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sites and findings</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Summary_of_important_archaeological_sites_and_findings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Summary of important archaeological sites and findings subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Summary_of_important_archaeological_sites_and_findings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Selected_discoveries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_discoveries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Selected discoveries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_discoveries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biblical_archeological_forgeries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biblical_archeological_forgeries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Biblical archeological forgeries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biblical_archeological_forgeries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biblical_archaeology_and_the_Catholic_Church" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biblical_archaeology_and_the_Catholic_Church"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Biblical archaeology and the Catholic Church</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biblical_archaeology_and_the_Catholic_Church-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expert_commentaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expert_commentaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Expert commentaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expert_commentaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Biblical archaeology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A2%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="علم الآثار الكتابي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الآثار الكتابي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueolox%C3%ADa_b%C3%ADblica" title="Arqueoloxía bíblica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Arqueoloxía bíblica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Библейска археология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Библейска археология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueologia_b%C3%ADblica" title="Arqueologia bíblica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Arqueologia bíblica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblick%C3%A1_archeologie" title="Biblická archeologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Biblická archeologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibelsk_ark%C3%A6ologi" title="Bibelsk arkæologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Bibelsk arkæologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblische_Arch%C3%A4ologie" title="Biblische Archäologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Biblische Archäologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Βιβλική αρχαιολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βιβλική αρχαιολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueolog%C3%ADa_b%C3%ADblica" title="Arqueología bíblica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Arqueología bíblica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblia_arkeologio" title="Biblia arkeologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Biblia arkeologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D8%B3" title="باستان‌شناسی کتاب مقدس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="باستان‌شناسی کتاب مقدس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch%C3%A9ologie_biblique" title="Archéologie biblique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Archéologie biblique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B1%EC%84%9C%EA%B3%A0%EA%B3%A0%ED%95%99" title="성서고고학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="성서고고학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeologi_Alkitab" title="Arkeologi Alkitab – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Arkeologi Alkitab" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologia_biblica" title="Archeologia biblica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Archeologia biblica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA" title="ארכאולוגיה מקראית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ארכאולוגיה מקראית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliai_r%C3%A9g%C3%A9szet" title="Bibliai régészet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Bibliai régészet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%89" title="التاريخ التوراتى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="التاريخ التوراتى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologia_biblijna" title="Archeologia biblijna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Archeologia biblijna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueologia_b%C3%ADblica" title="Arqueologia bíblica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Arqueologia bíblica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arheologie_biblic%C4%83" title="Arheologie biblică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Arheologie biblică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Библейская археология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Библейская археология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblick%C3%A1_archeol%C3%B3gia" title="Biblická archeológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Biblická archeológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Библијска археологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Библијска археологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raamatullinen_arkeologia" title="Raamatullinen arkeologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Raamatullinen arkeologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeolohiyang_pambibliya" title="Arkeolohiyang pambibliya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Arkeolohiyang pambibliya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kit%C3%A2b-%C4%B1_Mukaddes_arkeolojisi" title="Kitâb-ı Mukaddes arkeolojisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kitâb-ı Mukaddes arkeolojisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Біблійна археологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Біблійна археологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%81%96%E7%B6%93%E8%80%83%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%B8" title="聖經考古學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="聖經考古學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Bible" title="Category:Bible">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Malmesbury Bible"><img alt="The Malmesbury Bible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/180px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/270px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/360px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1993" data-file-height="1300" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canons</a> and books</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist nowrap"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist nowrap"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament (OT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament (NT)</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books" title="Deuterocanonical books">Deuterocanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antilegomena" title="Antilegomena">Antilegomena</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chapters_and_verses_of_the_Bible" title="Chapters and verses of the Bible">Chapters and verses</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist nowrap"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha" title="Biblical apocrypha">Apocrypha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_apocrypha" title="Jewish apocrypha">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha" title="Biblical apocrypha">OT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament_apocrypha" title="New Testament apocrypha">NT</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Bible" title="Authorship of the Bible">Authorship</a> and development</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Bible" title="Authorship of the Bible">Authorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dating_the_Bible" title="Dating the Bible">Dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Hebrew_Bible_canon" title="Development of the Hebrew Bible canon">Hebrew canon</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Old_Testament_canon" title="Development of the Old Testament canon">Old Testament canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">New Testament canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_of_the_Torah" title="Composition of the Torah">Composition of the Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_authorship" title="Mosaic authorship">Mosaic authorship</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Pauline_epistles" title="Authorship of the Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Petrine_epistles" title="Authorship of the Petrine epistles">Petrine epistles</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Johannine_works" title="Authorship of the Johannine works">Johannine works</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations" title="Bible translations">Translations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biblical_manuscript" title="Biblical manuscript">manuscripts</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea scrolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masoretic_Text" title="Masoretic Text">Masoretic Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Pentateuch" title="Samaritan Pentateuch">Samaritan Pentateuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targumim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peshitta" title="Peshitta">Peshitta</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vetus_Latina" title="Vetus Latina">Vetus Latina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Bible" title="Gothic Bible">Gothic Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Luther Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_English" title="Bible translations into English">English Bibles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Bible_translations_by_language" title="List of Bible translations by language">by