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<li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1920s_–_1940s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1920s_–_1940s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>1920s – 1940s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1920s_–_1940s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1950s_–_1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1950s_–_1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>1950s – 1990s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1950s_–_1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.3</span> <span>21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renowned_paleoanthropologists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renowned_paleoanthropologists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Renowned paleoanthropologists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renowned_paleoanthropologists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Paleoanthropology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">51 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologie" title="Paleoantropologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Paleoantropologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1" title="علم مستحاثات البشر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم مستحاثات البشر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantroplar" title="Paleoantroplar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Paleoantroplar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Палеаантрапалогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Палеаантрапалогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Палеоантропология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Палеоантропология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologija" title="Paleoantropologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Paleoantropologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologiezh" title="Paleoantropologiezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Paleoantropologiezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologia" title="Paleoantropologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Paleoantropologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologie" title="Paleoantropologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Paleoantropologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoanthropoleg" title="Paleoanthropoleg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Paleoanthropoleg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pal%C3%A4oanthropologie" title="Paläoanthropologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Paläoanthropologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropoloogia" title="Paleoantropoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Paleoantropoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropolog%C3%ADa" title="Paleoantropología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Paleoantropología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologio" title="Paleoantropologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Paleoantropologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologia" title="Paleoantropologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Paleoantropologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="دیرین‌مردم‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دیرین‌مردم‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pal%C3%A9oanthropologie" title="Paléoanthropologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Paléoanthropologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropolox%C3%ADa" title="Paleoantropoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Paleoantropoloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EC%9D%B8%EB%A5%98%ED%95%99" title="고인류학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고인류학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B6%D5%A7%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հնէամարդաբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հնէամարդաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologija" title="Paleoantropologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Paleoantropologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologi" title="Paleoantropologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Paleoantropologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologia" title="Paleoantropologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Paleoantropologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%95%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="פלאואנתרופולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פלאואנתרופולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Палеоантропология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Палеоантропология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Палеоантропология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Палеоантропология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologija" title="Paleoantropologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Paleoantropologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9E%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="ശിലാഭൂതമനുഷ്യവിജ്ഞാനീയം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ശിലാഭൂതമനുഷ്യവിജ്ഞാനീയം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologi" title="Paleoantropologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Paleoantropologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologie" title="Paleoantropologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Paleoantropologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%A6" title="古人類学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古人類学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologi" title="Paleoantropologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Paleoantropologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologia" title="Paleoantropologia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Paleoantropologia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologiya" title="Paleoantropologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Paleoantropologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86%DB%90_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="لرغونې انسانپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لرغونې انسانپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologia" title="Paleoantropologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Paleoantropologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologia" title="Paleoantropologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Paleoantropologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Палеоантропология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Палеоантропология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Paleoanthropology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropol%C3%B3gia" title="Paleoantropológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Paleoantropológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Палеоантропологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Палеоантропологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologija" title="Paleoantropologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Paleoantropologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologia" title="Paleoantropologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Paleoantropologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologi" title="Paleoantropologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Paleoantropologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="தொல்மானிடவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தொல்மானிடவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropoloji" title="Paleoantropoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Paleoantropoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Палеоантропологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Палеоантропологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BB%95_nh%C3%A2n_lo%E1%BA%A1i_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Cổ nhân loại học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cổ nhân loại học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoantropologie" title="Paleoantropologie – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Paleoantropologie" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology" title="Category:Anthropology">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#efefef;"><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Queue.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/100px-Queue.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/150px-Queue.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/200px-Queue.