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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distinguishing_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinguishing_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Distinguishing features</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinguishing_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Description" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Description"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Description</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Description-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Description subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Description-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Basic_body_forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basic_body_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Basic body forms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basic_body_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skeletons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skeletons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Skeletons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skeletons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Main_cell_layers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Main_cell_layers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Main cell layers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Main_cell_layers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polymorphism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polymorphism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Polymorphism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polymorphism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cnidocytes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cnidocytes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Cnidocytes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cnidocytes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Locomotion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Locomotion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Locomotion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Locomotion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nervous_system_and_senses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nervous_system_and_senses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Nervous system and senses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nervous_system_and_senses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feeding_and_excretion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feeding_and_excretion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Feeding and excretion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feeding_and_excretion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Respiration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Respiration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Respiration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Respiration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regeneration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regeneration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Regeneration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regeneration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Reproduction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reproduction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reproduction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sexual" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Sexual</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asexual" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asexual"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Asexual</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asexual-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-DNA_repair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNA_repair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>DNA repair</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNA_repair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Ecology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Evolutionary history</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolutionary_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evolutionary history subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fossil_record" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fossil_record"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Fossil record</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fossil_record-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phylogeny" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phylogeny"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Phylogeny</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phylogeny-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interaction_with_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interaction_with_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Interaction with humans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interaction_with_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journal_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journal_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Journal articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journal_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Cnidaria</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 86 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-86" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">86 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neteldier" title="Neteldier – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Neteldier" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="لاسعات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لاسعات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalay%C4%B1c%C4%B1lar" title="Dalayıcılar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Dalayıcılar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="নিডারিয়া – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নিডারিয়া" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%83%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Сағыусылар – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Сағыусылар" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%8B%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%87%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Жыгучыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Жыгучыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Мешести – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Мешести" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDarnjaci" title="Žarnjaci – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Žarnjaci" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knidaried" title="Knidaried – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Knidaried" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaris" title="Cnidaris – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cnidaris" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nidariya" title="Nidariya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Nidariya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDahavci" title="Žahavci – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Žahavci" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidariad" title="Cnidariad – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cnidariad" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A6ldecelledyr" title="Nældecelledyr – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nældecelledyr" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nesseltiere" title="Nesseltiere – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nesseltiere" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1%C5%82t%C5%82%CA%BC%C3%A1%C3%A1h_Dahoo%C5%82ch%CA%BC%C3%ADh%C3%AD" title="Táłtłʼááh Dahoołchʼíhí – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Táłtłʼááh Dahoołchʼíhí" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Diné bizaad</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu%C3%B5%C3%B5ssed" title="Ainuõõssed – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ainuõõssed" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%B4%CF%8C%CE%B6%CF%89%CE%B1" title="Κνιδόζωα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κνιδόζωα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knidulo" title="Knidulo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Knidulo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86" title="گزنده‌تباران – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گزنده‌تباران" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netteldieren" title="Netteldieren – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Netteldieren" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidarios" title="Cnidarios – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cnidarios" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%90%ED%8F%AC%EB%8F%99%EB%AC%BC" title="자포동물 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="자포동물" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="निडारिया – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="निडारिया" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDarnjaci" title="Žarnjaci – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Žarnjaci" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knidulo" title="Knidulo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Knidulo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hold%C3%BDr" title="Holdýr – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Holdýr" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9D" title="צורבים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="צורבים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnyama-upupu" title="Mnyama-upupu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mnyama-upupu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urti%C3%ABnc" title="Urtiënc – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Urtiënc" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dz%C4%93l%C4%93jzarndobumai%C5%86i" title="Dzēlējzarndobumaiņi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Dzēlējzarndobumaiņi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nesseld%C3%A9ieren" title="Nesseldéieren – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Nesseldéieren" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duobagyviai" title="Duobagyviai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Duobagyviai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nietelbieste" title="Nietelbieste – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Nietelbieste" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidario" title="Cnidario – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Cnidario" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Csal%C3%A1noz%C3%B3k" title="Csalánozók – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Csalánozók" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Жаркари – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Жаркари" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="لاسعات – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لاسعات" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A6%EA%AF%9F%EA%AF%87%EA%AF%A6%EA%AF%94%EA%AF%A6%EA%AF%87%EA%AF%A5" title="ꯁꯤꯂꯦꯟꯇꯦꯔꯦꯇꯥ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯁꯤꯂꯦꯟꯇꯦꯔꯦꯇꯥ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neteldieren" title="Neteldieren – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Neteldieren" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%BA%E8%83%9E%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" title="刺胞動物 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="刺胞動物" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A4%C3%A4deldiarten" title="Näädeldiarten – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Näädeldiarten" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nesledyr" title="Nesledyr – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nesledyr" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nesledyr" title="Nesledyr – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Nesledyr" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qurxummelellaa" title="Qurxummelellaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Qurxummelellaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%88%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%86%DB%92" title="ڈنگنے – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ڈنگنے" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parzyde%C5%82kowce" title="Parzydełkowce – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Parzydełkowce" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%27arachiq" title="K'arachiq – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="K'arachiq" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8E%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Стрекающие – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Стрекающие" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%DA%8A%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="نائڊيريا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="نائڊيريا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%95hlivce" title="Pŕhlivce – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Pŕhlivce" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%C5%BEigalkarji" title="Ožigalkarji – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ožigalkarji" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%9A%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Жарњаци – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Жарњаци" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDarnjaci" title="Žarnjaci – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Žarnjaci" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polttiaisel%C3%A4imet" title="Polttiaiseläimet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Polttiaiseläimet" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A4sseldjur" title="Nässeldjur – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nässeldjur" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9E%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF" title="கடற்காஞ்சொறி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கடற்காஞ்சொறி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE" title="నిడేరియా – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="నిడేరియా" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="ไนดาเรีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ไนดาเรีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knidliler" title="Knidliler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Knidliler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%96%D1%97" title="Кнідарії – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кнідарії" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%A0nh_Th%C3%ADch_ty_b%C3%A0o" title="Ngành Thích ty bào – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngành Thích ty bào" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netelb%C3%AAestn" title="Netelbêestn – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Netelbêestn" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%BA%E8%83%9E%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9%E9%97%A8" title="刺胞动物门 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="刺胞动物门" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%BA%E8%83%9E%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" title="刺胞動物 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="刺胞動物" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Cnidaria" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zeêuws</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%BA%E8%83%9E%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9%E9%96%80" title="刺胞動物門 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="刺胞動物門" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Aquatic animal phylum having cnydocytes</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Cnidaria<br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: <span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;">580–0 <a href="/wiki/Megaannum" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaannum">Ma</a></span> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:18.073846153846px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.710769230769px; width:14.08px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:69.790769230769px; width:8.3261538461539px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:78.116923076923px; width:20.409230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.526153846154px; width:20.307692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.089230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:170.92307692308px; width:26.738461538462px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.543692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20523076923px; width:6.9215384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:5.0769230769231px; width:214.92307692308px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:23.692307692308px; width:196.30769230769px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:24.692307692308px; width:194.30769230769px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div></span> <a href="/wiki/Ediacaran" title="Ediacaran">Ediacaran</a>–Present</div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Cnidaria.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Cnidaria.png/290px-Cnidaria.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Cnidaria.png/435px-Cnidaria.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Cnidaria.png/580px-Cnidaria.png 2x" data-file-width="1396" data-file-height="1080" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Four examples of cnidaria (<i>clockwise, from top left</i>): <ul><li>A jellyfish <i><a href="/wiki/Chrysaora_melanaster" title="Chrysaora melanaster">Chrysaora melanaster</a></i></li> <li>A gorgonian <i><a href="/wiki/Annella_mollis" title="Annella mollis">Annella mollis</a></i></li> <li>A sea anemone <i><a href="/wiki/Nemanthus_annamensis" title="Nemanthus annamensis">Nemanthus annamensis</a></i></li> <li>A stony coral <i><a href="/wiki/Acropora_cervicornis" class="mw-redirect" title="Acropora cervicornis">Acropora cervicornis</a></i></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <span class="plainlinks taxobox-edit-taxonomy skin-invert" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Cnidaria" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Subkingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eumetazoa" title="Eumetazoa">Eumetazoa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/ParaHoxozoa" title="ParaHoxozoa">ParaHoxozoa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phylum: </td> <td><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cnidaria</a><br /><small><a href="/wiki/Berthold_Hatschek" title="Berthold Hatschek">Hatschek</a>, 1888</small> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Subphyla and classes<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li>Subphylum <a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoa</a>—<a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemone</a> <ul><li>Class <a href="/wiki/Octocorallia" title="Octocorallia">Octocorallia</a></li> <li>Class <a href="/wiki/Hexacorallia" title="Hexacorallia">Hexacorallia</a></li> <li>Class <a href="/wiki/Ceriantharia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceriantharia">Ceriantharia</a></li></ul></li> <li>Subphylum <a href="/wiki/Medusozoa" title="Medusozoa">Medusozoa</a>—<a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrozoans" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrozoans">hydrozoans</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Class <a href="/wiki/Cubozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Cubozoa">Cubozoa</a>—<a href="/wiki/Box_jellyfish" title="Box jellyfish">box jellyfish</a>, sea wasps</li> <li>Class <a href="/wiki/Hydrozoa" title="Hydrozoa">Hydrozoa</a>—<a href="/wiki/Hydroid_(zoology)" title="Hydroid (zoology)">hydroids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">hydra</a>-like animals</li> <li>Class <a href="/wiki/Polypodiozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Polypodiozoa">Polypodiozoa</a>—parasites</li> <li>Class <a href="/wiki/Scyphozoa" title="Scyphozoa">Scyphozoa</a>—<a href="/wiki/True_jellyfish" class="mw-redirect" title="True jellyfish">true jellyfish</a></li> <li>Class <a href="/wiki/Staurozoa" title="Staurozoa">Staurozoa</a>—<a href="/wiki/Stalked_jellyfish" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalked jellyfish">stalked jellyfish</a></li></ul></li> <li>Subphylum <a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a>—<a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasites</a><sup id="cite_ref-Collins_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collins-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Class <a href="/wiki/Myxosporea" title="Myxosporea">Myxosporea</a></li> <li>Class <a href="/wiki/Malacosporea" class="mw-redirect" title="Malacosporea">Malacosporea</a></li></ul></li></ul> </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sea_nettles.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sea_nettles.jpg/220px-Sea_nettles.