language</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biblical_studies" title="Biblical studies">Biblical studies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Archeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology" title="List of inscriptions in biblical archaeology">Artifacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dating_the_Bible" title="Dating the Bible">Dating</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Bible" title="Historicity of the Bible">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_consistency_of_the_Bible" title="Internal consistency of the Bible">Internal consistency</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_biblical_figures_identified_in_extra-biblical_sources" title="List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biblical_places" title="List of biblical places">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biblical_names" title="List of biblical names">Names</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Biblia_Hebraica_Stuttgartensia" title="Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia">Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rahlfs%27_edition_of_the_Septuagint" title="Alfred Rahlfs' edition of the Septuagint">Rahlfs' Septuagint</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Novum_Testamentum_Graece" title="Novum Testamentum Graece">Novum Testamentum Graece</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_hypothesis" title="Documentary hypothesis">Documentary hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synoptic_Gospels#The_synoptic_problem" title="Synoptic Gospels">Synoptic problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categories_of_New_Testament_manuscripts" title="Categories of New Testament manuscripts">NT textual categories</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">Biblical criticism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_criticism" title="Historical criticism">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">Textual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source_criticism_(biblical_studies)" title="Source criticism (biblical studies)">Source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Form_criticism" title="Form criticism">Form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redaction_criticism" title="Redaction criticism">Redaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canonical_criticism" title="Canonical criticism">Canonical</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Interpretation</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_hermeneutics" title="Biblical hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist nowrap"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesher" title="Pesher">Pesher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardes_(exegesis)" title="Pardes (exegesis)">Pardes</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allegorical_interpretation_of_the_Bible" title="Allegorical interpretation of the Bible">Allegorical interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical-grammatical_method" title="Historical-grammatical method">Historical-grammatical method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_inspiration" title="Biblical inspiration">Inspiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_literalism" title="Biblical literalism">Literalism</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_in_the_Bible" title="Alcohol in the Bible">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_conspiracy_theory" title="Bible conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_the_Bible" title="Ethics in the Bible">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_Bible" title="Capital punishment in the Bible">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_homosexuality" title="The Bible and homosexuality">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_humor" title="The Bible and humor">Humor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incest_in_the_Bible" title="Incest in the Bible">Incest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_and_the_Bible" title="Muhammad and the Bible">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_prophecy" title="Bible prophecy">Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_in_the_Hebrew_Bible" title="Rape in the Hebrew Bible">Rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpents_in_the_Bible" title="Serpents in the Bible">Serpents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_in_the_Hebrew_Bible" title="Sex in the Hebrew Bible">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_violence" title="The Bible and violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Hebrew_Bible" title="War in the Hebrew Bible">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Bible" title="Women in the Bible">Women</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Perspectives</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnostic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_the_Bible" title="Islamic view of the Bible">Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_narratives_in_the_Quran" title="Biblical narratives in the Quran">Quranic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_inerrancy" title="Biblical inerrancy">Inerrancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_infallibility" title="Biblical infallibility">Infallibility</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Bible" title="Criticism of the Bible">Criticism of the Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_authority" title="Biblical authority">Biblical authority</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Bible-related_topics" title="Outline of Bible-related topics">Outline of Bible-related topics</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/32px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/48px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/64px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1993" data-file-height="1300" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Bible" title="Portal:Bible">Bible portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bible_sidebar" title="Template:Bible sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bible_sidebar" title="Template talk:Bible sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bible_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bible sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Near_east_lrg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Near_east_lrg.jpg/220px-Near_east_lrg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Near_east_lrg.jpg/330px-Near_east_lrg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Near_east_lrg.jpg/440px-Near_east_lrg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2987" data-file-height="3967" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Biblical archaeology</b> is an academic school and a subset of <a href="/wiki/Biblical_studies" title="Biblical studies">Biblical studies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Levantine_archaeology" title="Levantine archaeology">Levantine archaeology</a>. Biblical archaeology studies archaeological sites from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Ancient Near East</a> and especially the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</a> (also known as <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>), from <a href="/wiki/Dating_the_Bible" title="Dating the Bible">biblical times</a>. </p><p>Biblical archaeology emerged in the late 19th century, by British and American archaeologists, with the aim of confirming the <a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Bible" title="Historicity of the Bible">historicity of the Bible</a>. Between the 1920s, right after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, when Palestine came under <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">British rule</a> and the 1960s, biblical archaeology became the dominant American school of Levantine archaeology, led by figures such as <a href="/wiki/William_F._Albright" title="William F. Albright">William F. Albright</a> and <a href="/wiki/G._Ernest_Wright" title="G. Ernest Wright">G. Ernest Wright</a>. The work was mostly funded by churches and headed by theologians. From the late 1960s, biblical archaeology was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Processual_archaeology" title="Processual archaeology">processual archaeology</a> ("New Archaeology") and faced issues that made it push aside the religious aspects of the research. This has led the American schools to shift away from biblical studies and focus on the archaeology of the region and its relation with the biblical text, rather than trying to prove or disprove the biblical account.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> is the main source of information about the region of Palestine and mostly covers the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> period. Therefore, archaeology can provide insights where biblical historiography is unable to. The comparative study of the biblical text and archaeological discoveries help understand Ancient Near Eastern people and cultures. Although both the Hebrew Bible and the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> are taken into account, the majority of the study centers around the former.