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id="toc-Five_Classics_and_the_Confucian_vision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Five_Classics_and_the_Confucian_vision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Five Classics and the Confucian vision</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Five_Classics_and_the_Confucian_vision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Doctrines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Doctrines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Doctrines</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Doctrines-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Doctrines subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Doctrines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theory_and_theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_and_theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Theory and theology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_and_theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tian_and_the_gods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tian_and_the_gods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span><i>Tian</i> and the gods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tian_and_the_gods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_morality_and_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_morality_and_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Social morality and ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_morality_and_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ren" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ren"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Ren</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ren-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rite_and_centring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rite_and_centring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Rite and centring</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rite_and_centring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loyalty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loyalty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Loyalty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loyalty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Filial_piety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Filial_piety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>Filial piety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Filial_piety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Relationships</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Junzi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Junzi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span><i>Junzi</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Junzi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rectification_of_names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rectification_of_names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Rectification of names</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rectification_of_names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Metaphysical_antecedents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metaphysical_antecedents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Metaphysical antecedents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metaphysical_antecedents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zhou_traditions_wane" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zhou_traditions_wane"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Zhou traditions wane</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zhou_traditions_wane-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Confucianism_rises" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confucianism_rises"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Confucianism rises</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confucianism_rises-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organisation_and_liturgy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organisation_and_liturgy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Organisation and liturgy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organisation_and_liturgy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Governance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meritocracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meritocracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Meritocracy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Meritocracy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Meritocracy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Meritocracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Institutional_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutional_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Institutional design</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Institutional_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Promotion_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Promotion_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Promotion system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Promotion_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compatibility_with_liberalism_and_democracy,_and_critique_of_political_meritocracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compatibility_with_liberalism_and_democracy,_and_critique_of_political_meritocracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Compatibility with liberalism and democracy, and critique of political meritocracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compatibility_with_liberalism_and_democracy,_and_critique_of_political_meritocracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Influence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Influence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Influence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_17th-century_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_17th-century_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>In 17th-century Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_17th-century_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_Islamic_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_Islamic_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>On Islamic thought</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_Islamic_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_modern_times" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_modern_times"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>In modern times</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_modern_times-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_Chinese_martial_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_Chinese_martial_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>On Chinese martial arts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_Chinese_martial_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Contradiction_with_modernist_values" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contradiction_with_modernist_values"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Contradiction with modernist values</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contradiction_with_modernist_values-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_in_Confucian_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_in_Confucian_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Women in Confucian thought</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_in_Confucian_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catholic_controversy_over_Chinese_rites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catholic_controversy_over_Chinese_rites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Catholic controversy over Chinese rites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catholic_controversy_over_Chinese_rites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Translations_of_texts_attributed_to_Confucius" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translations_of_texts_attributed_to_Confucius"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Translations of texts attributed to Confucius</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Translations_of_texts_attributed_to_Confucius-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Translations of texts attributed to Confucius subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Translations_of_texts_attributed_to_Confucius-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Analects_(Lun_Yu)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analects_(Lun_Yu)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Analects (<i>Lun Yu</i>)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analects_(Lun_Yu)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Confucianism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 143 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-143" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">143 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfusianisme" title="Konfusianisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Konfusianisme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfuzianismus" title="Konfuzianismus – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Konfuzianismus" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="कॉन्फ़्युशियस धर्म – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="कॉन्फ़्युशियस धर्म" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="كونفوشية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كونفوشية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianismo" title="Confucianismo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Confucianismo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9B_%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE" title="কনফুচিয়াছ ধৰ্ম – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="কনফুচিয়াছ ধৰ্ম" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianismu" title="Confucianismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Confucianismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konf%C3%BAsio_rape" title="Konfúsio rape – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Konfúsio rape" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfusi%C3%A7ilik" title="Konfusiçilik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Konfusiçilik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%86%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B3%DA%86%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D9%82" title="کونفوسیوسچولوق – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="کونفوسیوسچولوق" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agama_Konghucu" title="Agama Konghucu – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Agama Konghucu" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="কনফুসীয়বাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কনফুসীয়বাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BB-ka" title="Jû-ka – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Jû-ka" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kong_Hu_Cu" title="Kong Hu Cu – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Kong Hu Cu" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%A1" title="Конфуцианлыҡ – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Конфуцианлыҡ" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Канфуцыянства – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Канфуцыянства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Канфуцыянства – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Канфуцыянства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianismo" title="Confucianismo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Confucianismo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Конфуцианство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Конфуцианство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfuzianismus" title="Konfuzianismus – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Konfuzianismus" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%81%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%99%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%9E%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="ཁུང་ཙིའི་གཞུང་ལུགས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཁུང་ཙིའི་གཞུང་ལུགས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfucijanizam" title="Konfucijanizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Konfucijanizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfusianegezh" title="Konfusianegezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Konfusianegezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D2%AF%D0%BD%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D2%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Күнзын һургаал – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Күнзын һургаал" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianisme" title="Confucianisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Confucianisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfucianismus" title="Konfucianismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Konfucianismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukonfuzhi" title="Ukonfuzhi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ukonfuzhi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conffiwsiaeth" title="Conffiwsiaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Conffiwsiaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfucianisme" title="Konfucianisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Konfucianisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfuzianismus" title="Konfuzianismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Konfuzianismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfutsianism" title="Konfutsianism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Konfutsianism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%BC%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Κομφουκιανισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κομφουκιανισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%85%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%8C%D1%87%D0%B8" title="Конхвузьчи – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Конхвузьчи" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianismo" title="Confucianismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Confucianismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfuceismo" title="Konfuceismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Konfuceismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfuzianismo" title="Konfuzianismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Konfuzianismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B3%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="کنفسیوس‌گرایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کنفسیوس‌گرایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Confucianism" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianisme" title="Confucianisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Confucianisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfusianisme" title="Konfusianisme – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Konfusianisme" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianisim" title="Confucianisim – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Confucianisim" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianismo" title="Confucianismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Confucianismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%84%92%E5%AE%B6" title="儒家 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="儒家" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AB%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%B8_%E0%AA%A7%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AE" title="કન્ફયુસીયસ ધર્મ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="કન્ફયુસીયસ ધર્મ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C3%AC-k%C3%A2" title="Yì-kâ – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Yì-kâ" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EA%B5%90" title="유교 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유교" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfushiyanci" title="Konfushiyanci – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Konfushiyanci" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%B8%D5%B6%D6%86%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Կոնֆուցիականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կոնֆուցիականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="कुन्फ़्यूशियसी धर्म – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कुन्फ़्यूशियसी धर्म" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfucijanizam" title="Konfucijanizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Konfucijanizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agama_Kong_Hu_Cu" title="Agama Kong Hu Cu – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Agama Kong Hu Cu" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfuceismo" title="Konfuceismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Konfuceismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konpusianismo" title="Konpusianismo – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Konpusianismo" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfusianisme" title="Konfusianisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Konfusianisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianismo" title="Confucianismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Confucianismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konf%C3%BAs%C3%ADusismi" title="Konfúsíusismi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Konfúsíusismi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianesimo" title="Confucianesimo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Confucianesimo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="קונפוציאניזם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קונפוציאניזם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfusianisme" title="Konfusianisme – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Konfusianisme" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius_l%C9%A9ma%C9%A3z%C9%A9y%C9%9B_t%C9%A9naa_%C5%8Bgb%C9%9By%C9%9B" title="Confucius lɩmaɣzɩyɛ tɩnaa ŋgbɛyɛ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Confucius lɩmaɣzɩyɛ tɩnaa ŋgbɛyɛ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="კონფუციანელობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კონფუციანელობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%8E%D9%86%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%9B%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%90%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D9%8E%D8%B1%D9%8E%D9%85" title="کَنفیٛوشِیاسی دَرَم – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="کَنفیٛوشِیاسی دَرَم" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Конфуцишілдік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Конфуцишілдік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukonfusio" title="Ukonfusio – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ukonfusio" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfisyanism" title="Konfisyanism – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Konfisyanism" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Конфуцийчилик – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Конфуцийчилик" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confuzianism" title="Confuzianism – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Confuzianism" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfusianizmo" title="Konfusianizmo – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Konfusianizmo" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianismus" title="Confucianismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Confucianismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konf%C5%ABcisms" title="Konfūcisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Konfūcisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfuzianismus" title="Konfuzianismus – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Konfuzianismus" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfucianizmas" title="Konfucianizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Konfucianizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianisme" title="Confucianisme – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Confucianisme" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confuzisme" title="Confuzisme – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Confuzisme" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongfucelai%C5%BEus" title="Kongfucelaižus – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Kongfucelaižus" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianesim" title="Confucianesim – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Confucianesim" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfucianizmus" title="Konfucianizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Konfucianizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Конфуцијанство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Конфуцијанство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B4nfosianisma" title="Kônfosianisma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Kônfosianisma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BA%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82" title="കൺഫ്യൂഷനിസം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കൺഫ്യൂഷനിസം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="कन्फ्युशियनवाद – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="कन्फ्युशियनवाद" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="კონფუციანობა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="კონფუციანობა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%87" title="كونفوشيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="كونفوشيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfusianisme" title="Konfusianisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Konfusianisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfusianisme" title="Konfusianisme – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Konfusianisme" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B9%B2%CC%80-g%C4%83" title="Ṳ̀-gă – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ṳ̀-gă" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunfucionismo" title="Cunfucionismo – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Cunfucionismo" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D2%AF%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Күнзийн сургаал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Күнзийн сургаал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%96%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AB%E1%80%92" title="ကွန်ဖြူးရှပ်ဝါဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကွန်ဖြူးရှပ်ဝါဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianisme" title="Confucianisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Confucianisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%84%92%E6%95%99" title="儒教 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="儒教" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Конфуцианалла – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Конфуцианалла" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfusianisme" title="Konfusianisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Konfusianisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfutsianismen" title="Konfutsianismen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Konfutsianismen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianisme" title="Confucianisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Confucianisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%95%E0%AC%A8%E0%AC%AB%E0%AD%81%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%85%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A6" title="କନଫୁସିଅସବାଦ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="କନଫୁସିଅସବାଦ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfutsiylik" title="Konfutsiylik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Konfutsiylik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%AB%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6" title="ਕਨਫੂਸ਼ੀਅਸਵਾਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕਨਫੂਸ਼ੀਅਸਵਾਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%B2%D9%85" title="کنفوشیسزم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کنفوشیسزم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="کنفوسیانیزم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کنفوسیانیزم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanfyuushanizim" title="Kanfyuushanizim – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Kanfyuushanizim" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Confucianism" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfuzianismus" title="Konfuzianismus – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Konfuzianismus" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfucjanizm" title="Konfucjanizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Konfucjanizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucionismo" title="Confucionismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Confucionismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Confucianism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ru_llup%27ina" title="Ru llup'ina – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Ru llup'ina" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Конфуцианство – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Конфуцианство" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Конфуцианство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Конфуцианство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Конфуцианизм – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Конфуцианизм" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfucianizmi" title="Konfucianizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Konfucianizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunfucianismu" title="Cunfucianismu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Cunfucianismu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%86%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%B0%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BA" title="කොන්ෆියුසියස් ධර්මය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="කොන්ෆියුසියස් ධර්මය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Confucianism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AA%D9%86%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%85" title="ڪنفيوشن ازم – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ڪنفيوشن ازم" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfucianizmus" title="Konfucianizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Konfucianizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfucijanstvo" title="Konfucijanstvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Konfucijanstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%86%D9%81%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="کۆنفووشیزم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کۆنفووشیزم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Конфучијанство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Конфучијанство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfucijanizam" title="Konfucijanizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Konfucijanizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kungfutselaisuus" title="Kungfutselaisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kungfutselaisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfucianism" title="Konfucianism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Konfucianism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianismo" title="Confucianismo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Confucianismo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="கன்பூசியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கன்பூசியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Конфуцийчылык – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Конфуцийчылык" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AB%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%B7%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%82" title="కన్ఫ్యూషియస్ మతం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కన్ఫ్యూషియస్ మతం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%8A%E0%B8%AD" title="ลัทธิขงจื๊อ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ลัทธิขงจื๊อ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konf%C3%BC%C3%A7y%C3%BCs%C3%A7%C3%BCl%C3%BCk" title="Konfüçyüsçülük – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Konfüçyüsçülük" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle badge-Q51759403 badge-goodlist badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge, good list badge, good article badge"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%CC%B1di%CC%B1dam_Kungfu" title="A̱di̱dam Kungfu – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="A̱di̱dam Kungfu" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Конфуцианство – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Конфуцианство" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Конфуціанство – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Конфуціанство" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B4%D8%B3_%D9%85%D8%AA" title="کنفیوشس مت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کنفیوشس مت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%DB%87%DA%AD%D8%B2%D9%89%DA%86%D9%89%D9%84%D9%89%D9%82" title="كۇڭزىچىلىق – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="كۇڭزىچىلىق" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuzgyah" title="Yuzgyah – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Yuzgyah" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nho_gi%C3%A1o" title="Nho giáo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nho giáo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfutsianism" title="Konfutsianism – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Konfutsianism" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%84%92%E5%AE%B6" title="儒家 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="儒家" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianismo" title="Confucianismo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Confucianismo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%84%92%E5%AE%B6" title="儒家 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="儒家" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="קאנפוציאניזם – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קאנפוציאניזם" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%84%92%E5%AE%B6" title="儒家 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="儒家" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfuc%C4%93n%C4%97zmos" title="Konfucēnėzmos – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Konfucēnėzmos" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%84%92%E5%AE%B6" title="儒家 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="儒家" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9581#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="View the content page [c]" 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Confucianism" title="Category:Confucianism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Confucianism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%9C%A8%E9%90%B8_---_Confucian_wooden-clapper_bell.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="天將以夫子爲木鐸, "Heaven will instruct the master like a wooden-clapper bell (to awaken everyone to the Way)" — Analects 3.24."><img alt="天將以夫子爲木鐸, "Heaven will instruct the master like a wooden-clapper bell (to awaken everyone to the Way)" — Analects 3.24." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/%E6%9C%A8%E9%90%B8_---_Confucian_wooden-clapper_bell.svg/120px-%E6%9C%A8%E9%90%B8_---_Confucian_wooden-clapper_bell.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/%E6%9C%A8%E9%90%B8_---_Confucian_wooden-clapper_bell.svg/180px-%E6%9C%A8%E9%90%B8_---_Confucian_wooden-clapper_bell.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/%E6%9C%A8%E9%90%B8_---_Confucian_wooden-clapper_bell.svg/240px-%E6%9C%A8%E9%90%B8_---_Confucian_wooden-clapper_bell.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="665" data-file-height="665" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; padding-left:2.75em;color: var(--color-base)">Early history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Western_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Han">Western Han</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dong_Zhongshu" title="Dong Zhongshu">Dong Zhongshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongsun_Hong" title="Gongsun Hong">Gongsun Hong</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; padding-left:2.75em;color: var(--color-base)">Fundamental concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactions_Between_Heaven_and_Mankind" title="Interactions Between Heaven and Mankind"><i>Ganying</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectification_of_names" title="Rectification of names"><i>Zhengming</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety"><i>Xiao</i></a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Three_Fundamental_Bonds_and_Five_Constant_Virtues" title="Three Fundamental Bonds and Five Constant Virtues"><i>Sangang Wuchang</i></a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)"><i>Li</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren_(Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ren (Confucianism)"><i>Ren</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xin_(heart-mind)" title="Xin (heart-mind)"><i>Xin</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_(Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi (Confucianism)"><i>Yi</i></a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; padding-left:2.75em;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Han Learning">Han Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taigu_school" title="Taigu school">Taigu school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingnan_Confucianism" title="Lingnan Confucianism">Lingnan Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Confucianism" title="Progressive Confucianism">Progressive Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucian_fascism" title="Confucian fascism">Confucian fascism</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dd><i>Hermeneutic schools</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Texts">Old Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Text_Confucianism" class="mw-redirect" title="New Text Confucianism">New Text</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; padding-left:2.75em;color: var(--color-base)">Confucianism by country</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Council_for_the_Confucian_Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism_in_the_United_States" title="Confucianism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; padding-left:2.75em;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Template:Confucian_texts" title="Template:Confucian texts">Confucian texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ruzang" title="Ruzang">Ruzang</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Four_Books_and_Five_Classics#Five_Classics" title="Four Books and Five Classics">Five Classics</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">Classic of Poetry</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Documents" title="Book of Documents">Book of Documents</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Rites" title="Book of Rites">Book of Rites</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">Book of Changes</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annals" title="Spring and Autumn Annals">Spring and Autumn Annals</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Four_Books_and_Five_Classics#Four_Books" title="Four Books and Five Classics">Four Books</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Analects" title="Analects">Analects</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mencius_(book)" title="Mencius (book)">Mencius</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_the_Mean" title="Doctrine of the Mean">Doctrine of the Mean</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Great_Learning" title="Great Learning">Great Learning</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt>Other texts</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three_Commentaries_on_the_Spring_and_Autumn_Annals" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals">Three Commentaries</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Rites_of_Zhou" title="Rites of Zhou">Rites of Zhou</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Etiquette_and_Ceremonial" title="Etiquette and Ceremonial">Ceremonial Rites</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Filial_Piety" title="Classic of Filial Piety">Classic of Filial Piety</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Erya" title="Erya">Erya</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; padding-left:2.75em;color: var(--color-base)">Organization</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucian_ritual_religion" title="Confucian ritual religion">Confucian ritual religion</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucian_royal_ancestral_shrine" title="Confucian royal ancestral shrine">Confucian royal ancestral shrine</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Confucius" title="Temple of Confucius">Temple of Confucius</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Confucian_church" title="Confucian church">Confucian churches</a> and sects</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Confucian_Church" title="Holy Confucian Church">Holy Confucian Church</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Council_for_the_Confucian_Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia">Indonesian Confucian Church</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shanrendao" title="Shanrendao">Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Gods_according_to_the_Confucian_Tradition" title="Way of the Gods according to the Confucian Tradition">Phoenix churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanyuan_teaching" title="Xuanyuan teaching">Xuanyuanism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shengdao" title="Shengdao">Shengdao</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Confucianism" title="Template:Confucianism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Confucianism" title="Template talk:Confucianism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Confucianism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Confucianism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Confucianism</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hani" style="font-size: 1rem;">儒家</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Ru</i> school of thought</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Rújiā</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">ㄖㄨˊ ㄐㄧㄚ</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Spelling_in_Gwoyeu_Romatzyh" title="Spelling in Gwoyeu Romatzyh">Gwoyeu Romatzyh</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Rujia</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span>Ju<sup>2</sup>-chia<sup>1</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Rú-jia</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[ɻǔ.tɕjá]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Suzhounese" class="mw-redirect" title="Suzhounese">Suzhounese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Wu Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="wuu-Latn">Zyú-ka</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Yùhgāa</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">jyu4 gaa1</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="yue-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[jy˩ ka˥]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Romanization System">Tâi-lô</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Jû-ka, Lû-ka</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="ltc-Latn">Nyu-kæ</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Reconstructions_of_Old_Chinese#Baxter–Sagart_(2014)" title="Reconstructions of Old Chinese">Baxter–Sagart (2014)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Old Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="och-Latn">*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">no<span class="wrap"> </span>kˤra</span></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Alternative Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hani" style="font-size: 1rem;">儒教</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Ru</i> religious doctrine</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Rújiào</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">ㄖㄨˊ ㄐㄧㄠˋ</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span>Ju<sup>2</sup>-chiao<sup>4</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Rú-jiào</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[ɻǔ.tɕjâʊ]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Yùhgaau</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">jyu4 gaau3</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="yue-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[jy˩.kaw˧]</a></span></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Second alternative Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;">儒學</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;">儒学</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Ru</i> studies</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Rúxué</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">ㄖㄨˊ ㄒㄩㄝˊ</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span>Ju<sup>2</sup>-hsüeh<sup>2</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Rú-syué</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[ɻǔ.