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:none;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anthropology" title="Outline of anthropology">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">History</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_archaeology" title="Aviation archaeology">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlefield_archaeology" title="Battlefield archaeology">Battlefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_archaeology" title="Biblical archaeology">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_archaeology" title="Environmental archaeology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experiential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">Paleoethnobotanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_anthropology" title="Molecular anthropology">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology"> Neurological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_anthropology" title="Nutritional anthropology">Nutritional</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Paleoanthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_anthropology" title="Applied anthropology">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_art" title="Anthropology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_anthropology" title="Cognitive anthropology">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology"><span class="wrap">Political economy</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_food" title="Anthropology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_institutions" title="Anthropology of institutions">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_media" title="Anthropology of media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomuseology" title="Ethnomuseology">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Musical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_anthropology" title="Psychological anthropology">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_anthropology" title="Public anthropology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Symbolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpersonal anthropology">Transpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_anthropology" title="Urban anthropology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Visual</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">Ethnological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">Ethnopoetical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_ideology" title="Language ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotic_anthropology" title="Semiotic anthropology">Semiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology#Methods" title="Cultural anthropology">Research framework</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropometry" title="Anthropometry">Anthropometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyber-ethnography" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber-ethnography">cyber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_cross-cultural_sample" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard cross-cultural sample">Cross-cultural comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism_in_science" title="Holism in science">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)" title="Reflexivity (social theory)">Reflexivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thick_description" title="Thick description">Thick description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">Cultural relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">Emic and etic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_anthropology" title="Development anthropology">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">sociocultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship and descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Meme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_theories_of_value" title="Anthropological theories of value">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">Alliance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">Cross-cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_materialism_(anthropology)" title="Cultural materialism (anthropology)">Cultural materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">Diffusionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_particularism" title="Historical particularism">Historical particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boasian_anthropology" title="Boasian anthropology">Boasian anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Interpretive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_studies" title="Performance studies">Performance studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_theory" title="Practice theory">Practice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_anthropology" title="Structural anthropology">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropologists_by_nationality" title="Category:Anthropologists by nationality">Anthropologists by nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_anthropology" title="List of years in anthropology">Anthropology by year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_anthropology" title="Bibliography of anthropology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anthropology_journals" title="List of anthropology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples">List of indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology_organizations" title="Category:Anthropology organizations">Organizations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology" title="Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology" title="Template talk:Anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Paleoanthropology</b> or <b>paleo-anthropology</b> is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">anthropology</a> which seeks to understand the early development of <a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern human">anatomically modern humans</a>, a process known as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hominization" class="extiw" title="wikt:hominization">hominization</a>, through the reconstruction of evolutionary <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> lines within the family <a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">Hominidae</a>, working from biological evidence (such as <a href="/wiki/Petrified" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrified">petrified</a> skeletal remains, <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">bone fragments</a>, footprints) and cultural evidence (such as <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a>, artifacts, and settlement localities).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The field draws from and combines <a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">primatology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">biological anthropology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a>. As technologies and methods advance, <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> plays an ever-increasing role, in particular to examine and compare DNA structure as a vital tool of research of the evolutionary kinship lines of related species and genera. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoanthropology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term paleoanthropology derives from Greek palaiós (παλαιός) "old, ancient", ánthrōpos (ἄνθρωπος) "man, human" and the suffix -logía (-λογία) "study of". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hominoid_taxonomies">Hominoid taxonomies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoanthropology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hominoid taxonomies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Hominoids are a primate superfamily, the hominid family is currently considered to comprise both the <a href="/wiki/Great_apes" class="mw-redirect" title="Great apes">great ape</a> lineages and human lineages within the <a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">hominoid</a> superfamily. The "<a href="/wiki/Homininae" title="Homininae">Homininae</a>" comprise both the human lineages and the <a href="/wiki/Great_ape" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape">African ape</a> lineages. The term "African apes" refers only to <a href="/wiki/Pan_(genus)" title="Pan (genus)">chimpanzees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The terminology of the immediate biological family is currently in flux. The term "hominin" refers to any genus in the human tribe (Hominini), of which <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i> (modern humans) is the only living specimen.