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <i>biblical archaeology</i> is used by Israeli archaeologists for popular media or an English speaking audience, in reference to what is known in Hebrew as "<a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Israel" title="Archaeology of Israel">Israeli archaeology</a>", and to avoid using the term <i>Palestinian archaeology</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_archaeology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The study of biblical archaeology started at the same time as general archaeology, the development of which relates to the discovery of highly important ancient artifacts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stages">Stages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_archaeology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Stages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The development of biblical archaeology has been marked by different periods; </p> <ul><li><b>Before the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Palestine" title="Mandate for Palestine">British Mandate</a></b> in Palestine: The first archaeological explorations started in the 19th century initially by Europeans. There were many renowned archaeologists working at this time, one of the best known being <a href="/wiki/Edward_Robinson_(scholar)" title="Edward Robinson (scholar)">Edward Robinson,</a> who discovered a number of ancient cities. The <a href="/wiki/Palestine_Exploration_Fund" title="Palestine Exploration Fund">Palestine Exploration Fund</a> was created in 1865 with <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> as its patron. Large investigations were carried out around the <a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Temple in Jerusalem</a> in 1867 by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Warren" title="Charles Warren">Charles Warren</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Wilson" title="Charles William Wilson">Charles William Wilson</a>, after whom Jerusalem's "Wilson’s Arch" is named. The American Palestine Exploration Society was founded in 1870. In the same year, a young French archaeologist, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Clermont-Ganneau" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Clermont-Ganneau">Charles Clermont-Ganneau</a>, arrived in the Holy Land in order to study two notable inscriptions: the <a href="/wiki/Mesha_Stele" title="Mesha Stele">Mesha Stele</a> in Jordan and inscriptions in the Temple of Jerusalem. Another personality entered the scene in 1890, Sir <a href="/wiki/William_Matthew_Flinders_Petrie" class="mw-redirect" title="William Matthew Flinders Petrie">William Matthew Flinders Petrie</a>, who has since become known as the "father of Palestine archaeology". In Tell-el-Hesi, Petrie laid down the basis for methodical exploration by giving a great importance to the analysis of ceramics as archaeological markers. In effect, the recovered objects or fragments serve to fix the chronology with a degree of precision, as pottery was made in different ways and with specific characteristics during each epoch throughout history. In 1889, the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican Order</a> opened the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_Biblique" title="École Biblique">French Biblical and Archaeological School of Jerusalem</a>, which would become world-renowned in its field. Such authorities as <a href="/wiki/Marie-Joseph_Lagrange" title="Marie-Joseph Lagrange">M-J. Lagrange</a> and L. H. Vincent stand out among the early archaeologists at the school. In 1898, the <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Orient-Gesellschaft" title="Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft">Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft</a> (German Oriental Society) was founded in Berlin, a number of its excavations were subsequently funded by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II,_German_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm II, German Emperor">William II of Germany</a>. Many other similar organizations were founded at this time with the objective of furthering this nascent discipline, although the investigations of this epoch had the sole objective of proving the veracity of the biblical stories.</li> <li><b>During the British Mandate in Palestine</b> (1922–1948): The investigation and exploration of the Holy Land increased considerably during this time and was dominated by the genius of <a href="/wiki/William_Foxwell_Albright" class="mw-redirect" title="William Foxwell Albright">William Foxwell Albright</a>, C. S. Fischer, the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a>, the Dominicans and many others. This era of great advances and activity closed with a flourish: the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea Scrolls</a> at <a href="/wiki/Qumran" title="Qumran">Qumran</a> in 1947 and its subsequent excavation, which would in large part be directed by the Frenchman <a href="/wiki/Roland_de_Vaux" title="Roland de Vaux">Roland de Vaux</a>.</li> <li><b>After the British Mandate</b>: 1948 marked the start of a new social and political era for the Holy Land, with the foundation of the State of <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> and the entrance on the scene of the Israeli archaeologists. Initially their excavations were limited to the territory of the state, but after the <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a> they extended into the <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_territories" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestinian territories">occupied territories</a> of the <a href="/wiki/West_Bank" title="West Bank">West Bank</a>. An important figure in the archaeology of this period was <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Kenyon" title="Kathleen Kenyon">Kathleen Kenyon</a>, who directed the excavations of <a href="/wiki/Jericho" title="Jericho">Jericho</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ophel" title="Ophel">Ophel</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>. Crystal Bennett led the excavations at <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amman" title="Amman">Amman</a>’s <a href="/wiki/Citadel" title="Citadel">citadel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jabal_al-Qal%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Jabal al-Qal'a">Jabal al-Qal'a</a>. The archaeological museums of the Franciscans and the Dominicans in Jerusalem are particularly notable.</li> <li><b>Biblical archaeology today</b>: Twenty-first century biblical archaeology is often conducted by international teams sponsored by universities and government institutions such as the Israel Antiquities Authority. Volunteers are recruited to participate in excavations conducted by a staff of professionals. Practitioners are making increasing efforts to relate the results of one excavation to others nearby in an attempt to create an ever-widening, increasingly detailed overview of the ancient history and culture of each region. Recent rapid advances in technology have facilitated more scientifically precise measurements in dozens of related fields, as well as more timely and more broadly disseminated reports.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Schools_of_thought">Schools of thought</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_archaeology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Schools of thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biblical_archaeology_school" title="Biblical archaeology school">Biblical archaeology school</a></div> <p>Biblical archaeology is the subject of ongoing debate. One of the sources of greatest dispute is the period when <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">kings ruled Israel</a>, more generally the <a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Bible" title="Historicity of the Bible">historicity of the Bible</a>. It is possible to define two loose schools of thought regarding these areas: biblical <i><a href="/wiki/Biblical_minimalism" title="Biblical minimalism">minimalism</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Biblical_maximalism" title="Biblical maximalism">maximalism</a></i>, depending on whether the Bible is considered to be a <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">non-historical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a> document or not. The two schools are not separate units but form a continuum, making it difficult to define different camps and limits. However, it is possible to define points of difference, although these differences seem to be <a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_history#Decreasing_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="The Bible and history">decreasing over time</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Summary_of_important_archaeological_sites_and_findings">Summary of important archaeological sites and findings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_archaeology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Summary of important archaeological sites and findings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cuevas_qumran.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Cuevas_qumran.jpg/220px-Cuevas_qumran.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Cuevas_qumran.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="312" data-file-height="473" /></a><figcaption>The caves at <a href="/wiki/Qumran" title="Qumran">Qumran</a>, where one of biblical archaeology's most important findings of all time was found, in the valley of the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea" title="Dead Sea">Dead Sea</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selected_discoveries">Selected discoveries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_archaeology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Selected discoveries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Detailed lists of objects can be found at the following pages: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology" title="List of inscriptions in biblical archaeology">List of inscriptions in biblical archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_burial_places_of_Abrahamic_figures" title="List of burial places of Abrahamic figures">List of burial places of Abrahamic figures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hebrew_Bible_manuscripts" title="List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts">List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_papyri" title="List of New Testament papyri">List of New Testament papyri</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_uncials" title="List of New Testament uncials">List of New Testament uncials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biblical_figures_identified_in_extra-biblical_sources" title="List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources">List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biblical_archeological_forgeries">Biblical archeological forgeries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_archaeology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Biblical archeological forgeries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Biblical archaeology has also been the target of several celebrated <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_forgery" title="Archaeological forgery">forgeries</a>, which have been perpetrated for a variety of reasons. One of the most celebrated is that of the <a href="/wiki/James_Ossuary" title="James Ossuary">James Ossuary</a>, when information came to light in 2002 regarding the discovery of an <a href="/wiki/Ossuary" title="Ossuary">ossuary</a>, with an inscription that translated to "Jacob, son of Joseph and brother of Jesus". In reality the artifact had been discovered twenty years before, after which it had exchanged hands a number of times and the inscription had been added. This was discovered because it did not correspond to the pattern of the epoch from which it dated.