ɕɥě]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Yùhhohk</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">jyu4 hok6</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="yue-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[jy˩.hɔk̚˨]</a></span></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Vietnamese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Nho giáo</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">Chữ Hán</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">儒教</span></span></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Korean name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko" style="font-size: 1rem;">유교</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko" style="font-size: 1rem;">儒敎</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Revised_Romanization_of_Korean" title="Revised Romanization of Korean">Revised Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Korean-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="ko-Latn">Yugyo</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Japanese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">儒教</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">Hiragana</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">じゅきょう</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">Katakana</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">ジュキョウ</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Japanese" title="Romanization of Japanese">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="ja-Latn">Jukyō</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Kunrei-shiki_romanization" title="Kunrei-shiki romanization">Kunrei-shiki</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="ja-Latn">Zyukyô</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jiangyin_wenmiao_dachengdian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Jiangyin_wenmiao_dachengdian.jpg/250px-Jiangyin_wenmiao_dachengdian.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Jiangyin_wenmiao_dachengdian.jpg/375px-Jiangyin_wenmiao_dachengdian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Jiangyin_wenmiao_dachengdian.jpg/500px-Jiangyin_wenmiao_dachengdian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Confucius" title="Temple of Confucius">Temple of Confucius</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jiangyin" title="Jiangyin">Jiangyin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wuxi" title="Wuxi">Wuxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a>. This is a <i>wenmiao</i> (<span lang="zh">文庙</span>), that is to say a temple where <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> is worshipped as <a href="/wiki/Chinese_gods_and_immortals" title="Chinese gods and immortals"><i>Wendi</i>, "God of Culture"</a> (<span lang="zh">文帝</span>).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Datong_Wenmiao_2013.08.29_11-33-25.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Datong_Wenmiao_2013.08.29_11-33-25.jpg/250px-Datong_Wenmiao_2013.08.29_11-33-25.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Datong_Wenmiao_2013.08.29_11-33-25.jpg/375px-Datong_Wenmiao_2013.08.29_11-33-25.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Datong_Wenmiao_2013.08.29_11-33-25.jpg/500px-Datong_Wenmiao_2013.08.29_11-33-25.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5415" data-file-height="3610" /></a><figcaption>Gates of the <i>wenmiao</i> of <a href="/wiki/Datong" title="Datong">Datong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Confucianism</b>, also known as <b>Ruism</b> or <b>Ru classicism</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a system of thought and behavior originating in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">ancient China</a>, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy (<a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanistic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalistic</a>), <a href="/wiki/Religious_Confucianism" title="Religious Confucianism">religion</a>, theory of government, or way of life.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Confucianism developed from teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> (551–479 BCE), during a time that was later referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a> era. Confucius considered himself a transmitter of cultural values inherited from the <a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a> (c. 2070–1600 BCE), <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> (c. 1600–1046 BCE) and <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a> (c. 1046–771 BCE) dynasties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFung2008163_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFung2008163-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Confucianism was suppressed during the <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalist</a> and autocratic <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> (221–206 BCE), but survived. During the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (206 BCE – 220 CE), Confucian approaches edged out the "proto-Taoist" <a href="/wiki/Huang%E2%80%93Lao" title="Huang–Lao">Huang–Lao</a> as the official ideology, while the emperors mixed both with the realist techniques of Legalism.<sup id="cite_ref-Lin_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lin-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Confucianism regards principles contained in the <a href="/wiki/Four_Books_and_Five_Classics" title="Four Books and Five Classics">Five Classics</a>, the key tenets that should be followed to promote the harmony of the family and the society as a whole. A Confucian revival began during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (618–907 CE). In the late Tang, Confucianism further developed in response to the increasing influence of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> and was reformulated as <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a>. This reinvigorated form was adopted as the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_exams" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial exams">imperial exams</a> and the core philosophy of the <a href="/wiki/Scholar-officials" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholar-officials">scholar-official class</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1297). The abolition of the examination system in 1905 marked the end of official Confucianism. The intellectuals of the <a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a> of the early twentieth century blamed Confucianism for <a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">China's weaknesses</a>. They searched for new doctrines to replace Confucian teachings; some of these new ideologies include the "<a href="/wiki/Three_Principles_of_the_People" title="Three Principles of the People">Three Principles of the People</a>" with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>, and then <a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a> under the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>. In the late twentieth century, the Confucian <a href="/wiki/Work_ethic" title="Work ethic">work ethic</a> has been credited with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_East_Asia" title="Economy of East Asia">East Asian economy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lin_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lin-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With particular emphasis on the importance of the family and <a href="/wiki/Group_cohesiveness" title="Group cohesiveness">social harmony</a>, rather than on an otherworldly source of spiritual values,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFingarette19721–2_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFingarette19721–2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the core of Confucianism is <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanistic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Juergensmeyer_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juergensmeyer-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to American philosopher <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Fingarette" title="Herbert Fingarette">Herbert Fingarette</a>'s conceptualisation of Confucianism as a philosophical system which regards "the <a href="/wiki/Secularity" title="Secularity">secular</a> as <a href="/wiki/Sacred" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred">sacred</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFingarette1972_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFingarette1972-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Confucianism transcends the dichotomy between religion and humanism, considering the ordinary activities of human life—and especially human relationships—as a manifestation of the sacred,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdler201412_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdler201412-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because they are the expression of humanity's moral nature (<span lang="zh">性</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xìng</span></i>), which has a transcendent anchorage in <i><a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">tian</a></i> (<span lang="zh">天</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">tiān</span></i>; 'heaven').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201034–36_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201034–36-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the Confucian concept of <i>tian</i> shares some similarities with the concept of a deity, it is primarily an impersonal <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">absolute principle</a> like the <i><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">tao</a></i> or the <i><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></i>. Most scholars<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and practitioners do not think of <i>tian</i> as a god, and the deities that many Confucians worship do not originate from orthodox Confucianism.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Confucianism focuses on the practical order that is given by a this-worldly awareness of <i>tian</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The worldly concern of Confucianism rests upon the belief that human beings are fundamentally good, and teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor, especially <a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">self-cultivation</a> and self-creation. Confucian thought focuses on the cultivation of virtue in a morally organised world.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the basic Confucian ethical concepts and practices include <i><a href="/wiki/Ren_(philosophy)" title="Ren (philosophy)">ren</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Yi_(philosophy)" title="Yi (philosophy)">yi</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">li</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">zhi</a></i>. <i>Ren</i> is the essence of the human being which manifests as compassion. It is the virtue-form of Heaven.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETay2010102_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETay2010102-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Yi</i> is the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good. <i>Li</i> is a system of ritual norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act in everyday life in harmony with the law of Heaven. <i>Zhi</i> (<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%99%BA" class="extiw" title="wikt:智">智</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">zhì</span></i>) is the ability to see what is right and fair, or the converse, in the behaviors exhibited by others. Confucianism holds one in contempt, either passively or actively, for failure to uphold the cardinal moral values of <i>ren</i> and <i>yi</i>. </p><p>Traditionally, cultures and countries in the <a href="/wiki/Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Chinese cultural sphere</a> are strongly influenced by Confucianism, including <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Taiwan" title="Culture of Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Korea" title="Culture of Korea">Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Japan" title="Culture of Japan">Japan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Vietnam" title="Culture of Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, as well as various territories settled predominantly by <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese people</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Singapore" title="Culture of Singapore">Singapore</a>. Today, it has been credited for shaping <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asian</a> societies and <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Chinese" title="Overseas Chinese">overseas Chinese communities</a>, and to some extent, other parts of Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most Confucianist movements have had significant differences from the original <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a>-era teachings,<sup id="cite_ref-:02_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are typically much more complex because of their reliance on "elaborate <a href="/wiki/Doctrine" title="Doctrine">doctrine</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and other factors such as <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">traditions</a> with long histories. In the past few decades, there have been talks of a "Confucian Revival" in the academic and the scholarly community,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and there has been a grassroots proliferation of various types of <a href="/wiki/Confucian_churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian churches">Confucian churches</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBillioudThoraval2015''passim''_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillioudThoraval2015''passim''-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In late 2015, many Confucian personalities formally established a national <a href="/wiki/Kongshenghui" class="mw-redirect" title="Kongshenghui">Confucian Church</a> (<span lang="zh-Hans">孔圣会</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">孔聖會</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Kǒngshènghuì</span></i>) in China to unify the many Confucian congregations and civil society organisations. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:208px;max-width:208px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ACC-L30678.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/ACC-L30678.svg/100px-ACC-L30678.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/ACC-L30678.svg/150px-ACC-L30678.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/ACC-L30678.svg/200px-ACC-L30678.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="106" data-file-height="106" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Large_seal_script" title="Large seal script">Large seal</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ACC-s05667.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/ACC-s05667.svg/100px-ACC-s05667.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/ACC-s05667.svg/150px-ACC-s05667.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/ACC-s05667.svg/200px-ACC-s05667.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="153" data-file-height="153" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Small_seal_script" title="Small seal script">Small seal</a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Older versions of the grapheme <span lang="zh">儒</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">rú</span></i>; 'scholar', 'refined one', 'Confucian', 'traditionalist': it is composed of <span lang="zh">人</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">rén</span></i>; 'person' and <span lang="zh">需</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xū</span></i>; 'to await', itself composed of <span lang="zh">雨</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">yǔ</span></i>; 'rain', 'instruction' and <span lang="zh">而</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">ér</span></i>; 'sky'. According to <a href="/wiki/Kang_Youwei" title="Kang Youwei">Kang Youwei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu Shih</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xinzhong_Yao" title="Xinzhong Yao">Yao Xinzhong</a>, they were the official shaman-priests (<i><a href="/wiki/Wu_(shaman)" title="Wu (shaman)">wu</a></i>) experts in rites and astronomy of the Shang, and later Zhou, dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao200019_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao200019-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div> <p>Strictly speaking, there is no term in Chinese which directly corresponds to "Confucianism". The closest catch-all term for things related to Confucianism is the word <i>ru</i> (<span lang="zh">儒</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">rú</span></i>). Its literal meanings in modern Chinese include 'scholar', 'learned', or 'refined man'. In <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> the word had a distinct set of meanings, including 'to tame', 'to mould', 'to educate', and 'to refine'.<sup id="cite_ref-Eno_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eno-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 190–197">: 190–197 </span></sup> Several different terms, some of which with modern origin, are used in different situations to express different facets of Confucianism, including: </p> <ul><li><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%84%92%E5%AE%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:儒家">儒家</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Rújiā</span></i> – "the <i>ru</i> school of thought";</li> <li><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%84%92%E6%95%99" class="extiw" title="wikt:儒教">儒教</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Rújiào</span></i> – "<i>ru</i> religious doctrine";</li> <li><span lang="zh-Hans"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%84%92%E5%AD%A6" class="extiw" title="wikt:儒学">儒学</a></span>; <span lang="zh-Hant"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%84%92%E5%AD%B8" class="extiw" title="wikt:儒學">儒學</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Rúxué</span></i> – "<i>ru</i> studies";</li> <li><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AD%94%E6%95%99" class="extiw" title="wikt:孔教">孔教</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Kǒngjiào</span></i> – "Confucius's religious doctrine";</li> <li><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AD%94%E5%AE%B6%E5%BA%97" class="extiw" title="wikt:孔家店">孔家店</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Kǒngjiādiàn</span></i> – "Confucius's family's business", a pejorative phrase used during the <a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>.</li></ul> <p>Three of them use <i>ru</i>. These names do not use the name "Confucius" at all, but instead focus on the ideal of the Confucian man. The use of the term "Confucianism" has been avoided by some modern scholars, who favor "Ruism" and "Ruists" instead. Robert Eno argues that the term has been "burdened<span class="nowrap"> </span>... with the ambiguities and irrelevant traditional associations". Ruism, as he states, is more faithful to the original Chinese name for the school.<sup id="cite_ref-Eno_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eno-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 7">: 7 </span></sup> </p><p>The term "Traditionalist" has been suggested by David Schaberg to emphasize the connection to the past, its standards, and inherited forms, in which Confucius himself placed so much importance.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This translation of the word <i>ru</i> is followed by e.g. Yuri Pines.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Youguang" title="Zhou Youguang">Zhou Youguang</a>, <i>ru</i> originally referred to shamanic methods of holding rites and existed before Confucius's times, but with Confucius it came to mean devotion to propagating such teachings to bring civilisation to the people. Confucianism was initiated by the disciples of Confucius, developed by <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 372–289 BCE) and inherited by later generations, undergoing constant transformations and restructuring since its establishment, but preserving the principles of humaneness and righteousness at its core.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou20121_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou20121-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Western world, the <a href="/wiki/Radical_85" title="Radical 85">character for water</a> is often used as a symbol for Confucianism, which is not the case in modern China.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However, the <i><a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">five phases</a></i> were used as important symbols representing leadership in <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> thought, including Confucianist works.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Five_Classics_and_the_Confucian_vision">Five Classics and the Confucian vision</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Confucius,_fresco_from_a_Western_Han_tomb_of_Dongping_County,_Shandong_province,_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Confucius%2C_fresco_from_a_Western_Han_tomb_of_Dongping_County%2C_Shandong_province%2C_China.jpg/220px-Confucius%2C_fresco_from_a_Western_Han_tomb_of_Dongping_County%2C_Shandong_province%2C_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Confucius%2C_fresco_from_a_Western_Han_tomb_of_Dongping_County%2C_Shandong_province%2C_China.jpg/330px-Confucius%2C_fresco_from_a_Western_Han_tomb_of_Dongping_County%2C_Shandong_province%2C_China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Confucius%2C_fresco_from_a_Western_Han_tomb_of_Dongping_County%2C_Shandong_province%2C_China.jpg/440px-Confucius%2C_fresco_from_a_Western_Han_tomb_of_Dongping_County%2C_Shandong_province%2C_China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> in a fresco from a <a href="/wiki/Western_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Han">Western Han</a> tomb in <a href="/wiki/Dongping_County" title="Dongping County">Dongping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Traditionally, Confucius was thought to be the author or editor of the <a href="/wiki/Four_Books_and_Five_Classics" title="Four Books and Five Classics">Five Classics</a> which were the basic texts of Confucianism, all edited into their received versions around 500 years later by Imperial Librarian <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xin_(scholar)" title="Liu Xin (scholar)">Liu Xin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 51">: 51 </span></sup> The scholar <a href="/wiki/Xinzhong_Yao" title="Xinzhong Yao">Yao Xinzhong</a> allows that there are good reasons to believe that Confucian classics took shape in the hands of Confucius, but that "nothing can be taken for granted in the matter of the early versions of the classics". Yao suggests that most modern scholars hold the "pragmatic" view that Confucius and his followers did not intend to create a system of classics, but nonetheless "contributed to their formation".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao200052–54_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao200052–54-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Confucius_Tang_Dynasty.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Confucius_Tang_Dynasty.jpg/220px-Confucius_Tang_Dynasty.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="402" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Confucius_Tang_Dynasty.jpg/330px-Confucius_Tang_Dynasty.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Confucius_Tang_Dynasty.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Painting of Confucius donning <a href="/wiki/Hanfu" title="Hanfu">traditional robes</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Wu_Daozi" title="Wu Daozi">Wu Daozi</a>, 8th century</figcaption></figure> <p>The scholar <a href="/wiki/Tu_Weiming" title="Tu Weiming">Tu Weiming</a> explains these classics as embodying "five visions" which underlie the development of Confucianism: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a></i> (<i>Classic of Change</i> or <i>Book of Changes</i>), generally held to be the earliest of the classics, shows a metaphysical vision which combines divinatory art with numerological technique and ethical insight; philosophy of change sees cosmos as interaction between the two energies yin and yang; universe always shows organismic unity and dynamism.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">Classic of Poetry</a></i> or <i>Book of Songs</i> is the earliest anthology of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">Chinese poems</a> and songs, with the earliest strata antedating the Zhou conquest. It shows the poetic vision in the belief that poetry and music convey common human feelings and mutual responsiveness.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Documents" title="Book of Documents">Book of Documents</a></i> or <i>Book of History</i> is a compilation of speeches of major figures and records of events in ancient times, embodying the political vision and addressing the kingly way in terms of the ethical foundation for humane government. The documents show the sagacity, filial piety, and work ethic of mythical sage-emperors Yao, Shun, and Yu, who established a political culture which was based on responsibility and trust. Their virtue formed a covenant of social harmony which did not depend on punishment or coercion.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Rites" title="Book of Rites">Book of Rites</a></i> describes the social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou Dynasty. This social vision defined society not as an adversarial system based on contractual relations but as a network of kinship groups bound by cultural identity and ritual practice, socially responsible for one another and the transmission of proper antique forms. The <a href="/wiki/Four_occupations" title="Four occupations">four functional occupations</a> are cooperative (farmer, scholar, artisan, merchant).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annals" title="Spring and Autumn Annals">Spring and Autumn Annals</a></i> chronicles the period to which it gives its name, <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a> (771–481 BCE), from the perspective of Confucius's home state of <a href="/wiki/Lu_(state)" title="Lu (state)">Lu</a>. These events emphasise the significance of collective memory for communal self-identification, for reanimating the old is the best way to attain the new.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Doctrines">Doctrines</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory_and_theology">Theory and theology</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%A4%A9-oracle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/%E5%A4%A9-oracle.svg/170px-%E5%A4%A9-oracle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/%E5%A4%A9-oracle.svg/255px-%E5%A4%A9-oracle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/%E5%A4%A9-oracle.svg/340px-%E5%A4%A9-oracle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">oracular</a> version of the grapheme for <i>Tian</i>, representing a man with a head informed by the north <a href="/wiki/Celestial_pole" title="Celestial pole">celestial pole</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009''passim''_and_p._3,_Vol._III,_for_the_graphic_interpretation_of_the_character_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009''passim''_and_p._3,_Vol._III,_for_the_graphic_interpretation_of_the_character-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Religious_Confucianism" title="Religious Confucianism">Religious Confucianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Confucian_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian theology">Confucian theology</a></div> <p>Confucianism revolves around the pursuit of the unity of the individual self and <i><a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">tian</a></i> ("heaven"). To put it another way, it focuses on the relationship between humanity and heaven.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdler201410_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdler201410-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETay2010100_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETay2010100-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The principle or way of Heaven (<i>tian <a href="/wiki/Li_(Neo-Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Li (Neo-Confucianism)">li</a></i> or <i>tian <a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">tao</a></i>) is the order of the world and the source of divine authority.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETay2010100_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETay2010100-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Tian li</i> or <i>tian tao</i> is <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monistic</a>, meaning that it is singular and indivisible. Individuals may realise their humanity and become one with Heaven through the contemplation of such order.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETay2010100_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETay2010100-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This transformation of the self may be extended to the family and society to create a harmonious community.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETay2010100_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETay2010100-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Joël Thoraval studied Confucianism as a diffused <a href="/wiki/Civil_religion" title="Civil religion">civil religion</a> in contemporary China, finding that it expresses itself in the widespread worship of five cosmological entities: Heaven and Earth (<span lang="zh">地</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Di_(Chinese_concept)" title="Di (Chinese concept)">dì</a></span></i>), the sovereign or the government (<span lang="zh">君</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">jūn</span></i>), ancestors (<span lang="zh-Hant">親</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">qīn</span></i>), and masters (<span lang="zh">師</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">shī</span></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the scholar <a href="/wiki/Stephan_Feuchtwang" title="Stephan Feuchtwang">Stephan Feuchtwang</a>, in Chinese cosmology, which is not merely Confucian but shared by many <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese religions</a>, "the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy" (<i><a href="/wiki/Hundun" title="Hundun">hundun</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a></i>), and is organized through the polarity of <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin and yang</a> that characterises any thing and life. Creation is therefore a continuous ordering; it is not creation <i><a href="/wiki/Creatio_ex_nihilo" title="Creatio ex nihilo"><i>ex nihilo</i></a>.</i> "Yin and yang are the invisible and visible, the receptive and the active, the unshaped and the shaped; they characterise the yearly cycle (winter and summer), the landscape (shady and bright), the sexes (female and male), and even sociopolitical history (disorder and order). Confucianism is concerned with finding "middle ways" between yin and yang at every new configuration of the world."<i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016146–150_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016146–150-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p><p>Confucianism conciliates both the inner and outer polarities of spiritual cultivation—that is to say <a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">self-cultivation</a> and world redemption—synthesised in the ideal of "sageliness within and kingliness without".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETay2010100_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETay2010100-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Ren_(philosophy)" title="Ren (philosophy)">Ren</a></i>, translated as "humaneness" or the essence proper of a human being, is the character of compassionate mind; it is the virtue endowed by Heaven and at the same time the means by which man may achieve oneness with Heaven comprehending his own origin in Heaven and therefore divine essence. In the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Datong_Shu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Datong Shu (page does not exist)">Datong Shu</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%90%8C%E4%B9%A6" class="extiw" title="zh:大同书">zh</a>]</span></i>, it is defined as "to form one body with all things" and "when the self and others are not separated<span class="nowrap"> </span>... compassion is aroused".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETay2010102_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETay2010102-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Lord Heaven" and "<a href="/wiki/Jade_Emperor" title="Jade Emperor">Jade Emperor</a>" were terms for a Confucianist <a href="/wiki/King_of_the_gods" title="King of the gods">supreme deity</a> who was an <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">anthropromorphized</a> <i>tian</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-:10026_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10026-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and some conceptions of it thought of the two names as synonymous. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tian_and_the_gods"><i>Tian</i> and the gods</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Precessional_north_pole_(B%C4%9Bij%C3%AD_%E5%8C%97%E6%9E%81)_in_%CE%B1_Ursae_Minoris,_drawing_a_w%C3%A0n_%E5%8D%8D_in_the_four_phases_of_time.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Precessional_north_pole_%28B%C4%9Bij%C3%AD_%E5%8C%97%E6%9E%81%29_in_%CE%B1_Ursae_Minoris%2C_drawing_a_w%C3%A0n_%E5%8D%8D_in_the_four_phases_of_time.svg/220px-Precessional_north_pole_%28B%C4%9Bij%C3%AD_%E5%8C%97%E6%9E%81%29_in_%CE%B1_Ursae_Minoris%2C_drawing_a_w%C3%A0n_%E5%8D%8D_in_the_four_phases_of_time.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Precessional_north_pole_%28B%C4%9Bij%C3%AD_%E5%8C%97%E6%9E%81%29_in_%CE%B1_Ursae_Minoris%2C_drawing_a_w%C3%A0n_%E5%8D%8D_in_the_four_phases_of_time.svg/330px-Precessional_north_pole_%28B%C4%9Bij%C3%AD_%E5%8C%97%E6%9E%81%29_in_%CE%B1_Ursae_Minoris%2C_drawing_a_w%C3%A0n_%E5%8D%8D_in_the_four_phases_of_time.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Precessional_north_pole_%28B%C4%9Bij%C3%AD_%E5%8C%97%E6%9E%81%29_in_%CE%B1_Ursae_Minoris%2C_drawing_a_w%C3%A0n_%E5%8D%8D_in_the_four_phases_of_time.svg/440px-Precessional_north_pole_%28B%C4%9Bij%C3%AD_%E5%8C%97%E6%9E%81%29_in_%CE%B1_Ursae_Minoris%2C_drawing_a_w%C3%A0n_%E5%8D%8D_in_the_four_phases_of_time.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="522" data-file-height="520" /></a><figcaption>Like other symbols such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Sauwastika" class="mw-redirect" title="Sauwastika">sauwastika</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009256,_Vol._III_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009256,_Vol._III-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span lang="zh">卍</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">wàn</span></i>; 'all things') in Chinese, the <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Dingir" title="Dingir">dingir</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Anu" title="Anu">anu</a></i> <span title="Akkadian-language text"><span lang="akk">𒀭𒀭</span></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also the Chinese <span lang="zh">巫</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Wu_(shaman)" title="Wu (shaman)">wu</a></span></i>; 'shaman' (in <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> script represented by a graph resembling the <a href="/wiki/Cross_potent" title="Cross potent">cross potent</a> ☩),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009257,_Vol._I_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009257,_Vol._I-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Tian</i> refers to the northern <a href="/wiki/Celestial_pole" title="Celestial pole">celestial pole</a> (<span lang="zh">北極</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">běijí</span></i>), the pivot and the vault of the sky with its spinning constellations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009''passim''_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009''passim''-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here is an approximate representation of the <i><span lang="zh-Latn">tiānmén</span></i> (<span lang="zh">天門</span>; 'gate of heaven').<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <i><span lang="zh-Latn">tiānshū</span></i> (<span lang="zh-Hant">天樞</span>; 'pivot of heaven')<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as the precessional north celestial pole, with <a href="/wiki/Polaris" title="Polaris">α Ursae Minoris</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Pole_star" title="Pole star">pole star</a>, with the spinning <a href="/wiki/Big_Dipper" title="Big Dipper">Chariot</a> constellations in the four phases of time. According to Reza Assasi's theories, the <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">卍</span></span> may not only be centred in the current precessional pole at α Ursae Minoris, but also very near to the north <a href="/wiki/Orbital_pole" title="Orbital pole">ecliptic pole</a> if <a href="/wiki/Draco_(constellation)" title="Draco (constellation)">Draco</a> (<span lang="zh-Hans">天龙</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">天龍</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Tiānlóng</span></i>) is conceived as one of its two beams.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a></div> <p><i>Tian</i>, a key concept in Chinese thought, refers to the God of Heaven, the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_pole" title="Celestial pole">northern culmen of the skies</a> and its spinning stars,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009''passim''_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009''passim''-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> earthly nature and its laws which come from Heaven, to 'Heaven and Earth' (that is, "all things"), and to the awe-inspiring forces beyond human control.<sup id="cite_ref-Hagen_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hagen-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are so many uses in Chinese thought that it is impossible to give a single English translation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201035_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201035-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Confucius used the term in a mystical way.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsu2014_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsu2014-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote in the <i><a href="/wiki/Analects" title="Analects">Analects</a></i> (7.23) that <i>tian</i> gave him life, and that <i>tian</i> watched and judged (6.28; 9.12). In 9.5 Confucius says that a person may know the movements of <i>tian</i>, and this provides with the sense of having a special place in the universe. In 17.19 Confucius says that <i>tian</i> spoke to him, though not in words. The scholar Ronnie Littlejohn warns that <i>tian</i> was not to be interpreted as a personal God comparable to that of the Abrahamic faiths, in the sense of an otherworldly or transcendent creator.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201035–36_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201035–36-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather it is similar to what <a href="/wiki/Taoists" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoists">Taoists</a> meant by <i>Dao</i>: "the way things are" or "the regularities of the world",<sup id="cite_ref-Hagen_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hagen-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which Stephan Feuchtwang equates with the ancient Greek concept of <i><a href="/wiki/Physis" title="Physis">physis</a></i>, "nature" as the generation and regenerations of things and of the moral order.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016146_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016146-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Tian</i> may also be compared to the <i><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hindu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Veda">Vedic</a> traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdler201410_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdler201410-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scholar Promise Hsu, in the wake of Robert B. Louden, explained 17:19 ("What does <i>Tian</i> ever say? Yet there are four seasons going round and there are the hundred things coming into being. What does <i>Tian</i> say?") as implying that even though <i>Tian</i> is not a "speaking person", it constantly "does" through the rhythms of nature, and communicates "how human beings ought to live and act", at least to those who have learnt to carefully listen to it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsu2014_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsu2014-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Duanmu_Ci" title="Duanmu Ci">Duanmu Ci</a>, a disciple of Confucius, said that <i>Tian</i> had set the master on the path to become a wise man (9.6). In 7.23 Confucius says that he has no doubt left that <i>Tian</i> gave him life, and from it he had developed right virtue (<i><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">de</a></i>). In 8.19, he says that the lives of the sages are interwoven with <i>Tian</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201035_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201035-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regarding personal gods (<i><a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">shen</a></i>, energies who emanate from and reproduce <i>Tian</i>) enliving nature, in the <i>Analects</i> Confucius says that it is appropriate (<i><a href="/wiki/Yi_(philosophy)" title="Yi (philosophy)">yi</a></i>) for people to worship (<span lang="zh">敬</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">jìng</span></i>) them,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201036_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201036-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although only through proper rites (<i><a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">li</a></i>), implying respect of positions and discretion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201036_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201036-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Confucius himself was a ritual and <a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">sacrificial</a> master.