</a>. <i>Sportgeschiedenis.nl</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231116064833/https://footballmakeshistory.eu/the-dutch-east-indies-a-colonial-team-at-a-world-cup/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sportgeschiedenis.nl&rft.atitle=The+Dutch+East+Indies%2C+a+colonial+team+at+a+World+Cup&rft.date=2022-02-08&rft.aulast=van+de+Vooren&rft.aufirst=Jurryt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffootballmakeshistory.eu%2Fthe-dutch-east-indies-a-colonial-team-at-a-world-cup%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">To this day the Dutch royal family is in fact the wealthiest family of the Netherlands, one of the foundations of its wealth was the colonial trade.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/2007/08/30/worlds-richest-royals-biz-royals07-cx_lk_0830royalintro_slide_15.html?thisSpeed=30000">"In Pictures: The World's Richest Royals"</a>. <i>Forbes.com</i>. 30 August 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081006005806/http://www.forbes.com/2007/08/30/worlds-richest-royals-biz-royals07-cx_lk_0830royalintro_slide_15.html?thisSpeed=30000">Archived</a> from the original on 6 October 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forbes.com&rft.atitle=In+Pictures%3A+The+World%27s+Richest+Royals&rft.date=2007-08-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2F2007%2F08%2F30%2Fworlds-richest-royals-biz-royals07-cx_lk_0830royalintro_slide_15.html%3FthisSpeed%3D30000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nieuwenhuys, Robert, (1973) Tempo doeloe : fotografische documenten uit het oude Indie, 1870–1914 [door] E. Breton de Nijs (pseud. of Robert Nieuwenhuys) Amsterdam : Querido, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-214-1103-2" title="Special:BookSources/90-214-1103-2">90-214-1103-2</a> – noting that the era wasn't fixed by any dates – noting the use of Tio, Tek Hong,(2006) Keadaan Jakarta tempo doeloe : sebuah kenangan 1882–1959 Depok : Masup Jakarta <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-25-7291-0" title="Special:BookSources/979-25-7291-0">979-25-7291-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nieuwenhuys (1999)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Etty, Elsbeth literary editor for the <a href="/w/index.php?title=NRC_handelsblad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NRC handelsblad (page does not exist)">NRC handelsblad</a> "Novels: Coming to terms with Calvinism, colonies and the war." (NRC Handelsblad. July 1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://retro.nrc.nl/W2/Lab/Profiel/Nederland/novels.html">[7]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110720130605/http://retro.nrc.nl/W2/Lab/Profiel/Nederland/novels.html">Archived</a> 20 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bosma U., Raben R. <i>Being "Dutch" in the Indies: a history of creolisation and empire, 1500–1920</i> (University of Michigan, NUS Press, 2008), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9971-69-373-9" title="Special:BookSources/9971-69-373-9">9971-69-373-9</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=47wCTCJX9X4C&q=Carel+Pieter+Brest+van+Kempen">[8]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160423234228/https://books.google.com/books?id=47wCTCJX9X4C&dq=Carel+Pieter+Brest+van+Kempen&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Archived</a> 23 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Willems, Wim, <i>De uittocht uit Indie 1945–1995</i> (Publisher: Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, 2001) pp.12–13 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-351-2361-1" title="Special:BookSources/90-351-2361-1">90-351-2361-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbs.nl/nl-NL/menu/themas/bevolking/cijfers/default.htm">"Official CBS website containing all Dutch demographic statistics"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100611053718/http://www.cbs.nl/nl-NL/menu/themas/bevolking/cijfers/default.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 11 June 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Official+CBS+website+containing+all+Dutch+demographic+statistics.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbs.nl%2Fnl-NL%2Fmenu%2Fthemas%2Fbevolking%2Fcijfers%2Fdefault.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">De Vries, Marlene. <i>Indisch is een gevoel, de tweede en derde generatie Indische Nederlanders.</i> (Amsterdam University Press, 2009) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-8964-125-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-8964-125-0">978-90-8964-125-0</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090817070552/http://www.imes.uva.nl/research/IMESsecondthirdgenerationsDutchEurasians.html">"IMES/ Second&third generations Dutch Eurasians"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imes.uva.nl/research/IMESsecondthirdgenerationsDutchEurasians.html">the original</a> on 17 August 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IMES%2F+Second%26third+generations+Dutch+Eurasians&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.imes.uva.nl%2Fresearch%2FIMESsecondthirdgenerationsDutchEurasians.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PNo0ZYamYsUC&q='Indisch+is+een+gevoel'">[9]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160107232958/https://books.google.com/books?id=PNo0ZYamYsUC&printsec=frontcover&dq='Indisch+is+een+gevoel'&source=bl&ots=2PpWDDOQo4&sig=SBvaqropvzfBt9UcH8wKGMXqIXw&hl=nl&ei=H8zGS4KzFYyTOJq69MgM&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CB0Q6AEwBg#v=twopage&q&f=false">Archived</a> 7 January 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> P.369</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStartpagina_B.V." class="citation web cs1">Startpagina B.V. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://indisch-eten.startpagina.nl/">"Indisch-eten Startpagina, verzameling van interessante links"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100330141819/http://indisch-eten.startpagina.nl/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 March 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 October</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indisch-eten+Startpagina%2C+verzameling+van+interessante+links&rft.au=Startpagina+B.V.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Findisch-eten.startpagina.nl%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiran2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Misbach_Yusa_Biran" title="Misbach Yusa Biran">Biran, Misbach Yusa</a> (2009). <a href="/wiki/Sejarah_Film_1900%E2%80%931950:_Bikin_Film_di_Jawa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sejarah Film 1900–1950: Bikin Film di Jawa"><i>Sejarah Film 1900–1950: Bikin Film di Jawa</i></a> [<i>History of Film 1900–1950: Making Films in Java</i>] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Komunitas Bamboo working with the Jakarta Art Council. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-979-3731-58-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-979-3731-58-2"><bdi>978-979-3731-58-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sejarah+Film+1900%E2%80%931950%3A+Bikin+Film+di+Jawa&rft.place=Jakarta&rft.pub=Komunitas+Bamboo+working+with+the+Jakarta+Art+Council&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-979-3731-58-2&rft.aulast=Biran&rft.aufirst=Misbach+Yusa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Cribb, R.B., Kahin, A. <i>Historical dictionary of Indonesia</i> (Scarecrow Press, 2004)</li> <li>Dick, Howard, et al. <i>The Emergence of a National Economy: An Economic History of Indonesia, 1800–2000</i> (U. of Hawaii Press, 2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130131235150/http://www.questia.com/read/101433400/the-emergence-of-a-national-economy-an-economic-history">online edition</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriend2003" class="citation book cs1">Friend, T. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo"><i>Indonesian Destinies</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-01137-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-01137-6"><bdi>0-674-01137-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indonesian+Destinies&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-674-01137-6&rft.aulast=Friend&rft.aufirst=T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Findonesiandestin00theo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahin1952" class="citation book cs1">Kahin, George McTurnan (1952). <i>Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia</i>. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-9108-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-9108-8"><bdi>0-8014-9108-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nationalism+and+Revolution+in+Indonesia&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+NY&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1952&rft.isbn=0-8014-9108-8&rft.aulast=Kahin&rft.aufirst=George+McTurnan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeider1991" class="citation book cs1">Heider, Karl G (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indonesiancinema0000heid"><i>Indonesian Cinema: National Culture on Screen</i></a></span>. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1367-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1367-3"><bdi>978-0-8248-1367-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indonesian+Cinema%3A+National+Culture+on+Screen&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1367-3&rft.aulast=Heider&rft.aufirst=Karl+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Findonesiancinema0000heid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReid1974" class="citation book cs1">Reid, Anthony (1974). <i>The Indonesian National Revolution 1945–1950</i>. Melbourne: Longman Pty Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-71046-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-71046-4"><bdi>0-582-71046-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indonesian+National+Revolution+1945%E2%80%931950&rft.place=Melbourne&rft.pub=Longman+Pty+Ltd&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=0-582-71046-4&rft.aulast=Reid&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Nieuwenhuys, Rob <i>Mirror of the Indies: A History of Dutch Colonial Literature</i> - translated from Dutch by E. M. Beekman (Publisher: Periplus, 1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I4I7D3U19OsC&q=Mirror+of+the+Indies:+a+history+of+Dutch+colonial+literature">Google Books</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrayogo2009" class="citation thesis cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Prayogo, Wisnu Agung (2009). "Sekilas Perkembangan Perfilman di Indonesia" [An Overview of the Development of Film in Indonesia]. <i>Kebijakan Pemerintahan Orde Baru Terhadap Perfilman Indonesia Tahun 1966–1980</i> [<i>New Order Policy Towards Indonesian Films (1966–1980)</i>] (Bachelor's of History Thesis) (in Indonesian). University of Indonesia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Kebijakan+Pemerintahan+Orde+Baru+Terhadap+Perfilman+Indonesia+Tahun+1966%E2%80%931980&rft.inst=University+of+Indonesia&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Prayogo&rft.aufirst=Wisnu+Agung&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRicklefs1991" class="citation book cs1">Ricklefs, M.C. (1991). <i>A Modern History of Indonesia, 2nd edition</i>. MacMillan. chapters 10–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-57690-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-57690-X"><bdi>0-333-57690-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Modern+History+of+Indonesia%2C+2nd+edition&rft.pages=chapters+10-15&rft.pub=MacMillan&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-333-57690-X&rft.aulast=Ricklefs&rft.aufirst=M.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2003" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean"><i>Indonesia: Peoples and Histories</i></a></span>. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-10518-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-10518-5"><bdi>0-300-10518-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indonesia%3A+Peoples+and+Histories&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-300-10518-5&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Jean+Gelman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Findonesia00jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVickers2005" class="citation book cs1">Vickers, Adrian (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri"><i>A History of Modern Indonesia</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-54262-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-54262-6"><bdi>0-521-54262-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Indonesia&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-521-54262-6&rft.aulast=Vickers&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofmoderni00adri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Booth, Anne, et al. <i>Indonesian Economic History in the Dutch Colonial Era</i> (1990)</li> <li>Borschberg, Peter, <i>The Dutch East Indies</i> (2016), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118455074.wbeoe276">10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe276</a></li> <li>Bosma U., Raben R. <i>Being "Dutch" in the Indies: a history of creolisation and empire, 1500–1920</i> (University of Michigan, NUS Press, 2008), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9971-69-373-9" title="Special:BookSources/9971-69-373-9">9971-69-373-9</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=47wCTCJX9X4C&q=Carel+Pieter+Brest+van+Kempen">[10]</a></li> <li>Bosma, Ulbe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-20110201137"><i>Emigration: Colonial circuits between Europe and Asia in the 19th and early 20th century</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/European_History_Online" title="European History Online">European History Online</a>, Mainz: <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_European_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of European History">Institute of European History</a>, 2011, retrieved: 23 May 2011.