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <table style="border-spacing: 0px; border-collapse: separate;"> <tbody><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">Suborder</a> <a href="/wiki/Hominoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominoids">Hominoids</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">Family</a> <a href="/wiki/Hominids" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominids">Hominids</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">Subfamily <a href="/wiki/Homininae" title="Homininae">Homininae</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">Tribe <a href="/wiki/Gorillini" title="Gorillini">Gorillini</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">Tribe <a href="/wiki/Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominini</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">Genus</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus" title="Ardipithecus">Ardipithecus</a></i></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">Genus <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></i></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">Genus <i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">Paranthropus</a></i></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">Genus <i><a href="/wiki/Kenyanthropus" title="Kenyanthropus">Kenyanthropus</a></i></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em">Genus <i><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a></i></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> </tbody></table><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoanthropology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="18th_century">18th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoanthropology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 18th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1758 <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> introduced the name <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i> as a species name in the 10th edition of his work <i><a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a></i> although without a scientific description of the species-specific characteristics.<sup id="cite_ref-Caroli_Linnæi_Systema_naturæ_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caroli_Linnæi_Systema_naturæ-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the great apes were considered the closest relatives of human beings, based on morphological similarity, in the 19th century, it was speculated that the closest living relatives to humans were <a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a> (genus <i><a href="/wiki/Pan_(genus)" title="Pan (genus)">Pan</a></i>) and gorilla (genus <i><a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">Gorilla</a></i>), and based on the natural range of these creatures, it was surmised that humans shared a <a href="/wiki/Common_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Common ancestor">common ancestor</a> with <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">African</a> apes and that <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> of these ancestors would ultimately be found in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Caroli_Linnæi_Systema_naturæ_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caroli_Linnæi_Systema_naturæ-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoanthropology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Darwin_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron,_c._1868.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Charles_Darwin_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron%2C_c._1868.jpg/170px-Charles_Darwin_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron%2C_c._1868.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Charles_Darwin_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron%2C_c._1868.jpg/255px-Charles_Darwin_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron%2C_c._1868.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Charles_Darwin_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron%2C_c._1868.jpg/340px-Charles_Darwin_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron%2C_c._1868.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2348" data-file-height="2916" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The science arguably began in the late 19th century when important discoveries occurred that led to the study of <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a>. The discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthal</a> in Germany, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huxley" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Huxley">Thomas Huxley</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature">Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Descent_of_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="The Descent of Man">The Descent of Man</a></i> were both important to early paleoanthropological research. </p><p>The modern field of paleoanthropology began in the 19th century with the discovery of "<a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthal</a> man" (the eponymous skeleton was found in 1856, but there had been finds elsewhere since 1830), and with evidence of so-called <a href="/wiki/Caveman" title="Caveman">cave men</a>. The idea that humans are similar to certain <a href="/wiki/Great_ape" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape">great apes</a> had been obvious to people for some time, but the idea of the biological evolution of species in general was not legitimized until after <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> published <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i> in 1859. </p><p>Though Darwin's first book on evolution did not address the specific question of human evolution—"light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history," was all Darwin wrote on the subject—the implications of evolutionary theory were clear to contemporary readers. </p><p>Debates between <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huxley" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Huxley">Thomas Huxley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Owen" title="Richard Owen">Richard Owen</a> focused on the idea of human evolution. Huxley convincingly illustrated many of the similarities and differences between humans and apes in his 1863 book <i><a href="/wiki/Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature">Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature</a></i>. By the time Darwin published his own book on the subject, <i><a href="/wiki/Descent_of_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="Descent of Man">Descent of Man</a></i>, it was already a well-known interpretation of his theory—and the interpretation which made the theory highly controversial. Even many of Darwin's original supporters (such as <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a>) balked at the idea that human beings could have evolved their apparently boundless mental capacities and moral sensibilities through <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoanthropology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LuzonensisMolars.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/LuzonensisMolars.jpg/220px-LuzonensisMolars.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/LuzonensisMolars.jpg/330px-LuzonensisMolars.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/LuzonensisMolars.jpg/440px-LuzonensisMolars.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2208" data-file-height="1242" /></a><figcaption>Five of the seven known fossil teeth of <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_luzonensis" title="Homo luzonensis">Homo luzonensis</a></i> found in <a href="/wiki/Callao_Cave" title="Callao Cave">Callao Cave</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Prior to the general acceptance of Africa as the root of genus <i>Homo</i>, 19th-century naturalists sought the origin of humans in Asia. So-called "dragon bones" (fossil bones and teeth) from Chinese apothecary shops were known, but it was not until the early 20th century that German paleontologist, <a href="/wiki/Max_Schlosser_(zoologist)" title="Max Schlosser (zoologist)">Max Schlosser</a>, first described a single human tooth from <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>. Although Schlosser (1903) was very cautious, identifying the tooth only as "?<i>Anthropoide g. et sp. indet</i>?," he was hopeful that future work would discover a new anthropoid in China. </p><p>Eleven years later, the Swedish geologist <a href="/wiki/Johan_Gunnar_Andersson" title="Johan Gunnar Andersson">Johan Gunnar Andersson</a> was sent to China as a mining advisor and soon developed an interest in "dragon bones". It was he who, in 1918, discovered the sites around <a href="/wiki/Zhoukoudian" title="Zhoukoudian">Zhoukoudian</a>, a village about 50 kilometers southwest of Beijing. However, because of the sparse nature of the initial finds, the site was abandoned. </p><p>Work did not resume until 1921, when the Austrian paleontologist, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Zdansky" title="Otto Zdansky">Otto Zdansky</a>, fresh with his doctoral degree from Vienna, came to Beijing to work for Andersson. Zdansky conducted short-term excavations at Locality 1 in 1921 and 1923, and recovered only two teeth of significance (one premolar and one molar) that he subsequently described, cautiously, as "?