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201037_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201037-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Answering to a disciple who asked whether it is better to sacrifice to the god of the stove or to the god of the family (a popular saying), in 3.13 Confucius says that in order to appropriately pray to gods, one should first know and respect Heaven. In 3.12, he explains that religious rituals produce meaningful experiences,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201036–37_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201036–37-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and one has to offer sacrifices in person, acting in presence, otherwise "it is the same as not having sacrificed at all". Rites and sacrifices to the gods have an ethical importance: they generate good life, because taking part in them leads to the overcoming of the self.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShenShun2007278–279_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShenShun2007278–279-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Analects 10.11 tells that Confucius always took a small part of his food and placed it on the sacrificial bowls as an offering to his <a href="/wiki/Ancestor" title="Ancestor">ancestors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201037_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201037-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some Confucian movements worship Confucius,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although not as a supreme being or anything else approaching the power of <i>tian</i> or the <i><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">tao</a></i>, and/or gods from <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a>. These movements are not a part of mainstream Confucianism, although the boundary between Chinese folk religion and Confucianism can be blurred.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Other movements, such as <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a> which was later absorbed by Taoism, developed a more <a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">theistic</a> idea of Heaven.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feuchtwang explains that the difference between Confucianism and Taoism primarily lies in the fact that the former focuses on the realisation of the starry order of Heaven in human society, while the latter on the contemplation of the Dao which spontaneously arises in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016146_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016146-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Confucianism does venerate many aspects of nature<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also respects various <i>tao</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as what Confucius saw as the main <i>tao</i>, the "[Way] of Heaven."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Way of Heaven involves "lifelong and sincere devotion to traditional cultural forms" and <i><a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a></i>, "a state of spontaneous harmony between individual inclinations and the sacred Way".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kelly_James_Clark" title="Kelly James Clark">Kelly James Clark</a> argued that Confucius himself saw <i>Tian</i> as an anthropomorphic god that Clark hypothetically refers to as "Heavenly Supreme Emperor", although most other scholars on Confucianism disagree with this view.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_morality_and_ethics">Social morality and ethics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Three_Fundamental_Bonds_and_Five_Constant_Virtues" title="Three Fundamental Bonds and Five Constant Virtues">Three Fundamental Bonds and Five Constant Virtues</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%BC%A0%E6%8C%A5%E5%85%AC%E5%A4%A7%E6%AE%BF.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/%E5%BC%A0%E6%8C%A5%E5%85%AC%E5%A4%A7%E6%AE%BF.jpg/220px-%E5%BC%A0%E6%8C%A5%E5%85%AC%E5%A4%A7%E6%AE%BF.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/%E5%BC%A0%E6%8C%A5%E5%85%AC%E5%A4%A7%E6%AE%BF.jpg/330px-%E5%BC%A0%E6%8C%A5%E5%85%AC%E5%A4%A7%E6%AE%BF.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/%E5%BC%A0%E6%8C%A5%E5%85%AC%E5%A4%A7%E6%AE%BF.jpg/440px-%E5%BC%A0%E6%8C%A5%E5%85%AC%E5%A4%A7%E6%AE%BF.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Worship at the Great Temple of Lord Zhang Hui (<span lang="zh-Hans">张挥公大殿</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Zhāng Huī gōng dàdiàn</span></i>), the cathedral <a href="/wiki/Ancestral_shrine" title="Ancestral shrine">ancestral shrine</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Zhang_(surname)" title="Zhang (surname)">Zhang</a> lineage corporation, at their <a href="/wiki/Ancestral_home_(Chinese)" title="Ancestral home (Chinese)">ancestral home</a> in <a href="/wiki/Qinghe_County,_Hebei" title="Qinghe County, Hebei">Qinghe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mazhan_Zhen_-_Houxian_Cun_-_P1220012.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Mazhan_Zhen_-_Houxian_Cun_-_P1220012.JPG/220px-Mazhan_Zhen_-_Houxian_Cun_-_P1220012.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Mazhan_Zhen_-_Houxian_Cun_-_P1220012.JPG/330px-Mazhan_Zhen_-_Houxian_Cun_-_P1220012.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Mazhan_Zhen_-_Houxian_Cun_-_P1220012.JPG/440px-Mazhan_Zhen_-_Houxian_Cun_-_P1220012.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Ancestral temple of the <a href="/wiki/Zeng" title="Zeng">Zeng</a> lineage and Houxian village cultural centre, <a href="/wiki/Cangnan_County" title="Cangnan County">Cangnan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a></figcaption></figure> <p>As explained by Stephan Feuchtwang, the order coming from Heaven preserves the world, and has to be followed by humanity finding a "middle way" between yin and yang forces in each new configuration of reality. Social harmony or morality is identified as patriarchy, which is expressed in the worship of ancestors and deified progenitors in the male line, at <a href="/wiki/Ancestral_shrines" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestral shrines">ancestral shrines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016146_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016146-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Confucian ethical codes are described as humanistic.<sup id="cite_ref-Juergensmeyer_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juergensmeyer-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They may be practiced by all the members of a society. Confucian ethics is characterised by the promotion of virtues, encompassed by the Five Constants, elaborated by Confucian scholars out of the inherited tradition during the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Runes_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Runes-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Five Constants are:<sup id="cite_ref-Runes_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Runes-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ren_(Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ren (Confucianism)">Ren</a></i> (benevolence, humaneness)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yi_(philosophy)" title="Yi (philosophy)">Yi</a></i> (righteousness, justice)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">Li</a></i> (propriety, rites)</li> <li><i>Zhi</i> (<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%99%BA" class="extiw" title="wikt:智">智</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">zhì</span></i>: wisdom, knowledge)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xin_(virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Xin (virtue)">Xin</a></i> (sincerity, faithfulness)</li></ul> <p>These are accompanied by the classical four virtues (<span lang="zh-Hans">四字</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">sìzì</span></i>), one of which (<i>Yi</i>) is also included among the Five Constants: </p> <ul><li><i>Yi</i> (see above)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a> (<span lang="zh">忠</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">zhōng</span></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">Filial piety</a> (<span lang="zh">孝</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xiào</span></i>)</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Continence" class="extiw" title="wikt:Continence">Continence</a> (<span lang="zh-Hans"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8A%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:节">节</a></span>; <span lang="zh-Hant"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AF%80" class="extiw" title="wikt:節">節</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">jié</span></i>)</li></ul> <p>There are many other traditionally Confucian values, such as 'honesty' (<span lang="zh-Hans"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%AF%9A" class="extiw" title="wikt:诚">诚</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">chéng</span></i>), 'bravery' (<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8B%87" class="extiw" title="wikt:勇">勇</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">yǒng</span></i>), 'incorruptibility' (<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BB%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:廉">廉</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">lián</span></i>), 'kindness', 'forgiveness' (<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%81%95" class="extiw" title="wikt:恕">恕</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">shù</span></i>), a 'sense of right and wrong' (<span lang="zh-Hans"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%80%BB" class="extiw" title="wikt:耻">耻</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">chǐ</span></i>), 'gentleness' (<span lang="zh-Hans"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B8%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:温">温</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">wēn</span></i>), 'kindheartenedness' (<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%89%AF" class="extiw" title="wikt:良">良</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">liáng</span></i>), 'respect' (<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%81%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:恭">恭</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">gōng</span></i>), 'frugality' (<span lang="zh-Hans"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BF%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:俭">俭</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">jiǎn</span></i>), and <span lang="zh-Hans"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%AE%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:让">让</a></span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">ràng</span></i>; 'modesty'). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ren">Ren</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ren_(Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ren (Confucianism)">Ren (Confucianism)</a></div> <p><i>Ren (仁 )</i> is the Confucian virtue denoting the good feeling a virtuous human experiences when being <a href="/wiki/Altruistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Altruistic">altruistic</a>. Internally <i>ren</i> can mean "to look up" meaning "to aspire to higher Heavenly principles or ideals", It is exemplified by a normal adult's protective feelings for children. It is considered the essence of the human being, endowed by Heaven, and at the same time the means by which someone may act according to the principle of Heaven and become one with it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETay2010102_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETay2010102-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Yan_Hui_(disciple_of_Confucius)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yan Hui (disciple of Confucius)">Yan Hui</a>, Confucius's most outstanding student, once asked his master to describe the rules of <i>ren</i> and Confucius replied, "one should see nothing improper, hear nothing improper, say nothing improper, do nothing improper."<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Confucius also defined <i>ren</i> in the following way: "wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others."<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another meaning of <i>ren</i> is "not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself."<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Confucius also said, "<i>ren</i> is not far off; he who seeks it has already found it." <i>Ren</i> is close to man and never leaves him. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rite_and_centring">Rite and centring</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guan_County_Temple_of_Confucius.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Guan_County_Temple_of_Confucius.jpg/220px-Guan_County_Temple_of_Confucius.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Guan_County_Temple_of_Confucius.jpg/330px-Guan_County_Temple_of_Confucius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Guan_County_Temple_of_Confucius.jpg/440px-Guan_County_Temple_of_Confucius.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3178" data-file-height="2383" /></a><figcaption>Temple of Confucius in <a href="/wiki/Dujiangyan_City" title="Dujiangyan City">Dujiangyan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korean_Confucianism-Chugyedaeje-02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Korean_Confucianism-Chugyedaeje-02.jpg/220px-Korean_Confucianism-Chugyedaeje-02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Korean_Confucianism-Chugyedaeje-02.jpg/330px-Korean_Confucianism-Chugyedaeje-02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Korean_Confucianism-Chugyedaeje-02.jpg/440px-Korean_Confucianism-Chugyedaeje-02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucian</a> rite in <a href="/wiki/Jeju_Province" title="Jeju Province">Jeju</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">Li (Confucianism)</a></div> <p><i>Li</i> (<span lang="zh-Hans">礼</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">禮</span>) is a word which finds its most extensive use in <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a> and post-Confucian <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">Li</a></i> is variously translated as '<a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">rite</a>' or '<a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>', 'ratio' in the pure sense of <a href="/wiki/Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Veda">Vedic</a> <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%9Ata" title="Ṛta">ṛta</a></i></span> ('right', 'order') when referring to the <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmic</a> law, but when referring to its realisation in the context of human social behaviour it has also been translated as '<a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">customs</a>', 'measures' and 'rules', among other terms. <i>Li</i> also means religious rites which establish relations between humanity and the gods. </p><p>According to Stephan Feuchtwang, rites are conceived as "what makes the invisible visible", making possible for humans to cultivate the underlying order of nature. Correctly performed rituals move society in alignment with earthly and heavenly (astral) forces, establishing the harmony of the three realms—Heaven, Earth and humanity. This practice is defined as "centering" (<span lang="zh">央</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">yāng</span></i> or <span lang="zh">中</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">zhōng</span></i>). Among all things of creation, humans themselves are "central" because they have the ability to cultivate and centre natural forces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016150_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016150-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Li</i> embodies the entire web of interaction between humanity, human objects, and nature. Confucius includes in his discussions of <i>li</i> such diverse topics as learning, tea drinking, titles, mourning, and governance. <a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a> cites "songs and laughter, weeping and lamentation<span class="nowrap"> </span>... rice and millet, fish and meat<span class="nowrap"> </span>... the wearing of ceremonial caps, embroidered robes, and patterned silks, or of fasting clothes and mourning clothes<span class="nowrap"> </span>... spacious rooms and secluded halls, soft mats, couches and benches" as vital parts of the fabric of <i>li</i>. </p><p>Confucius envisioned proper government being guided by the principles of <i>li</i>. Some Confucians proposed that all human beings may pursue perfection by learning and practising <i>li</i>. Overall, Confucians believe that governments should place more emphasis on <i>li</i> and rely much less on penal punishment when they govern. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Loyalty">Loyalty</h4></div> <p>Loyalty (<span lang="zh">忠</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">zhōng</span></i>) is particularly relevant for the social class to which most of Confucius's students belonged, because the most important way for an ambitious young scholar to become a prominent official was to enter a ruler's civil service. </p><p>Confucius himself did not propose that "might makes right", but rather that a superior should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude. In addition, loyalty does not mean subservience to authority. This is because reciprocity is demanded from the superior as well. As Confucius stated "a prince should employ his minister according to the rules of propriety; ministers should serve their prince with faithfulness (loyalty)."<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a> also said that "when the prince regards his ministers as his hands and feet, his ministers regard their prince as their belly and heart; when he regards them as his dogs and horses, they regard him as another man; when he regards them as the ground or as grass, they regard him as a robber and an enemy."<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, Mencius indicated that if the ruler is incompetent, he should be replaced. If the ruler is evil, then the people have the right to overthrow him.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A good Confucian is also expected to remonstrate with his superiors when necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, a proper Confucian ruler should also accept his ministers' advice, as this will help him govern the realm better. </p><p>In later ages, however, emphasis was often placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled. Like filial piety, loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes in China. Nonetheless, throughout the ages, many Confucians continued to fight against unrighteous superiors and rulers. Many of these Confucians suffered and sometimes died because of their conviction and action.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Ming-Qing era, prominent Confucians such as <a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a> promoted individuality and independent thinking as a counterweight to subservience to authority.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The famous thinker Huang Zongxi also strongly criticised the autocratic nature of the imperial system and wanted to keep imperial power in check.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many Confucians also realised that loyalty and filial piety have the potential of coming into conflict with one another. This may be true especially in times of social chaos, such as during the period of the <a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Ming-Qing transition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Filial_piety">Filial piety</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%B0%9D%E7%B2%AA%E5%BF%83%E5%BF%A7.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/%E5%B0%9D%E7%B2%AA%E5%BF%83%E5%BF%A7.JPG/220px-%E5%B0%9D%E7%B2%AA%E5%BF%83%E5%BF%A7.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/%E5%B0%9D%E7%B2%AA%E5%BF%83%E5%BF%A7.JPG/330px-%E5%B0%9D%E7%B2%AA%E5%BF%83%E5%BF%A7.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/%E5%B0%9D%E7%B2%AA%E5%BF%83%E5%BF%A7.JPG/440px-%E5%B0%9D%E7%B2%AA%E5%BF%83%E5%BF%A7.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>Fourteenth of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Twenty-four_Filial_Exemplars" title="The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars">The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars</a></i></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">Filial piety</a></div> <p>In Confucian philosophy, "filial piety" (<span lang="zh">孝</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xiào</span></i>) is a virtue of respect for one's parents and ancestors, and of the hierarchies within society: father–son, elder–junior and male–female.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016146_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016146-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Confucian classic <i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Filial_Piety" title="Classic of Filial Piety">Xiaojing</a></i> ("Book of Piety"), thought to be written during the Qin or Han dynasties, has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of <i>xiao</i>. The book, a conversation between Confucius and his disciple <a href="/wiki/Zeng_Shen" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeng Shen">Zeng Shen</a>, is about how to set up a good society using the principle of <i>xiao</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In more general terms, filial piety means to be good to one's parents; to take care of one's parents; to engage in good conduct not just towards parents but also outside the home so as to bring a good name to one's parents and ancestors; to perform the duties of one's job well so as to obtain the material means to support parents as well as carry out sacrifices to the ancestors; not be rebellious; show love, respect and support; the wife in filial piety must obey her husband absolutely and take care of the whole family wholeheartedly. display courtesy; ensure male heirs, uphold fraternity among brothers; wisely advise one's parents, including dissuading them from moral unrighteousness, for blindly following the parents' wishes is not considered to be <i>xiao</i>; display sorrow for their sickness and death; and carry out <a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">sacrifices</a> after their death. </p><p>Filial piety is considered a key virtue in Chinese culture, and it is the main concern of a large number of stories. One of the most famous collections of such stories is "<a href="/wiki/The_Twenty-four_Filial_Exemplars" title="The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars">The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars</a>". These stories depict how children exercised their filial piety in the past. While China has always had a diversity of religious beliefs, filial piety has been common to almost all of them; historian Hugh D.R. Baker calls respect for the family the only element common to almost all Chinese believers.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationships">Relationships</h3></div> <p>Social harmony results in part from every individual knowing his or her place in the natural order, and playing his or her part well. Reciprocity or responsibility (<i>renqing</i>) extends beyond filial piety and involves the entire network of social relations, even the respect for rulers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016146_49-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016146-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is shown in the story where <a href="/wiki/Duke_Jing_of_Qi" title="Duke Jing of Qi">Duke Jing of Qi</a> asks Confucius about government, by which he meant proper administration so as to bring social harmony: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> <p><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 115%;">齊景公問政於孔子。孔子對曰：君君，臣臣，父父，子子。</span></span><br /> The <a href="/wiki/Duke_Jing_of_Qi" title="Duke Jing of Qi">duke Jing, of Qi</a>, asked Confucius about government. Confucius replied, "There is government, when the prince is prince, and the minister is minister; when the father is father, and the son is son." </p> </div><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Analects</i> 12.11 (Legge translation).</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Particular duties arise from one's particular situation in relation to others. The individual stands simultaneously in several different relationships with different people: as a junior in relation to parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to younger siblings, students, and others. While juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe their seniors reverence, seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors. The same is true with the husband and wife relationship where the husband needs to show benevolence towards his wife and the wife needs to respect the husband in return. This theme of mutuality still exists in East Asian cultures even to this day. </p><p>The Five Bonds are: ruler to ruled, father to son, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother, friend to friend. Specific duties were prescribed to each of the participants in these sets of relationships. Such duties are also extended to the dead, where the living stand as sons to their deceased family. The only relationship where respect for elders is not stressed was the friend to friend relationship, where mutual equal respect is emphasised instead. All these duties take the practical form of prescribed rituals, for instance wedding and death rituals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016146_49-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016146-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Junzi"><i>Junzi</i></h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Junzi" title="Junzi">Junzi</a></div> <p>The <i>junzi</i> ('lord's son') is a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophical</a> term often translated as "<a href="/wiki/Gentleman" title="Gentleman">gentleman</a>" or "superior person"<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and employed by <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> in the <i>Analects</i> to describe the ideal man. </p><p>In Confucianism, the sage or wise is the ideal personality; however, it is very hard to become one of them. Confucius created the model of <i>junzi</i>, gentleman, which may be achieved by any individual. Later, <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a> defined <i>junzi</i> as second only to the sage. There are many characteristics of the <i>junzi</i>: he may live in poverty, he does more and speaks less, he is loyal, obedient and knowledgeable. The <i>junzi</i> disciplines himself. <i>Ren</i> is fundamental to become a <i>junzi</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the potential leader of a nation, a son of the ruler is raised to have a superior ethical and moral position while gaining inner peace through his virtue. To Confucius, the <i>junzi</i> sustained the functions of government and social stratification through his ethical values. Despite its literal meaning, any righteous man willing to improve himself may become a <i>junzi</i>. </p><p>In contrast to the <i>junzi</i>, the <i>xiaoren</i> (<span lang="zh">小人</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xiăorén</span></i>, "small or petty person") does not grasp the value of virtues and seeks only immediate gains. The petty person is <a href="/wiki/Egotistic" title="Egotistic">egotistic</a> and does not consider the consequences of his action in the overall scheme of things. Should the ruler be surrounded by <i>xiaoren</i> as opposed to <i>junzi</i>, his governance and his people will suffer due to their small-mindness. Examples of such <i>xiaoren</i> individuals may range from those who continually indulge in sensual and emotional pleasures all day to the politician who is interested merely in power and fame; neither sincerely aims for the long-term benefit of others. </p><p>The <i>junzi</i> enforces his rule over his subjects by acting virtuously himself. It is thought that his pure virtue would lead others to follow his example. The ultimate goal is that the government behaves much like a family, the <i>junzi</i> being a beacon of filial piety. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rectification_of_names">Rectification of names</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tablet_of_Confucius.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Tablet_of_Confucius.jpg/220px-Tablet_of_Confucius.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Tablet_of_Confucius.jpg/330px-Tablet_of_Confucius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Tablet_of_Confucius.jpg/440px-Tablet_of_Confucius.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1276" data-file-height="906" /></a><figcaption>Priest paying homage to Confucius's tablet, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1900</span></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rectification_of_names" title="Rectification of names">Rectification of names</a></div> <p>Confucius believed that social disorder often stemmed from failure to perceive, understand, and deal with reality. Fundamentally, then, social disorder may stem from the failure to call things by their proper names, and his solution to this was the "rectification of names" (<span lang="zh">正名</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">zhèngmíng</span></i>). He gave an explanation of this concept to one of his disciples: </p> <blockquote> <p>Zi-lu said, "The vassal of Wei has been waiting for you, in order with you to administer the government. What will you consider the first thing to be done?"<br /> The Master replied, "What is necessary to rectify names."<br /> "So! indeed!" said Zi-lu. "You are wide off the mark! Why must there be such rectification?"<br /> The Master said, "How uncultivated you are, Yu! The superior man [Junzi] cannot care about the everything, just as he cannot go to check all himself!<br />         If names be not correct, language is not in accordance with the truth of things.<br />         If language be not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carried on to success.<br />         When affairs cannot be carried on to success, proprieties and music do not flourish.<br />         When proprieties and music do not flourish, punishments will not be properly awarded.<br />         When punishments are not properly awarded, the people do not know how to move hand or foot.<br /> Therefore a superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses may be spoken appropriately, and also that what he speaks may be carried out appropriately. What the superior man requires is just that in his words there may be nothing incorrect."<br /> (<i>Analects</i> XIII, 3, tr. Legge) </p> </blockquote> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(book)" title="Xunzi (book)">Xunzi</a></i> chapter (22) "On the Rectification of Names" claims the ancient sage-kings chose names (<span lang="zh">名</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">míng</span></i>) that directly corresponded with actualities (<span lang="zh">實</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">shí</span></i>), but later generations confused terminology, coined new nomenclature, and thus could no longer distinguish right from wrong. Since <a href="/wiki/Harmonious_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Harmonious society">social harmony</a> is of utmost importance, without the proper rectification of names, society would essentially crumble and "undertakings [would] not [be] completed."<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metaphysical_antecedents">Metaphysical antecedents</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_rooftop_dragon_in_Taiwan_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Temple_rooftop_dragon_in_Taiwan_%281%29.jpg/220px-Temple_rooftop_dragon_in_Taiwan_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Temple_rooftop_dragon_in_Taiwan_%281%29.jpg/330px-Temple_rooftop_dragon_in_Taiwan_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Temple_rooftop_dragon_in_Taiwan_%281%29.jpg/440px-Temple_rooftop_dragon_in_Taiwan_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="3376" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dragon" title="Chinese dragon">dragon</a> is one of the oldest symbols of Chinese religious culture. It symbolises the supreme godhead, <i>Di</i> or <i>Tian</i>, at the north <a href="/wiki/Orbital_pole" title="Orbital pole">ecliptic pole</a>, around which it coils itself as the <a href="/wiki/Draco_(constellation)" title="Draco (constellation)">homonymous constellation</a>. It is a symbol of the "protean" supreme power which has in itself both <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin and yang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPankenier201355_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPankenier201355-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png/220px-Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png/330px-Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png/440px-Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png 2x" data-file-width="1585" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption>Birthplaces of notable Chinese philosophers of the Hundred Schools of Thought in Zhou dynasty. Confucians are marked by triangles in dark red.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_China" title="History of religion in China">History of religion in China</a></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/He_Guanghu" title="He Guanghu">He Guanghu</a>, Confucianism may be identified as a continuation of the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a>-<a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600</span>–256 BCE) official religion, or the Chinese aboriginal religion which has lasted uninterrupted for three thousand years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2012105,_note_45_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2012105,_note_45-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both the dynasties worshipped a supreme "godhead", called <i><a href="/wiki/Shangdi" title="Shangdi">Shangdi</a></i> ('Highest Deity') or <i>Di</i> by the Shang and <i><a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a></i> ('Heaven') by the Zhou. <i>Shangdi</i> was conceived as the first ancestor of the Shang royal house,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELibbrecht200743_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELibbrecht200743-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an alternate name for him being the "Supreme Progenitor" (<span lang="zh">上甲</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Shàngjiǎ</span></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009227–228,_Vol._II_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009227–228,_Vol._II-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shang theology viewed the multiplicity of gods of nature and ancestors as parts of <i>Di</i>. <i>Di</i> manifests as the <i><a href="/wiki/Wufang_Shangdi" title="Wufang Shangdi">Wufang Shangdi</a></i> with the winds (<span lang="zh">風</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">fēng</span></i>) as its cosmic will.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009143–144,_Vol._II_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009143–144,_Vol._II-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the Zhou dynasty, which overthrew the Shang, the name for the supreme godhead became <i>tian</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELibbrecht200743_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELibbrecht200743-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the Shang identified <i>Shangdi</i> as their ancestor-god to assert their claim to power by divine right, the Zhou transformed this claim into a legitimacy based on moral power, the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a>. In Zhou theology, <i>Tian</i> had no singular earthly progeny, but bestowed divine favour on virtuous rulers. Zhou kings declared that their victory over the Shang was because they were virtuous and loved their people, while the Shang were tyrants and thus were deprived of power by <i>Tian</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFung2008163_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFung2008163-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>John C. Didier and David Pankenier relate the shapes of both the ancient <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> for <i>Di</i> and <i>Tian</i> to the patterns of stars in the northern skies, either drawn, in Didier's theory by connecting the constellations bracketing the north celestial pole as a square,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009103,_Vol._II_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009103,_Vol._II-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or in Pankenier's theory by connecting some of the stars which form the constellations of the Big Dipper and broader <a href="/wiki/Ursa_Major" title="Ursa Major">Ursa Major</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ursa_Minor" title="Ursa Minor">Ursa Minor</a> (Little Dipper).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPankenier2013138–148,_"Chapter_4:_Bringing_Heaven_Down_to_Earth"_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPankenier2013138–148,_"Chapter_4:_Bringing_Heaven_Down_to_Earth"-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cultures in other parts of the world have also conceived these stars or constellations as symbols of the origin of things, the supreme godhead, divinity and royal power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009''passim''_Vol._I_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009''passim''_Vol._I-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The supreme godhead was also identified with the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dragon" title="Chinese dragon">dragon</a>, symbol of unlimited power (<i><a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELibbrecht200743_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELibbrecht200743-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the protean primordial power which embodies both <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin and yang</a> in unity, associated to the constellation <a href="/wiki/Draco_(constellation)" title="Draco (constellation)">Draco</a> which winds around the north <a href="/wiki/Orbital_pole" title="Orbital pole">ecliptic pole</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPankenier201355_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPankenier201355-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and slithers between the Little and Big Dipper. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zhou_traditions_wane">Zhou traditions wane</h3></div> <p>By the 6th century BCE, the power of <i>Tian</i> and the symbols that represented it on earth (architecture of cities, temples, altars and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_bronzes" title="Chinese ritual bronzes">ritual vessels</a>, and the Zhou system of rites) became "diffuse" and claimed by different potentates in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_states" title="Ancient Chinese states">Zhou states</a> to legitimise economic, political, and military ambitions. Communication with the divine no longer was an exclusive privilege of the Zhou royal house, but might be bought by anyone able to afford the elaborate ceremonies and the old and new rites required to access the authority of <i>Tian</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009xxxvi–xxxvii,_Vol._I_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009xxxvi–xxxvii,_Vol._I-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Besides the waning Zhou ritual system, what may be defined as 'wild' (<span lang="zh">野</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">yě</span></i>) traditions, or traditions outside of the official system, developed as attempts to access the will of <i>Tian</i>. As central political authority crumbled in the wake of the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a>, the population lost faith in the official tradition, which was no longer perceived as an effective way to communicate with Heaven. The traditions of the 'Nine Fields' (<span lang="zh">九野</span>) and of the <i><a href="/wiki/Yijing" class="mw-redirect" title="Yijing">Yijing</a></i> flourished.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009xxxvii–xxxviii,_Vol._I_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009xxxvii–xxxviii,_Vol._I-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese thinkers, faced with this challenge to legitimacy, diverged in a "<a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a>", each positing its own philosophical lens for understanding the processes of the world. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> (551–479 BCE) appeared in this period of political reconfiguration and spiritual questioning. He was educated in Shang–Zhou traditions, which he contributed to transmit and reformulate giving centrality to <a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">self-cultivation</a> and agency of humans,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFung2008163_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFung2008163-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the educational power of the self-established individual in assisting others to establish themselves (the <span lang="zh">愛人</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">àirén</span></i>; 'principle of loving others').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou20122_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou20122-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the Zhou reign collapsed, traditional values were abandoned resulting in a period of perceived moral decline. Confucius saw an opportunity to reinforce values of compassion and tradition into society, with the intended goal of reconstructing what he believed to be a lost perfect moral order of high antiquity. Disillusioned with the culture, opposing scholars, and religious authorities of the time, he began to advance an ethical interpretation of traditional Zhou religion.