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The object came by way of the antiques dealer <a href="/wiki/Oded_Golan" title="Oded Golan">Oded Golan</a>, who was accused by the <a href="/wiki/Israel_Antiquities_Authority" title="Israel Antiquities Authority">Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA)</a> of forgery, but after a 7-year trial he was acquitted on the grounds of <a href="/wiki/Reasonable_doubt" title="Reasonable doubt">reasonable doubt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another item that came from the same dealer was the <a href="/wiki/Jehoash_Inscription" title="Jehoash Inscription">Jehoash Inscription</a>, which describes repairs to the temple in Jerusalem. The authenticity of the inscription is debated.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biblical_archaeology_and_the_Catholic_Church">Biblical archaeology and the Catholic Church</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_archaeology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Biblical archaeology and the Catholic Church"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are some groups that take a more fundamentalist approach and which organize archaeological campaigns with the intention of finding proof that the Bible is factual and that its narratives should be understood as historical events. This is not the official position of the Catholic Church.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Archaeological investigations carried out with scientific methods can offer useful data in fixing a chronology that helps to order the biblical stories. In certain cases these investigations can find the place where these narratives took place, while in other cases they can confirm the veracity of the stories. However, in other matters they can question events that have been taken as historical fact, providing arguments that show that certain stories are not historical narratives but belong to a different narrative genre. </p><p>In 1943, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII" title="Pope Pius XII">Pope Pius XII</a> recommended that interpretations of the <a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">scripture</a> take archaeological findings into account in order to discern the literary genres used.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[...] the interpreter must, as it were, go back wholly in spirit to those remote centuries of the East and with the aid of history, archaeology, ethnology, and other sciences, accurately determine what modes of writing, so to speak, the authors of that ancient period would be likely to use, and in fact did use. [...]Let those who cultivate biblical studies turn their attention with all due diligence towards this point and let them neglect none of those discoveries, whether in the domain of archaeology or in ancient history or literature, which serve to make better known the mentality of the ancient writers, as well as their manner and art of reasoning, narrating and writing.[...] </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Pius XII, Encyclical <i><a href="/wiki/Divino_Afflante_Spiritu" class="mw-redirect" title="Divino Afflante Spiritu">Divino Afflante Spiritu</a></i>, paragraphs 35 and 40</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Since this time, archaeology has been considered to provide valuable assistance and as an indispensable tool of the biblical sciences. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Expert_commentaries">Expert commentaries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_archaeology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Expert commentaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[...]"the purpose of biblical archaeology is the clarification and illumination of the biblical text and content through archaeological investigation of the biblical world."</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>written by J.K. Eakins in a 1977 essay published in <i>Benchmarks in Time and Culture</i> and quoted in his essay <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hccentral.com/eakins.html">"Archaeology and the Bible, An Introduction"</a>.</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Archaeologist <a href="/wiki/William_G._Dever" title="William G. Dever">William G. Dever</a> contributed to the article on "Archaeology" in the <i><a href="/wiki/Anchor_Bible_Series#Anchor_Bible_Dictionary" title="Anchor Bible Series">Anchor Bible Dictionary</a></i>. In the article, Dever reiterated his perceptions of the negative effects of the close relationship that has existed between Syro-Palestinian archaeology and biblical archaeology, which had caused the archaeologists working in the field, particularly the American archaeologists, to resist adoption of the new methods of <a href="/wiki/Processual_archaeology" title="Processual archaeology">processual archaeology</a>. In addition, he considered that "underlying much scepticism in our own field [referring to the adaptation of the concepts and methods of a "new archaeology", one suspects the assumption (although unexpressed or even unconscious) that ancient Palestine, especially Israel during the biblical period, was unique, in some "<i>superhistorical</i>" way that was not governed by the normal principles of cultural evolution".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dever found that Syro-Palestinian archaeology had been treated in American institutions as a sub-discipline of bible studies, where it was expected that American archaeologists would try to "provide valid historical evidence of episodes from the biblical tradition". According to Dever, "the most naïve [idea regarding Syro-Palestinian archaeology] is that the reason and purpose of "biblical archaeology" (and, by extrapolation, of Syro-Palestinian archaeology) is simply to elucidate facts regarding the Bible and the Holy Land".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dever has also written that: </p> <blockquote><p>Archaeology certainly doesn't prove literal readings of the Bible...It calls them into question, and that's what bothers some people. Most people really think that archaeology is out there to prove the Bible. No archaeologist thinks so.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> [...] From the beginnings of what we call biblical archaeology, perhaps 150 years ago, scholars, mostly western scholars, have attempted to use archaeological data to prove the Bible. And for a long time it was thought to work. <a href="/wiki/William_F._Albright" title="William F. Albright">William Albright</a>, the great father of our discipline, often spoke of the "archaeological revolution." Well, the revolution has come but not in the way that Albright thought. The truth of the matter today is that archaeology raises more questions about the historicity of the Hebrew Bible and even the New Testament than it provides answers, and that's very disturbing to some people.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Dever also wrote: </p> <blockquote><p>Archaeology as it is practiced today must be able to challenge, as well as confirm, the Bible stories. Some things described there really did happen, but others did not. The biblical narratives about <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joshua" title="Joshua">Joshua</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a> probably reflect some historical memories of people and places, but the 'larger than life' portraits of the Bible are unrealistic and contradicted by the archaeological evidence....<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> I am not reading the Bible as Scripture... I am in fact not even a theist. My view all along—and especially in the recent books—is first that the biblical narratives are indeed 'stories,' often fictional and almost always propagandistic, but that here and there they contain some valid historical information...<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Tel_Aviv_University" title="Tel Aviv University">Tel Aviv University</a> archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Ze%27ev_Herzog" title="Ze'ev Herzog">Ze'ev Herzog</a> wrote the following in the <a href="/wiki/Haaretz" title="Haaretz">Haaretz</a> newspaper: </p> <blockquote><p>This is what archaeologists have learned from their excavations in the Land of Israel: the Israelites were never in Egypt, did not wander in the desert, did not conquer the land in a military campaign and did not pass it on to the 12 tribes of Israel. Perhaps even harder to swallow is that the united monarchy of David and Solomon, which is described by the Bible as a regional power, was at most a small tribal kingdom. And it will come as an unpleasant shock to many that the God of Israel, YHWH, had a female consort and that the early Israelite religion adopted monotheism only in the waning period of the monarchy and not at Mount Sinai.<sup id="cite_ref-Knopp_2004_p._126_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knopp_2004_p._126-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-University_of_Michigan_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Michigan-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lib1.library.cornell.edu_2001_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lib1.library.cornell.edu_2001-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Other scholars have argued that <a href="/wiki/Asherah" title="Asherah">Asherah</a> may have been a symbol or <a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">icon</a> in the context of <a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a> rather than a deity in her own right, and her association with Yahweh does not necessarily indicate a polytheistic belief system.