<i>Homo sp.</i>" (Zdansky, 1927). With that done, Zdansky returned to Austria and suspended all fieldwork. </p><p>News of the fossil hominin teeth delighted the scientific community in Beijing, and plans for developing a larger, more systematic project at Zhoukoudian were soon formulated. At the epicenter of excitement was <a href="/wiki/Davidson_Black" title="Davidson Black">Davidson Black</a>, a Canadian-born anatomist working at <a href="/wiki/Peking_Union_Medical_College" title="Peking Union Medical College">Peking Union Medical College</a>. Black shared Andersson’s interest, as well as his view that central Asia was a promising home for early humankind. In late 1926, Black submitted a proposal to the <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a> seeking financial support for systematic excavation at Zhoukoudian and the establishment of an institute for the study of human biology in China. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Zhoukoudian_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhoukoudian Project">Zhoukoudian Project</a> came into existence in the spring of 1927, and two years later, the <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic_Research_Laboratory" title="Cenozoic Research Laboratory">Cenozoic Research Laboratory</a> of the Geological Survey of China was formally established. Being the first institution of its kind, the Cenozoic Laboratory opened up new avenues for the study of paleogeology and paleontology in China. The Laboratory was the precursor of the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Vertebrate_Paleontology_and_Paleoanthropology" title="Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology">Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology</a> (IVPP) of the Chinese Academy of Science, which took its modern form after 1949. </p><p>The first of the major project finds are attributed to the young Swedish paleontologist, <a href="/wiki/Anders_Birger_Bohlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Anders Birger Bohlin">Anders Birger Bohlin</a>, then serving as the field advisor at <a href="/wiki/Zhoukoudian" title="Zhoukoudian">Zhoukoudian</a>. He recovered a left lower molar that Black (1927) identified as unmistakably human (it compared favorably to the previous find made by Zdansky), and subsequently coined it <i><a href="/wiki/Sinanthropus_pekinensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinanthropus pekinensis">Sinanthropus pekinensis</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The news was at first met with skepticism, and many scholars had reservations that a single tooth was sufficient to justify the naming of a new type of early hominin. Yet within a little more than two years, in the winter of 1929, <a href="/wiki/Pei_Wenzhong" title="Pei Wenzhong">Pei Wenzhong</a>, then the field director at Zhoukoudian, unearthed the first complete calvaria of <a href="/wiki/Peking_Man" title="Peking Man">Peking Man</a>. Twenty-seven years after Schlosser’s initial description, the antiquity of early humans in East Asia was no longer a speculation, but a reality. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhoukoudian_Peking_Man_Site.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Zhoukoudian_Peking_Man_Site.jpg/220px-Zhoukoudian_Peking_Man_Site.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Zhoukoudian_Peking_Man_Site.jpg/330px-Zhoukoudian_Peking_Man_Site.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Zhoukoudian_Peking_Man_Site.jpg/440px-Zhoukoudian_Peking_Man_Site.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>The Zhoukoudian site</figcaption></figure> <p>Excavations continued at the site and remained fruitful until the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> in 1937. The decade-long research yielded a wealth of faunal and lithic materials, as well as hominin fossils. These included 5 more complete calvaria, 9 large cranial fragments, 6 facial fragments, 14 partial mandibles, 147 isolated teeth, and 11 postcranial elements—estimated to represent as least 40 individuals. Evidence of fire, marked by ash lenses and burned bones and stones, were apparently also present,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although recent studies have challenged this view.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Franz_Weidenreich" title="Franz Weidenreich">Franz Weidenreich</a> came to Beijing soon after Black’s untimely death in 1934, and took charge of the study of the hominin specimens. </p><p>Following the loss of the Peking Man materials in late 1941, scientific endeavors at Zhoukoudian slowed, primarily because of lack of funding. Frantic search for the missing fossils took place, and continued well into the 1950s. After the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/People%E2%80%99s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People’s Republic of China">People’s Republic of China</a> in 1949, excavations resumed at Zhoukoudian. But with political instability and social unrest brewing in China, beginning in 1966, and major discoveries at <a href="/wiki/Olduvai_Gorge" title="Olduvai Gorge">Olduvai Gorge</a> and East Turkana (<a href="/wiki/Koobi_Fora" title="Koobi Fora">Koobi Fora</a>), the paleoanthropological spotlight shifted westward to East Africa. Although China re-opened its doors to the West in the late 1970s, national policy calling for self-reliance, coupled with a widened language barrier, thwarted all the possibilities of renewed scientific relationships. Indeed, Harvard anthropologist K. C. Chang noted, "international collaboration (in developing nations very often a disguise for Western domination) became a thing of the past" (1977: 139). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoanthropology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Australopithecus_africanus_side1_(University_of_Zurich).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Australopithecus_africanus_side1_%28University_of_Zurich%29.JPG/170px-Australopithecus_africanus_side1_%28University_of_Zurich%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Australopithecus_africanus_side1_%28University_of_Zurich%29.JPG/255px-Australopithecus_africanus_side1_%28University_of_Zurich%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Australopithecus_africanus_side1_%28University_of_Zurich%29.JPG/340px-Australopithecus_africanus_side1_%28University_of_Zurich%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Skull of <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">Australopithecus africanus</a></i></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1920s_–_1940s"><span id="1920s_.E2.80.93_1940s"></span>1920s – 1940s</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoanthropology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1920s – 1940s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first paleoanthropological find made in Africa was the 1921 discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Kabwe_1" title="Kabwe 1">Kabwe 1</a> skull at <a href="/wiki/Kabwe,_Broken_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabwe, Broken Hill">Kabwe (Broken Hill)</a>, Zambia. Initially, this specimen was named <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_rhodesiensis" title="Homo rhodesiensis">Homo rhodesiensis</a></i>; however, today it is considered part of the species <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">Homo heidelbergensis</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1924 in a limestone quarry at <a href="/wiki/Taung" title="Taung">Taung</a>, Professor <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Dart" title="Raymond Dart">Raymond Dart</a> discovered a remarkably well-preserved juvenile specimen (face and brain endocast), which he named <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">Australopithecus africanus</a></i> (<i>Australopithecus</i> meaning "Southern Ape"). Although the brain was small (410 cm<sup>3</sup>), its shape was rounded, unlike the brain shape of chimpanzees and gorillas, and more like the shape seen in modern humans. In addition, the specimen exhibited short <a href="/wiki/Canine_tooth" title="Canine tooth">canine teeth</a>, and the anterior placement of the <a href="/wiki/Foramen_magnum" title="Foramen magnum">foramen magnum</a> was more like the placement seen in modern humans than the placement seen in chimpanzees and gorillas, suggesting that this species was <a href="/wiki/Bipedal" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipedal">bipedal</a>. </p><p>All of these traits convinced Dart that the Taung child was a bipedal human ancestor, a transitional form between ape and human. However, Dart's conclusions were largely ignored for decades, as the prevailing view of the time was that a large brain evolved before bipedality. It took the discovery of additional australopith fossils in Africa that resembled his specimen, and the rejection of the <a href="/wiki/Piltdown_Man" title="Piltdown Man">Piltdown Man hoax</a>, for Dart's claims to be taken seriously. </p><p>In the 1930s, paleontologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Broom" title="Robert Broom">Robert Broom</a> discovered and described a new species at <a href="/wiki/Kromdraai_fossil_site" title="Kromdraai fossil site">Kromdraai</a>, South Africa. Although similar in some ways to Dart's <i>Australopithecus africanus</i>, Broom's specimen had much larger cheek teeth. Because of this difference, Broom named his specimen <i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_robustus" title="Paranthropus robustus">Paranthropus robustus</a></i>, using a new genus name. In doing so, he established the practice of grouping <a href="/wiki/Gracility" title="Gracility">gracile</a> australopiths in the genus <i>Australopithecus</i> and robust australopiths in the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">Paranthropus</a>.