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his view, the power of <i>Tian</i> is pervasive, and responds positively to the sincere heart driven by humaneness and rightness, decency and altruism. Confucius conceived these qualities as the foundation needed to restore socio-political harmony. Like many contemporaries, Confucius saw ritual practices as efficacious ways to access <i>Tian</i>, but he thought that the crucial knot was the reverent inner state that participants enter prior to engaging in the ritual acts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009Vol._III,_pp._96–99_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009Vol._III,_pp._96–99-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Confucius is said to have amended and recodified the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">classical books</a> inherited from the Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties, and to have composed the <i><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annals" title="Spring and Autumn Annals">Spring and Autumn Annals</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou20121_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou20121-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Confucianism_rises">Confucianism rises</h3></div> <p>Philosophers in the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>, both focused on state-endorsed ritual and non-aligned to state ritual built upon Confucius's legacy, compiled in the <i><a href="/wiki/Analects" title="Analects">Analects</a></i>, and formulated the classical metaphysics that became the lash of Confucianism. In accordance with Confucius, they identified mental tranquility as the state of <i>Tian</i>, or 'the One' (<span lang="zh">一</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Yī</span></i>), which in each individual is the Heaven-bestowed divine power to rule one's own life and the world. They also extended the theory, proposing the oneness of production and reabsorption into the cosmic source, and the possibility to understand and therefore reattain it through correct state of mind. This line of thought would have influenced all Chinese individual and collective-political mystical theories and practices thereafter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009xxxviii–xxxix,_Vol._I_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009xxxviii–xxxix,_Vol._I-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Han dynasty, Confucians beginning with <a href="/wiki/Dong_Zhongshu" title="Dong Zhongshu">Dong Zhongshu</a> synthesised Warring States Confucianism with ideas of <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin and yang</a>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">wuxing</a></i>, as well as folk superstition and the prior schools that led up to the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">School of Naturalists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:10027_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10027-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/460s" title="460s">460s</a>, Confucianism competed with <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a> and "traditional Confucianism" was "a broad cosmology that was as much about personal ethics as about spiritual beliefs" and had roots that went back to Confucianist <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophers</a> from over a thousand years before.<sup id="cite_ref-:032_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:032-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline">Decline</h3></div> <p>The Confucian examination system was abolished in <a href="/wiki/Gwageo" title="Gwageo">Korea</a> in 1894, in <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">China</a> in 1905, and in <a href="/wiki/Confucian_court_examination_system_in_Vietnam" title="Confucian court examination system in Vietnam">Vietnam</a> in 1919. This meant that <a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">conformity</a> to Confucian ideology was no longer a prerequisite for a career in the civil service or politics, allowing persons of other ideologies (notably Nationalism and Socialism) to attain leading positions in society.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organisation_and_liturgy">Organisation and liturgy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religious_Confucianism" title="Religious Confucianism">Religious Confucianism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Confucian_church" title="Confucian church">Confucian churches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_lineage_associations" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese lineage associations">Lineage churches</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Confucius" title="Temple of Confucius">Temple of Confucius</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Confucian_ritual_religion" title="Confucian ritual religion">Confucian ritual religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kongshenghui" class="mw-redirect" title="Kongshenghui">Kongshenghui</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%9F%B3%E5%B7%9E%E5%B8%82%E5%AD%94%E5%BA%99_Liuzhou_Confucius_Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/%E6%9F%B3%E5%B7%9E%E5%B8%82%E5%AD%94%E5%BA%99_Liuzhou_Confucius_Temple.jpg/220px-%E6%9F%B3%E5%B7%9E%E5%B8%82%E5%AD%94%E5%BA%99_Liuzhou_Confucius_Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/%E6%9F%B3%E5%B7%9E%E5%B8%82%E5%AD%94%E5%BA%99_Liuzhou_Confucius_Temple.jpg/330px-%E6%9F%B3%E5%B7%9E%E5%B8%82%E5%AD%94%E5%BA%99_Liuzhou_Confucius_Temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/%E6%9F%B3%E5%B7%9E%E5%B8%82%E5%AD%94%E5%BA%99_Liuzhou_Confucius_Temple.jpg/440px-%E6%9F%B3%E5%B7%9E%E5%B8%82%E5%AD%94%E5%BA%99_Liuzhou_Confucius_Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="681" /></a><figcaption>A Temple of the God of Culture (<span lang="zh">文庙</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">wénmiào</span></i>) in <a href="/wiki/Liuzhou" title="Liuzhou">Liuzhou</a>, Guangxi, where <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> is worshiped as 'God of Culture' (<span lang="zh">文帝</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">wéndì</span></i>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_of_the_Filial_Blessing_in_Ouhai,_Wenzhou,_Zhejiang,_China_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Temple_of_the_Filial_Blessing_in_Ouhai%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%281%29.jpg/220px-Temple_of_the_Filial_Blessing_in_Ouhai%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Temple_of_the_Filial_Blessing_in_Ouhai%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%281%29.jpg/330px-Temple_of_the_Filial_Blessing_in_Ouhai%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Temple_of_the_Filial_Blessing_in_Ouhai%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%281%29.jpg/440px-Temple_of_the_Filial_Blessing_in_Ouhai%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Temple of the Filial Blessing (<span lang="zh">孝佑宫</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Xiàoyòugōng</span></i>), an <a href="/wiki/Ancestral_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestral temple">ancestral temple</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Lineage_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Lineage church">lineage church</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Wenzhou" title="Wenzhou">Wenzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Since the 2000s, there has been a growing identification of the Chinese intellectual class with Confucianism.<sup id="cite_ref-Yang2010_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang2010-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2003, the Confucian intellectual Kang Xiaoguang published a manifesto in which he made four suggestions: Confucian education should enter official education at any level, from elementary to high school; the state should establish Confucianism as the state religion by law; Confucian religion should enter the daily life of ordinary people through standardisation and development of doctrines, rituals, organisations, churches and activity sites; the Confucian religion should be spread through non-governmental organisations.<sup id="cite_ref-Yang2010_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang2010-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another modern proponent of the institutionalisation of Confucianism in a <a href="/wiki/State_church" class="mw-redirect" title="State church">state church</a> is <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Qing_(Confucian)" title="Jiang Qing (Confucian)">Jiang Qing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2012175_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2012175-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2005, the Center for the Study of Confucian Religion was established,<sup id="cite_ref-Yang2010_92-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang2010-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Guoxue" class="mw-redirect" title="Guoxue">guoxue</a></i> started to be implemented in public schools on all levels. Being well received by the population, even Confucian preachers have appeared on television since 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-Yang2010_92-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang2010-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most enthusiastic New Confucians proclaim the uniqueness and superiority of Confucian Chinese culture, and have generated some popular sentiment against Western cultural influences in China.<sup id="cite_ref-Yang2010_92-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang2010-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea of a "<a href="/wiki/Confucian_church" title="Confucian church">Confucian church</a>" as the <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a> of China has roots in the thought of <a href="/wiki/Kang_Youwei" title="Kang Youwei">Kang Youwei</a>, an exponent of the early New Confucian search for a regeneration of the social relevance of Confucianism, at a time when it was de-institutionalised with the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> and the Chinese empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2012174_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2012174-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kang modeled his ideal "Confucian Church" after European national Christian churches, as a hierarchic and centralised institution, closely bound to the state, with local church branches, devoted to the worship and the spread of the teachings of Confucius.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2012174_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2012174-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contemporary China, the Confucian revival has developed into various interwoven directions: the proliferation of <a href="/wiki/Academies_of_Classical_Learning" title="Academies of Classical Learning">Confucian schools or academies</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2012175_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2012175-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the resurgence of <a href="/wiki/Confucian_rites" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian rites">Confucian rites</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2012175_93-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2012175-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the birth of new forms of Confucian activity on the popular level, such as the Confucian communities (<span lang="zh-Hant">社區儒學</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">shèqū rúxué</span></i>). Some scholars also consider the reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Lineage_churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Lineage churches">lineage churches</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Ancestral_temples" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestral temples">ancestral temples</a>, as well as cults and temples of natural and national gods within broader Chinese traditional religion, as part of the renewal of Confucianism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen2015a7_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen2015a7-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other forms of revival are <a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese salvationist religion">salvationist folk religious movements</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBillioud2010203–214_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillioud2010203–214-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> groups with a specifically Confucian focus, or <a href="/wiki/Confucian_churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian churches">Confucian churches</a>, for example the <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Yīdān xuétáng</span></i> (<span lang="zh">一耽學堂</span>) of <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBillioud2010219_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillioud2010219-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Mèngmǔtáng</span></i> (<span lang="zh">孟母堂</span>) of <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201529_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201529-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Confucian_Shenism" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian Shenism">Confucian Shenism</a> (also known as the "phoenix churches"),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201534_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201534-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Confucian Fellowship (<span lang="zh">儒教道壇</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Rújiào Dàotán</span></i>) in northern <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a> which has spread rapidly over the years after its foundation,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201534_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201534-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Ancestral_temples" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestral temples">ancestral temples</a> of the Kong kin (the lineage of the descendants of Confucius himself) operating as Confucian-teaching churches.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201529_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201529-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also, the Hong Kong Confucian Academy, one of the direct heirs of Kang Youwei's Confucian Church, has expanded its activities to the mainland, with the construction of statues of Confucius, Confucian hospitals, restoration of temples and other activities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBillioudThoraval2015148_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillioudThoraval2015148-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2009, Zhou Beichen founded another institution which inherits the idea of Kang Youwei's Confucian Church, the Holy Hall of Confucius (<span lang="zh">孔聖堂</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Kǒngshèngtáng</span></i>) in <a href="/wiki/Shenzhen" title="Shenzhen">Shenzhen</a>, affiliated with the Federation of Confucian Culture of <a href="/wiki/Qufu" title="Qufu">Qufu</a> City.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPayette2014_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayette2014-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBillioudThoraval2015152–156_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillioudThoraval2015152–156-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the first of a nationwide movement of congregations and civil organisations that was unified in 2015 in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Confucian_Church" title="Holy Confucian Church">Holy Confucian Church</a>. The first spiritual leader of the church is the scholar <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Qing_(Confucian)" title="Jiang Qing (Confucian)">Jiang Qing</a>, the founder and manager of the Yangming Confucian Abode (<span lang="zh">陽明精舍</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Yángmíng jīngshě</span></i>), a Confucian academy in <a href="/wiki/Guiyang" title="Guiyang">Guiyang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a>. </p><p>Chinese folk religious temples and kinship ancestral shrines may, on peculiar occasions, choose Confucian liturgy (called <span lang="zh">儒</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">rú</span></i> or <span lang="zh">正統</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">zhèngtǒng</span></i>; '<a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">orthopraxy</a>') led by Confucian ritual masters (<span lang="zh">禮生</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">lǐshēng</span></i>) to worship the gods, instead of Taoist or popular ritual.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClart20033–5_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart20033–5-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Confucian businessmen" (<span lang="zh">儒商人</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">rúshāngrén</span></i>, also "refined businessman") is a recently "rediscovered" concept defining people of the economic-entrepreneurial elite who recognise their social responsibility and therefore apply Confucian culture to their business.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBillioud2010204_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillioud2010204-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Confucianists historically tried to <a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">proselytize</a> to others,<sup id="cite_ref-:022_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:022-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although this is rarely done in modern times. Given Confucianism's place of importance in historical Chinese governments, the argument has been made that Imperial China's wars were Confucianism's wars, but the connection between Confucianism and war is not so direct or simple.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern Confucianism is the descendant of movements that greatly changed how they practiced the teachings of Confucius and his disciples from previous orthodox teachings.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Governance">Governance</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%90%9B%E8%87%A3%E9%AD%9A%E6%B0%B4_-_%E5%8A%89%E5%82%99%E8%88%87%E8%AB%B8%E8%91%9B%E4%BA%AE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/%E5%90%9B%E8%87%A3%E9%AD%9A%E6%B0%B4_-_%E5%8A%89%E5%82%99%E8%88%87%E8%AB%B8%E8%91%9B%E4%BA%AE.jpg/220px-%E5%90%9B%E8%87%A3%E9%AD%9A%E6%B0%B4_-_%E5%8A%89%E5%82%99%E8%88%87%E8%AB%B8%E8%91%9B%E4%BA%AE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/%E5%90%9B%E8%87%A3%E9%AD%9A%E6%B0%B4_-_%E5%8A%89%E5%82%99%E8%88%87%E8%AB%B8%E8%91%9B%E4%BA%AE.jpg/330px-%E5%90%9B%E8%87%A3%E9%AD%9A%E6%B0%B4_-_%E5%8A%89%E5%82%99%E8%88%87%E8%AB%B8%E8%91%9B%E4%BA%AE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/%E5%90%9B%E8%87%A3%E9%AD%9A%E6%B0%B4_-_%E5%8A%89%E5%82%99%E8%88%87%E8%AB%B8%E8%91%9B%E4%BA%AE.jpg/440px-%E5%90%9B%E8%87%A3%E9%AD%9A%E6%B0%B4_-_%E5%8A%89%E5%82%99%E8%88%87%E8%AB%B8%E8%91%9B%E4%BA%AE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1338" data-file-height="1936" /></a><figcaption>Statue of <a href="/wiki/Liu_Bei" title="Liu Bei">Liu Bei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhuge_Liang" title="Zhuge Liang">Zhuge Liang</a>, considered the ideal example of the loyalty, integrity and shared governance between a lord and <a href="/wiki/Grand_chancellor_(China)" title="Grand chancellor (China)">minister</a> in Chinese history<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yushima_Seido_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Yushima_Seido_002.jpg/220px-Yushima_Seido_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Yushima_Seido_002.jpg/330px-Yushima_Seido_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Yushima_Seido_002.jpg/440px-Yushima_Seido_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yushima_Seid%C5%8D" title="Yushima Seidō">Yushima Seidō</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bunky%C5%8D" title="Bunkyō">Bunkyō</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tokyo" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a>, Japan</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> <p><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 115%;">子曰：為政以德，譬如北辰，居其所而眾星共之。</span></span><br /> The Master said, "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it." </p> </div><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Analects</i> 2.1 (Legge translation).</cite></div></blockquote> <p>A key Confucian concept is that in order to govern others one must first govern oneself according to the universal order. When actual, the king's personal virtue (<i><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">de</a></i>) spreads beneficent influence throughout the kingdom. This idea is developed further in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Learning" title="Great Learning">Great Learning</a> and is tightly linked with the <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoist</a> concept of <i><a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a></i>: the less the king does, the more gets done. By being the "calm center" around which the kingdom turns, the king allows everything to function smoothly and avoids having to tamper with the individual parts of the whole. </p><p>This idea may be traced back to the ancient shamanic beliefs of the king being the axle between the sky, human beings, and the Earth.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The <a href="/wiki/Emperors_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperors of China">emperors of China</a> were considered agents of Heaven, endowed with the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> one of the most vital concepts in imperial-era political theory. Some Confucianists believed they held the power to define the hierarchy of divinities, by bestowing titles upon mountains, rivers and dead people, acknowledging them as powerful and therefore establishing their cults.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016146–147_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016146–147-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Confucianism, despite supporting the importance of obeying national authority, places this obedience under absolute moral principles that curbed the willful exercise of power, rather than being unconditional. Submission to authority was only taken within the context of the moral obligations that rulers had toward their subjects, in particular <i><a href="/wiki/Ren_(Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ren (Confucianism)">ren</a></i>. Confucians—including the most pro-authoritarian scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a>—have always recognised the <a href="/wiki/Right_of_revolution" title="Right of revolution">right of revolution</a> against tyranny.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> <p><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 115%;">子曰：有教無類。</span></span><br /> The Master said: "In teaching, there should be no distinction of classes." </p> </div><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Analects</i> 15.39 (Legge translation).</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Although Confucius claimed that he never invented anything but was only transmitting ancient knowledge (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:%E8%AB%96%E8%AA%9E/%E8%BF%B0%E8%80%8C%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%83#七之一" class="extiw" title="zh:s:論語/述而第七"><i>Analects</i> 7.1</a>), he did produce a number of new ideas. Many European and American admirers such as <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herrlee_G._Creel" title="Herrlee G. Creel">Herrlee G. Creel</a> point to the revolutionary idea of replacing nobility of blood with nobility of virtue.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Junzi" title="Junzi">Junzi</a></i> ('lord's son'), which originally signified the younger, non-inheriting, offspring of a noble, became, in Confucius's work, an epithet having much the same meaning and evolution as the English "gentleman". </p><p>A virtuous commoner who cultivates his qualities may be a "gentleman", while a shameless son of the king is only a "petty person". That Confucius admitted students of different classes as disciples is a clear demonstration that he fought against the feudal structures that defined pre-imperial Chinese society.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Another new idea, that of <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocracy</a>, led to the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examination</a> system in China. This system allowed anyone who passed an examination to become a government officer, a position which would bring wealth and honour to the whole family. The Chinese imperial examination system started in the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a>. Over the following centuries the system grew until finally almost anyone who wished to become an official had to prove his worth by passing a set of written government examinations.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Confucian political meritocracy is not merely a historical phenomenon. The practice of meritocracy still exists across China and East Asia today, and a wide range of contemporary intellectuals—from <a href="/wiki/Daniel_A._Bell" title="Daniel A. Bell">Daniel Bell</a> to Tongdong Bai, Joseph Chan, and <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Qing_(Confucian)" title="Jiang Qing (Confucian)">Jiang Qing</a>—defend political meritocracy as a viable alternative to liberal democracy.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>Just Hierarchy</i>, Daniel Bell and Wang Pei argue that hierarchies are inevitable.<sup id="cite_ref-Daniel_A_2020_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniel_A_2020-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Faced with ever-increasing complexity at scale, modern societies must build hierarchies to coordinate collective action and tackle long-term problems such as climate change. In this context, people need not—and should not—want to flatten hierarchies as much as possible. They ought to ask what makes political hierarchies just and use these criteria to decide the institutions that deserve preservation, those that require reform, and those that need radical transformation. They call this approach "progressive conservatism", a term that reflects the ambiguous place of the Confucian tradition within the Left-Right dichotomy.<sup id="cite_ref-Daniel_A_2020_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniel_A_2020-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8–21">: 8–21 </span></sup> </p><p>Bell and Wang propose two justifications for political hierarchies that do not depend on a "one person, one vote" system. First is raw efficiency, which may require centralized rule in the hands of the competent few. Second, and most important, is serving the interests of the people (and the common good more broadly).<sup id="cite_ref-Daniel_A_2020_115-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniel_A_2020-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 66–93">: 66–93 </span></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Against_Political_Equality" title="Against Political Equality">Against Political Equality</a></i>, Tongdong Bai complements this account by using a proto-Rawlsian "political difference principle". Just as Rawls claims that <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">economic inequality</a> is justified so long as it benefits those at the bottom of the socioeconomic ladder, so Bai argues that political inequality is justified so long as it benefits those materially worse off.<sup id="cite_ref-Bai_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bai-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 102–106">: 102–106 </span></sup> </p><p>Bell, Wang, and Bai all criticize liberal democracy to argue that government <em>by</em> the people may not be government <em>for</em> the people in any meaningful sense of the term. They argue that voters tend to act in irrational, tribal, short-termist ways; they are vulnerable to populism and struggle to account for the interests of future generations. In other words, at a minimum, democracy needs Confucian meritocratic checks.<sup id="cite_ref-Bai_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bai-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 32–47">: 32–47 </span></sup> </p><p>In <i>The China Model</i>, Bell argues that Confucian political meritocracy provides—and has provided—a blueprint for China's development.<sup id="cite_ref-Daniel_A._Bell_2016_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniel_A._Bell_2016-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Bell, the ideal according to which China should reform itself (and has reformed itself) follows a simple structure: Aspiring rulers first pass hyper-selective examinations, then have to rule well at the local level to be promoted to positions as the provincial level, then have to excel at the provincial level to access positions at the national level, and so on.<sup id="cite_ref-Daniel_A._Bell_2016_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniel_A._Bell_2016-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 151–179">: 151–179 </span></sup> This system aligns with what Harvard historian James Hankins calls "virtue politics", or the idea that institutions should be built to select the most competent and virtuous rulers—as opposed to institutions concerned first and foremost with limiting the power of rulers.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While contemporary defenders of Confucian political meritocracy all accept this broad frame, they disagree with each other on three main questions: institutional design, the means by which meritocrats are promoted, and the compatibility of Confucian political meritocracy with liberalism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Institutional_design">Institutional design</h3></div> <p>Bell and Wang favour a system in which officials at the local level are democratically elected and higher-level officials are promoted by peers.<sup id="cite_ref-Daniel_A_2020_115-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniel_A_2020-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 66–93">: 66–93 </span></sup> As Bell puts it, he defends "democracy at the bottom, experimentation in the middle, and meritocracy at the top."<sup id="cite_ref-Daniel_A._Bell_2016_117-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniel_A._Bell_2016-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 151–179">: 151–179 </span></sup> Bell and Wang argue that this combination conserves the main advantages of democracy—involving the people in public affairs at the local level, strengthening the legitimacy of the system, forcing some degree of direct accountability, etc.—while preserving the broader meritocratic character of the regime. </p><p>Jiang Qing, by contrast, imagines a tricameral government with one chamber selected by the people (the <span lang="zh-Hant">庶民院</span>; 'House of the Commoners'), one chamber composed of Confucian meritocrats selected via examination and gradual promotion (the <span lang="zh">通儒院</span>; 'House of Confucian Tradition'), and one body made up of descendants of Confucius himself (the <span lang="zh-Hant">國體院</span>; 'House of National Essence').<sup id="cite_ref-Jiang_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jiang-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jiang's aim is to construct a legitimacy that will go beyond what he sees as the atomistic, individualist, and utilitarian ethos of modern democracies and ground authority in something sacred and traditional. While Jiang's model is closer to an ideal theory than Bell's proposals, it represents a more traditionalist alternative. </p><p>Tongdong Bai presents an in-between solution by proposing a two-tiered bicameral system.<sup id="cite_ref-Bai_116-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bai-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 52–110">: 52–110 </span></sup> At the local level, as with Bell, Bai advocates Deweyan participatory democracy. At the national level, Bai proposes two chambers: one of meritocrats (selected by examination, by examination and promotion, from leaders in certain professional fields, etc.), and one of representatives elected by the people. While the lower house does not have any legislative power per se, it acts as a popular accountability mechanism by championing the people and putting pressure on the upper house. More generally, Bai argues that his model marries the best of meritocracy and democracy. Following Dewey's account of democracy as a way of life, he points to the participatory features of his local model: citizens still get to have a democratic lifestyle, participate in political affairs, and be educated as "democratic men". Similarly, the lower house allows citizens to be represented, have a voice in public affairs (albeit a weak one), and ensure accountability. Meanwhile, the meritocratic house preserves competence, statesmanship, and Confucian virtues. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Promotion_system">Promotion system</h3></div> <p>Defenders of Confucian political meritocracy generally champion a system in which rulers are selected on the basis of intellect, social skills, and virtue. Bell proposes a model wherein aspiring meritocrats take hyper-selective exams and prove themselves at the local levels of government before reaching the higher levels of government, where they hold more centralized power.<sup id="cite_ref-Daniel_A._Bell_2016_117-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniel_A._Bell_2016-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 151–179">: 151–179 </span></sup> In his account, the exams select for intellect and other virtues—for instance, the ability to argue three different viewpoints on a contentious issue may indicate a certain degree of openness.<sup id="cite_ref-Daniel_A._Bell_2016_117-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniel_A._Bell_2016-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 63–110">: 63–110 </span></sup> Tongdong Bai's approach incorporates different ways to select members of the meritocratic house, from exams to performance in various fields—business, science, administration, and so on. In every case, Confucian meritocrats draw on China's extensive history of meritocratic administration to outline the pros and cons of competing methods of selection.<sup id="cite_ref-Bai_116-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bai-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 67–97">: 67–97 </span></sup> </p><p>For those who, like Bell, defend a model in which performance at the local levels of government determines future promotion, an important question is how the system judges who "performs best". In other words, while examinations may ensure that early-career officials are competent and educated, how is it thereafter ensured that <i>only</i> those who rule well get promoted? The literature opposes those who prefer evaluation by peers to evaluation by superiors, with some thinkers including quasi-democratic selection mechanisms along the way. Bell and Wang favour a system in which officials at the local level are democratically elected and higher-level officials are promoted by peers.<sup id="cite_ref-Daniel_A_2020_115-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniel_A_2020-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 84–106">: 84–106 </span></sup> Because they believe that promotion should depend upon peer evaluations only, Bell and Wang argue against transparency—i.e. the public should not know how officials are selected, since ordinary people are in no position to judge officials beyond the local level.<sup id="cite_ref-Daniel_A_2020_115-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniel_A_2020-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 76–78">: 76–78 </span></sup> Others, like Jiang Qing, defend a model in which superiors decide who gets promoted; this method is in line with more traditionalist strands of Confucian political thought, which place a greater emphasis on strict hierarchies and epistemic paternalism—that is, the idea that older and more experienced people know more.<sup id="cite_ref-Jiang_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jiang-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 27–44">: 27–44 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compatibility_with_liberalism_and_democracy,_and_critique_of_political_meritocracy"><span id="Compatibility_with_liberalism_and_democracy.2C_and_critique_of_political_meritocracy"></span>Compatibility with liberalism and democracy, and critique of political meritocracy</h3></div> <p>Another key question is whether Confucian political thought is compatible with liberalism. Tongdong Bai, for instance, argues that while Confucian political thought departs from the "one person, one vote" model, it can conserve many of the essential characteristics of liberalism, such as freedom of speech and individual rights.<sup id="cite_ref-Bai_116-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bai-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 97–110">: 97–110 </span></sup> In fact, both Daniel Bell and Tongdong Bai hold that Confucian political meritocracy can tackle challenges that liberalism wants to tackle, but cannot by itself. At the cultural level, for instance, Confucianism, its institutions, and its rituals offer bulwarks against atomization and individualism. At the political level, the non-democratic side of political meritocracy is—for Bell and Bai—more efficient at addressing long-term questions such as climate change, in part because the meritocrats do not have to worry about the whims of public opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-Daniel_A._Bell_2016_117-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniel_A._Bell_2016-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 14–63">: 14–63 </span></sup> </p><p>Joseph Chan defends the compatibility of Confucianism with both liberalism and democracy. In his book <i>Confucian Perfectionism</i>, he argues that Confucians can embrace both democracy and liberalism on instrumental grounds; that is, while liberal democracy may not be valuable for its own sake, its institutions remain valuable—particularly when combined with a broadly Confucian culture—to serve Confucian ends and inculcate Confucian virtues.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other Confucians have criticized Confucian meritocrats like Bell for their rejection of democracy. For them, Confucianism does not have to be premised on the assumption that meritorious, virtuous political leadership is inherently incompatible with popular sovereignty, political equality and the right to political participation.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These thinkers accuse the meritocrats of overestimating the flaws of democracy, mistaking temporary flaws for permanent and inherent features, and underestimating the challenges that the construction of a true political meritocracy poses in practice—including those faced by contemporary China and Singapore.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Franz Mang claims that, when decoupled from democracy, meritocracy tends to deteriorate into an oppressive regime under putatively "meritorious" but actually "authoritarian" rulers; Mang accuses Bell's China model of being self-defeating, as—Mang claims—the CCP's authoritarian modes of engagement with the dissenting voices illustrate.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He Baogang and Mark Warren add that "meritocracy" should be understood as a concept describing a regime's character rather than its type, which is determined by distribution of political power—on their view, democratic institutions can be built which are meritocratic insofar as they favour competence.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roy Tseng, drawing on the New Confucians of the twentieth century, argues that Confucianism and liberal democracy can enter into a dialectical process, in which liberal rights and voting rights are rethought into resolutely modern, but nonetheless Confucian ways of life.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This synthesis, blending Confucians rituals and institutions with a broader liberal democratic frame, is distinct from both Western-style liberalism—which, for Tseng, suffers from excessive individualism and a lack of moral vision—and from traditional Confucianism—which, for Tseng, has historically suffered from rigid hierarchies and sclerotic elites. Against defenders of political meritocracy, Tseng claims that the fusion of Confucian and democratic institutions can conserve the best of both worlds, producing a more communal democracy which draws on a rich ethical tradition, addresses abuses of power, and combines popular accountability with a clear attention to the cultivation of virtue in elites. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence">Influence</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_17th-century_Europe">In 17th-century Europe</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg/220px-LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg/330px-LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg/440px-LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption><i>Life and Works of Confucius</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Prospero_Intorcetta" title="Prospero Intorcetta">Prospero Intorcetta</a>, 1687</figcaption></figure> <p>The works of Confucius were translated into European languages through the agency of <a href="/wiki/Jesuit_China_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit China missions">Jesuit missionaries stationed in China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a> was among the very earliest to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and father <a href="/wiki/Prospero_Intorcetta" title="Prospero Intorcetta">Prospero Intorcetta</a> wrote about the life and works of Confucius in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> in 1687.<sup id="cite_ref-Windows_into_China_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Windows_into_China-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period,<sup id="cite_ref-Mungello_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mungello-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> particularly among the <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deists</a> and other philosophical groups of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western civilization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Windows_into_China_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Windows_into_China-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Confucianism influenced the German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>, who was attracted to the philosophy because of its perceived similarity to his own. It is postulated that certain elements of Leibniz's philosophy, such as "simple substance" and "<a href="/wiki/Pre-established_harmony" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-established harmony">Pre-established harmony</a>", were borrowed from his interactions with Confucianism.