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Professor <a href="/wiki/Israel_Finkelstein" title="Israel Finkelstein">Israel Finkelstein</a> told <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jerusalem_Post" title="The Jerusalem Post">The Jerusalem Post</a></i> that Jewish archaeologists have found no historical or archaeological evidence to back the biblical narrative on <a href="/wiki/The_Exodus" title="The Exodus">the Exodus</a>, the Jews' wandering in Sinai or <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Joshua" title="Book of Joshua">Joshua's conquest of Canaan</a>. On the alleged <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Solomon" class="mw-redirect" title="Temple of Solomon">Temple of Solomon</a>, Finkelstein said that there is no archaeological evidence to prove it really existed.<sup id="cite_ref-middleeastmonitor.org.uk_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-middleeastmonitor.org.uk-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Professor Yoni Mizrahi, an independent archaeologist, agreed with Israel Finkelstein.<sup id="cite_ref-middleeastmonitor.org.uk_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-middleeastmonitor.org.uk-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regarding the Exodus of Israelites from Egypt, Egyptian archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Zahi_Hawass" title="Zahi Hawass">Zahi Hawass</a> said: </p> <blockquote><p>Really, it’s a myth,... This is my career as an archaeologist. I should tell them the truth. If the people are upset, that is not my problem.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Other scholars dispute these claims. In his 2001 book <i>The Old Testament Documents: Are They Reliable and Relevant?</i> Evangelical Old Testament scholar <a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaiser,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Kaiser, Jr.">Walter Kaiser, Jr.</a> included a chapter entitled, "Does Archaeology Help the Case for Reliability?".<sup id="cite_ref-Kaiser2001_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaiser2001-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kaiser states: </p> <blockquote><p>[T]he study of archaeology has helped illuminate the Bible by casting light on its historical and cultural location. With increasing clarity, the setting of the Bible appears more vividly within the framework of general history.... by fitting biblical history, persons, and events into general history, archaeology has demonstrated the validity of many biblical references and data. It has continued to cast light, whether implicitly or explicitly, on many of the Bible's customs, cultures, and settings during various periods of history. On the other hand, archaeology has also given rise to some real problems with regard to its findings. Thus, its work is an ongoing one that cannot be foreclosed too quickly or used merely as a confirming device.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Kaiser goes on to detail case after case in which the Bible, he says, "has aided in the identification of missing persons, missing peoples, missing customs and settings."<sup id="cite_ref-Kaiser2001_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaiser2001-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He concludes: </p> <blockquote><p>This is not to say that archaeology is a cure-all for all the challenges brought to the text—it is not! There are some monstrous problems that remain—some created by the archaeological data itself. But since we have seen so many specific challenges over the years yield to such specific data in favor of the text, a presumption tends to build that we should go with the text until definite contrary information is available. This methodology that says that the text is innocent until proven guilty is not only recommended as a good procedure for American jurisprudence, but it is recommended in the area of examining the claims of the Scripture as well.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Collins comments upon a statement by Dever: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"there is little that we can salvage from Joshua's stories of the rapid, wholesale destruction of Canaanite cities and the annihilation of the local population. It simply did not happen; the archeological evidence is indisputable."</p><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><p>This is the judgment of one of the more conservative historians of ancient Israel. To be sure, there are far more conservative historians who try to defend the historicity of the entire biblical account beginning with Abraham, but their work rests on confessional presuppositions and is an exercise in apologetics rather than historiography. Most biblical scholars have come to terms with the fact that much (not all!) of the biblical narrative is only loosely related to history and cannot be verified.<sup id="cite_ref-Reflections_2000_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reflections_2000-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>John J. Collins</cite></div></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>As a young student, I heard a series of lectures given by a famous liberal Old Testament theologian on Old Testament introduction. And there one day learned that the fifth book of Moses (Deuteronomy) had not been written by Moses—although throughout it it claims to have been spoken and written by Moses himself. Rather, I heard Deuteronomy had been composed centuries later for quite specific purposes. Since I came from an orthodox Lutheran family, was deeply moved by what I heard—in particular, because it convinced me. so the same day I sought out my teacher during his hours and, in connection With the origin of Deuteronomy, let slip the remark, "So is the fifth book of Moses what might be called a forgery?" His answer was, "For God's sake, it may well be, but you can't say anything like that."</p><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><p>I wanted to use that quotation in order to show that the results of historical scholarship can be made known to the public—especially to believers—only with difficulty. Many Christians feel threatened if they hear that most of what was written in the Bible is (in historical terms) untrue and that none of the four New Testament Gospels was written by the author listed at the top of the text.<sup id="cite_ref-Craig_Lüdemann_Copan_Tacelli_2000_p._43_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craig_Lüdemann_Copan_Tacelli_2000_p._43-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Gerd Lüdemann</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_archaeology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_and_the_Book_of_Mormon" title="Archaeology and the Book of Mormon">Archaeology and the Book of Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Archaeology_Society" title="Biblical Archaeology Society">Biblical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_studies" title="Biblical studies">Biblical studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_scrolls" class="mw-redirect" title="Dead Sea scrolls">Dead Sea scrolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_geology" title="Flood geology">Flood geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frauds,_Myths,_and_Mysteries" title="Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries">Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">History of ancient Israel and Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology" title="List of inscriptions in biblical archaeology">List of inscriptions in biblical archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religiously_motivated_pseudoarchaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Religiously motivated pseudoarchaeology">Religiously motivated pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scriptural_geologist" title="Scriptural geologist">Scriptural geologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Biblical_Archaeology" title="Society of Biblical Archaeology">Society of Biblical Archaeology</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Bible%27s_Buried_Secrets" title="The Bible's Buried Secrets">The Bible's Buried Secrets</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_history" class="mw-redirect" title="The Bible and history">The Bible and history</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_archaeology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_G._Dever2011" class="citation book cs1">William G. Dever (2011). "Biblical Archaeology". <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199892280" title="Special:BookSources/9780199892280"><bdi>9780199892280</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Biblical+Archaeology&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Archaeology+in+the+Near+East&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780199892280&rft.au=William+G.+Dever&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digs.bib-arch.org/">"Find a dig: Biblical Archaeology Society"</a>. Cited April 18, 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Dennis Cole, "Recent Developments in Biblical Archaeology," <i>The Theological Educator</i>, 49 (Spring 1994): 51–64. Cited April 18, 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/dec/31/religion.israel">Forgers "tried to rewrite biblical history"</a>, Conal Urquhart, <i>The Guardian</i>, Friday 31 December 2004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman" class="citation web cs1">Friedman, Matti. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/oded-golan-is-not-guilty-of-forgery-so-is-the-james-ossuary-for-real/">"Oded Golan is not guilty of forgery. So is the 'James ossuary' for real?"</a>. <i>The Times of Israel</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-12-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Times+of+Israel&rft.atitle=Oded+Golan+is+not+guilty+of+forgery.+So+is+the+%27James+ossuary%27+for+real%3F&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Matti&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesofisrael.com%2Foded-golan-is-not-guilty-of-forgery-so-is-the-james-ossuary-for-real%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/europe/article2599023.ece">Catholic Church no longer swears by truth of the Bible</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Gledhill" title="Ruth Gledhill">Ruth Gledhill</a>, <i>The Times</i>, 5 October 2005,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.liturgyoffice.org.uk/Resources/Scripture/GoS.pdf">The Gift of Scripture, Party Two, Section 14 The truth of Scripture, p17</a> Catholic Bishops’ Conference of England & Wales and Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Scotland, 2005,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPius_XII1943" class="citation web cs1">Pius XII (30 September 1943). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xii/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xii_enc_30091943_divino-afflante-spiritu_en.html">"Divino Afflante Spiritu Encyclical Of Pope Pius Xi On Promoting Biblical Studies"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Divino+Afflante+Spiritu+Encyclical+Of+Pope+Pius+Xi+On+Promoting+Biblical+Studies&rft.date=1943-09-30&rft.au=Pius+XII&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vatican.va%2Fholy_father%2Fpius_xii%2Fencyclicals%2Fdocuments%2Fhf_p-xii_enc_30091943_divino-afflante-spiritu_en.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dever, p. 357</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dever, p. 358</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090210054444/http://cosmiclog.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2008/11/18/1679514.aspx">Bible gets a reality check, MSNBC</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Boyle" title="Alan Boyle">Alan Boyle</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bible/dever.html">The Bible's Buried Secrets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nova_(American_TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nova (American TV series)">PBS Nova</a>, 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDever2006" class="citation journal cs1">Dever, William G. (March–April 2006). "The Western Cultural Tradition Is at Risk". <i>Biblical Archaeology Review</i>. <b>32</b> (2): 26 & 76.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biblical+Archaeology+Review&rft.atitle=The+Western+Cultural+Tradition+Is+at+Risk&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=26+%26+76&rft.date=2006-03%2F2006-04&rft.aulast=Dever&rft.aufirst=William+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDever2003" class="citation journal cs1">Dever, William G. (January 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070202100109/http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/Contra_Davies.htm">"Contra Davies"</a>. <i>The Bible and Interpretation</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/Contra_Davies.htm">the original</a> on 2007-02-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Bible+and+Interpretation&rft.atitle=Contra+Davies&rft.date=2003-01&rft.aulast=Dever&rft.aufirst=William+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bibleinterp.com%2Farticles%2FContra_Davies.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Knopp_2004_p._126-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Knopp_2004_p._126_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnopp2004" class="citation book cs1">Knopp, Lisa (2004) [2002]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cR5Dp07txPoC&pg=PA126">"History"</a>. <i>The Nature of Home: A Lexicon and Essays</i>. University of Nebraska Press. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-7814-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-7814-1"><bdi>978-0-8032-7814-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=History&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Home%3A+A+Lexicon+and+Essays&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-7814-1&rft.aulast=Knopp&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcR5Dp07txPoC%26pg%3DPA126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-University_of_Michigan-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-University_of_Michigan_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerzog1999" class="citation news cs1">Herzog, Ze'ev (29 October 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210811064225/http://websites.umich.edu/~proflame/neh/arch.htm">"Deconstructing the walls of Jericho"</a>. <i>Ha'aretz</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://websites.umich.edu/~proflame/neh/arch.htm">the original</a> on 11 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ha%27aretz&rft.atitle=Deconstructing+the+walls+of+Jericho&rft.date=1999-10-29&rft.aulast=Herzog&rft.aufirst=Ze%27ev&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebsites.umich.edu%2F~proflame%2Fneh%2Farch.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lib1.library.cornell.edu_2001-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lib1.library.cornell.edu_2001_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerzog1999" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ze%27ev_Herzog" title="Ze'ev Herzog">Herzog, Ze'ev</a> (29 October 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20011110114548/http://lib1.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/jerques.htm">"Deconstructing the walls of Jericho"</a>. <i>lib1.library.cornell.edu</i>. <a href="/wiki/Ha%27aretz" class="mw-redirect" title="Ha'aretz">Ha'aretz</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib1.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/jerques.htm">the original</a> on 10 November 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=lib1.library.cornell.edu&rft.atitle=Deconstructing+the+walls+of+Jericho&rft.date=1999-10-29&rft.aulast=Herzog&rft.aufirst=Ze%27ev&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flib1.library.cornell.edu%2Fcolldev%2Fmideast%2Fjerques.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoedens,_Jacob_JT2013" class="citation journal cs1">Doedens, Jacob JT (January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/17793537">"Ancient Israelite Polytheistic Inscriptions: Was Asherah Viewed as Yhwh's Wife"</a>. <i>Sárospataki Füzetek</i> (1–2): 41–54 – via <a href="/wiki/Academia.edu" title="Academia.edu">Academia.edu</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=S%C3%A1rospataki+F%C3%BCzetek&rft.atitle=Ancient+Israelite+Polytheistic+Inscriptions%3A+Was+Asherah+Viewed+as+Yhwh%27s+Wife&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=41-54&rft.date=2013-01&rft.au=Doedens%2C+Jacob+JT&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F17793537&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-middleeastmonitor.org.uk-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-middleeastmonitor.org.uk_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-middleeastmonitor.org.uk_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20140220-senior-israeli-archaeologist-casts-doubt-on-jewish-heritage-of-jerusalem/">"Senior Israeli archaeologist casts doubt on Jewish heritage of Jerusalem – Middle East Monitor"</a>. <i>www.middleeastmonitor.com</i>. 20 February 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.middleeastmonitor.com&rft.atitle=Senior+Israeli+archaeologist+casts+doubt+on+Jewish+heritage+of+Jerusalem+%E2%80%93+Middle+East+Monitor&rft.date=2014-02-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.middleeastmonitor.com%2F20140220-senior-israeli-archaeologist-casts-doubt-on-jewish-heritage-of-jerusalem%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/03/world/africa/03exodus.html">Did the Red Sea Part? No Evidence, Archaeologists Say</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, April 3, 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kaiser2001-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kaiser2001_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaiser2001_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaiser, 2001, p. 97-108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaiser, 2001, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaiser, 2001, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reflections_2000-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Reflections_2000_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins2008" class="citation journal cs1">Collins, John J. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reflections.yale.edu/article/between-babel-and-beatitude/old-testament-new-climate">"Old Testament in a New Climate"</a>. <i>Reflections</i>. Yale University: 4–7. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-0611">0362-0611</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reflections&rft.atitle=Old+Testament+in+a+New+Climate&rft.pages=4-7&rft.date=2008&rft.issn=0362-0611&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freflections.yale.edu%2Farticle%2Fbetween-babel-and-beatitude%2Fold-testament-new-climate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Craig_Lüdemann_Copan_Tacelli_2000_p._43-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Craig_Lüdemann_Copan_Tacelli_2000_p._43_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraigLüdemannCopanTacelli2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Craig, William Lane; Lüdemann, Gerd; Copan, Paul; Tacelli, Ronald K. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kPhL1w9-JbEC&pg=PA43"><i>Jesus' Resurrection: Fact Or Figment?: A Debate Between William Lane Craig & Gerd Ludemann</i></a> (in Dutch). InterVarsity Press. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-1569-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-1569-2"><bdi>978-0-8308-1569-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2023</span>. <q>I wanted to use that quotation in order to show that the results of historical scholarship can be made known to the public—especially to believers—only with difficulty. Many Christians feel threatened if they hear that most of what was written in the Bible is (in historical terms) untrue and that none of the four New Testament Gospels was written by the author listed at the top of the text.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jesus%27+Resurrection%3A+Fact+Or+Figment%3F%3A+A+Debate+Between+William+Lane+Craig+%26+Gerd+Ludemann&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8308-1569-2&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=William+Lane&rft.au=L%C3%BCdemann%2C+Gerd&rft.au=Copan%2C+Paul&rft.au=Tacelli%2C+Ronald+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkPhL1w9-JbEC%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_archaeology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Walter C. Kaiser Jr., <i>The Old Testament Documents: Are They Reliable and Relevant?</i> (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2001), 97–108.</li> <li><i>The Anchor Bible Dictionary</i>, "Archaeology", by William Dever.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_archaeology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>William F. Albright, <i>From the Stone Age to Christianity</i> (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Anati" title="Emmanuel Anati">Anati E</a>. <i>Palestine Before the Hebrews: A History, From the Earliest Arrival of Man to the Conquest of Canaan</i> (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963).