</i> During the 1960s, the robust variety was commonly moved into <i>Australopithecus</i>. A more recent consensus has been to return to the original classification of <i>Paranthropus</i> as a separate genus.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1950s_–_1990s"><span id="1950s_.E2.80.93_1990s"></span>1950s – 1990s</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoanthropology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 1950s – 1990s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The second half of the twentieth century saw a significant increase in the number of paleoanthropological finds made in Africa. Many of these finds were associated with the work of the <a href="/wiki/Leakey_family" title="Leakey family">Leakey family</a> in eastern Africa. In 1959, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Leakey" title="Mary Leakey">Mary Leakey</a>'s discovery of the Zinj fossin (<a href="/wiki/OH_5" class="mw-redirect" title="OH 5">OH 5</a>) at <a href="/wiki/Olduvai_Gorge" title="Olduvai Gorge">Olduvai Gorge</a>, Tanzania, led to the identification of a new species, <i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_boisei" title="Paranthropus boisei">Paranthropus boisei</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1960, the Leakeys discovered the fossil <a href="/wiki/OH_7" title="OH 7">OH 7</a>, also at Olduvai Gorge, and assigned it to a new species, <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">Homo habilis</a></i>. In 1972, Bernard Ngeneo, a fieldworker working for <a href="/wiki/Richard_Leakey" title="Richard Leakey">Richard Leakey</a>, discovered the fossil KNM-ER 1470 near <a href="/wiki/Lake_Turkana" title="Lake Turkana">Lake Turkana</a> in Kenya. KNM-ER 1470 has been interpreted as either a distinct species, <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis">Homo rudolfensis</a></i>, or alternatively as evidence of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">sexual dimorphism</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">Homo habilis</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1967, Richard Leakey reported the earliest definitive examples of anatomically modern <i>Homo sapiens</i> from the site of <a href="/wiki/Omo_Kibish_Formation" title="Omo Kibish Formation">Omo Kibish</a> in Ethiopia, known as the <a href="/wiki/Omo_remains" title="Omo remains">Omo remains</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 1970s, Mary Leakey excavated the famous <a href="/wiki/Laetoli_footprints" class="mw-redirect" title="Laetoli footprints">Laetoli footprints</a> in Tanzania, which demonstrated the antiquity of bipedality in the human lineage.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1985, Richard Leakey and Alan Walker discovered a specimen they called the <a href="/wiki/Black_Skull" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Skull">Black Skull</a>, found near Lake Turkana. This specimen was assigned to another species, <i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_aethiopicus" title="Paranthropus aethiopicus">Paranthropus aethiopicus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1994, a team led by <a href="/wiki/Meave_Leakey" title="Meave Leakey">Meave Leakey</a> announced a new species, <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">Australopithecus anamensis</a></i>, based on specimens found near Lake Turkana.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Numerous other researchers have made important discoveries in eastern Africa. Possibly the most famous is the <a href="/wiki/Lucy_(Australopithecus)" title="Lucy (Australopithecus)">Lucy skeleton</a>, discovered in 1973 by <a href="/wiki/Donald_Johanson" title="Donald Johanson">Donald Johanson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Taieb" title="Maurice Taieb">Maurice Taieb</a> in Ethiopia's <a href="/wiki/Afar_Triangle" title="Afar Triangle">Afar Triangle</a> at the site of <a href="/wiki/Hadar,_Ethiopia" title="Hadar, Ethiopia">Hadar</a>. On the basis of this skeleton and subsequent discoveries, the researchers came up with a new species, <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_afarensis" title="Australopithecus afarensis">Australopithecus afarensis</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1975, <a href="/wiki/Colin_Groves" title="Colin Groves">Colin Groves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vratislav_Maz%C3%A1k" title="Vratislav Mazák">Vratislav Mazák</a> announced a new species of human they called <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">Homo ergaster</a></i>. <i>Homo ergaster</i> specimens have been found at numerous sites in eastern and southern Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1994, Tim D. White announced a new species, <i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_ramidus" title="Ardipithecus ramidus">Ardipithecus ramidus</a></i>, based on fossils from Ethiopia.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1999, two new species were announced. <a href="/wiki/Berhane_Asfaw" title="Berhane Asfaw">Berhane Asfaw</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tim_D._White" title="Tim D. White">Tim D. White</a> named <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_garhi" title="Australopithecus garhi">Australopithecus garhi</a></i> based on specimens discovered in Ethiopia's <a href="/wiki/Awash_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Awash Valley">Awash valley</a>. Meave Leakey announced a new species, <i><a href="/wiki/Kenyanthropus_platyops" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenyanthropus platyops">Kenyanthropus platyops</a></i>, based on the cranium KNM-WT 40000 from Lake Turkana.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="21st_century">21st century</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoanthropology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fossil_hominids.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Fossil_hominids.jpg/220px-Fossil_hominids.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Fossil_hominids.jpg/330px-Fossil_hominids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Fossil_hominids.jpg/440px-Fossil_hominids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>Fossil hominid skull display at <a href="/wiki/The_Museum_of_Osteology" class="mw-redirect" title="The Museum of Osteology">The Museum of Osteology</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City" title="Oklahoma City">Oklahoma City</a>, USA</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 21st century, numerous fossils have been found that add to current knowledge of existing species. For example, in 2001, <a href="/wiki/Zeresenay_Alemseged" title="Zeresenay Alemseged">Zeresenay Alemseged</a> discovered an <i>Australopithecus afarensis</i> child fossil, called <a href="/wiki/Selam_(Australopithecus)" title="Selam (Australopithecus)">Selam</a>, from the site of Dikika in the Afar region of Ethiopia. This find is particularly important because the fossil included a preserved <a href="/wiki/Hyoid_bone" title="Hyoid bone">hyoid bone</a>, something rarely found in other paleoanthropological fossils but important for understanding the evolution of speech capacities.