<sup id="cite_ref-Mungello_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mungello-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Monad_(philosophy)" title="Monad (philosophy)">Monad (philosophy)</a></div> <p>The French philosopher <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, Leibniz's intellectual rival, was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma.<sup id="cite_ref-epc_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-epc-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying the sociopolitical hierarchy of China as a model for Europe:<sup id="cite_ref-epc_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-epc-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Confucius has no interest in falsehood; he did not pretend to be prophet; he claimed no inspiration; he taught no new religion; he used no delusions; flattered not the emperor under whom he lived<span class="nowrap"> </span>...</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a><sup id="cite_ref-epc_130-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-epc-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_Islamic_thought">On Islamic thought</h3></div> <p>From the late 17th century onwards a whole body of literature known as the <a href="/wiki/Han_Kitab" title="Han Kitab">Han Kitab</a> developed amongst the <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui Muslims</a> of China who infused <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> thought with Confucianism. Especially the works of <a href="/wiki/Liu_Zhi_(scholar)" title="Liu Zhi (scholar)">Liu Zhi</a> such as <i>Tianfang Dianli</i> (<span lang="zh">天方典禮</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Tiānfāng Diǎnlǐ</span></i>) sought to harmonise Islam with not only Confucianism but also with <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> and is considered to be one of the crowning achievements of the Chinese Islamic culture.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_modern_times">In modern times</h3></div> <p>Important military and political figures in modern Chinese history continued to be influenced by Confucianism, like the Muslim warlord <a href="/wiki/Ma_Fuxiang" title="Ma Fuxiang">Ma Fuxiang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/New_Life_Movement" title="New Life Movement">New Life Movement</a> in the early 20th century was also influenced by Confucianism. </p><p>Referred to variously as the Confucian hypothesis and as a debated component of the more all-encompassing Asian Development Model, there exists among political scientists and economists a theory that Confucianism plays a large latent role in the ostensibly non-Confucian cultures of modern-day East Asia, in the form of the rigorous work ethic it endowed those cultures with. These scholars have held that, if not for Confucianism's influence on these cultures, many of the people of the East Asia region would not have been able to modernise and industrialise as quickly as <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> and even <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> have done. </p><p>For example, the impact of the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> on Vietnam was devastating, but over the last few decades Vietnam has been re-developing in a very fast pace. Most scholars attribute the origins of this idea to futurologist <a href="/wiki/Herman_Kahn" title="Herman Kahn">Herman Kahn</a>'s <i>World Economic Development: 1979 and Beyond</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other studies, for example Cristobal Kay's <i>Why East Asia Overtook Latin America: Agrarian Reform, Industrialization, and Development</i>, have attributed the Asian growth to other factors, for example the character of agrarian reforms, "state-craft" (<a href="/wiki/State_capacity" title="State capacity">state capacity</a>), and interaction between agriculture and industry.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historical and current Confucianists were and are often environmentalists<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> out of their respect for <i>tian</i> and the other aspects of nature and the "Principle" that comes from their unity and, more generally, harmony as a whole, which is "the basis for a sincere mind".<sup id="cite_ref-:9_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_Chinese_martial_arts">On Chinese martial arts</h3></div> <p>After Confucianism had become the official 'state religion' in China, its influence penetrated all walks of life and all streams of thought in Chinese society for the generations to come. This did not exclude martial arts culture. Though in his own day, Confucius had rejected the practice of Martial Arts (with the exception of Archery), he did serve under rulers who used military power extensively to achieve their goals. In later centuries, Confucianism heavily influenced many educated martial artists of great influence, such as <a href="/wiki/Sun_Lutang" title="Sun Lutang">Sun Lutang</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> especially from the 19th century onwards, when bare-handed martial arts in China became more widespread and had begun to more readily absorb philosophical influences from Confucianism, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile hlist" style="width:19.5em"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ffe5b4;"><a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;;font-size:0.7em;line-height:0.7em;"> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffe5b4;;color: var(--color-base)">Background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0.6em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"><strong>Aftermath of <a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></strong> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Revolution_(Republic_of_China)" title="Second Revolution (Republic of China)">Second Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">Coronation of Yuan Shikai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Protection_Movement" title="Constitutional Protection Movement">Constitutional Protection Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a></li></ul> <p><strong><a href="/wiki/Eastward_spread_of_Western_learning" title="Eastward spread of Western learning">Eastward spread of Western learning</a></strong> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Indemnity_Scholarship" title="Boxer Indemnity Scholarship">Boxer Indemnity Scholarship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffe5b4;;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0.6em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_China" title="Democracy in China">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a> <ul><li><small><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></small></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Criticism">Anti-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_China" title="Anarchism in China">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_humanism_(literature)" title="New humanism (literature)">New humanism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffe5b4;;color: var(--color-base)">Practice</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0.6em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East-west_cultural_debate" title="East-west cultural debate">East-west cultural debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_Westernization" title="Total Westernization">Total Westernization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_China" title="Democracy in China">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplification of Chinese characters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Chinese" title="Romanization of Chinese">Romanization of Chinese languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">Writing with vernacular Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Standard_Chinese" title="History of Standard Chinese">National Language Movement</a></li> <li>Translation of foreign literature</li> <li>Sorting out national heritages</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_China" title="Feminism in China">Feminist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_China#Modern_era" title="History of education in China">Education reforms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffe5b4;;color: var(--color-base)">Schools of thought</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0.6em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doubting_Antiquity_School" title="Doubting Antiquity School">Doubting Antiquity School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueheng_School" title="Xueheng School">Xueheng School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="History of the Chinese Communist Party">Communists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creation_Society" title="Creation Society">Creation Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li>Research Clique</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crescent_Moon_Society" title="Crescent Moon Society">Crescent Moon Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Left-Wing_Writers" title="League of Left-Wing Writers">League of Left-Wing Writers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffe5b4;;color: var(--color-base)">Major publications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0.6em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/La_Jeunesse" class="mw-redirect" title="La Jeunesse">La Jeunesse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Critical_Review_(newspaper)" title="The Critical Review (newspaper)">The Critical Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Diary_of_a_Madman_(Lu_Xun)" title="Diary of a Madman (Lu Xun)">A Madman's Diary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Tiger_(political_magazine)" title="The Tiger (political magazine)"><i>The Tiger</i></a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffe5b4;;color: var(--color-base)">Notable people</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0.6em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba_Jin" title="Ba Jin">Ba Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Duxiu" title="Chen Duxiu">Chen Duxiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Moruo" title="Guo Moruo">Guo Moruo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu Shih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_She" title="Lao She">Lao She</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Dazhao" title="Li Dazhao">Li Dazhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Xun" title="Lu Xun">Lu Xun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Dun" title="Mao Dun">Mao Dun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuantong" title="Qian Xuantong">Qian Xuantong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Congwen" title="Shen Congwen">Shen Congwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Dafu" title="Yu Dafu">Yu Dafu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Ziqing" title="Zhu Ziqing">Zhu Ziqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kang_Youwei" title="Kang Youwei">Kang Youwei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuantong" title="Qian Xuantong">Qian Xuantong</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:New_Culture_Movement" title="Template:New Culture Movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:New_Culture_Movement" title="Template talk:New Culture Movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:New_Culture_Movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:New Culture Movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Confucius and Confucianism were opposed or criticised from the start, including <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a>'s philosophy and <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a>'s critique, and Legalists such as <a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a> ridiculed the idea that virtue would lead people to be orderly. In modern times, waves of opposition and vilification showed that Confucianism, instead of taking credit for the glories of Chinese civilisation, now had to take blame for its failures. The <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a> described Confucianism sages as well as gods in <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> as devils. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contradiction_with_modernist_values">Contradiction with modernist values</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lu_Xun" title="Lu Xun">Lu Xun</a> criticised Confucianism for shaping Chinese people into the condition they had reached by the late <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>: his criticisms are expressed metaphorically in the work "<a href="/wiki/Diary_of_a_Madman_(Lu_Xun)" title="Diary of a Madman (Lu Xun)">Diary of a Madman</a>", in which traditional Chinese Confucian society is portrayed as feudalistic, hypocritical, socially cannibalistic, despotic, fostering a "slave mentality" favouring despotism, lack of critical thinking and blind obedience and worship of authority, fuelling a form of "Confucian authoritarianism" which persists into the present day.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leftists during the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> described Confucius as the representative of the slave-owning class.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>, there has long been criticism. Some South Koreans believe Confucianism has not contributed to the modernisation of South Korea. For example, South Korean writer Kim Kyong-il wrote a book in 1998 entitled "Confucius Must Die For the Nation to Live" (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">공자가 죽어야 나라가 산다</span></span>, <i>gongjaga jug-eoya naraga sanda</i>). Kim said that <a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">filial piety</a> is one-sided and blind, and if it continues, social problems will continue as government keeps forcing Confucian filial obligations onto families.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_in_Confucian_thought">Women in Confucian thought</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">Women in ancient and imperial China</a></div> <p>Confucianism "largely defined the mainstream discourse on gender in China from the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> onward."<sup id="cite_ref-Adler_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adler-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gender roles prescribed in the <a href="/wiki/Three_Obediences_and_Four_Virtues" title="Three Obediences and Four Virtues">Three Obediences and Four Virtues</a> became a cornerstone of the family, and thus, societal stability. The Three Obediences and Four Virtues is one of the moral standards for feudal etiquette to bind women.<sup id="cite_ref-Gao_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gao-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting from the Han period, Confucians began to teach that a virtuous woman was supposed to follow the males in her family: the father before her marriage, the husband after she marries, and her sons in widowhood. In the later dynasties, more emphasis was placed on the virtue of chastity. The Song dynasty Confucian <a href="/wiki/Cheng_Yi_(philosopher)" title="Cheng Yi (philosopher)">Cheng Yi</a> stated that: "To starve to death is a small matter, but to lose one's chastity is a great matter."<sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was during the Song dynasty that the value of chastity was so severe, Confucian scholars criminalized the remarriage of widows.<sup id="cite_ref-Gao_140-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gao-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Widows were revered and memorialised during the <a href="/wiki/Ming_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming Dynasty">Ming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> periods. The principle of chaste widowhood was made an official institution during the Ming dynasty. This "<a href="/wiki/Cult_of_widow_chastity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cult of widow chastity">cult of chastity</a>" accordingly condemned many widows to poverty and loneliness by placing a social stigma on remarriage.<sup id="cite_ref-Adler_139-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adler-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though the repercussions for widows at times went beyond poverty and loneliness, as for some the preservation of chastity resulted in suicide. The ideal of a chaste widow became an extremely high honor and esteem, especially for a woman who chose to end her life after her husband's death. Many instances of such acts were recorded in, Biographies of Virtuous Women, “a collection of stories of women who distinguished themselves by committing suicide after their husband’s deaths to guard their chastity and purity”. Though it can be contested whether all these instances can be deemed self-sacrificing for the virtue of chastity, as it became common practice for women to be forced to commit suicide after their husband's death. This resulted from the honor which chaste widowhood garnered, lending itself to the husband's family as well as his clan or village.<sup id="cite_ref-Gao_140-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gao-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For years, many modern scholars have regarded Confucianism as a sexist, patriarchal ideology that was historically damaging to Chinese women.<sup id="cite_ref-Gao_140-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gao-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rosenlee_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosenlee-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 15–16">: 15–16 </span></sup> It has also been argued by some Chinese and Western writers that the rise of neo-Confucianism during the Song dynasty had led to a decline of status of women.<sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_141-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 10–12">: 10–12 </span></sup> Some critics have also accused the prominent Song neo-Confucian scholar <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a> for believing in the inferiority of women and that men and women need to be kept strictly separate,<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Sima_Guang" title="Sima Guang">Sima Guang</a> also believed that women should remain indoors and not deal with the matters of men in the outside world.<sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_141-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 24–25">: 24–25 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, scholars have discussed the attitudes toward women in Confucian texts such as <a href="/wiki/Analects" title="Analects">Analects</a>. In a much-discussed passage, women are grouped together with 'small people' (<span lang="zh">小人</span>), meaning people of low status or low morals) and described as being difficult to cultivate or deal with.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many traditional commentators and modern scholars have debated over the precise meaning of the passage, and whether Confucius referred to all women or just certain groups of women.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further analysis suggests, however, that women's place in Confucian society may be more complex.<sup id="cite_ref-Adler_139-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adler-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Han dynasty period, the influential Confucian text <i><a href="/wiki/Lessons_for_Women" title="Lessons for Women">Lessons for Women</a></i> was written by <a href="/wiki/Ban_Zhao" title="Ban Zhao">Ban Zhao</a> (45–114 CE) to instruct her daughters how to be proper Confucian wives and mothers, that is, to be silent, hard-working, and compliant. She stresses the complementarity and equal importance of the male and female roles according to yin-yang theory, but she clearly accepts the dominance of the male. However, she does present education and literary power as important for women. In later dynasties, a number of women took advantage of the Confucian acknowledgment of education to become independent in thought.<sup id="cite_ref-Adler_139-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adler-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Joseph A. Adler points out that "Neo-Confucian writings do not necessarily reflect either the prevailing social practices or the scholars' own attitudes and practices in regard to actual women."<sup id="cite_ref-Adler_139-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adler-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Matthew Sommers has also indicated that the Qing dynasty government began to realise the utopian nature of enforcing the "cult of chastity" and began to allow practices such as widow remarrying to stand.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, some Confucian texts like <a href="/wiki/Dong_Zhongshu" title="Dong Zhongshu">Dong Zhongshu</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Luxuriant_Dew_of_the_Spring_and_Autumn_Annals" title="Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals">Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals</a></i> have passages that suggest a more equal relationship between a husband and his wife.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, some scholars have also begun to discuss the viability of constructing a "Confucian feminism".<sup id="cite_ref-Rosenlee_142-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosenlee-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4, 149–160">: 4, 149–160 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Catholic_controversy_over_Chinese_rites">Catholic controversy over Chinese rites</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy" title="Chinese Rites controversy">Chinese Rites controversy</a></div> <p>Ever since Europeans first encountered Confucianism, the issue of how Confucianism should be classified has been subject to debate. In the 16th and the 17th centuries, the earliest European arrivals in China, the Christian <a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuits</a>, considered Confucianism to be an ethical system, not a religion, and one that was compatible with Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-Elman_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elman-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Jesuits, including <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a>, saw Chinese rituals as "civil rituals" that could co-exist alongside the spiritual rituals of Catholicism.<sup id="cite_ref-Elman_150-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elman-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the early 18th century, this initial portrayal was rejected by the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominicans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franciscans" title="Franciscans">Franciscans</a>, creating a dispute among Catholics in <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> that was known as the "Rites Controversy".<sup id="cite_ref-Gunn_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gunn-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Dominicans and Franciscans argued that <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ancestral_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese ancestral worship">Chinese ancestral worship</a> was a form of idolatry that was contradictory to the tenets of Christianity. This view was reinforced by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XIV" title="Pope Benedict XIV">Pope Benedict XIV</a>, who ordered a ban on Chinese rituals,<sup id="cite_ref-Gunn_151-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gunn-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though this ban was re-assessed and repealed in 1939 by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII" title="Pope Pius XII">Pope Pius XII</a>, provided that such traditions harmonize with the true and authentic spirit of the liturgy.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some critics view Confucianism as definitely <a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">nontheistic</a>, in that it is not based on the belief in the supernatural or in a personal god existing separate from the temporal plane.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdler201412_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdler201412-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yang_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Confucius views about <i>tian</i> and about the divine providence ruling the world, can be found above (in this page) and in Analects 6:26, 7:22, and 9:12, for example. On spirituality, Confucius said to Chi Lu, one of his students: "You are not yet able to serve men, how can you serve spirits?"<sup id="cite_ref-Sinaiko_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sinaiko-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attributes such as <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestor worship">ancestor worship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritual</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">sacrifice</a> were advocated by Confucius as necessary for social harmony; these attributes may be traced to the traditional <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a>. </p><p>Scholars recognise that classification ultimately depends on how one defines religion. Using stricter definitions of religion, Confucianism has been described as a moral science or philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But using a broader definition, such as <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Streng" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Streng">Frederick Streng</a>'s characterisation of religion as "a means of ultimate transformation",<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Confucianism could be described as a "sociopolitical doctrine having religious qualities".<sup id="cite_ref-Yang_153-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the latter definition, Confucianism is religious, even if non-theistic, in the sense that it "performs some of the basic psycho-social functions of full-fledged religions".<sup id="cite_ref-Yang_153-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">Chinese culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucian_art" title="Confucian art">Confucian art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucian_church" title="Confucian church">Confucian church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucian_view_of_marriage" title="Confucian view of marriage">Confucian view of marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucianism in Indonesia">Confucianism in Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism_in_the_United_States" title="Confucianism in the United States">Confucianism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius_Institute" title="Confucius Institute">Confucius Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consanguinism" title="Consanguinism">Consanguinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_Neo-Confucianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Edo Neo-Confucianism">Edo Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Korean shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_orthodoxy" title="Radical orthodoxy">Radical orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Confucianism" title="Religious Confucianism">Religious Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinology" title="Sinology">Sinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Confucius" title="Temple of Confucius">Temple of Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Confucian_states_and_dynasties" title="List of Confucian states and dynasties">List of Confucian states and dynasties</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whether centred in the change-ful precessional north <a href="/wiki/Celestial_pole" title="Celestial pole">celestial pole</a> or in the fixed north <a href="/wiki/Orbital_pole" title="Orbital pole">ecliptic pole</a>, the spinning constellations draw the <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">卍</span></span> symbol around the centre.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The phrase "<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">魚水君臣</span></span>" ("Fish (and) water lord (and) subject") refers to the term "<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">君臣魚水</span></span>" from <a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Records of the Three Kingdoms">Records of the Three Kingdoms</a>, where Liu Bei refers to gaining Zhuge Liang's service as if "a fish gaining water".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The first was <a href="/wiki/Michele_Ruggieri" title="Michele Ruggieri">Michele Ruggieri</a> who had returned from China to Italy in 1588, and carried on translating in Latin Chinese classics, while residing in Salerno.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNylan2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Nylan" title="Michael Nylan">Nylan, Michael</a> (1 October 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KykM1DhBxd8C"><i>The Five "Confucian" Classics</i></a>. Yale University Press. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-13033-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-13033-1"><bdi>978-0-300-13033-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Five+%22Confucian%22+Classics&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008-10-01&rft.isbn=978-0-300-13033-1&rft.aulast=Nylan&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKykM1DhBxd8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYao2000">Yao 2000</a>, pp. 38–47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFung2008163-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFung2008163_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFung2008163_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFung2008163_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFung2008">Fung (2008)</a>, p. 163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lin-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lin_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lin_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLin2012" class="citation book cs1">Lin, Justin Yifu (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rxzJoskK_rwC"><i>Demystifying the Chinese Economy</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19180-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19180-7"><bdi>978-0-521-19180-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Demystifying+the+Chinese+Economy&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-521-19180-7&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Justin+Yifu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrxzJoskK_rwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFingarette19721–2-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFingarette19721–2_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFingarette1972">Fingarette (1972)</a>, pp. 1–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Juergensmeyer-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Juergensmeyer_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Juergensmeyer_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJuergensmeyer2005" class="citation book cs1">Juergensmeyer, Mark (2005). Juergensmeyer, Mark (ed.). <i>Religion in Global Civil Society</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780195188356.001.0001">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195188356.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518835-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518835-6"><bdi>978-0-19-518835-6</bdi></a>. <q>...<span class="nowrap"> </span>humanist philosophies such as Confucianism, which do not share a belief in divine law and do not exalt faithfulness to a higher law as a manifestation of divine will</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+in+Global+Civil+Society&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780195188356.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-518835-6&rft.aulast=Juergensmeyer&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFingarette1972-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFingarette1972_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFingarette1972">Fingarette (1972)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdler201412-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdler201412_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdler201412_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdler2014">Adler (2014)</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201034–36-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittlejohn201034–36_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLittlejohn2010">Littlejohn (2010)</a>, pp. 34–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confucianism">"Confucianism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia Britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Confucianism&rft.pub=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FConfucianism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/confucianism">"Confucianism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a>. 20 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Confucianism&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Society&rft.date=2022-05-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feducation.nationalgeographic.org%2Fresource%2Fconfucianism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdler2014">Adler (2014)</a>, pp. 10, 12 <ul><li>Quote, p. 10: "Confucianism is basically <i>non-theistic</i>. While <i>tiān</i> has some characteristics that overlap the category of deity, it is primarily an <i>impersonal</i> absolute, like <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">dao</i></span> and <i>Brahman</i>. "Deity" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">theos</i></span>, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">deus</i></span>), on the other hand connotes something <i>personal</i> (he or she, not it)."</li> <li>Quote, p. 12: "Confucianism deconstructs the sacred-profane dichotomy; it asserts that sacredness is to be found <em>in</em>, not behind or beyond, the ordinary activities of human life—and especially in human relationships. Human relationships are sacred in Confucianism because they are the expression of our moral nature (<span lang="zh">性</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xìng</span></i>), which has a transcendent anchorage in Heaven (<span lang="zh">天</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">tiān</span></i>). Herbert Fingarette captured this essential feature of Confucianism in the title of his 1972 book, <i>Confucius: The Secular as Sacred</i>. To assume a dualistic relationship between sacred and profane and to use this as a criterion of religion is to beg the question of whether Confucianism can count as a religious tradition."</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-:1-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIvanhoeVan_Norden2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_J._Ivanhoe" title="Philip J. Ivanhoe">Ivanhoe, Philip J.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bryan_W._Van_Norden" title="Bryan W. Van Norden">Van Norden, Bryan W.</a> (2005). <i>Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy</i> (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: <a href="/wiki/Hackett_Publishing_Company" title="Hackett Publishing Company">Hackett Publishing Company</a>. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87220-781-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-87220-781-1"><bdi>0-87220-781-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60826646">60826646</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Readings+in+Classical+Chinese+Philosophy&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.pages=2&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F60826646&rft.isbn=0-87220-781-1&rft.aulast=Ivanhoe&rft.aufirst=Philip+J.&rft.au=Van+Norden%2C+Bryan+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETay2010102-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETay2010102_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETay2010102_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETay2010102_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTay2010">Tay (2010)</a>, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaplan2015" class="citation news cs1">Kaplan, Robert D. (6 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/asias-rise-is-rooted-in-confucian-values-1423254759">"Asia's Rise Is Rooted in Confucian Values"</a>. <i>The Wall Street Journal</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Asia%27s+Rise+Is+Rooted+in+Confucian+Values&rft.date=2015-02-06&rft.aulast=Kaplan&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fasias-rise-is-rooted-in-confucian-values-1423254759&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker1998" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Evelyn_Tucker" title="Mary Evelyn Tucker">Tucker, Mary Evelyn</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fore.yale.edu/Publications/Books/Religions-World-and-Ecology-Book-Series/Confucianism-Table-Contents/Confucianism">"Confucianism and Ecology: Potential and Limits"</a>. <i>The Forum on Religion and Ecology at Yale</i>. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Forum+on+Religion+and+Ecology+at+Yale&rft.atitle=Confucianism+and+Ecology%3A+Potential+and+Limits&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Mary+Evelyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffore.yale.edu%2FPublications%2FBooks%2FReligions-World-and-Ecology-Book-Series%2FConfucianism-Table-Contents%2FConfucianism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarari2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yuval_Noah_Harari" title="Yuval Noah Harari">Harari, Yuval Noah</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/910498369"><i>Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind</i></a>. 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London: Penguin Random House UK. p. 391. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-959008-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-09-959008-8"><bdi>978-0-09-959008-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/910498369">910498369</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sapiens%3A+A+Brief+History+of+Humankind&rft.place=London&rft.pages=391&rft.pub=Penguin+Random+House+UK&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F910498369&rft.isbn=978-0-09-959008-8&rft.aulast=Harari&rft.aufirst=Yuval+Noah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F910498369&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreedman2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Russell_Freedman" title="Russell Freedman">Freedman, Russell</a> (September 2002). <i>Confucius: The Golden Rule</i> (1st ed.). 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Leiden: Brill. pp. 85–110. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004225350_005">10.1163/9789004225350_005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-22535-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-22535-0"><bdi>978-90-04-22535-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Religious+Formations+and+Intercultural+Contacts+in+Early+China&rft.btitle=Dynamics+in+the+History+of+Religions+between+Asia+and+Europe%3A+Encounters%2C+Notions%2C+and+Comparative+Perspectives&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=85-110&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004225350_005&rft.isbn=978-90-04-22535-0&rft.aulast=Mair&rft.aufirst=Victor+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span> pp. 97–98, note 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009257,_Vol._I-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009257,_Vol._I_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDidier2009">Didier (2009)</a>, p. 257, Vol. I.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009''passim''-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009''passim''_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009''passim''_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDidier2009">Didier (2009)</a>, <i>passim</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReiter2007" class="citation book cs1">Reiter, Florian C. (2007). <i>Purposes, Means and Convictions in Daoism: A Berlin Symposium</i>. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05513-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05513-0"><bdi>978-3-447-05513-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Purposes%2C+Means+and+Convictions+in+Daoism%3A+A+Berlin+Symposium&rft.pages=190&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-447-05513-0&rft.aulast=Reiter&rft.aufirst=Florian+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilburn2016" class="citation book cs1">Milburn, Olivia (2016). <i>The Spring and Autumn Annals of Master Yan</i>. Sinica Leidensia. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-30966-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-30966-1"><bdi>978-90-04-30966-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spring+and+Autumn+Annals+of+Master+Yan&rft.series=Sinica+Leidensia&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-90-04-30966-1&rft.aulast=Milburn&rft.aufirst=Olivia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span> p. 343, note 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssasi2013" class="citation journal cs1">Assasi, Reza (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4087681">"Swastika: The Forgotten Constellation Representing the Chariot of Mithras"</a>. <i>Anthropological Notebooks</i> (Supplement: Šprajc, Ivan; Pehani, Peter, eds. <i>Ancient Cosmologies and Modern Prophets: Proceedings of the 20th Conference of the European Society for Astronomy in Culture</i>). <b>XIX</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1408-032X">1408-032X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anthropological+Notebooks&rft.atitle=Swastika%3A+The+Forgotten+Constellation+Representing+the+Chariot+of+Mithras&rft.volume=XIX&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2013&rft.issn=1408-032X&rft.aulast=Assasi&rft.aufirst=Reza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4087681&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hagen-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hagen_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hagen_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHagen" class="citation web cs1">Hagen, Kurtis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141203164801/http://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/kurtis.hagen/keyterms_tian.html">"Confucian Key Terms – Tian 天"</a>. State University of New York at Plattsburgh. 