</li> <li>Ashmore, W. and Sharer, R. J., <i>Discovering Our Past: A Brief Introduction to Archaeology</i> (New York: McGraw Hill, 2013). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7674-1196-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7674-1196-X">0-7674-1196-X</a>. This has also been used as a source.</li> <li>Blaiklock, E. M., and R. K. Harrison, eds. <i>The New International Dictionary of Biblical Archaeology</i> (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan Publishing House, 1983).</li> <li>Chapman, and J.N. Tubb, <i>Archaeology & The Bible</i> (<a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, 1990).</li> <li>Cornfeld, G., and D. N. Freedman, <i>Archaeology of the Bible Book By Book</i> (New York: Harper & Row, 1989).</li> <li>Davies, P. R., <i>In Search of 'Ancient Israel': A Study in Biblical Origins</i>, Sheffield (JSOT Press, 1992).</li> <li>Davis, Thomas, <i>Shifting sands: the rise and fall of Biblical archaeology</i> (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_G._Dever" title="William G. Dever">Dever, William G.</a>, "Archaeology and the Bible: Understanding their special relationship", in <i>Biblical Archaeology Review</i> 16:3, (May/June 1990)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDever,_William_G.2002" class="citation book cs1">Dever, William G. (2002). <i>What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?</i>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-2126-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8028-2126-X"><bdi>0-8028-2126-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Did+the+Biblical+Writers+Know+and+When+Did+They+Know+It%3F&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-8028-2126-X&rft.au=Dever%2C+William+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDever,_William_G.2003" class="citation book cs1">Dever, William G. (2003). <i>Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?</i>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-0975-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8028-0975-8"><bdi>0-8028-0975-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+Were+the+Early+Israelites+and+Where+Did+They+Come+From%3F&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-8028-0975-8&rft.au=Dever%2C+William+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelsteinSilberman2001" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Israel_Finkelstein" title="Israel Finkelstein">Finkelstein, Israel</a>; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?lr=&q=Finkelstein+Bible+Unearthed+Exodus+unoccupied&btnG=Search+Books"><i>The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts</i></a>, New York: Simon and Schuster, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7432-2338-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7432-2338-1"><bdi>0-7432-2338-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bible+Unearthed%3A+Archaeology%27s+New+Vision+of+Ancient+Israel+and+the+Origin+of+Its+Sacred+Texts&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-7432-2338-1&rft.aulast=Finkelstein&rft.aufirst=Israel&rft.au=Silberman%2C+Neil+Asher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Flr%3D%26q%3DFinkelstein%2BBible%2BUnearthed%2BExodus%2Bunoccupied%26btnG%3DSearch%2BBooks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Frend, William Hugh Clifford, <i>The Archaeology of Early Christianity. A History</i>, Geoffrey Chapman, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-225-66850-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-225-66850-5">0-225-66850-5</a></li> <li>Frerichs, Ernest S. and <a href="/wiki/Leonard_H._Lesko" title="Leonard H. Lesko">Leonard H. Lesko</a> eds. <i>Exodus: The Egyptian Evidence</i>. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1997 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57506-025-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-57506-025-6">1-57506-025-6</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.denverseminary.edu/dj/articles1998/0100/0113.php">Denver Seminary review</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928000447/http://www.denverseminary.edu/dj/articles1998/0100/0113.php">Archived</a> 2007-09-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Halevi, Masha, "Between Faith and Science: Franciscan Archaeology in the Service of the Holy Places", <i>Middle Eastern Studies</i>, Volume 48, Issue 2, 2012, pp. 249–267.</li> <li>Hallote, R. <i>Bible, Map and Spade: The American Palestine Exploration Society, Frederick Jones Bliss and the Forgotten Story of Early American Biblical Archaeology</i>, (Gorgias Press, 2006) Discusses American involvement in biblical archaeology before 1900.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafel1999" class="citation journal cs1">Kafel, A. (October 29, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171001230303/http://mideastfacts.org/facts/deconstructing-the-walls-of-jericho/">"Deconstructing the walls of Jericho"</a>. <i>Ha'aretz</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mideastfacts.org/facts/deconstructing-the-walls-of-jericho/">the original</a> on October 1, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 18,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ha%27aretz&rft.atitle=Deconstructing+the+walls+of+Jericho&rft.date=1999-10-29&rft.aulast=Kafel&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmideastfacts.org%2Ffacts%2Fdeconstructing-the-walls-of-jericho%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Keller, Werner, <i>The Bible as History</i>, 1955.</li> <li>Lance, H.D. <i>The Old Testament and The Archaeologist</i>. <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, (1983)</li> <li>Mancini, Ignazio. <i>Archaeological Discoveries Relative to the Judaeo-Christians: Historical Survey</i>, trans. [from Italian] by G. Bushnell [as] updated by the author. In series, <i>Publications of the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum: Collectio minor</i>, no. 10. Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing Press, 1970. Without ISBN or SBN</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amihai_Mazar" title="Amihai Mazar">Mazar, A.</a>, <i>Archaeology of the Land of the Bible</i> (The Anchor Bible Reference Library, 1990)</li> <li>Mykytiuk, Lawrence J. (2004). <i>Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200–539 B.C.E.</i> SBL Academia Biblica series, no. 12. Atlanta, Ga.: Society of Biblical Literature.</li> <li>Mykytiuk, Lawrence J. (2009),"Corrections and Updates to 'Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200–539 B.C.E.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>", <i>Maarav</i> 16/1, pp. 49–132.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNegev,_AvrahamGibson,_Shimon2003" class="citation book cs1">Negev, Avraham; Gibson, Shimon, eds. (2003). <i>Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land</i>. New York, NY: The Continuum International Publishing Group.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeological+Encyclopedia+of+the+Holy+Land&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=The+Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Neumann, Thomas W. and Robert M. Sanford, <i>Practicing Archaeology: A Training Manual for Cultural Resources Archaeology</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rowmanlittlefield.com/">Rowman and Littlefield Pub Inc</a>, August, 2001, hardcover, 450 pages, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7591-0094-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7591-0094-2">0-7591-0094-2</a></li> <li>Ramsey, George W. <i>The Quest For The Historical Israel</i>. London (1982)</li> <li>Renfrew, Colin & Bahn, Paul G., <i>Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice</i>, Thames and Hudson, 4th edition, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-28441-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-28441-5">0-500-28441-5</a></li> <li>Robinson, Edward (1856) <i>Biblical Researches in Palestine, 1838–52</i>, Boston, MA: Crocker and Brewster.</li> <li>Schoville, Keith N. <i>Biblical Archaeology in Focus</i>. Baker Publishing Group, (1978).</li> <li>Sanford, Robert M. and Thomas W. Neumann, <i>Cultural Resources Archaeology: An Introduction</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rowmanlittlefield.com/">Rowman and Littlefield Pub Inc</a>, December, 2001, trade paperback, 256 pages, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7591-0095-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7591-0095-0">0-7591-0095-0</a></li> <li>Thompson, J.A., <i>The Bible And Archaeology</i>, revised edition (1973)</li> <li>Trigger, Bruce. 1990. "A History of Archaeological Thought". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-33818-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-33818-2">0-521-33818-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._Ernest_Wright" title="G. Ernest Wright">Wright, G. Ernest</a>, <i>Biblical Archaeology</i>. Philadelphia: Westminster, (1962).</li> <li>Yamauchi, E. <i>The Stones And The Scriptures</i>. London: IVP, (1973).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_archaeology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.piac.it/">Pontificio Istituto di Archeologia Cristiana</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wasteflake.com/tiki-index.php?page=PopularArchaeology">Archaeology in Popular Culture</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anthropologie.net/">Anthropology Resources on the Internet</a> – Anthropology Resources on the Internet : a web directory with over 3000 links grouped in specialised topics.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archaeology.org/"><i>Archaeology</i> magazine</a> published by the Archaeological Institute of America</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160110002147/http://archaeologydirectory.com/">Archaeology Directory</a> – Directory of archaeological topics on the web.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050325094024/http://cctr.umkc.edu/user/fdeblauwe/iraq.html">The 2003- Iraq War & Archaeology</a> Information about looting in Iraq.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/02/the-biblical-pseudo-archeologists-pillaging-the-west-bank/273488/">The Biblical Pseudo-Archeologists Pillaging the West Bank</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150418112103/http://www.nefer-seba.net/Archaeological-Fieldwork.php">Excavation Sites</a> Archaeological work and volunteer pages.