</li> <li>Colombijn, Freek, and Thomas Lindblad, eds. <i>Roots of violence in Indonesia: Contemporary violence in historical perspective</i> (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2002)</li> <li>Dick, Howard, et al. <i>The Emergence of a National Economy: An Economic History of Indonesia, 1800–2000</i> (U. of Hawaii Press, 2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/101433400/the-emergence-of-a-national-economy-an-economic-history">online edition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191225181447/https://www.questia.com/read/101433400/the-emergence-of-a-national-economy-an-economic-history">Archived</a> 25 December 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Elson, Robert. <i>The idea of Indonesia: A history</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernand_Braudel" title="Fernand Braudel">Braudel, Fernand</a>, <i>The perspective of the World</i>, vol III in <i>Civilization and Capitalism</i>, 1984</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFurnivall,_J._S.1944" class="citation book cs1">Furnivall, J. S. (1944). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qiARYzj_QL8C&pg=PR9"><i>Netherlands India: A Study of Plural Economy</i></a>. Cambridge U.P. p. viii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108011273" title="Special:BookSources/9781108011273"><bdi>9781108011273</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Netherlands+India%3A+A+Study+of+Plural+Economy&rft.pages=viii&rft.pub=Cambridge+U.P.&rft.date=1944&rft.isbn=9781108011273&rft.au=Furnivall%2C+J.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqiARYzj_QL8C%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span>, comprehensive coverage</li> <li>Gouda, Frances. <i>Dutch Culture Overseas: Colonial Practice in the Netherlands Indies, 1900-1942</i> (1996) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/37803874/dutch-culture-overseas-colonial-practice-in-the-netherlands">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171109045615/https://www.questia.com/read/37803874/dutch-culture-overseas-colonial-practice-in-the-netherlands">Archived</a> 9 November 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Nagtegaal, Luc. <i>Riding the Dutch Tiger: The Dutch East Indies Company and the Northeast Coast of Java, 1680–1743</i> (1996) 250pp</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobins2012" class="citation book cs1">Robins, Nick (2012). <i>The corporation that changed the world : how the East India Company shaped the modern multinational</i>. London: Pluto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84964-691-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84964-691-8"><bdi>978-1-84964-691-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/820849779">820849779</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+corporation+that+changed+the+world+%3A+how+the+East+India+Company+shaped+the+modern+multinational&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Pluto+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F820849779&rft.isbn=978-1-84964-691-8&rft.aulast=Robins&rft.aufirst=Nick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Taylor, Jean Gelman. <i>The Social World of Batavia: Europeans and Eurasians in Colonial Indonesia</i> (1983)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindblad1989" class="citation journal cs1">Lindblad, J. Thomas (1989). "The Petroleum Industry in Indonesia before the Second World War". <i>Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies</i>. <b>25</b> (2): 53–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00074918812331335569">10.1080/00074918812331335569</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+Indonesian+Economic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Petroleum+Industry+in+Indonesia+before+the+Second+World+War&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=53-77&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00074918812331335569&rft.aulast=Lindblad&rft.aufirst=J.+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K._M._Panikkar" title="K. M. Panikkar">Panikkar, K. M.</a> (1953). Asia and Western dominance, 1498–1945, by K.M. Panikkar. London: G. Allen and Unwin.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Dutch_East_Indies" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a> at Wikimedia Commons </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theeuropeanlibrary.org/portal/?lang=en&coll=collections:a0077&q=(%22dutch+indies%22)">11 Dutch Indies objects in 'The European Library Harvest'</a></li> <li>Cribb, Robert, <i>Digital Atlas of Indonesian History</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120119042918/http://www.indonesianhistory.info/pages/chapter-4.html">Chapter 4: The Netherlands Indies, 1800–1942 | Digital Atlas of Indonesian History – By Robert Cribb</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.theeuropeanlibrary.org/portal/en/search/publisher/KB/%28%22netherlands+indies%22%29.query">Historical Documents of the Dutch Parliament 1814–1995</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2023">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120404085340/http://search.theeuropeanlibrary.org/portal/en/search/publisher/KB/%28%22netherlands+indies%22%29.query">Archived</a> 4 April 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2023">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.houseofdavid.ca/frnlus.htm">Parallel and Divergent Aspects of British Rule in the Raj, French Rule in Indochina, Dutch Rule in the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia), and American Rule in the Philippines</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718172021/http://ir.lib.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/metadb/up/kiyo/AA11747932/KJ00004184403.pdf">Yasuo Uemura, "The Sugar Estates in Besuki and the Depression" <i>Hiroshima Interdisciplinary Studies in the Humanities</i>, Vol.4 page.30-78</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718172109/http://ir.lib.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/metadb/up/kiyo/AA11747932/KJ00004184387.pdf">Yasuo Uemura, "The Depression and the Sugar Industry in Surabaya" <i>Hiroshima Interdisciplinary Studies in the Humanities</i>, Vol.3 page.1-54</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Surabaya"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Collier%27s_New_Encyclopedia_(1921)/Surabaya">"Surabaya" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Collier%27s_Encyclopedia" title="Collier's Encyclopedia">Collier's New Encyclopedia</a></i>. 1921.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Surabaya&rft.btitle=Collier%27s+New+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1921&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Surabaya (city)"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Surabaya_(city)">"Surabaya or Soerabaya. The largest city in Java" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a></i>. 1905.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Surabaya+or+Soerabaya.