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University of Hawaii Press: 163–172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1397096">10.2307/1397096</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397096">1397096</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+East+and+West&rft.atitle=Theism+and+Naturalism+in+Ancient+Chinese+Philosophy&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=163-172&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1397096&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1397096%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dubs&rft.aufirst=Homer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStefon2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Stefon, Matt (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/dao">"Dao"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia Britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dao&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Stefon&rft.aufirst=Matt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fdao&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWong2012" class="citation journal cs1">Wong, Pak-Hang (1 March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13347-011-0021-z">"Dao, Harmony and Personhood: Towards a Confucian Ethics of Technology"</a>. <i>Philosophy & Technology</i>. <b>25</b> (1): 68–71, 76–78, 80–81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13347-011-0021-z">10.1007/s13347-011-0021-z</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2210-5441">2210-5441</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256085508">256085508</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">SpringerLink</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=Dao%2C+Harmony+and+Personhood%3A+Towards+a+Confucian+Ethics+of+Technology&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=68-71%2C+76-78%2C+80-81&rft.date=2012-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A256085508%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2210-5441&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs13347-011-0021-z&rft.aulast=Wong&rft.aufirst=Pak-Hang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs13347-011-0021-z&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:03-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:03_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_FuquaRobert_C._Koons2023" class="citation book cs1">Jonathan Fuqua; Robert C. 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(1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofphil0000unse/page/338"><i>Dictionary of Philosophy</i></a>. Philosophical Library. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofphil0000unse/page/338">338</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8022-2388-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8022-2388-3"><bdi>978-0-8022-2388-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Philosophy&rft.pages=338&rft.pub=Philosophical+Library&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-8022-2388-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdictionaryofphil0000unse%2Fpage%2F338&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Analects 12:1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ctext.org/analects/yong-ye/zh?en=on">"Yong Ye" <bdi lang="zh">雍也</bdi></a>. <i>論語</i> (in Chinese and English) – via 中國哲學書電子化計劃 (ctext.org).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Yong+Ye+%E9%9B%8D%E4%B9%9F&rft.btitle=%E8%AB%96%E8%AA%9E&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fctext.org%2Fanalects%2Fyong-ye%2Fzh%3Fen%3Don&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ctext.org/analects/yan-yuan/zh?en=on">"Yan Yuan" <bdi lang="zh">顏淵</bdi></a>. <i>論語</i> (in Chinese and English) – via 中國哲學書電子化計劃 (ctext.org).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Yan+Yuan+%E9%A1%8F%E6%B7%B5&rft.btitle=%E8%AB%96%E8%AA%9E&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fctext.org%2Fanalects%2Fyan-yuan%2Fzh%3Fen%3Don&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016150-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeuchtwang2016150_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFeuchtwang2016">Feuchtwang (2016)</a>, p. 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ctext.org/analects/ba-yi">"Ba Yi"</a>. <i>The Analects</i> – via Chinese Text Project.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ba+Yi&rft.btitle=The+Analects&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fctext.org%2Fanalects%2Fba-yi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ctext.org/mengzi/li-lou-ii">"Li Lou II"</a>. <i>Mengzi</i> – via Chinese Text Project.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Li+Lou+II&rft.btitle=Mengzi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fctext.org%2Fmengzi%2Fli-lou-ii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ctext.org/mengzi/liang-hui-wang-ii/zh?en=on">"Liang Hui Wang xia" <bdi lang="zh">梁惠王下</bdi></a>. <i>孟子</i> (in Chinese and English) – via 中國哲學書電子化計劃 (ctext.org).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Liang+Hui+Wang+xia+%E6%A2%81%E6%83%A0%E7%8E%8B%E4%B8%8B&rft.btitle=%E5%AD%9F%E5%AD%90&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fctext.org%2Fmengzi%2Fliang-hui-wang-ii%2Fzh%3Fen%3Don&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ctext.org/analects/xian-wen/zh?en=on">"Xian Wen" <bdi lang="zh">憲問</bdi></a>. <i>論語</i> (in Chinese and English) – via 中國哲學書電子化計劃 (ctext.org).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Xian+Wen+%E6%86%B2%E5%95%8F&rft.btitle=%E8%AB%96%E8%AA%9E&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fctext.org%2Fanalects%2Fxian-wen%2Fzh%3Fen%3Don&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Example: <a href="/wiki/Hai_Rui" title="Hai Rui">Hai Rui</a> in the Ming dynasty, <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Chang_(official)" title="Yuan Chang (official)">Yuan Chang (official)</a> in the Qing, and so forth.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wang Yangming, Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-Ming, Wing-tsit Chan tran. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), 159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Theodore De Bary, Waiting for the Dawn: A Plan for the Prince (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 91–110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the discussion in <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">何冠彪</span></span> He Guanbiao, <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">生與死 : 明季士大夫的抉擇</span></span> (Taipei: Lianjing Chuban Shiye Gongsi, 1997).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chang-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chang_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWonsuk_ChangLeah_Kalmanson2010" class="citation book cs1">Wonsuk Chang; Leah Kalmanson (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_UC1mvUKaU8C&pg=PA68"><i>Confucianism in Context: Classic Philosophy and Contemporary Issues, East Asia and Beyond</i></a>. SUNY Press. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-3191-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-3191-8"><bdi>978-1-4384-3191-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confucianism+in+Context%3A+Classic+Philosophy+and+Contemporary+Issues%2C+East+Asia+and+Beyond&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-3191-8&rft.au=Wonsuk+Chang&rft.au=Leah+Kalmanson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_UC1mvUKaU8C%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baker, Hugh D.R. <i>Chinese Family and Kinship</i>. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979. p. 98</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sometimes "exemplary person." Roger T. Ames and Henry Rosemont, Jr., <i>The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation</i>. Paul Goldin translates it "noble man" in an attempt to capture both its early political and later moral meaning. Cf. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/kurtis.hagen/keyterms_junzi.html">Confucian Key Terms: Junzi</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140520073016/http://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/kurtis.hagen/keyterms_junzi.html">Archived</a> 20 May 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang_Tianshi_(杨天石)2005" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Yang Tianshi (杨天石) (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150418015158/http://jds.cass.cn/Item/1390.aspx">"君子 – 儒学的理想人格"</a> (in Chinese). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jds.cass.cn/Item/1390.aspx">the original</a> on 18 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E5%90%9B%E5%AD%90+%E2%80%93+%E5%84%92%E5%AD%A6%E7%9A%84%E7%90%86%E6%83%B3%E4%BA%BA%E6%A0%BC&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Yang+Tianshi+%28%E6%9D%A8%E5%A4%A9%E7%9F%B3%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjds.cass.cn%2FItem%2F1390.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylorChoy2004" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Rodney L.; Choy, Howard Y.F. (2004). <i>The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Confucianism</i>. New York: Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 48–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8239-4079-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8239-4079-0"><bdi>978-0-8239-4079-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Illustrated+Encyclopedia+of+Confucianism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=48-50&rft.pub=Rosen+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8239-4079-0&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Rodney+L.&rft.au=Choy%2C+Howard+Y.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPankenier201355-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPankenier201355_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPankenier201355_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPankenier2013">Pankenier (2013)</a>, p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2012105,_note_45-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2012105,_note_45_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChen2012">Chen (2012)</a>, p. 105, note 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELibbrecht200743-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELibbrecht200743_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELibbrecht200743_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELibbrecht200743_78-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLibbrecht2007">Libbrecht (2007)</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009227–228,_Vol._II-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009227–228,_Vol._II_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDidier2009">Didier (2009)</a>, pp. 227–228, Vol. II.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009143–144,_Vol._II-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009143–144,_Vol._II_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDidier2009">Didier (2009)</a>, pp. 143–144, Vol. II.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009103,_Vol._II-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009103,_Vol._II_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDidier2009">Didier (2009)</a>, p. 103, Vol. II.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPankenier2013138–148,_"Chapter_4:_Bringing_Heaven_Down_to_Earth"-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPankenier2013138–148,_"Chapter_4:_Bringing_Heaven_Down_to_Earth"_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPankenier2013">Pankenier (2013)</a>, pp. 138–148, "Chapter 4: Bringing Heaven Down to Earth".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009''passim''_Vol._I-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009''passim''_Vol._I_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDidier2009">Didier (2009)</a>, <i>passim</i> Vol. I.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009xxxvi–xxxvii,_Vol._I-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009xxxvi–xxxvii,_Vol._I_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDidier2009">Didier (2009)</a>, pp. xxxvi–xxxvii, Vol. I.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009xxxvii–xxxviii,_Vol._I-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009xxxvii–xxxviii,_Vol._I_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDidier2009">Didier (2009)</a>, pp. xxxvii–xxxviii, Vol. I.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou20122-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou20122_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZhou2012">Zhou (2012)</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009Vol._III,_pp._96–99-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009Vol._III,_pp._96–99_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDidier2009">Didier (2009)</a>, Vol. III, pp. 96–99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDidier2009xxxviii–xxxix,_Vol._I-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDidier2009xxxviii–xxxix,_Vol._I_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDidier2009">Didier (2009)</a>, pp. xxxviii–xxxix, Vol. I.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10027-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:10027_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillard_Gurdon_Oxtoby2002" class="citation book cs1">Willard Gurdon Oxtoby, ed. (2002). <i>World Religions: Eastern Traditions</i> (2nd ed.). Don Mills, Ontario: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 169–170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-541521-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-541521-3"><bdi>0-19-541521-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/46661540">46661540</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Religions%3A+Eastern+Traditions&rft.place=Don+Mills%2C+Ontario&rft.pages=169-170&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F46661540&rft.isbn=0-19-541521-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:032-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:032_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankopan2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Frankopan" title="Peter Frankopan">Frankopan, Peter</a> (March 2017). <i>The Silk Roads: A New History of the World</i> (First Vintage Books ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Vintage_Books" title="Vintage Books">Vintage Books</a>. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-94633-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-94633-6"><bdi>978-1-101-94633-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Silk+Roads%3A+A+New+History+of+the+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=32&rft.edition=First+Vintage+Books&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=2017-03&rft.isbn=978-1-101-94633-6&rft.aulast=Frankopan&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2007" class="citation journal cs1">Liu, Haifeng (October 2007) [2006]. "Influence of China's imperial examinations on Japan, Korea and Vietnam". <i>Frontiers of History in China</i>. <b>2</b> (4). 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asia+Policy&rft.atitle=Cultural+Dynamics+in+China%3A+Today+and+in+2020&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=48&rft.date=2007-07&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Fenggang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.purdue.edu%2Fcrcs%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2014%2F08%2FYangChina2020s.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2012175-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2012175_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2012175_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2012175_93-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChen2012">Chen (2012)</a>, p. 175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2012174-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2012174_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> 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University of Hawaii Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/limitstoautocrac00wood/page/149">149–154</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1703-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-1703-6"><bdi>0-8248-1703-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Limits+to+Autocracy%3A+From+Sung+Neo-Confucianism+to+a+Doctrine+of+Political+Rights&rft.pages=149-154&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-8248-1703-6&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Alan+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flimitstoautocrac00wood%2Fpage%2F149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCreel1960" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Herlee_G._Creel" class="mw-redirect" title="Herlee G. 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Princeton: Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Against+Political+Equality%3A+The+Confucian+Case&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Bai&rft.aufirst=Tongdong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daniel_A._Bell_2016-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Daniel_A._Bell_2016_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daniel_A._Bell_2016_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daniel_A._Bell_2016_117-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daniel_A._Bell_2016_117-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daniel_A._Bell_2016_117-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daniel_A._Bell_2016_117-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_A._Bell2016" class="citation book cs1">Daniel A. Bell (2016). <i>The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 63–110, 151–179.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+China+Model%3A+Political+Meritocracy+and+the+Limits+of+Democracy&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pages=63-110%2C+151-179&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.au=Daniel+A.+Bell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHankins2019" class="citation book cs1">Hankins, James (2019). <i>Virtue Politics: Soulcraft and Statecraft in Renaissance Italy</i>. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-23755-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-23755-1"><bdi>978-0-674-23755-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Virtue+Politics%3A+Soulcraft+and+Statecraft+in+Renaissance+Italy&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-674-23755-1&rft.aulast=Hankins&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jiang-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jiang_119-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jiang_119-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJiang_Qing2013" class="citation book cs1">Jiang Qing (2013). <i>A Confucian Constitutional Order: How China's Ancient Past Can Shape Its Political Future</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691154602" title="Special:BookSources/9780691154602"><bdi>9780691154602</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Confucian+Constitutional+Order%3A+How+China%27s+Ancient+Past+Can+Shape+Its+Political+Future&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780691154602&rft.au=Jiang+Qing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph Chan, <i>Confucian Perfectionism: A Political Philosophy For Modern Times</i> (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2014" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Sungmoon (2014). <i>Confucian Democracy in East Asia: Theory and Practice</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-04903-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-04903-1"><bdi>978-1-107-04903-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confucian+Democracy+in+East+Asia%3A+Theory+and+Practice&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-107-04903-1&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Sungmoon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTan2003" class="citation book cs1">Tan, Sor-hoon (2003). <i>Confucian Democracy: A Deweyan Reconstruction</i>. Albany: State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-5889-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-5889-X"><bdi>0-7914-5889-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confucian+Democracy%3A+A+Deweyan+Reconstruction&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-7914-5889-X&rft.aulast=Tan&rft.aufirst=Sor-hoon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMang2020" class="citation journal cs1">Mang, Franz (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/archive/MANPMA-6.pdf">"Political meritocracy and its betrayal"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Philosophy & Social Criticism</i>. <b>46</b> (9): 1113–1126. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0191453720948386">10.1177/0191453720948386</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225056766">225056766</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+%26+Social+Criticism&rft.atitle=Political+meritocracy+and+its+betrayal&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1113-1126&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0191453720948386&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225056766%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mang&rft.aufirst=Franz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Farchive%2FMANPMA-6.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHe_BaogangWarren2020" class="citation journal cs1">He Baogang; Warren, Mark (2020). "Can meritocracy replace democracy? A conceptual framework". <i>Philosophy & Social Criticism</i>. <b>46</b> (9): 1093–1112. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0191453720948388">10.1177/0191453720948388</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225056621">225056621</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+%26+Social+Criticism&rft.atitle=Can+meritocracy+replace+democracy%3F+A+conceptual+framework&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1093-1112&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0191453720948388&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225056621%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=He+Baogang&rft.au=Warren%2C+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTseng2020" class="citation journal cs1">Tseng, Roy (2020). "Political meritocracy versus ethical democracy: The Confucian political ideal revisited". <i>Philosophy & Social Criticism</i>. <b>46</b> (9): 1033–1052. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0191453720948398">10.1177/0191453720948398</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224941702">224941702</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+%26+Social+Criticism&rft.atitle=Political+meritocracy+versus+ethical+democracy%3A+The+Confucian+political+ideal+revisited&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1033-1052&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0191453720948398&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224941702%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tseng&rft.aufirst=Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Windows_into_China-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Windows_into_China_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Windows_into_China_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Windows into China," John Parker, p. 25, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89073-050-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-89073-050-4">0-89073-050-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mungello-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mungello_128-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mungello_128-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMungello1971" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Emil_Mungello" title="David Emil Mungello">Mungello, David E.</a> (1971). "Leibniz's Interpretation of Neo-Confucianism". <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_East_and_West" title="Philosophy East and West">Philosophy East and West</a></i>. <b>21</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawaii_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Hawaii Press">University of Hawaii Press</a>: 3–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1397760">10.2307/1397760</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397760">1397760</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+East+and+West&rft.atitle=Leibniz%27s+Interpretation+of+Neo-Confucianism&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-22&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1397760&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1397760%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mungello&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_M._Hobson" title="John M. Hobson">John M. Hobson</a> (2004), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Eastern_Origins_of_Western_Civilisation" title="The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation">The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, pp. 194–195, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-54724-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-54724-5">0-521-54724-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-epc-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-epc_130-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-epc_130-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-epc_130-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeng_Lan2005" class="citation book cs1">Feng Lan (2005). <i>Ezra Pound and Confucianism: Remaking Humanism In The Face of Modernity</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press" title="University of Toronto Press">University of Toronto Press</a>. p. 190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8941-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8941-0"><bdi>978-0-8020-8941-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ezra+Pound+and+Confucianism%3A+Remaking+Humanism+In+The+Face+of+Modernity&rft.pages=190&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-8941-0&rft.au=Feng+Lan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankel2009" class="citation journal cs1">Frankel, James (2009). 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Routledge. pp. 10–12, 24–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28822-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28822-4"><bdi>978-0-415-28822-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+the+Family+in+Chinese+History&rft.pages=10-12%2C+24-25&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-28822-4&rft.au=Patricia+Buckley+Ebrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGDPskRXfl5cC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rosenlee-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenlee_142-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenlee_142-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenlee2007" class="citation book cs1">Rosenlee, Li-Hsiang Lisa (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yTvLQbaH81wC&pg=PA16"><i>Confucianism and Women: A Philosophical Interpretation</i></a>. State University of New York Press. pp. 4, 15–16, 149–160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-6750-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-6750-3"><bdi>978-0-7914-6750-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confucianism+and+Women%3A+A+Philosophical+Interpretation&rft.pages=4%2C+15-16%2C+149-160&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-6750-3&rft.aulast=Rosenlee&rft.aufirst=Li-Hsiang+Lisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyTvLQbaH81wC%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnders_Hansson1996" class="citation book cs1">Anders Hansson (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Ibp1RTW0AoC&pg=PA46">"The Chinese Status System"</a>. <i>Chinese Outcasts: Discrimination and Emancipation in Late Imperial China</i>. Brill. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004487963_005">10.1163/9789004487963_005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10596-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10596-6"><bdi>978-90-04-10596-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:243925416">243925416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Chinese+Status+System&rft.btitle=Chinese+Outcasts%3A+Discrimination+and+Emancipation+in+Late+Imperial+China&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A243925416%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004487963_005&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10596-6&rft.au=Anders+Hansson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4Ibp1RTW0AoC%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2003" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Robin (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xQiJWZNQZfgC&pg=PA414">"Precepts for Family Life"</a>. <i>Images of Women in Chinese Thought and Culture: Writings from the Pre-Qin Period to the Song Dynasty</i>. Hackett Publishing. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-651-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-651-9"><bdi>978-0-87220-651-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Precepts+for+Family+Life&rft.btitle=Images+of+Women+in+Chinese+Thought+and+Culture%3A+Writings+from+the+Pre-Qin+Period+to+the+Song+Dynasty&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-87220-651-9&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxQiJWZNQZfgC%26pg%3DPA414&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee_Dian_Rainey2010" class="citation book cs1">Lee Dian Rainey (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ID4gMCaLr0MC&pg=PA55"><i>Confucius and Confucianism: The Essentials</i></a>. John Wiley and Sons. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-2360-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-2360-3"><bdi>978-1-4443-2360-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confucius+and+Confucianism%3A+The+Essentials&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-2360-3&rft.au=Lee+Dian+Rainey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DID4gMCaLr0MC%26pg%3DPA55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConfucius" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">Confucius. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ctext.org/dictionary.pl?if=gb&id=1561#s10028160">"Yang Huo no. 25" <bdi lang="zh">陽貨</bdi></a>. <i>Analects</i> <bdi lang="zh">論語</bdi>. <q>Original text: <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">唯女子與小人爲難養也，近之則不孫，遠之則怨。</span></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Yang+Huo+no.+25+%E9%99%BD%E8%B2%A8&rft.btitle=Analects+%E8%AB%96%E8%AA%9E&rft.au=Confucius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fctext.org%2Fdictionary.pl%3Fif%3Dgb%26id%3D1561%23s10028160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYuan_Lijun2005" class="citation book cs1">Yuan Lijun (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wpcSq6aTcgMC&pg=PA5"><i>Reconceiving Women's Equality in China: A Critical Examination of Models of Sex Equality</i></a>. Lexington Books. pp. 5–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-1228-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-1228-1"><bdi>978-0-7391-1228-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconceiving+Women%27s+Equality+in+China%3A+A+Critical+Examination+of+Models+of+Sex+Equality&rft.pages=5-6&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-1228-1&rft.au=Yuan+Lijun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwpcSq6aTcgMC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQiu_Chong_(邱崇Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text)2013" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">Qiu Chong (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">邱崇</span></span>) (December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180405214741/http://yj.nuist.edu.cn/ch/reader/create_pdf.aspx?file_no=20130621&year_id=2013&quarter_id=6&falg=1">"Yi 'wei nü yu xiaoren wei nan yang ye'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>" <bdi lang="zh">释 "唯女子与小人为难养也"</bdi></a>. <i>Yuejiang Academic Journal</i>. <b>6</b>: 141–145. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://yj.nuist.edu.cn/ch/reader/create_pdf.aspx?file_no=20130621&year_id=2013&quarter_id=6&falg=1">the original</a> on 5 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yuejiang+Academic+Journal&rft.atitle=Yi+%27wei+n%C3%BC+yu+xiaoren+wei+nan+yang+ye%27+%E9%87%8A+%22%E5%94%AF%E5%A5%B3%E5%AD%90%E4%B8%8E%E5%B0%8F%E4%BA%BA%E4%B8%BA%E9%9A%BE%E5%85%BB%E4%B9%9F%22&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=141-145&rft.date=2013-12&rft.au=Qiu+Chong+%28%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh-Hant%22%3E%E9%82%B1%E5%B4%87%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fyj.nuist.edu.cn%2Fch%2Freader%2Fcreate_pdf.aspx%3Ffile_no%3D20130621%26year_id%3D2013%26quarter_id%3D6%26falg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span><br />The article points out the various disputes among traditional Confucian commentators on what the passage really means. It also summarizes the debate in contemporary academia regarding the phrase's meaning.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiao_Mingchun_(廖名春)2012" class="citation magazine cs1 cs1-prop-script">Liao Mingchun (廖名春) (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rujiazg.com/article/11256">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Wei nüzi yu xiaoren wei nan yang ye" liuzhu ji xinjie" <bdi lang="zh">“唯女子与小人为难养也”疏注及新解</bdi></a>. <i>Renwen Zazhi (人文雜志)</i>. No. 6<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Renwen+Zazhi+%28%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E9%9B%9C%E5%BF%97%29&rft.atitle=%22Wei+n%C3%BCzi+yu+xiaoren+wei+nan+yang+ye%22+liuzhu+ji+xinjie+%E2%80%9C%E5%94%AF%E5%A5%B3%E5%AD%90%E4%B8%8E%E5%B0%8F%E4%BA%BA%E4%B8%BA%E9%9A%BE%E5%85%BB%E4%B9%9F%E2%80%9D%E7%96%8F%E6%B3%A8%E5%8F%8A%E6%96%B0%E8%A7%A3&rft.issue=6&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Liao+Mingchun+%28%E5%BB%96%E5%90%8D%E6%98%A5%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rujiazg.com%2Farticle%2F11256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSommers2000" class="citation book cs1">Sommers, Matthew (2000). <i>Sex, Law and Society in Late Imperial China</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 319.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sex%2C+Law+and+Society+in+Late+Imperial+China&rft.place=Stanford&rft.pages=319&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Sommers&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDong_Zhongshu1988" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Dong_Zhongshu" title="Dong Zhongshu">Dong Zhongshu</a> (1988) [100s BCE]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ctext.org/chun-qiu-fan-lu/ji-yi/zh">"Ji Yi" <bdi lang="zh">基義</bdi></a>. <i>Chunqiu Fanlu</i> <bdi lang="zh">春秋繁露</bdi> (in Chinese) – via 中國哲學書電子化計劃.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ji+Yi+%E5%9F%BA%E7%BE%A9&rft.btitle=Chunqiu+Fanlu+%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E7%B9%81%E9%9C%B2&rft.date=1988&rft.au=Dong+Zhongshu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fctext.org%2Fchun-qiu-fan-lu%2Fji-yi%2Fzh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Elman-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Elman_150-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elman_150-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElman2005">Elman 2005</a>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gunn-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gunn_151-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gunn_151-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGunn2003">Gunn 2003</a>, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19631204_sacrosanctum-concilium_en.html">"Sacrosanctum concilium"</a>. <i>www.vatican.va</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.vatican.va&rft.atitle=Sacrosanctum+concilium&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vatican.va%2Farchive%2Fhist_councils%2Fii_vatican_council%2Fdocuments%2Fvat-ii_const_19631204_sacrosanctum-concilium_en.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yang-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yang_153-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yang_153-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yang_153-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYang1961">Yang 1961</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sinaiko-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sinaiko_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSinaiko1998">Sinaiko 1998</a>, p. 176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090716073420/http://terpconnect.umd.edu/~tkang/welcome_files/religion.htm">"Centre for Confucian Science (Korea)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://terpconnect.umd.edu/~tkang/welcome_files/religion.htm">the original</a> on 16 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Centre+for+Confucian+Science+%28Korea%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fterpconnect.umd.edu%2F~tkang%2Fwelcome_files%2Freligion.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://urantiabook.org/archive/readers/601_confucianism.htm">"Introduction to Confucianism"</a>. <i>urantiabook.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=urantiabook.org&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Confucianism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Furantiabook.org%2Farchive%2Freaders%2F601_confucianism.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Streng, Frederick, "Understanding Religious Life," 3rd ed. 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Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/i24047714">i24047714</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221010/http://www.oriens-extremus.de/inhalt/pdf/49/OE49-09.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 10 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oriens+Extremus&rft.atitle=Carrying+the+Confucian+Torch+to+the+Masses%3A+The+Challenge+of+Structuring+the+Confucian+Revival+in+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China&rft.volume=49&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fi24047714%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Billioud&rft.aufirst=S%C3%A9bastien&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oriens-extremus.de%2Finhalt%2Fpdf%2F49%2FOE49-09.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClart2003" class="citation journal cs1">Clart, Philip (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.uni-leipzig.de/clartp/Clart%202003.pdf">"Confucius and the Mediums: Is There a "Popular Confucianism"?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>T'oung Pao</i>. <b>89</b> (1/3). 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Oxford University Press. pp. 157–186. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-804256-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-804256-3"><bdi>978-0-19-804256-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Problematizing+Contemporary+Confucianism+in+East+Asia&rft.btitle=Teaching+Confucianism&rft.pages=157-186&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-804256-3&rft.au=Fung+Yiu-ming&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw8vSE2lN0H4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunn2003" class="citation cs2">Gunn, Geoffrey C. (2003), <i>First Globalization: The Eurasian Exchange, 1500 to 1800</i>, Rowman & Littlefield, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-2662-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-2662-4"><bdi>978-0-7425-2662-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=First+Globalization%3A+The+Eurasian+Exchange%2C+1500+to+1800&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-2662-4&rft.aulast=Gunn&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaynes2008" class="citation cs2">Haynes, Jeffrey (2008), <i>Routledge Handbook of Religion and Politics</i>, Taylor & Francis, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-41455-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-41455-5"><bdi>978-0-415-41455-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+Handbook+of+Religion+and+Politics&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-415-41455-5&rft.aulast=Haynes&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsu2014" class="citation magazine cs1">Hsu, Daniel (16 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191224202106/https://voegelinview.com/civil-theology-confucius-tian-symbol/">"The Civil Theology of Confucius' "Tian" Symbol"</a>. <i>Voegelin View</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://voegelinview.com/civil-theology-confucius-tian-symbol/">the original</a> on 24 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Voegelin+View&rft.atitle=The+Civil+Theology+of+Confucius%27+%22Tian%22+Symbol&rft.date=2014-11-16&rft.aulast=Hsu&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvoegelinview.com%2Fcivil-theology-confucius-tian-symbol%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIvanhoe2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_J._Ivanhoe" title="Philip J. Ivanhoe">Ivanhoe, Philip J.</a> (2000). <i>Confucian Moral Self Cultivation</i> (2nd rev. ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-508-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-508-6"><bdi>978-0-87220-508-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confucian+Moral+Self+Cultivation&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.edition=2nd+rev.&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-87220-508-6&rft.aulast=Ivanhoe&rft.aufirst=Philip+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLibbrecht2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Libbrecht" title="Ulrich Libbrecht">Libbrecht, Ulrich</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rmT3ZHGxJPgC"><i>Within the Four Seas<span class="nowrap"> </span>...: Introduction to Comparative Philosophy</i></a>. Peeters Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1812-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1812-2"><bdi>978-90-429-1812-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Within+the+Four+Seas%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E+%3C%2Fspan%3E...%3A+Introduction+to+Comparative+Philosophy&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-429-1812-2&rft.aulast=Libbrecht&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrmT3ZHGxJPgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittlejohn2010" class="citation cs2">Littlejohn, Ronnie (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_RZe8Hr57NEC"><i>Confucianism: An Introduction</i></a>, I.B. Tauris, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84885-174-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84885-174-0"><bdi>978-1-84885-174-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confucianism%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-84885-174-0&rft.aulast=Littlejohn&rft.aufirst=Ronnie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_RZe8Hr57NEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNivison1996" class="citation book cs1">Nivison, David S. (1996). <i>The Ways of Confucianism: Investigations in Chinese Philosophy</i>. Chicago: Open Court Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8126-9340-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8126-9340-9"><bdi>978-0-8126-9340-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ways+of+Confucianism%3A+Investigations+in+Chinese+Philosophy&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Open+Court+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8126-9340-9&rft.aulast=Nivison&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayette2014" class="citation conference cs1">Payette, Alex (19–24 July 2014). "Shenzhen's Kongshengtang: Religious Confucianism and Local Moral Governance". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171023011728/http://paperroom.ipsa.org/papers/paper_30036.pdf"><i>Panel RC43: Role of Religion in Political Life</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 23rd World Congress of Political Science. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://paperroom.ipsa.org/papers/paper_30036.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 23 October 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Shenzhen%27s+Kongshengtang%3A+Religious+Confucianism+and+Local+Moral+Governance&rft.btitle=Panel+RC43%3A+Role+of+Religion+in+Political+Life&rft.date=2014-07-19%2F2014-07-24&rft.aulast=Payette&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpaperroom.ipsa.org%2Fpapers%2Fpaper_30036.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPankenier2013" class="citation book cs1">Pankenier, David W. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wUuyAAAAQBAJ"><i>Astrology and Cosmology in Early China</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00672-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00672-0"><bdi>978-1-107-00672-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astrology+and+Cosmology+in+Early+China&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-107-00672-0&rft.aulast=Pankenier&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwUuyAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenlee2012" class="citation book cs1">Rosenlee, Lisa Li-Hsiang (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id="><i>Confucianism and Women: A Philosophical Interpretation</i></a>. SUNY Press. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-8179-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-8179-0"><bdi>978-0-7914-8179-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confucianism+and+Women%3A+A+Philosophical+Interpretation&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-8179-0&rft.aulast=Rosenlee&rft.aufirst=Lisa+Li-Hsiang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShenShun2007" class="citation cs2">Shen Qingsong; Shun Kwong-loi (2007), <i>Confucian Ethics in Retrospect and Prospect</i>, Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56518-245-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56518-245-5"><bdi>978-1-56518-245-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confucian+Ethics+in+Retrospect+and+Prospect&rft.pub=Council+for+Research+in+Values+and+Philosophy&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-56518-245-5&rft.au=Shen+Qingsong&rft.au=Shun+Kwong-loi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinaiko1998" class="citation cs2">Sinaiko, Herman L. (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reclaimingcanone00sina"><i>Reclaiming the Canon: Essays on Philosophy, Poetry, and History</i></a>, Yale University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-06529-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-06529-9"><bdi>978-0-300-06529-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reclaiming+the+Canon%3A+Essays+on+Philosophy%2C+Poetry%2C+and+History&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-300-06529-9&rft.aulast=Sinaiko&rft.aufirst=Herman+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freclaimingcanone00sina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTay2010" class="citation journal cs1">Tay, Wei Leong (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://utcp.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/publications/pdf/UTCPBooklet17_08_Tay.pdf">"Kang Youwei: The Martin Luther of Confucianism and His Vision of Confucian Modernity and Nation"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Secularization, Religion and the State</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221010/http://utcp.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/publications/pdf/UTCPBooklet17_08_Tay.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 10 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Secularization%2C+Religion+and+the+State&rft.atitle=Kang+Youwei%3A+The+Martin+Luther+of+Confucianism+and+His+Vision+of+Confucian+Modernity+and+Nation&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Tay&rft.aufirst=Wei+Leong&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Futcp.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp%2Fpublications%2Fpdf%2FUTCPBooklet17_08_Tay.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang1961" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/C._K._Yang_(sociologist)" title="C. K. Yang (sociologist)">Yang, C.K.</a> (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N2d09EhGBgkC"><i>Religion in Chinese Society; a Study of Contemporary Social Functions of Religion and Some of Their Historical Factors</i></a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01371-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01371-1"><bdi>978-0-520-01371-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+in+Chinese+Society%3B+a+Study+of+Contemporary+Social+Functions+of+Religion+and+Some+of+Their+Historical+Factors&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=978-0-520-01371-1&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=C.K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN2d09EhGBgkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYao2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Xinzhong_Yao" title="Xinzhong Yao">Yao Xinzhong</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tAE2OJ9bPG0C"><i>An Introduction to Confucianism</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64312-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64312-2"><bdi>978-0-521-64312-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Confucianism&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-64312-2&rft.au=Yao+Xinzhong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtAE2OJ9bPG0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhou2012" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Youguang" title="Zhou Youguang">Zhou Youguang</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp226_zhou_youguang_modern_confucianism.pdf">"To Inherit the Ancient Teachings of Confucius and Mencius and Establish Modern Confucianism"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Sino-Platonic_Papers" title="Sino-Platonic Papers">Sino-Platonic Papers</a></i> (226). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221010/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp226_zhou_youguang_modern_confucianism.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 10 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Platonic+Papers&rft.atitle=To+Inherit+the+Ancient+Teachings+of+Confucius+and+Mencius+and+Establish+Modern+Confucianism&rft.issue=226&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Zhou+Youguang&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sino-platonic.org%2Fcomplete%2Fspp226_zhou_youguang_modern_confucianism.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Translations_of_texts_attributed_to_Confucius">Translations of texts attributed to Confucius</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analects_(Lun_Yu)"><span id="Analects_.28Lun_Yu.29"></span>Analects (<i>Lun Yu</i>)</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/conf1.htm">Confucian Analects</a> (1893) Translated by James Legge.</li> <li><i>The Analects of Confucius</i> (1915; rpr. NY: Paragon, 1968). Translated by <a href="/wiki/William_Edward_Soothill" title="William Edward Soothill">William Edward Soothill</a>.</li> <li><i>The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation</i> (New York: Ballantine, 1998). Translated by Roger T. Ames, Henry Rosemont.</li> <li><i>Confucius: The Analects (Lun yü)</i> (London: Penguin, 1979; rpr. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1992). Translated by <a href="/wiki/D.C._Lau" class="mw-redirect" title="D.C. Lau">D.C. Lau</a>.</li> <li><i>The Analects of Confucius (Lun Yu)</i> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997). Translated by Chichung Huang.</li> <li><i>The Analects of Confucius</i> (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997). Translated by Simon Leys.</li> <li><i>Analects: With Selections from Traditional Commentaries</i> (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2003). Translated by Edward Slingerland.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style 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Wikiversity</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/confuciu">"Confucius"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Confucius&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fconfuciu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/neo-conf">"Neo-Confucian Philosophy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Neo-Confucian+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fneo-conf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfucianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/confucius/#ConPol/">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Entry: Confucius</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150619113741/http://www.interfaith.org/confucianism/">Interfaith Online: Confucianism</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/index.htm">Confucian Documents</a> at the Internet Sacred Texts Archive.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religion_in_China" title="Template:Religion in China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religion_in_China" title="Template talk:Religion in China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religion_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religion in China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_Religion_in_China" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion in China</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Major religions in China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestor_veneration_in_China" title="Ancestor veneration in China">Ancestor veneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Folk ritual ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Chinese salvationist religions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravada Buddhism">Theravada Buddhism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_China" title="Protestantism in China">Protestant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism in China">Roman Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Orthodox_Church" title="Chinese Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of China"><img alt="Flag of China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/53px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="53" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/80px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/106px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other religions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_China" title="Baháʼí Faith in China">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongbaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dongbaism">Dongbaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_China" title="Hinduism in China">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Manichaeism" title="Chinese Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Miao folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_folk_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongolian folk religion">Mongolian folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism_in_China" title="Sikhism in China">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao folk religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hong_Kong" title="Religion in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau" title="Religion in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northeast_China" title="Religion in Northeast China">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Inner_Mongolia" title="Religion in Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tibet" title="Religion in Tibet">Tibet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_China" title="Freedom of religion in China">Freedom of religion in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterodox_teachings_(Chinese_law)" title="Heterodox teachings (Chinese law)">Heterodox teachings (Chinese law)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_China" title="Irreligion in China">Irreligion in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Religious_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Regional Religious System">Regional Religious System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosts_in_Chinese_culture" title="Ghosts in Chinese culture">Ghosts in Chinese culture</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Three_Persian_religions" title="Three Persian religions">Three Persian religions</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichang_Persecution_of_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Huichang Persecution of Buddhism">Huichang Persecution of Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religion_topics" title="Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religion_topics" title="Template talk:Religion topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religion_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religious_groups_and_denominations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religious groups and denominations</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Church_of_the_East" title="Ancient Church of the East">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a>/<a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzenau_Brethren" title="Schwarzenau Brethren">Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterites" title="Hutterites">Hutterites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwenkfelder_Church" title="Schwenkfelder Church">Schwenkfelder Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Reformed_Protestantism" title="Continental Reformed Protestantism">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-charismatic_movement" title="Neo-charismatic movement">Neo-charismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakerism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_Christianity" title="Esoteric Christianity">Esoteric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">Nontrinitarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement" title="Bible Student movement">Bible Students</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement#Associated_Bible_Students" title="Bible Student movement">Associated Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Bible_Students" title="Free Bible Students">Free Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_Man" title="Friends of Man">Friends of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo#Kitawala" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Kitawala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laymen%27s_Home_Missionary_Movement" title="Laymen's Home Missionary Movement">Laymen's Home Missionary Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism" title="Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneness_Pentecostalism" title="Oneness Pentecostalism">Oneness Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Christianity" title="Spiritual Christianity">Spiritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Church_(Swedenborgian)" title="The New Church (Swedenborgian)">Swedenborgianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunnism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Modernist Salafism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'ism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali-Illahism" title="Ali-Illahism">Ali-Illahism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ishikism" title="Ishikism">Ishikism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Alevism" title="Kurdish Alevism">Kurdish Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdawi_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahdawi movement">Mahdavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milah_Abraham" title="Milah Abraham">Milah Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1bism" title="Bábism">Bábism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azali" title="Azali">Azalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm-e-Khshnoom" title="Ilm-e-Khshnoom">Ilm-e-Khshnoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazdaznan" title="Mazdaznan">Mazdaznan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Kurdish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shabakism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shabakism">Shabakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Assianism/Uatsdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roshani_movement" title="Roshani movement">Roshani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Manichaeism" title="Chinese Manichaeism">Chinese Manichaeism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazd%C3%A2nism" title="Yazdânism">Yazdânism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidism" title="Yazidism">Yazidism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_religions" title="Eastern religions">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_teaching" title="Luo teaching">Luoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuo_folk_religion" title="Nuo folk religion">Nuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Salvationist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiantiandao" title="Xiantiandao">Xiantiandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiguandao" title="Yiguandao">Yiguandao</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Folk Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao Taoism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Shinto_sects_and_schools" title="Shinto sects and schools">list</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shugend%C5%8D" title="Shugendō">Shugendō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenrikyo" title="Tenrikyo">Tenrikyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_religion" title="Ryukyuan religion">Ryukyuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Korean shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheondoism" title="Cheondoism">Cheondoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeung_San_Do" title="Jeung San Do">Jeungsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnamese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese folk religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_M%E1%BA%ABu" title="Đạo Mẫu">Đạo Mẫu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caodaism" title="Caodaism">Caodaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o" title="Hòa Hảo">Hoahaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_B%E1%BB%ADu_S%C6%A1n_K%E1%BB%B3_H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương">Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krishnaism" title="Krishnaism">Krishnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Vaishnavism" title="Sri Vaishnavism">Sri Vaishnavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sampradaya" title="Brahma Sampradaya">Brahma Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushtimarg" class="mw-redirect" title="Pushtimarg">Pushtimarg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahanubhava" title="Mahanubhava">Mahanubhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanandi_Sampradaya" title="Ramanandi Sampradaya">Ramanandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warkari" title="Warkari">Warkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan_Sampradaya" title="Swaminarayan Sampradaya">Swaminarayan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganapatya" title="Ganapatya">Ganapatya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Shaivism" title="Kashmir Shaivism">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapalika" title="Kapalika">Kapalika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaumaram" title="Kaumaram">Kaumaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingayatism" title="Lingayatism">Lingayatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nath" class="mw-redirect" title="Nath">Nath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_Hinduism" title="Balinese Hinduism">Balinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saura_(Hinduism)" title="Saura (Hinduism)">Sauraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant_Mat" title="Sant Mat">Sant Mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Neo-Hinduism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Thiền</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Amidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Neo-Buddhism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayyavazhi" title="Ayyavazhi">Ayyavazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalash_people#Religion" title="Kalash people">Kalash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara" title="Śvetāmbara">Śvetāmbara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnaism" title="Sarnaism">Sarnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kirat Mundhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedda#Religion" title="Vedda">Vedda religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravidassia" title="Ravidassia">Ravidassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khalsa" title="Khalsa">Khalsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sects_of_Sikhism" title="Sects of Sikhism">Sects</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turko</a>-<a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">Mongolic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burkhanism" title="Burkhanism">Burkhanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vattisen_Yaly" title="Vattisen Yaly">Vattisen Yaly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_creation_myth" title="Tungusic creation myth">Tungusic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenks#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenks">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarna_(place)" title="Sarna (place)">Sarnaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmalim" title="Parmalim">Batak Parmalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayak_people#Religion_and_festivals" title="Dayak people">Dayak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaharingan" title="Kaharingan">Kaharingan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Sabahan_religions" title="Traditional Sabahan religions">Traditional Sabahan religions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Indonesian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aliran_Kepercayaan" title="Aliran Kepercayaan">Aliran Kepercayaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kejaw%C3%A8n" title="Kejawèn">Kejawèn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapitayan" title="Kapitayan">Kapitayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pemena" title="Pemena">Karo Pemena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_folk_religion" title="Malaysian folk religion">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Philippine_folk_religions" title="Indigenous Philippine folk religions">Philippine Dayawism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religious_beliefs_of_the_Tagalog_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people">Tagalog</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_mythology" title="Polynesian mythology">Polynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_religion" title="Hawaiian religion">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_M%C4%81ori_people" title="Religion of Māori people">Māori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marapu" title="Marapu">Sumbese Marapu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Wiwitan" title="Sunda Wiwitan">Sundanese Wiwitan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native<br />American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_mythology" title="Abenaki mythology">Abenaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_religion" title="Alaska Native religion">Alaskan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe_traditional_beliefs" title="Anishinaabe traditional beliefs">Anishinaabe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe#Spiritual_beliefs" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">Midewiwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabunowin" title="Wabunowin">Wabunowin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache#Religion" title="Apache">Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_mythology" title="Blackfoot mythology">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_narratives_of_Indigenous_Californians" title="Traditional narratives of Indigenous Californians">Californian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuksu_(religion)" title="Kuksu (religion)">Kuksu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miwok_mythology" title="Miwok mythology">Miwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohlone_mythology" title="Ohlone mythology">Ohlone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomo_religion" title="Pomo religion">Pomo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilote_mythology" title="Chilote mythology">Chilote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_mythology" title="Choctaw mythology">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_religion" title="Crow religion">Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance" title="Ghost Dance">Ghost Dance</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarani_mythology" title="Guarani mythology">Guarani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_mythology" title="Haida mythology">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk_mythology" title="Ho-Chunk mythology">Ho-Chunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_mythology" title="Iroquois mythology">Iroquois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_spiritual_beliefs" title="Cherokee spiritual beliefs">Cherokee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Mothers_Society" title="Four Mothers Society">Four Mothers Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_people#Religion" title="Mohawk people">Mohawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_mythology" title="Creek mythology">Muscogee Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_mythology" title="Seneca mythology">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyandot_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Wyandot religion">Wyandot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jivaroan_peoples#Religion" title="Jivaroan peoples">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw_mythology" title="Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology">Kwakwakaʼwakw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenape_mythology" title="Lenape mythology">Lenape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_religion" title="Mapuche religion">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_religion" title="Mesoamerican religion">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_religion" title="Purépecha religion">Purépecha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_mythology" title="Muisca mythology">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo#Spiritual_and_religious_beliefs" title="Navajo">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_mythology" title="Nuu-chah-nulth mythology">Nuu-chah-nulth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_mythology" title="Pawnee mythology">Pawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_religion" title="Pueblo religion">Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoma_Pueblo#Religion" title="Acoma Pueblo">Acoma Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopi_mythology" title="Hopi mythology">Hopi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_mythology" title="Zuni mythology">Zuni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux#Religion" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lakota_religion" title="Lakota religion">Lakota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wocekiye" title="Wocekiye">Wocekiye</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshian_mythology" title="Tsimshian mythology">Tsimshian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_mythology" title="Ute mythology">Ute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions#Washat_Dreamers_Religion" title="Native American religions">Washat Dreamers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui#Yaqui_cosmology_and_religion" title="Yaqui">Yaqui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">Tai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_religion" title="Ahom religion">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Hmongism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Satsana Phi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burmese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_folk_religion" title="Burmese folk religion">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathouism" title="Bathouism">Bathouism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mun_(religion)" title="Mun (religion)">Bongthingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba" title="Dongba">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donyi-Polo" title="Donyi-Polo">Donyi-Polo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraka" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraka">Heraka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kiratism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanamahism" title="Sanamahism">Sanamahism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Traditional <br /> African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">North African</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Berber_religion" title="Traditional Berber religion">Berber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Guanche_People" title="Church of the Guanche People">Guanche church</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Sub-Saharan<br />African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kamba_people" title="Kamba people">Akamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akan_religion" title="Akan religion">Akan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baluba_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Baluba mythology">Baluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu mythology">Bantu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_traditional_religion" title="Zulu traditional religion">Zulu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushongo_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushongo mythology">Bushongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinka_religion" title="Dinka religion">Dinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogon_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogon religion">Dogon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efik_mythology" title="Efik mythology">Efik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahomean_religion" title="Dahomean religion">Fon and Ewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ik_people" title="Ik people">Ik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotuko_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotuko mythology">Lotuko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_mythology" title="Lozi mythology">Lozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_mythology" title="Lugbara mythology">Lugbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maasai_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Maasai mythology">Maasai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbuti_mythology" title="Mbuti mythology">Mbuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odinala" title="Odinala">Odinala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_religion" title="San religion">San</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_religion" title="Serer religion">Serer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumbuka_mythology" title="Tumbuka mythology">Tumbuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urhobo_people" title="Urhobo people">Urhobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waaqeffanna" title="Waaqeffanna">Waaqeffanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_religion" title="Yoruba religion">Yoruba</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/If%C3%A1" title="Ifá">Ifá</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">Diasporic</a>:</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9" title="Candomblé">Candomblé</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Bantu" title="Candomblé Bantu">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Jej%C3%A9" title="Candomblé Jejé">Jejé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Ketu" title="Candomblé Ketu">Ketu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfa" title="Comfa">Comfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convince" title="Convince">Convince</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espiritismo" title="Espiritismo">Espiritismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumina" title="Kumina">Kumina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obeah" title="Obeah">Obeah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palo_(religion)" title="Palo (religion)">Palo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quimbanda" title="Quimbanda">Quimbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa" title="Santería">Santería</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambor_de_Mina" title="Tambor de Mina">Tambor de Mina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidad_Orisha" title="Trinidad Orisha">Trinidad Orisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbanda" title="Umbanda">Umbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Vodou" title="Haitian Vodou">Vodou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winti" title="Winti">Winti</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other ethnic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Aboriginal Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_religion" title="Inuit religion">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_mythology" title="Papuan mythology">Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_in_Siberia" title="Shamanism in Siberia">Siberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">New<br /> religious<br /> movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Syncretic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmoism" title="Brahmoism">Brahmoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coconut_Religion" title="Coconut Religion">Coconut Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_new_religions" title="Japanese new religions">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meivazhi" title="Meivazhi">Meivazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modekngei" title="Modekngei">Modekngei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Acropolis" title="New Acropolis">New Acropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Thought" title="New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajneesh_movement" title="Rajneesh movement">Rajneesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roerichism" title="Roerichism">Roerichism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Sant_Mat_movements" title="Contemporary Sant Mat movements">Sant Mat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radha_Soami" title="Radha Soami">Radha Soami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subud" title="Subud">Subud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensegrity_(Castaneda)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensegrity (Castaneda)">Tensegrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelema" title="Thelema">Thelema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">Theosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Theosophy" title="Neo-Theosophy">Neo-Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni_Yoga" title="Agni Yoga">Agni Yoga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation" title="Transcendental Meditation">Transcendental Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_White_Brotherhood" title="Universal White Brotherhood">White Brotherhood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Modern<br />paganism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>African <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godianism" title="Godianism">Godianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetanism" title="Hetanism">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_neopaganism" title="Baltic neopaganism">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dievtur%C4%ABba" title="Dievturība">Dievturība</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romuva_(religion)" title="Romuva (religion)">Romuva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_neopaganism" title="Caucasian neopaganism">Caucasian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abkhaz neopaganism">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_Xabze" title="Adyghe Xabze">Circassian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_neopaganism" title="Celtic neopaganism">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)" title="Heathenry (new religious movement)">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(modern_religion)" title="Hellenism (modern religion)">Hellenism (modern religion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">Neoshamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheistic_reconstructionism" title="Polytheistic reconstructionism">Polytheistic reconstructionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Roman_religion" title="Reconstructionist Roman religion">Italo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemetism" title="Kemetism">Kemetism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith" title="Slavic Native Faith">Slavic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Authentism" title="Russian Authentism">Authentism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_neopaganism" title="Uralic neopaganism">Uralic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_neopaganism" title="Estonian neopaganism">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Finnish_paganism" title="Modern Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Native_Faith" title="Hungarian Native Faith">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari_religion" title="Mari religion">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzyan_native_religion" title="Erzyan native religion">Erzya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_shamanism" title="Sámi shamanism">Sámi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_Vos" title="Udmurt Vos">Udmurt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Zalmoxianism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_pagan_movements" title="List of modern pagan movements">list</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">De novo</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophy" title="Anthroposophy">Anthroposophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discordianism" title="Discordianism">Discordianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eckankar" title="Eckankar">Eckankar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Way" title="Fourth Way">Fourth Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jediism" title="Jediism">Jediism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satanism" title="Satanism">Satanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientology" title="Scientology">Scientology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UFO_religion" title="UFO religion">UFO religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABlism" title="Raëlism">Raëlism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_religions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">Historical religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_people#Religion" title="Ainu people">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_mythology" title="Prussian mythology">Old Prussian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_mythology" title="Basque mythology">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_mythology" title="Cook Islands mythology">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_folk_religion" title="Dravidian folk religion">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atenism" title="Atenism">Atenism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_mythology" title="Finnish mythology">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuegians#Spiritual_culture" title="Fuegians">Fuegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_mythology" title="Selk'nam mythology">Selk'nam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_mythology" title="Georgian mythology">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_paganism" title="Frankish paganism">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Mysteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphism_(religion)" title="Orphism (religion)">Orphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanches#System_of_beliefs" title="Guanches">Guanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Religion" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Harappan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_mythology" title="Hungarian mythology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_religion" title="Hurrian religion">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Confederacy#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Illinois Confederacy">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_mythology" title="Inca mythology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Maroon_religion" title="Jamaican Maroon religion">Jamaican Maroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_mythology" title="Melanesian mythology">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_religion" title="Babylonian religion">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_mythology" title="Micronesian mythology">Micronesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nauruan_Indigenous_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nauruan Indigenous religion">Nauruan Indigenous religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_religion" title="Olmec