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbermann1913" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Christian Archaeology"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Christian_Archaeology">"Christian Archaeology" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Christian+Archaeology&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">Biblical criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_studies" title="Biblical studies">Biblical studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">History of ancient Israel and Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quest_for_the_historical_Jesus" title="Quest for the historical Jesus">Quest for the historical Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_comparative_mythology" title="Jesus in comparative mythology">Jesus in comparative mythology</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/80px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="52" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/120px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/160px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1993" data-file-height="1300" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historicity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biblical archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Jesus" title="Historicity of Jesus">Historicity of Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sources_for_the_historicity_of_Jesus" title="Sources for the historicity of Jesus">sources</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Bible" title="Historicity of the Bible">Historicity of the Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reliability_of_the_Gospels" title="Historical reliability of the Gospels">Historical reliability of the Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artifacts_in_biblical_archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="List of artifacts in biblical archaeology">List of artifacts in biblical archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biblical_figures_identified_in_extra-biblical_sources" title="List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources">List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_burial_places_of_biblical_figures" class="mw-redirect" title="List of burial places of biblical figures">List of burial places of biblical figures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hebrew_Bible_manuscripts" title="List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts">List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_papyri" title="List of New Testament papyri">List of New Testament papyri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_uncials" title="List of New Testament uncials">List of New Testament uncials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jesus" title="Historical Jesus">Historical Jesus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Criticism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Bible" title="Criticism of the Bible">Criticism of the Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christ_myth_theory" title="Christ myth theory">Christ myth theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Bible" title="Portal:Bible">Bible Portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Archaeology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_archaeology" title="History of archaeology">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">Archaeological sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiquarian" title="Antiquarian">Antiquarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Johann Joachim Winckelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_Richard_Hoare,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir Richard Hoare, 2nd Baronet">Richard Hoare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Schliemann" title="Heinrich Schliemann">Heinrich Schliemann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Evans" title="Arthur Evans">Arthur Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lloyd_Stephens" title="John Lloyd Stephens">John Lloyd Stephens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Holmes" title="William Henry Holmes">William Henry Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_Pitt_Rivers" title="Augustus Pitt Rivers">Augustus Pitt Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flinders_Petrie" title="Flinders Petrie">Flinders Petrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Wheeler" title="Mortimer Wheeler">Mortimer Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Garrod" title="Dorothy Garrod">Dorothy Garrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Uhle" title="Max Uhle">Max Uhle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_V._Kidder" title="Alfred V. Kidder">Alfred V. Kidder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Method and theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_theory" title="Archaeological theory">Archaeological theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Philosophy of archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_diving" title="Archaeological diving">Archaeological diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_ethics" title="Archaeological ethics">Archaeological ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_archaeological_sites" title="Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites">Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(archaeology)" title="Survey (archaeology)">Survey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_survey_(archaeology)" title="Geophysical survey (archaeology)">geophysical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_survey" title="Electrical resistance survey">electrical resistance survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sondage" title="Sondage">Sondage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnt_layer" title="Burnt layer">Burnt layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_excavation" title="Archaeological excavation">Excavation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">Lithic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-excavation_analysis" title="Post-excavation analysis">Post-excavation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subfields_of_archaeology" title="Subfields of archaeology">Sub-disciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chronological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_archaeology" title="Prehistoric archaeology">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">Protohistoric</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_archaeology" title="Classical archaeology">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_archaeology" title="Medieval archaeology">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-medieval_archaeology" title="Post-medieval archaeology">Post-Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_archaeology" title="Historical archaeology">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_archaeology" title="Contemporary archaeology">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_archaeology" title="African archaeology">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_the_Americas" title="Archaeology of the Americas">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeology_in_Asia" title="Category:Archaeology in Asia">Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian archaeology">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_in_Oceania" title="Archaeology in Oceania">Oceanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Eastern_archaeology" title="Near Eastern archaeology">Near Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubiology" title="Nubiology">Nubian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methodological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">Archaeogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_bioarchaeology" title="Medieval bioarchaeology">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Eastern_bioarchaeology" title="Near Eastern bioarchaeology">Near Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopathology" title="Paleopathology">Paleopathology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calceology" title="Calceology">Calceology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_archaeology" title="Digital archaeology">Digital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeogaming" title="Archaeogaming">Archaeogaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_archaeology" title="Computational archaeology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_archaeology" title="Virtual archaeology">Virtual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_archaeology" title="Environmental archaeology">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geoarchaeology" title="Geoarchaeology">Geoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">Paleoethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Thematic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_science" title="Archaeological science">Archaeometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlefield_archaeology" title="Battlefield archaeology">Battlefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_archaeology" title="Conflict archaeology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funerary_archaeology" title="Funerary archaeology">Funerary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_archaeology" title="Gender archaeology">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_archaeology" title="Indigenous archaeology">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_archaeology" title="Industrial archaeology">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_archaeology" title="Landscape archaeology">Landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortuary_archaeology" title="Mortuary archaeology">Mortuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_archaeology" title="Music archaeology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_archaeology" title="Nazi archaeology">Nazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(archaeology)" title="Phenomenology (archaeology)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_archaeology" title="Queer archaeology">Queer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_archaeology" title="Transgender archaeology">Transgender</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" 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