+The+largest+city+in+Java&rft.btitle=New+International+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+East+Indies" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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Archipelago">Portuguese era (1512–1605)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Company rule in the Dutch East Indies">VOC era (1603–1800)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_British_interregnum_in_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="French and British interregnum in the Dutch East Indies">French and British era (1806–1816)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dutch East Indies (1800–1942)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Japanese occupation (1942–45)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">National Revolution (1945–49)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy_period_in_Indonesia" title="Liberal democracy period in Indonesia">Liberal democracy era (1950–59)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_Democracy_in_Indonesia" title="Guided Democracy in Indonesia">Guided Democracy (1959–65)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">Transitional period (1965–66)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Order_(Indonesia)" title="New Order (Indonesia)">New Order (1966–98)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Suharto_era_in_Indonesia" title="Post-Suharto era in Indonesia"><i>Reformasi</i> (since 1998)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Indonesia" title="Geography of Indonesia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Borders_of_Indonesia" title="Category:Borders of Indonesia">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Indonesia" title="Climate of Indonesia">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Indonesia" title="Climate change in Indonesia">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Indonesia" title="Conservation in Indonesia">Conservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biosphere_reserves_of_Indonesia" title="List of biosphere reserves of Indonesia">Biosphere reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Indonesia" title="List of national parks of Indonesia">National parks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Indonesia" title="Deforestation in Indonesia">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Indonesia" title="List of earthquakes in Indonesia">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Indonesia" title="Environmental issues in Indonesia">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Indonesia" title="Geology of Indonesia">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Indonesia" title="List of islands of Indonesia">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Indonesia" title="List of lakes of Indonesia">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_Indonesia" title="Category:Mountains of Indonesia">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indonesian_provinces_by_highest_point" title="List of Indonesian provinces by highest point">Provincial highest points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_history_of_Indonesia" title="Category:Natural history of Indonesia">Natural history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Indonesia" title="Fauna of Indonesia">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Indonesia" title="Flora of Indonesia">Flora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Indonesia" title="Regions of Indonesia">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Indonesia" title="List of rivers of Indonesia">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Indonesia" title="List of volcanoes in Indonesia">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Indonesia" title="Politics of Indonesia">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Indonesia" title="Subdivisions of Indonesia">Administrative divisions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Administrative divisions of the Dutch East Indies">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Indonesia" title="Provinces of Indonesia">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regencies_and_cities_of_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of regencies and cities of Indonesia">Regencies & Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Indonesia" title="Districts of Indonesia">Districts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Indonesia" title="Cabinet of Indonesia">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Indonesia" title="Constitution of Indonesia">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Indonesia" title="Elections in Indonesia">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Indonesia" title="Foreign relations of Indonesia">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Indonesia" title="Human rights in Indonesia">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Indonesia" title="Law of Indonesia">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Indonesia" title="Censorship in Indonesia">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Indonesia" title="Law enforcement in Indonesia">Enforcement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Armed_Forces" title="Indonesian National Armed Forces">Military</a> (<a href="/wiki/Babinsa" title="Babinsa">Babinsa</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_of_Indonesia" title="Capital of Indonesia">National capital</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pancasila_(politics)" title="Pancasila (politics)">Pancasila</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Consultative_Assembly" title="People's Consultative Assembly">People's Consultative Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Police" title="Indonesian National Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Indonesia" title="List of political parties in Indonesia">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Indonesia" title="President of Indonesia">President</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Indonesia" title="List of presidents of Indonesia">List</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wawasan_Nusantara" title="Wawasan Nusantara">Wawasan Nusantara</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Indonesia" title="Economy of Indonesia">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Indonesia" title="Agriculture in Indonesia">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Indonesia" title="Automotive industry in Indonesia">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_Indonesia" title="Aviation in Indonesia">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Indonesia" title="List of banks in Indonesia">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Indonesia" title="Energy in Indonesia">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Indonesia" title="Economic history of Indonesia">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Indonesia" title="Science and technology in Indonesia">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia_Stock_Exchange" title="Indonesia Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Indonesia" title="Communications in Indonesia">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Indonesia" title="Tourism in Indonesia">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Indonesia" title="Transport in Indonesia">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Indonesia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Indonesia">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Indonesia" title="Category:Society of Indonesia">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Abortion in Indonesia">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Indonesia" title="Crime in Indonesia">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Indonesia" title="Human trafficking in Indonesia">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_Indonesia" title="Piracy in Indonesia">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Indonesia" title="Prostitution in Indonesia">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Indonesia" title="Smoking in