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sea_nettles.jpg/330px-Sea_nettles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Sea_nettles.jpg 2x" data-file-width="427" data-file-height="311" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chrysaora_fuscescens" title="Chrysaora fuscescens">Pacific sea nettles</a>, <i>Chrysaora fuscescens</i></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Cnidaria</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ɛər/: 'are' in 'bare'">ɛər</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span></span>-/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling">nih-<span style="font-size:90%">DAIR</span>-ee-ə, <span style="font-size:90%">NY</span>-</i></a>)<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> under kingdom <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a> containing over 11,000 <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal">aquatic animals</a> found both in <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine environment">marine environments</a> (predominantly the latter), including <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydroid_(zoology)" title="Hydroid (zoology)">hydroids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a> and some of the smallest marine <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a>. Their distinguishing features are a decentralized nervous system distributed throughout a gelatinous body and the presence of <a href="/wiki/Cnidocyte" title="Cnidocyte">cnidocytes</a> or cnidoblasts, specialized cells with ejectable <a href="/wiki/Flagella" class="mw-redirect" title="Flagella">flagella</a> used mainly for <a href="/wiki/Envenomation" title="Envenomation">envenomation</a> and capturing <a href="/wiki/Prey" class="mw-redirect" title="Prey">prey</a>. Their bodies consist of <a href="/wiki/Mesoglea" title="Mesoglea">mesoglea</a>, a non-living, jelly-like substance, sandwiched between two layers of <a href="/wiki/Epithelium" title="Epithelium">epithelium</a> that are mostly one <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> thick. Cnidarians are also some of the only animals that can reproduce both sexually and asexually. </p><p>Cnidarians mostly have two basic body forms: swimming <a href="/wiki/Medusa_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Medusa (biology)">medusae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(motility)" title="Sessility (motility)">sessile</a> <a href="/wiki/Polyp_(zoology)" title="Polyp (zoology)">polyps</a>, both of which are <a href="/wiki/Radially_symmetrical" class="mw-redirect" title="Radially symmetrical">radially symmetrical</a> with mouths surrounded by <a href="/wiki/Tentacle" title="Tentacle">tentacles</a> that bear cnidocytes, which are specialized stinging cells used to capture prey. Both forms have a single <a href="/wiki/Body_orifice" title="Body orifice">orifice</a> and body cavity that are used for <a href="/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">digestion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a>. Many cnidarian species produce <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonies</a> that are single organisms composed of medusa-like or polyp-like <a href="/wiki/Zooid" title="Zooid">zooids</a>, or both (hence they are <a href="/wiki/Trimorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Trimorphic">trimorphic</a>). Cnidarians' activities are coordinated by a decentralized <a href="/wiki/Nerve_net" title="Nerve net">nerve net</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">simple receptors</a>. Cnidarians also have <a href="/wiki/Rhopalium" title="Rhopalium">rhopalia</a>, which are involved in gravity sensing and sometimes chemoreception. Several free-swimming species of <a href="/wiki/Cubozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Cubozoa">Cubozoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scyphozoa" title="Scyphozoa">Scyphozoa</a> possess balance-sensing <a href="/wiki/Statocyst" title="Statocyst">statocysts</a>, and some have <a href="/wiki/Simple_eye_in_invertebrates" title="Simple eye in invertebrates">simple eyes</a>. Not all cnidarians <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">reproduce sexually</a>, but many species have complex life cycles of <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual</a> polyp stages and sexual medusae stages. Some, however, omit either the polyp or the medusa stage, and the parasitic classes evolved to have neither form. </p><p>Cnidarians were formerly grouped with <a href="/wiki/Ctenophore" class="mw-redirect" title="Ctenophore">ctenophores</a>, also known as comb jellies, in the phylum <a href="/wiki/Coelenterata" title="Coelenterata">Coelenterata</a>, but increasing awareness of their differences caused them to be placed in separate phyla.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cnidarians are classified into four main groups: the almost wholly <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sessility (zoology)">sessile</a> <a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_pen" title="Sea pen">sea pens</a>); swimming <a href="/wiki/Scyphozoa" title="Scyphozoa">Scyphozoa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a>); <a href="/wiki/Cubozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Cubozoa">Cubozoa</a> (box jellies); and <a href="/wiki/Hydrozoa" title="Hydrozoa">Hydrozoa</a> (a diverse group that includes all the freshwater cnidarians as well as many marine forms, and which has both sessile members, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">Hydra</a></i>, and colonial swimmers (such as the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_man_o%27_war" title="Portuguese man o' war">Portuguese man o' war</a>)). <a href="/wiki/Staurozoa" title="Staurozoa">Staurozoa</a> have recently been recognised as a <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a> in their own right rather than a sub-group of Scyphozoa, and the highly derived parasitic <a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polypodiozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Polypodiozoa">Polypodiozoa</a> were firmly recognized as cnidarians only in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-E._7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-E.