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two new species from southern Africa have been discovered and described in recent years. In 2008, a team led by <a href="/wiki/Lee_Rogers_Berger" class="mw-redirect" title="Lee Rogers Berger">Lee Berger</a> announced a new species, <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba">Australopithecus sediba</a></i>, based on fossils they had discovered in Malapa cave in South Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2015, a team also led by Lee Berger announced another species, <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_naledi" title="Homo naledi">Homo naledi</a></i>, based on fossils representing 15 individuals from the <a href="/wiki/Rising_Star_cave_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Rising Star cave system">Rising Star Cave system</a> in South Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>New species have also been found in eastern Africa. In 2000, <a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Senut" title="Brigitte Senut">Brigitte Senut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Pickford" title="Martin Pickford">Martin Pickford</a> described the species <i><a href="/wiki/Orrorin_tugenensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Orrorin tugenensis">Orrorin tugenensis</a></i>, based on fossils they found in Kenya. In 2004, <a href="/wiki/Yohannes_Haile-Selassie" title="Yohannes Haile-Selassie">Yohannes Haile-Selassie</a> announced that some specimens previously labeled as <i>Ardipithecus ramidus</i> made up a different species, <i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">Ardipithecus kadabba</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2015, Haile-Selassie announced another new species, <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_deyiremeda" title="Australopithecus deyiremeda">Australopithecus deyiremeda</a></i>, though some scholars are skeptical that the associated fossils truly represent a unique species.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although most hominin fossils from Africa have been found in eastern and southern Africa, there are a few exceptions. One is <i><a href="/wiki/Sahelanthropus_tchadensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahelanthropus tchadensis">Sahelanthropus tchadensis</a></i>, discovered in the central African country of Chad in 2002. This find is important because it widens the assumed geographic range of early hominins.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Renowned_paleoanthropologists">Renowned paleoanthropologists</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoanthropology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Renowned paleoanthropologists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Ardrey" title="Robert Ardrey">Robert Ardrey</a> (1908–1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Rogers_Berger" class="mw-redirect" title="Lee Rogers Berger">Lee Berger</a> (1965–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davidson_Black" title="Davidson Black">Davidson Black</a> (1884–1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Broom" title="Robert Broom">Robert Broom</a> (1866–1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Brunet_(paleontologist)" title="Michel Brunet (paleontologist)">Michel Brunet</a> (1940–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Desmond_Clark" title="J. Desmond Clark">J. Desmond Clark</a> (1916–2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carleton_S._Coon" title="Carleton S. Coon">Carleton S. Coon</a> (1904–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Dart" title="Raymond Dart">Raymond Dart</a> (1893–1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Dubois" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene Dubois">Eugene Dubois</a> (1858–1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Carl_Fuhlrott" title="Johann Carl Fuhlrott">Johann Carl Fuhlrott</a> (1803–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yohannes_Haile-Selassie" title="Yohannes Haile-Selassie">Yohannes Haile-Selassie</a> (1961–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Harmand" title="Sonia Harmand">Sonia Harmand</a> (1974–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_D._Hawks" title="John D. Hawks">John D. Hawks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ale%C5%A1_Hrdli%C4%8Dka" title="Aleš Hrdlička">Aleš Hrdlička</a> (1869–1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glynn_Isaac" title="Glynn Isaac">Glynn Isaac</a> (1937–1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_C._Johanson" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald C. Johanson">Donald C. Johanson</a> (1943–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamoya_Kimeu" title="Kamoya Kimeu">Kamoya Kimeu</a> (1938–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Laitman" title="Jeffrey Laitman">Jeffrey Laitman</a> (1951–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Leakey" title="Louis Leakey">Louis Leakey</a> (1903–1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meave_Leakey" title="Meave Leakey">Meave Leakey</a> (1942–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Leakey" title="Mary Leakey">Mary Leakey</a> (1913–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Leakey" title="Richard Leakey">Richard Leakey</a> (1944–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Leroi-Gourhan" title="André Leroi-Gourhan">André Leroi-Gourhan</a> (1911–1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Wilhelm_Lund" title="Peter Wilhelm Lund">Peter Wilhelm Lund</a> (1801–1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Oakley" title="Kenneth Oakley">Kenneth Oakley</a> (1911–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Pilbeam" title="David Pilbeam">David Pilbeam</a> (1940–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Heinrich_Ralph_von_Koenigswald" title="Gustav Heinrich Ralph von Koenigswald">Gustav Heinrich Ralph von Koenigswald</a> (1902–1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_T._Robinson" class="mw-redirect" title="John T. Robinson">John T. Robinson</a> (1923–2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_H._Schwartz" title="Jeffrey H. Schwartz">Jeffrey H. Schwartz</a> (1948–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Stringer" title="Chris Stringer">Chris Stringer</a> (1947–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Tattersall" title="Ian Tattersall">Ian Tattersall</a> (1945–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin" title="Pierre Teilhard de Chardin">Pierre Teilhard de Chardin</a> (1881–1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillip_V._Tobias" class="mw-redirect" title="Phillip V. Tobias">Phillip V. Tobias</a> (1925–2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Trinkaus" title="Erik Trinkaus">Erik Trinkaus</a> (1948–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Walker_(anthropologist)" title="Alan Walker (anthropologist)">Alan Walker</a> (1938–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Weidenreich" title="Franz Weidenreich">Franz Weidenreich</a> (1873–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_D._White" title="Tim D. White">Tim D. White</a> (1950–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milford_H._Wolpoff" title="Milford H. Wolpoff">Milford H. Wolpoff</a> (1942–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Wood_(geologist)" title="Bernard Wood (geologist)">Bernard Wood</a> (1945–)</li></ul></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoanthropology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dawn_of_Humanity" title="Dawn of Humanity"><i>Dawn of Humanity</i> (2015 PBS film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Incredible_Human_Journey" title="The Incredible Human Journey">The Incredible Human Journey</a></i>—Television documentary film series</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_evolution_fossils" title="List of human evolution fossils">List of human evolution fossils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution">Timeline of human evolution</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoanthropology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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Oxford University Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/american_english/paleoanthropology">the original</a> on December 12, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 1,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=paleoanthropology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Famerican_english%2Fpaleoanthropology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoanthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/paleoanthropology">"paleoanthropology"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 2,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fossil+Hominids+The+Evidence+for+Human+Evolution&rft.pub=Jim+Foley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.talkorigins.org%2Ffaqs%2Fhoms%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoanthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caroli_Linnæi_Systema_naturæ-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Caroli_Linnæi_Systema_naturæ_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caroli_Linnæi_Systema_naturæ_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/80764#page/28/mode/1up"><i>Caroli Linnæi Systema naturæ</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 27,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caroli+Linn%C3%A6i+Systema+natur%C3%A6&rft.pub=Biodiversity+Heritage+Library&rft.date=1894&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fitem%2F80764%23page%2F28%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoanthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKerry_Bright,_sponsored_by_the_National_Science_Foundation_at_the_University_of_Montana" class="citation web cs1">Kerry Bright, sponsored by the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Montana" title="University of Montana">University of Montana</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031226182453/http://www.evoled.org/lessons/human.htm">"Human Evolution: Background Information"</a>. <i>Evolution Education website, evoled.org</i>. 