Indonesia">Smoking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Indonesia" title="Culture of Indonesia">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Indonesia" title="Architecture of Indonesia">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">Candi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_architecture_of_Indonesia" title="Colonial architecture of Indonesia">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque_architecture_in_Indonesia" title="Mosque architecture in Indonesia">Mosques</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rumah_adat" title="Rumah adat">Rumah adat</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_art" title="Indonesian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batik_in_Indonesia" title="Batik in Indonesia">Batik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Indonesia" title="Cinema of Indonesia">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_costume_of_Indonesia" title="National costume of Indonesia">Costume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_cuisine" title="Indonesian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_Indonesia" title="Dance in Indonesia">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_festivals_in_Indonesia" title="List of festivals in Indonesia">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Indonesia" title="Folklore of Indonesia">Legends</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_literature" title="Indonesian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_martial_arts" title="Indonesian martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Indonesia" title="Mass media in Indonesia">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Indonesia" title="Music of Indonesia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology_of_Indonesia" title="Mythology of Indonesia">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Hero_of_Indonesia" title="National Hero of Indonesia">National heroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_painting" title="Indonesian painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_properties_of_Indonesia" title="Cultural properties of Indonesia">Properties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Indonesia" title="Public holidays in Indonesia">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Indonesia" title="Sport in Indonesia">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Indonesia" title="Theatre of Indonesia">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Indonesia" title="Video games in Indonesia">Video games</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Indonesia" title="Demographics of Indonesia">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Indonesia" title="Education in Indonesia">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Indonesia" title="Ethnic groups in Indonesia">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Indonesia" title="Health in Indonesia">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Indonesia" title="Healthcare in Indonesia">Healthcare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Indonesia" title="Homelessness in Indonesia">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Indonesia" title="Languages of Indonesia">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Religion in Indonesia">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugees_in_Indonesia" title="Refugees in Indonesia">Refugees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Indonesia" title="Women in Indonesia">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Indonesia">LGBT rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Indonesia" title="National symbols of Indonesia">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia_Raya" title="Indonesia Raya">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_costume_of_Indonesia" title="National costume of Indonesia">Costume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_emblem_of_Indonesia" title="National emblem of Indonesia">Emblem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armorial_of_Indonesia" title="Armorial of Indonesia">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armorial_of_Indonesia" title="Armorial of Indonesia">Subdivision</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indonesian_faunal_emblems" title="List of Indonesian faunal emblems">Faunal emblems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Indonesia" title="Flag of Indonesia">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of flags of Indonesia">Subdivision</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indonesian_floral_emblems" title="List of Indonesian floral emblems">Floral emblems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhinneka_Tunggal_Ika" title="Bhinneka Tunggal Ika">Motto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusantara_(archipelago)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nusantara (archipelago)">Nusantara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibu_Pertiwi" title="Ibu Pertiwi">Personification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indonesian_songs" title="Category:Indonesian songs">Songs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Indonesia" title="Outline of Indonesia">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Indonesia-related_articles" title="Index of Indonesia-related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indonesia" title="Category:Indonesia">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indonesia" title="Portal:Indonesia">Portal</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Indonesia" class="extiw" title="commons:Indonesia">Gallery</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_Indonesia" class="extiw" title="commons:Atlas of Indonesia">Atlas</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Malaysia_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Malaysia_topics" title="Template:Malaysia topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Malaysia_topics" title="Template talk:Malaysia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Malaysia_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Malaysia topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Malaysia_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Malaysia" title="Outline of Malaysia">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malaysia" title="History of Malaysia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Malaysian_history" title="Timeline of Malaysian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Malaysia" title="Prehistoric Malaysia">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Malacca" title="Portuguese Malacca">Portuguese Malacca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Malacca" title="Dutch Malacca">Dutch Malacca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">British Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Borneo" title="British Borneo">British Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Japanese occupation of Malaya</a> / <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneo" title="Japanese occupation of British Borneo">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Union" title="Malayan Union">Malayan Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya" title="Federation of Malaya">Federation of Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Agreement" title="Malaysia