religion">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_folk_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian folk beliefs">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian mythology">Dacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basketmaker_III_Era#Culture_and_religion" title="Basketmaker III Era">Ancestral Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_II_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo II Period">Pueblo II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_III_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo III Period">Pueblo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_IV_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo IV Period">Pueblo IV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_mythology" title="Rapa Nui mythology">Rapa Nui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cult of Magna Mater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Mysteries of Isis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_religion" title="Punic religion">Punic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_mythology" title="Somali mythology">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongan_religion" title="Tongan religion">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu#Religion" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vainakh_religion" title="Vainakh religion">Vainakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization#Religion_and_Myth" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">Apostasy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Religious_disaffiliation" title="Religious disaffiliation">Disaffiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_behaviour" title="Religious behaviour">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">Beliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call_to_prayer" title="Call to prayer">Call to prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laicism" title="Laicism">Laicism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">Laity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_(religion)" title="Covenant (religion)">Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_denomination" title="Religious denomination">Denomination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">Entheogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship" title="Fire worship">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religion" title="Indigenous religion">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">Monk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novice" title="Novice">Novice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">Nun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_mythology" title="Religion and mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">Orthopraxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">Religious experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Ritual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_purification" title="Ritual purification">Purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">Sacrifice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_space" title="Sacred space">Sacred space</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_waters" title="Sacred waters">Bodies of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_mountains" title="Sacred mountains">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tree" title="Sacred tree">Trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">Spirituality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_symbol" title="Religious symbol">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_truth" title="Religious views on truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_and_religion" title="Water and religion">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">Worship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Worship_of_heavenly_bodies" title="Worship of heavenly bodies">Astral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_worship" title="Nature worship">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place_of_worship" title="Place of worship">Place</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheism" title="Transtheism">Transtheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion" title="Cognitive science of religion">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">Soteriology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">Salvation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religion" title="Theories about religion">Theories about religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_religion" title="Women and religion">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Religion_and_society" title="Category:Religion and society">Religion <br />and society</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_agriculture" title="Religion and agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_business" title="Religion and business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clericalism" title="Clericalism">Clericalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_assimilation" title="Religious assimilation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">Missionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">Proselytism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_religion" title="Disability and religion">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_fanaticism" title="Religious fanaticism">Fanaticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">Syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_religion" title="Growth of religion">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_happiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion and happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_religion" title="Homosexuality and religion">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_religion" title="Minority religion">Minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_church" title="National church">National church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Importance_of_religion_by_country" title="Importance of religion by country">National religiosity levels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_politics" title="Religion in politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_populations" title="List of religious populations">Populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religiocentrism" title="Religiocentrism">Religiocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism_and_religion" title="Vegetarianism and religion">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_video_games" title="Religion and video games">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">Sectarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth_and_religion" title="Wealth and religion">Wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a> <br />and <a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">irreligion</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deconstruction" title="Positive deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_theology" title="Secular theology">Secular theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">Secularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Unaffiliated</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Overviews<br />and <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion-related_lists" title="Category:Religion-related lists">lists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Table_of_prophets_of_Abrahamic_religions" title="Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_who_have_been_considered_deities" title="List of people who have been considered deities">Deification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_deities" title="Lists of deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_founders_of_religious_traditions" title="List of founders of religious traditions">Founders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_religion-related_articles" title="Index of religion-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_peaceful_gatherings" title="List of largest peaceful gatherings">Mass gatherings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_religious_movements" title="List of new religious movements">New religious movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_organizations" title="List of religious organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_religion" title="Outline of religion">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religions and spiritual traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Algeria" title="Religion in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Angola" title="Religion in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Benin" title="Religion in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Botswana" title="Religion in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Religion in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burundi" title="Religion in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cameroon" title="Religion in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cape_Verde" title="Religion in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Religion in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chad" title="Religion in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Comoros" title="Religion in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Djibouti" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Egypt" title="Religion in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Religion in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eritrea" title="Religion in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eswatini" title="Religion in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ethiopia" title="Religion in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Gabon" title="Religion in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Gambia" title="Religion in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ghana" title="Religion in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea" title="Religion in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Religion in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Religion in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kenya" title="Religion in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lesotho" title="Religion in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liberia" title="Religion in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Libya" title="Religion in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Madagascar" title="Religion in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malawi" title="Religion in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mali" title="Religion in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritania" title="Religion in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritius" title="Religion in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Morocco" title="Religion in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mozambique" title="Religion in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Namibia" title="Religion in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Niger" title="Religion in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nigeria" title="Religion in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Rwanda" title="Religion in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Religion in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Senegal" title="Religion in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Seychelles" title="Religion in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Religion in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia" title="Religion in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Africa" title="Religion in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Sudan" title="Religion in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sudan" title="Religion in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tanzania" title="Religion in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Togo" title="Religion in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tunisia" title="Religion in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uganda" title="Religion in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zambia" title="Religion in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zimbabwe" title="Religion in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Asia" title="Religion in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Afghanistan" title="Religion in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Armenia" title="Religion in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Azerbaijan" title="Religion in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bahrain" title="Religion in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bangladesh" title="Religion in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bhutan" title="Religion in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brunei" title="Religion in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cambodia" title="Religion in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cyprus" title="Religion in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_East_Timor" title="Religion in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Religion in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hong_Kong" title="Religion in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Religion in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iran" title="Religion in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Israel" title="Religion in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jordan" title="Religion in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kazakhstan" title="Religion in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Korea" title="Religion in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Korea" title="Religion in South Korea">South Korea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kuwait" title="Religion in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Religion in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Laos" title="Religion in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lebanon" title="Religion in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau" title="Religion in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malaysia" title="Religion in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Maldives" title="Religion in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mongolia" title="Religion in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Myanmar" title="Religion in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nepal" title="Religion in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oman" title="Religion in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Pakistan" title="Religion in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Philippines" title="Religion in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Qatar" title="Religion in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Religion in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Singapore" title="Religion in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Religion in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Taiwan" title="Religion in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tajikistan" title="Religion in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Thailand" title="Religion in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkey" title="Religion in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkmenistan" title="Religion in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Religion in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uzbekistan" title="Religion in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Yemen" title="Religion in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Europe" title="Religion in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Albania" title="Religion in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Andorra" title="Religion in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Austria" title="Religion in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belarus" title="Religion in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belgium" title="Religion in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bulgaria" title="Religion in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Croatia" title="Religion in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Religion in the Czech Republic">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Denmark" title="Religion in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Estonia" title="Religion in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Finland" title="Religion in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_France" title="Religion in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Germany" title="Religion in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Greece" title="Religion in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hungary" title="Religion in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iceland" title="Religion in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Religion in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kosovo" title="Religion in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Latvia" title="Religion in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liechtenstein" title="Religion in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lithuania" title="Religion in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Luxembourg" title="Religion in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malta" title="Religion in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Moldova" title="Religion in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Montenegro" title="Religion in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Religion in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Macedonia" title="Religion in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Norway" title="Religion in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Poland" title="Religion in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Portugal" title="Religion in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Romania" title="Religion in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Russia" title="Religion in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_San_Marino" title="Religion in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Serbia" title="Religion in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovakia" title="Religion in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovenia" title="Religion in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Spain" title="Religion in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sweden" title="Religion in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Switzerland" title="Religion in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ukraine" title="Religion in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Religion in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Religion in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_America" title="Religion in North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Religion in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Bahamas" title="Religion in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Barbados" title="Religion in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belize" title="Religion in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Canada" title="Religion in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Costa_Rica" title="Religion in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cuba" title="Religion in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Dominica" title="Religion in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Religion in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_El_Salvador" title="Religion in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Grenada" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guatemala" title="Religion in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Haiti" title="Religion in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Honduras" title="Religion in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jamaica" title="Religion in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mexico" title="Religion in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nicaragua" title="Religion in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Panama" title="Religion in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Religion in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oceania" title="Religion in Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Australia" title="Religion in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Fiji" title="Religion in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kiribati" title="Religion in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Religion in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Religion in the Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nauru" title="Religion in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_New_Zealand" title="Religion in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Palau" title="Religion in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Religion in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Samoa" title="Religion in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Solomon_Islands" title="Religion in Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tonga" title="Religion in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tuvalu" title="Religion in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vanuatu" title="Religion in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_America" title="Religion in South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Argentina" title="Religion in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bolivia" title="Religion in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brazil" title="Religion in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chile" title="Religion in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Colombia" title="Religion in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ecuador" title="Religion in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guyana" title="Religion in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Paraguay" title="Religion in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Peru" title="Religion in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Suriname" title="Religion in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uruguay" title="Religion in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Venezuela" title="Religion in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion" title="Category:Religion">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chinese_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#f3c7b0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_philosophy" title="Template:Chinese philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_philosophy" title="Template talk:Chinese philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chinese_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f3c7b0;;width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Confucianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_learning" title="Han learning">Han learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang%E2%80%93Lao" title="Huang–Lao">Huang–Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Marxist_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Marxist Philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Diplomacy" title="School of Diplomacy">School of Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Daoxue</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Xuanxue</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Syncretism (Chinese philosophy)">Mixed School</a></li></ul> <i><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Schools_of_Thought" title="Nine Schools of Thought">Nine Schools of Thought</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a></li></ul></div></i> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f3c7b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_philosophers" title="List of Chinese philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bu_Shang" title="Bu Shang">Bu Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chunyu_Kun" title="Chunyu Kun">Chunyu Kun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xi" title="Deng Xi">Deng Xi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duanmu_Ci" title="Duanmu Ci">Duanmu Ci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaozi" title="Gaozi">Gaozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongsun_Long" title="Gongsun Long">Gongsun Long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guan_Zhong" title="Guan Zhong">Guan Zhong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hui_Shi" title="Hui Shi">Hui Shi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Kui_(legalist)" title="Li Kui (legalist)">Li Kui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Si" title="Li Si">Li Si</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie_Yukou" title="Lie Yukou">Lie Yukou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Dao" title="Shen Dao">Shen Dao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su_Qin" title="Su Qin">Su Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Qi" title="Wu Qi">Wu Qi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ximen_Bao" title="Ximen Bao">Ximen Bao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Xing_(philosopher)" title="Xu Xing (philosopher)">Xu Xing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Zhu" title="Yang Zhu">Yang Zhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Xian" title="Yuan Xian">Yuan Xian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yi_(Warring_States_period)" title="Zhang Yi (Warring States period)">Zhang Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zichan" title="Zichan">Zichan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zisi" title="Zisi">Zisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zou_Yan" title="Zou Yan">Zou Yan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ban_Zhao" title="Ban Zhao">Ban Zhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dong_Zhongshu" title="Dong Zhongshu">Dong Zhongshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongfang_Shuo" title="Dongfang Shuo">Dongfang Shuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dou_Wu" title="Dou Wu">Dou Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huan_Tan" title="Huan Tan">Huan Tan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Yi" title="Jia Yi">Jia Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Kui_(scholar)" title="Jia Kui (scholar)">Jia Kui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jing_Fang" title="Jing Fang">Jing Fang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kong_Anguo" title="Kong Anguo">Kong Anguo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_An" title="Liu An">Liu An</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Jia_(Western_Han)" title="Lu Jia (Western Han)">Lu Jia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiang_(scholar)" title="Liu Xiang (scholar)">Liu Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Rong" title="Ma Rong">Ma Rong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chong" title="Wang Chong">Wang Chong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Fu_(Han_dynasty)" title="Wang Fu (Han dynasty)">Wang Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xun_Yue" title="Xun Yue">Xun Yue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Xiong_(author)" title="Yang Xiong (author)">Yang Xiong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bao_Jingyan" title="Bao Jingyan">Bao Jingyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_Zhen" title="Fan Zhen">Fan Zhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_Ye_(historian)" title="Fan Ye (historian)">Fan Ye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Xiang" title="Guo Xiang">Guo Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fu_Xuan" title="Fu Xuan">Fu Xuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Yan" title="He Yan">He Yan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huiyuan_(Buddhist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Huiyuan (Buddhist)">Huiyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji_Kang" title="Ji Kang">Ji Kang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sengzhao" title="Sengzhao">Sengzhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Su_(Cao_Wei)" title="Wang Su (Cao Wei)">Wang Su</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Bi" title="Wang Bi">Wang Bi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiahou_Xuan" title="Xiahou Xuan">Xiahou Xuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xie_Daoyun" title="Xie Daoyun">Xie Daoyun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xun_Can" title="Xun Can">Xun Can</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Zhitui" title="Yan Zhitui">Yan Zhitui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhi_Dun" title="Zhi Dun">Zhi Dun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fu_Yi" title="Fu Yi">Fu Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jizang" title="Jizang">Jizang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Tong_(philosopher)" title="Wang Tong (philosopher)">Wang Tong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zhihe" title="Zhang Zhihe">Zhang Zhihe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Yu" title="Han Yu">Han Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Ao_(philosopher)" title="Li Ao (philosopher)">Li Ao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Yuxi" title="Liu Yuxi">Liu Yuxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Zongyuan" title="Liu Zongyuan">Liu Zongyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linji_Yixuan" title="Linji Yixuan">Linji Yixuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms">Five Dynasties</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms">Ten Kingdoms</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Hao" title="Cheng Hao">Cheng Hao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Yi_(philosopher)" title="Cheng Yi (philosopher)">Cheng Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_Zhongyan" title="Fan Zhongyan">Fan Zhongyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Hong" title="Hu Hong">Hu Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Jiuyuan" title="Lu Jiuyuan">Lu Jiuyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shao_Yong" title="Shao Yong">Shao Yong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song">Su Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang Anshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chongyang" title="Wang Chongyang">Wang Chongyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chuyi" title="Wang Chuyi">Wang Chuyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ye_Shi" title="Ye Shi">Ye Shi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zai" title="Zhang Zai">Zhang Zai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Dunyi" title="Zhou Dunyi">Zhou Dunyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Jiru" title="Chen Jiru">Chen Jiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang_Zongxi" title="Huang Zongxi">Huang Zongxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Zicheng" title="Hong Zicheng">Hong Zicheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiao_Hong" title="Jiao Hong">Jiao Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiao_Yu" title="Jiao Yu">Jiao Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lai_Zhide" title="Lai Zhide">Lai Zhide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Zhi_(philosopher)" title="Li Zhi (philosopher)">Li Zhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Bowen" title="Liu Bowen">Liu Bowen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Zongzhou" title="Liu Zongzhou">Liu Zongzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_Rufang_(Ming_dynasty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luo Rufang (Ming dynasty)">Luo Rufang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Dehong" title="Qian Dehong">Qian Dehong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Ji_(philosopher)" title="Wang Ji (philosopher)">Wang Ji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Gen" title="Wang Gen">Wang Gen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Cheng_(philosopher)" title="Wu Cheng (philosopher)">Wu Cheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Ai" title="Xu Ai">Xu Ai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhan_Ruoshui" title="Zhan Ruoshui">Zhan Ruoshui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Hongmou" title="Chen Hongmou">Chen Hongmou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Menglei" title="Chen Menglei">Chen Menglei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_Zhen" title="Dai Zhen">Dai Zhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_Bao" title="Fang Bao">Fang Bao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_Lanfen" title="Fang Lanfen">Fang Lanfen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_Quan" title="Fang Quan">Fang Quan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Guifen" title="Feng Guifen">Feng Guifen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gong_Zizhen" title="Gong Zizhen">Gong Zizhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu_Yanwu" title="Gu Yanwu">Gu Yanwu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Liangji" title="Hong Liangji">Hong Liangji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji_Yun" title="Ji Yun">Ji Yun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Qixi" title="Ma Qixi">Ma Qixi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Zexu" title="Lin Zexu">Lin Zexu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Yiming" title="Liu Yiming">Liu Yiming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Pingge" title="Pan Pingge">Pan Pingge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tan_Sitong" title="Tan Sitong">Tan Sitong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_Zhen" title="Tang Zhen">Tang Zhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Fuzhi" title="Wang Fuzhi">Wang Fuzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Yuan" title="Wei Yuan">Wei Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Yuan_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Yan Yuan (Qing dynasty)">Yan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Yue" title="Yu Yue">Yu Yue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Zhengxie" title="Yu Zhengxie">Yu Zhengxie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xuecheng" title="Zhang Xuecheng">Zhang Xuecheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Cunyu" title="Zhuang Cunyu">Zhuang Cunyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeng_Guofan" title="Zeng Guofan">Zeng Guofan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cai_Yuanpei" title="Cai Yuanpei">Cai Yuanpei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carsun_Chang" title="Carsun Chang">Carsun Chang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._C._Chang" title="P. C. Chang">P. C. Chang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Daqi" title="Chen Daqi">Chen Daqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Duxiu" title="Chen Duxiu">Chen Duxiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chung-ying_Cheng" title="Chung-ying Cheng">Chung-ying Cheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%27ien_Mu" title="Ch'ien Mu">Ch'ien Mu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chu_Anping" title="Chu Anping">Chu Anping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_Keli" title="Fang Keli">Fang Keli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Youlan" title="Feng Youlan">Feng Youlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gan_Yang" title="Gan Yang">Gan Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu_Su" title="Gu Su">Gu Su</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu_Zhun" title="Gu Zhun">Gu Zhun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Guanghu" title="He Guanghu">He Guanghu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Qiaomu" title="Hu Qiaomu">Hu Qiaomu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu Shih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua_Gang" title="Hua Gang">Hua Gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Huang" title="Ray Huang">Ray Huang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiang_Qing_(Confucian)" title="Jiang Qing (Confucian)">Jiang Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_Yuelin" title="Jin Yuelin">Jin Yuelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kang_Youwei" title="Kang Youwei">Kang Youwei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Shui-chuen" title="Lee Shui-chuen">Lee Shui-chuen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Shicen" title="Li Shicen">Li Shicen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Zehou" title="Li Zehou">Li Zehou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Shuming" title="Liang Shuming">Liang Shuming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Yutang" title="Lin Yutang">Lin Yutang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiaofeng_(academic)" title="Liu Xiaofeng (academic)">Liu Xiaofeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Xun" title="Lu Xun">Lu Xun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mou_Zongsan" title="Mou Zongsan">Mou Zongsan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiu_Renzong" title="Qiu Renzong">Qiu Renzong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_Chun-i" title="Tang Chun-i">Tang Chun-i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_Yijie" title="Tang Yijie">Tang Yijie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsang_Lap_Chuen" title="Tsang Lap Chuen">Tsang Lap Chuen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiong_Shili" title="Xiong Shili">Xiong Shili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Fuguan" title="Xu Fuguan">Xu Fuguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Changji" title="Yang Changji">Yang Changji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yin_Haiguang" title="Yin Haiguang">Yin Haiguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Dunkang" title="Yu Dunkang">Yu Dunkang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Dongsun" title="Zhang Dongsun">Zhang Dongsun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Shenfu" title="Zhang Shenfu">Zhang Shenfu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Guoping" title="Zhou Guoping">Zhou Guoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Zuoren" title="Zhou Zuoren">Zhou Zuoren</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f3c7b0;;width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">De</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fa_(philosophy)" title="Fa (philosophy)">Fa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mozi#Philosophy" title="Mozi">Jian'ai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jing_(philosophy)" title="Jing (philosophy)">Jing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jing_zuo" title="Jing zuo">Jing zuo</a></i></li> <li><i>Li</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_(Neo-Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Li (Neo-Confucianism)">Neo-Confucianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ming_yun" title="Ming yun">Ming yun</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qing_(philosophy)" title="Qing (philosophy)">Qing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ren_(Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ren (Confucianism)">Ren</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_teachings" title="Three teachings">Three teachings</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">Shen</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Si_(philosophy)" title="Si (philosophy)">Si</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ti_(philosophy)" title="Ti (philosophy)">Ti</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">Wu wei</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">Filial piety</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xin_(heart-mind)" title="Xin (heart-mind)">Xin</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)#East_Asian_philosophies" title="Nature (philosophy)">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">Self-cultivation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yi_(philosophy)" title="Yi (philosophy)">Yi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">Yin and yang</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Essence-Function" class="mw-redirect" title="Essence-Function">Yong</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zhengming" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhengming">Zhengming</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ziran" title="Ziran">Ziran</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f3c7b0;;width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_China" title="Logic in China">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_theology" title="Chinese theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics#Classical_China" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy#Ancient_China" title="Political philosophy">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_consequentialism" title="State consequentialism">State consequentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ink_wash_painting#Philosophy" title="Ink wash painting">Ink wash</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shan_shui#Concepts" title="Shan shui">Shan shui</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_of_Chinese_philosophy" title="Legitimacy of Chinese philosophy">Legitimacy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(44 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1486)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1756)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1949)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1976)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1990)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1991)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2010)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4032089-3">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85031069">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Confucianisme"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11945762c">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Confucianisme"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11945762c">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00575077">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="konfucianismus"><a 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