-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most cnidarians prey on <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> ranging in size from <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a> to animals several times larger than themselves, but many obtain much of their nutrition from symbiotic <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a>, and a few are <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasites</a>. Many are preyed on by other animals including <a href="/wiki/Starfish" title="Starfish">starfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nudibranch" title="Nudibranch">sea slugs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">turtles</a>, and even other cnidarians. Many <a href="/wiki/Scleractinia" title="Scleractinia">scleractinian</a> corals—which form the structural foundation for <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>—possess polyps that are filled with symbiotic photo-synthetic <a href="/wiki/Zooxanthellae" title="Zooxanthellae">zooxanthellae</a>. While reef-forming corals are almost entirely restricted to warm and shallow marine waters, other cnidarians can be found at great depths, in <a href="/wiki/Polar_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar region">polar regions</a>, and in freshwater. </p><p>Cnidarians are a very ancient phylum, with fossils having been found in rocks formed about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=580">580</a> million years ago</span> during the <a href="/wiki/Ediacaran" title="Ediacaran">Ediacaran</a> <a href="/wiki/Geologic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologic period">period</a>, preceding the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_Explosion" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambrian Explosion">Cambrian Explosion</a>. Other fossils show that corals may have been present shortly before <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=490">490</a> million years ago</span> and diversified a few million years later. <a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">Molecular clock</a> analysis of <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondrial</a> genes suggests an even older age for the <a href="/wiki/Crown_group" title="Crown group">crown group</a> of cnidarians, estimated around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=741">741</a> million years ago</span>, almost 200 million years before the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> period, as well as before any fossils.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic">phylogenetic</a> analyses support <a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">monophyly</a> of cnidarians, as well as the position of cnidarians as the <a href="/wiki/Sister_group" title="Sister group">sister group</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">bilaterians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>cnidaria</i> derives from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> word <i>knídē</i> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BA%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B7" class="extiw" title="wikt:κνίδη">κνίδη</a> “nettle”), signifying the coiled thread reminiscent of cnidocytes. The word was first coined in 1766 by the Swedish naturalist <a href="/wiki/Peter_Simon_Pallas" title="Peter Simon Pallas">Peter Simon Pallas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distinguishing_features">Distinguishing features</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Distinguishing features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Porifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Porifera">Porifera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a></div> <p>Cnidarians form a <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> that are more complex than <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a>, about as complex as <a href="/wiki/Ctenophore" class="mw-redirect" title="Ctenophore">ctenophores</a> (comb jellies), and less complex than <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">bilaterians</a>, which include almost all other animals. Both cnidarians and ctenophores are more complex than sponges as they have: cells bound by inter-cell connections and carpet-like <a href="/wiki/Basement_membrane" title="Basement membrane">basement membranes</a>; <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscles</a>; <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous systems</a>; and <b>some</b> have <a href="/wiki/Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">sensory</a> organs. Cnidarians are distinguished from all other animals by having <a href="/wiki/Cnidocyte" title="Cnidocyte">cnidocytes</a> that fire <a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoon</a>-like structures that are mainly used to capture prey. In some species, cnidocytes can also be used as anchors.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cnidarians are also distinguished by the fact that they have only one opening in their body for ingestion and excretion i.e. they do not have a separate mouth and anus. </p><p>Like sponges and ctenophores, cnidarians have two main layers of cells that sandwich a middle layer of jelly-like material, which is called the <a href="/wiki/Mesoglea" title="Mesoglea">mesoglea</a> in cnidarians; more complex <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> have three main cell layers and no intermediate jelly-like layer. Hence, cnidarians and ctenophores have traditionally been labelled <a href="/wiki/Diploblastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploblastic">diploblastic</a>, along with sponges.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, both cnidarians and ctenophores have a type of <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscle</a> that, in more complex animals, arises from the <a href="/wiki/Mesoderm" title="Mesoderm">middle cell layer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Seipel_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seipel-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, some recent text books classify ctenophores as <a href="/wiki/Triploblastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Triploblastic">triploblastic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 182–195">: 182–195 </span></sup> and it has been suggested that cnidarians evolved from triploblastic ancestors.<sup id="cite_ref-Seipel_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seipel-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin-left:4px"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Sponges</a><sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 76–97">: 76–97 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>Cnidarians<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ctenophore" class="mw-redirect" title="Ctenophore">Ctenophores</a><sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 182–195">: 182–195 </span></sup></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a><sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Cnidocyte" title="Cnidocyte">Cnidocytes</a> </th> <td>No</td> <td>Yes</td> <td colspan="2">No </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Colloblast" title="Colloblast">Colloblasts</a> </th> <td colspan="2">No</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>No </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Digestive_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Digestive system">Digestive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory</a> <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a> </th> <td colspan="3">No</td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Number of main cell layers </th> <td>Two, with jelly-like layer between them </td> <td>Two</td> <td>Two</td> <td>Three </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Cells in each layer bound together </th> <td>cell-adhesion molecules, but no basement membranes except <a href="/wiki/Homoscleromorpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Homoscleromorpha">Homoscleromorpha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td