Agreement">Malaysia Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Sarawak communist insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore_in_Malaysia" title="Singapore in Malaysia">Singapore in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Second Malayan Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13_May_incident" title="13 May incident">13 May incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Malaysian_constitutional_crisis" title="1988 Malaysian constitutional crisis">1988 constitutional crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis#Malaysia" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">1997 Asian financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1Malaysia_Development_Berhad_scandal" title="1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal">1MDB scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932022_Malaysian_political_crisis" title="2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis">2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Malaysia" title="Geography of Malaysia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Malaysia" title="Template:Borders of Malaysia">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Populated_places_in_Malaysia" title="Category:Populated places in Malaysia">Cities, towns and villages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_districts_in_Malaysia" title="List of districts in Malaysia">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divisions_of_Malaysia" title="Divisions of Malaysia">Divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Malaysia" title="East Malaysia">East Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_Malaysia" title="Environment of Malaysia">Environment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Malaysia" title="Climate change in Malaysia">climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Malaysia" title="Conservation in Malaysia">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Malaysia" title="Environmental issues in Malaysia">environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Malaysia" title="Deforestation in Malaysia">deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Malaysia" title="Wildlife of Malaysia">wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plants_of_Malaysia" title="List of plants of Malaysia">plants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Malaysia" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Malaysia">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hill_stations_in_Malaysia" title="List of hill stations in Malaysia">Hill stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Malaysia" title="List of islands of Malaysia">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Malaysia" title="List of lakes of Malaysia">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Malaysia" title="List of mountains in Malaysia">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_in_Malaysia" title="List of national parks in Malaysia">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Malaysia" title="Peninsular Malaysia">Peninsular Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Malaysia" title="List of rivers of Malaysia">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States_and_federal_territories_of_Malaysia" title="States and federal territories of Malaysia">States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Malaysia" title="List of earthquakes in Malaysia">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Malaysia" title="List of volcanoes in Malaysia">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Malaysia" title="Politics of Malaysia">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Malaysia" title="Cabinet of Malaysia">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_Cabinet_of_Malaysia" title="Shadow Cabinet of Malaysia">Shadow Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Malaysia" title="Constitution of Malaysia">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Malaysia" title="Elections in Malaysia">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Malaysia" title="Foreign relations of Malaysia">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Malaysia" title="Government of Malaysia">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Malaysia" title="King of Malaysia">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Malaysia" title="Human rights in Malaysia">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Malaysia" title="Censorship in Malaysia">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Malaysia" title="Judiciary of Malaysia">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Malaysia" title="Law of Malaysia">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Malaysia" title="Law enforcement in Malaysia">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Armed_Forces" title="Malaysian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchies_of_Malaysia" title="Monarchies of Malaysia">Monarchies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Malaysia" title="Parliament of Malaysia">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Malaysia" title="List of political parties in Malaysia">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Malaysia" title="Prime Minister of Malaysia">Prime Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_assemblies_of_Malaysia" title="State legislative assemblies of Malaysia">State legislative assemblies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Malaysia" title="Economy of Malaysia">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Malaysia" title="Agriculture in Malaysia">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Malaysia" title="List of banks in Malaysia">Banks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Malaysia" title="Central Bank of Malaysia">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_Malaysia" title="Energy policy of Malaysia">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_federal_budget" title="Malaysian federal budget">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_ringgit" title="Malaysian ringgit">Ringgit <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Malaysian_states_by_GDP" title="List of Malaysian states by GDP">States by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Malaysian_states_and_municipalities_by_exports" title="List of Malaysian states and municipalities by exports">States and municipalities by exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Malaysia" title="Science and technology in Malaysia">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bursa_Malaysia" title="Bursa Malaysia">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malaysia" title="Telecommunications in Malaysia">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Malaysia" title="Tourism in Malaysia">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Malaysia" title="Transport in Malaysia">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_Malaysia" title="Trade unions in Malaysia">Unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia_and_the_World_Bank" title="Malaysia and the World Bank">World Bank Relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Malaysia" title="Category:Society of Malaysia">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Malaysia" title="Abortion in Malaysia">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Malaysia" title="Crime