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(2009-09-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vL4_vUbv4ZQC&q=Black+and+Zdansky+Paleoanthropology+1927&pg=PA2"><i>PALEOANTHROPOLOGY AND PALEOLITHIC ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA by Wu Rukang, John W Olsen</i></a>. Left Coast Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781598744583" title="Special:BookSources/9781598744583"><bdi>9781598744583</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231027064258/https://books.google.com/books?id=vL4_vUbv4ZQC&q=Black+and+Zdansky+Paleoanthropology+1927&pg=PA2#v=snippet&q=Black%20and%20Zdansky%20Paleoanthropology%201927&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-10-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 26,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=PALEOANTHROPOLOGY+AND+PALEOLITHIC+ARCHAEOLOGY+IN+THE+PEOPLE%27S+REPUBLIC+OF+CHINA+by+Wu+Rukang%2C+John+W+Olsen&rft.pub=Left+Coast+Press&rft.date=2009-09-15&rft.isbn=9781598744583&rft.aulast=Rukang&rft.aufirst=Wu&rft.au=Olsen%2C+John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvL4_vUbv4ZQC%26q%3DBlack%2Band%2BZdansky%2BPaleoanthropology%2B1927%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoanthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Black, 1931<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (April 2015)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weiner et al., 1998<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (April 2015)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCartmill,_M.Smith,_F._H.2009" class="citation book cs1">Cartmill, M.; Smith, F. H. (2009). <i>The Human Lineage (Vol. 2)</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-12-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Early+Homo+sapiens+Remains+from+the+Omo+River+Region+of+South-west+Ethiopia%3A+Faunal+Remains+from+the+Omo+Valley&rft.volume=222&rft.issue=5199&rft.pages=1132-1133&rft.date=1969-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4186101%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1969Natur.222.1132L&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F2221132a0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5788977&rft.aulast=Leakey&rft.aufirst=R.+E.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2F2221132a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoanthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalkerLeakeyHarrisBrown1986" class="citation journal cs1">Walker, A.; Leakey, R. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-12-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Australopithecus+ramidus%2C+a+new+species+of+early+hominid+from+Aramis%2C+Ethiopia&rft.volume=371&rft.issue=6495&rft.pages=306-312&rft.date=1994-09-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4347140%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994Natur.371..306W&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F371306a0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8090200&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Tim+D.&rft.au=Suwa%2C+Gen&rft.au=Asfaw%2C+Berhane&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2F371306a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoanthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerger2015" class="citation journal cs1">Berger, Lee (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7554%2FeLife.09560.001">"Homo naledi, a new species of the genus Homo from the Dinaledi Chamber, South Africa"</a>. <i>eLife</i>. <b>4</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7554%2FeLife.09560.001">10.7554/eLife.09560.001</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=eLife&rft.atitle=Homo+naledi%2C+a+new+species+of+the+genus+Homo+from+the+Dinaledi+Chamber%2C+South+Africa&rft.volume=4&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7554%2FeLife.09560.001&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7554%252FeLife.09560.001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoanthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaile-SelassieGibertMelilloRyan2015" class="citation journal cs1">Haile-Selassie, Yohannes; Gibert, Luis; Melillo, Stephanie M.; Ryan, Timothy M.; Alene, Mulugeta; Deino, Alan; Levin, Naomi E.; Scott, Gary; Saylor, Beverly Z. (May 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/articles/nature14448">"New species from Ethiopia further expands Middle Pliocene hominin diversity"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>521</b> (7553): 483–488. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.521..483H">2015Natur.521..483H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature14448">10.1038/nature14448</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26017448">26017448</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4455029">4455029</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210214002540/https://www.nature.com/articles/nature14448">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-02-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-12-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=New+species+from+Ethiopia+further+expands+Middle+Pliocene+hominin+diversity&rft.volume=521&rft.issue=7553&rft.pages=483-488&rft.date=2015-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4455029%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Natur.521..483H&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature14448&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26017448&rft.aulast=Haile-Selassie&rft.aufirst=Yohannes&rft.au=Gibert%2C+Luis&rft.au=Melillo%2C+Stephanie+M.&rft.au=Ryan%2C+Timothy+M.&rft.au=Alene%2C+Mulugeta&rft.au=Deino%2C+Alan&rft.au=Levin%2C+Naomi+E.&rft.au=Scott%2C+Gary&rft.au=Saylor%2C+Beverly+Z.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fnature14448&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoanthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoanthropology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>David R. Begun, <i>A Companion to Paleoanthropology</i>, Malden, Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.</li> <li>Winfried Henke, Ian Tattersall (eds.), <i>Handbook of Paleoanthropology</i>, Dordrecht, Springer, 2007.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoanthropology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Paleoanthropology" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Introduction to Paleoanthropology">Introduction to Paleoanthropology</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jqjacobs.net/anthro/paleo/index.html">Paleoanthropology in the 1990s</a> – Essays by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jqjacobs.net/contact.html">James Q. Jacobs.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/index.html">Fossil Hominids</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cogweb.ucla.edu/ep/Paleoanthropology.html#Introduction">Aspects of Paleoanthropology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.becominghuman.org/">Becoming Human: Paleoanthropology, Evolution and Human Origins</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eva.mpg.de/evolution/">Department of Human Evolution ~ Max Planck Institute, Leipzig</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-timeline-interactive">Human Timeline (Interactive)</a> – <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="National Museum of Natural History">National Museum of Natural History</a> (August 2016).