in Malaysia">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Malaysia" title="Corruption in Malaysia">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Malaysia" title="Demographics of Malaysia">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malaysia" title="Education in Malaysia">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethnic_groups_in_Malaysia" title="Template:Ethnic groups in Malaysia">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Malaysia" title="Health in Malaysia">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Malaysia" title="Healthcare in Malaysia">Healthcare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Malaysia" title="Human trafficking in Malaysia">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_Malaysia" title="Income inequality in Malaysia">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Malaysia" title="Languages of Malaysia">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Malaysia">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_diaspora" title="Malaysian diaspora">Malaysian diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Malaysia" title="Poverty in Malaysia">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Malaysia" title="Prostitution in Malaysia">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malaysia" title="Religion in Malaysia">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Malaysia" title="Sex trafficking in Malaysia">Sex trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Malaysia" title="Squatting in Malaysia">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Malaysia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Malaysia">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Malaysia" title="Women in Malaysia">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Malaysia" title="Culture of Malaysia">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_art" title="Malaysian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Architecture_in_Malaysia" title="Category:Architecture in Malaysia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Malaysia" title="Cinema of Malaysia">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_cuisine" title="Malaysian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Malaysia" title="Folklore of Malaysia">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_literature" title="Malaysian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuanan_Melayu" title="Ketuanan Melayu">Malay ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Malaysia">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Malaysia" title="Music of Malaysia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_names" title="Malaysian names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Malaysia" title="Public holidays in Malaysia">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Malaysia" title="Sport in Malaysia">Sport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_tiger" title="Malayan tiger">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negaraku" title="Negaraku">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Malaysia" title="Coat of arms of Malaysia">Emblem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Malaysia" title="Flag of Malaysia">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hibiscus_rosa-sinensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hibiscus rosa-sinensis">Flower</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rukun_Negara" title="Rukun Negara">Rukun Negara</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Malaysia" title="Outline of Malaysia">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Malaysia" title="Outline of Malaysia">Index</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Malaysia" title="Bibliography of Malaysia">Bibliography</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Malaysia" title="Category:Malaysia">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Malaysia" title="Portal:Malaysia">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Dutch_colonial_empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Dutch_colonies" title="Template:Dutch colonies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Dutch_colonies" title="Template talk:Dutch colonies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dutch_colonies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Dutch colonies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Dutch_colonial_empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch colonial empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Colonies_and_trading_posts_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company_(1602–1798)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Colonies and trading posts of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> (1602–1798)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governorate General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Batavia,_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Batavia, Dutch East Indies">Batavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governorates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Ambon" title="Governorate of Ambon">Ambon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_Banda_Islands" title="Governorate of the Banda Islands">Banda Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Celebes" title="Dutch Celebes">Celebes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Ceylon" title="Dutch Ceylon">Ceylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Coromandel" title="Dutch Coromandel">Coromandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Formosa" title="Dutch Formosa">Formosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Malacca" title="Dutch Malacca">Malacca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands#Dutch" title="Maluku Islands">Moluccas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semarang#History" title="Semarang">Northeast coast of Java</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Directorates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Bengal" title="Dutch Bengal">Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandar_Abbas" title="Bandar Abbas">Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Suratte" title="Dutch Suratte">Suratte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commandments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banten_(town)" title="Banten (town)">Bantam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Malabar" title="Dutch Malabar">Malabar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padang" title="Padang">West coast of Sumatra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Residency_(administrative_division)" title="Residency (administrative division)">Residencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banten_(town)" title="Banten (town)">Bantam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banjarmasin" title="Banjarmasin">Banjarmasin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batavia,_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Batavia, Dutch East Indies">Batavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirebon" title="Cirebon">Cheribon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Malang" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Malang">Malang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parahyangan" title="Parahyangan">Preanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontianak,_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontianak, Indonesia">Pontianak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Opperhoofd" title="Opperhoofd">Opperhoofd</a> settlements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Canton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dejima" title="Dejima">Dejima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Mauritius" title="Dutch Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom#Contacts_with_the_West" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom">Siam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Timor" title="West Timor">Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin" title="Tonkin">Tonkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BB%8Bnh%E2%80%93Nguy%E1%BB%85n_War" title="Trịnh–Nguyễn War">Vietnam (1637–1643)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Colonies_and_trading_posts_of_the_Dutch_West_India_Company_(1621–1792)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Colonies and trading posts of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company" title="Dutch West India Company">Dutch West India Company</a> (1621–1792)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Colonies in the Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berbice" title="Berbice">Berbice</a> <sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Brazil" title="Dutch Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayenne_(Dutch_colony)" title="Cayenne (Dutch colony)">Cayenne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao_and_Dependencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Curaçao and Dependencies">Curaçao and Dependencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demerara" title="Demerara">Demerara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essequibo_(colony)" title="Essequibo (colony)">Essequibo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">New Netherland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomeroon_(colony)" title="Pomeroon (colony)">Pomeroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SSS_islands" title="SSS islands">Sint Eustatius and Dependencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surinam_(Dutch_colony)" title="Surinam (Dutch colony)">Surinam</a> <sup><small>2</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobago" title="Tobago">Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Virgin_Islands" title="Dutch Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trading posts in Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arguin" title="Arguin">Arguin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Gold_Coast" title="Dutch Gold Coast">Gold Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Loango-Angola" title="Dutch Loango-Angola">Loango-Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegambia_(Dutch_West_India_Company)" title="Senegambia (Dutch West India Company)">Senegambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Slave Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup><small>1</small></sup> Governed by the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Berbice" title="Society of Berbice">Society of Berbice</a></li> <li><sup><small>2</small></sup> Governed by the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Suriname" title="Society of Suriname">Society of Suriname</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Settlements_of_the_Noordsche_Compagnie_(1614–1642)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Settlements of the <a href="/wiki/Noordsche_Compagnie" title="Noordsche Compagnie">Noordsche Compagnie</a> (1614–1642)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Settlements" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Settlements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Mayen" title="Jan Mayen">Jan Mayen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smeerenburg" title="Smeerenburg">Smeerenburg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Colonies_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands_(1815–1975)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Colonies of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="Kingdom of the Netherlands">Kingdom of the Netherlands</a> (1815–1975)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Until 1825</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Bengal" title="Dutch Bengal">Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Coromandel" title="Dutch Coromandel">Coromandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Malacca" title="Dutch Malacca">Malacca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Suratte" title="Dutch Suratte">Suratte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Until 1853</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dejima" title="Dejima">Dejima</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Until 1872</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Gold_Coast" title="Dutch Gold Coast">Gold Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Until 1949</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dutch East Indies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Until 1954</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao_and_Dependencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Curaçao and Dependencies">Curaçao and Dependencies</a> <sup><small>3</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surinam_(Dutch_colony)" title="Surinam (Dutch colony)">Surinam</a> <sup><small>3</small></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Until 1962</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_New_Guinea" title="Dutch New Guinea">New Guinea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup><small>3</small></sup> <span class="wrap">Became <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands#Constituent_countries" title="Kingdom of the Netherlands">constituent countries</a> of the Kingdom of the Netherlands; <a href="/wiki/Suriname_(Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands)" title="Suriname (Kingdom of the Netherlands)">Suriname</a> gained <a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">full independence</a> in 1975, Curaçao and Dependencies was renamed to the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands_Antilles" title="Netherlands Antilles">Netherlands Antilles</a>, which was eventually dissolved in 2010.</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><span class="geo-inline-hidden noexcerpt"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Dutch_East_Indies&params=5_S_120_E_"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">5°S</span> <span class="longitude">120°E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">5°S 120°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">-5; 120</span></span></span></a></span></span> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188161#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188161#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188161#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/122581477">VIAF</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/149071447">2</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 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