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_evolution" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_evolution" title="Template:Human evolution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_evolution" title="Template talk:Human evolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_evolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human evolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_evolution" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_taxonomy" title="Human taxonomy">Taxonomy</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominins</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor" title="Most recent common ancestor">Last common ancestors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangutan%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Orangutan–human last common ancestor">Orangutan–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbon%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gibbon–human last common ancestor">Gibbon–human</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecine" title="Australopithecine">Australopithecines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nakalipithecus" title="Nakalipithecus">Nakalipithecus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">Orrorin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sahelanthropus" title="Sahelanthropus">Sahelanthropus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kenyanthropus" title="Kenyanthropus">Kenyanthropus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus" title="Ardipithecus">Ardipithecus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">A. kadabba</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_ramidus" title="Ardipithecus ramidus">A. ramidus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_afarensis" title="Australopithecus afarensis">A. afarensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">A. africanus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">A. anamensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_bahrelghazali" title="Australopithecus bahrelghazali">A. bahrelghazali</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_deyiremeda" title="Australopithecus deyiremeda">A. deyiremeda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_garhi" title="Australopithecus garhi">A. garhi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba">A. sediba</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">Paranthropus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_aethiopicus" title="Paranthropus aethiopicus">P. aethiopicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_boisei" title="Paranthropus boisei">P. boisei</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_robustus" title="Paranthropus robustus">P. robustus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Humans and<br />proto-humans<br />(<i>Homo</i>)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Proto-humans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_gautengensis" title="Homo gautengensis">H. gautengensis</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_naledi" title="Homo naledi">H. naledi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis">H. rudolfensis</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Penghu_1" title="Penghu 1">H. tsaichangensis</a></i> (?)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Java_Man" title="Java Man">H. e. erectus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dmanisi_hominins" title="Dmanisi hominins">H. e. georgicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lantian_Man" title="Lantian Man">H. e. lantianensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Man" title="Nanjing Man">H. e. nankinensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peking_Man" title="Peking Man">H. e. pekinensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Solo_Man" title="Solo Man">H. e. soloensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tautavel_Man" title="Tautavel Man">H. e. tautavelensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yuanmou_Man" title="Yuanmou Man">H. e. yuanmouensis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Archaic_humans" title="Archaic humans">Archaic humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">H. antecessor</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovans</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">H. ergaster</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_floresiensis" title="Homo floresiensis">H. floresiensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">H. heidelbergensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_longi" title="Homo longi">H. longi</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_luzonensis" title="Homo luzonensis">H. luzonensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">H. neanderthalensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_rhodesiensis" title="Homo rhodesiensis">H. rhodesiensis</a></i> (?)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Modern humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Homo_sapiens" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Homo sapiens</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_human" title="Early modern human"><i>H. s. sapiens</i> (archaic homo sapiens, anatomically modern humans)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Irhoud" title="Jebel Irhoud">Jebel Irhoud</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Herto_Man" title="Herto Man">H. s. idaltu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cro-Magnon" title="Cro-Magnon">Cro-Magnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manot_1" title="Manot 1">Manot people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tam_Pa_Ling_Cave" title="Tam Pa Ling Cave">Tam Pa Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Deer_Cave_people" title="Red Deer Cave people">Red Deer Cave people</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Ancestors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">Homo habilis</a></i> → <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">Homo ergaster</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i> (→ <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">Homo antecessor</a></i>)<sup>?</sup> → <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">Homo heidelbergensis</a></i> → <i>archaic Homo sapiens</i> → <i><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Homo sapiens</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gathering_hypothesis" title="Gathering hypothesis">Gathering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis" title="Endurance running hypothesis">Endurance running</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Aquatic ape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-domestication#In_humans" title="Self-domestication">Self-domestication</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Diet <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans#The_cooking_hypothesis" title="Control of fire by early humans">Cooking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expensive_tissue_hypothesis" title="Expensive tissue hypothesis">Expensive tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis#Diet" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Shore-based</a></li></ul></li> <li>Drugs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drunken_monkey_hypothesis" title="Drunken monkey hypothesis">Drunken monkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_models_of_human_drug_use" title="Evolutionary models of human drug use">Evolutionary models of human drug use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoned_ape_theory" title="Stoned ape theory">Stoned ape theory</a></li></ul></li> <li>Behavior <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killer_ape_theory" title="Killer ape theory">Killer ape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_eye_hypothesis" title="Cooperative eye hypothesis">Cooperative eye</a></li></ul></li> <li>Life history <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grandmother_hypothesis" title="Grandmother hypothesis">Grandmother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarch_hypothesis" title="Patriarch hypothesis">Patriarch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics<br /></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bipedalism_in_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of bipedalism in humans">Bipedalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_skeletal_changes_due_to_bipedalism" title="Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism">Skeleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_evolution_in_humans" title="Muscular evolution in humans">Muscles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_skin_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of skin color">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_and_heat_adaptations_in_humans" title="Cold and heat adaptations in humans">Thermoregulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour#Hypotheses_for_the_evolutionary_origins_of_SDL" title="Sexual division of labour">Gender roles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of modern humans">Origin of modern humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Recent African origin of modern humans">Recent African origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiregional_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Multiregional origin of modern humans">Multiregional origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interbreeding_between_archaic_and_modern_humans" title="Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans">Archaic admixture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_human_migrations" title="Early human migrations">Early migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Timelines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution">Human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_prehistory" title="Timeline of prehistory">Human prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_timeline" title="Template:Human timeline">Human timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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