colspan="3">inter-cell connections; basement membranes </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">Sensory</a> organs </th> <td>No</td> <td colspan="3">Yes </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Number of cells in middle "jelly" layer </th> <td>Many</td> <td colspan="2">Few</td> <td>(Not applicable) </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Cells in outer layers can move inwards and change functions </th> <td>Yes</td> <td colspan="2">No</td> <td>(Not applicable) </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Nervous system </th> <td>No</td> <td colspan="2">Yes, simple</td> <td>Simple to complex </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">Muscles</a> </th> <td>None</td> <td>Mostly epitheliomuscular</td> <td>Mostly myoepithelial</td> <td>Mostly <a href="/wiki/Myocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Myocyte">myocytes</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basic_body_forms">Basic body forms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Basic body forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cnidiria_medusa_and_polip_svg_hariadhi.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Cnidiria_medusa_and_polip_svg_hariadhi.svg/250px-Cnidiria_medusa_and_polip_svg_hariadhi.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Cnidiria_medusa_and_polip_svg_hariadhi.svg/375px-Cnidiria_medusa_and_polip_svg_hariadhi.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Cnidiria_medusa_and_polip_svg_hariadhi.svg/500px-Cnidiria_medusa_and_polip_svg_hariadhi.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Actinodiscus_macro.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Actinodiscus_macro.JPG/250px-Actinodiscus_macro.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Actinodiscus_macro.JPG/375px-Actinodiscus_macro.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Actinodiscus_macro.JPG/500px-Actinodiscus_macro.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Oral end of <a href="/wiki/Actinodiscus" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinodiscus">actinodiscus</a> polyp</figcaption></figure> <p>Most adult cnidarians appear as either free-swimming <a href="/wiki/Medusa_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Medusa (biology)">medusae</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sessility (zoology)">sessile</a> <a href="/wiki/Polyp_(zoology)" title="Polyp (zoology)">polyps</a>, and many <a href="/wiki/Hydrozoa" title="Hydrozoa">hydrozoans</a> species are known to alternate between the two forms. </p><p>Both are <a href="/wiki/Symmetry_(biology)#Radial_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Symmetry (biology)">radially symmetrical</a>, like a wheel and a tube respectively. Since these animals have no heads, their ends are described as "oral" (nearest the mouth) and "aboral" (furthest from the mouth). </p><p>Most have fringes of tentacles equipped with <a href="/wiki/Cnidocyte" title="Cnidocyte">cnidocytes</a> around their edges, and medusae generally have an inner ring of tentacles around the mouth. Some hydroids may consist of colonies of <a href="/wiki/Zooid" title="Zooid">zooids</a> that serve different purposes, such as defense, reproduction and catching prey. The <a href="/wiki/Mesoglea" title="Mesoglea">mesoglea</a> of polyps is usually thin and often soft, but that of medusae is usually thick and springy, so that it returns to its original shape after muscles around the edge have contracted to squeeze water out, enabling medusae to swim by a sort of <a href="/wiki/Jet_propulsion" title="Jet propulsion">jet propulsion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skeletons">Skeletons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Skeletons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In medusae, the only supporting structure is the <a href="/wiki/Mesoglea" title="Mesoglea">mesoglea</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">Hydra</a></i> and most <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemones</a> close their mouths when they are not feeding, and the <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> in the digestive cavity then acts as a <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_skeleton" title="Hydrostatic skeleton">hydrostatic skeleton</a>, rather like a water-filled balloon. Other polyps such as <i><a href="/wiki/Tubularia" title="Tubularia">Tubularia</a></i> use columns of water-filled cells for support. <a href="/wiki/Sea_pen" title="Sea pen">Sea pens</a> stiffen the mesoglea with <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/spicule" class="extiw" title="wikt:spicule">spicules</a> and tough fibrous <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>, rather like <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some colonial polyps, a <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitinous</a> <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(zoology)" title="Epidermis (zoology)">epidermis</a> gives support and some protection to the connecting sections and to the lower parts of individual polyps. A few polyps collect materials such as sand grains and shell fragments, which they attach to their outsides. Some colonial sea anemones stiffen the mesoglea with <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> particles.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A mineralized <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a> made of calcium carbonate is found in subphylum Anthozoa in the order <a href="/wiki/Scleractinia" title="Scleractinia">Scleractinia</a> (stony corals; class Hexacorallia) and the class <a href="/wiki/Octocorallia" title="Octocorallia">Octocorallia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in subphylum Medusozoa in three <a href="/wiki/Hydrozoa" title="Hydrozoa">hydrozoan</a> families in order <a href="/wiki/Anthoathecata" title="Anthoathecata">Anthoathecata</a>; <a href="/wiki/Fire_coral" title="Fire coral">Milleporidae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stylasteridae" title="Stylasteridae">Stylasteridae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydractiniidae" title="Hydractiniidae">Hydractiniidae</a> (the latter with a mix of calcified and uncalcified species).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Main_cell_layers">Main cell layers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Main cell layers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cnidaria are <a href="/wiki/Diploblastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploblastic">diploblastic</a> animals; in other words, they have two main cell layers, while more complex animals are <a href="/wiki/Triploblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Triploblast">triploblasts</a> having three main layers. The two main cell layers of cnidarians form <a href="/wiki/Epithelia" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithelia">epithelia</a> that are mostly one cell thick, and are attached to a fibrous <a href="/wiki/Basement_membrane" title="Basement membrane">basement membrane</a>, which they <a href="/wiki/Secrete" class="mw-redirect" title="Secrete">secrete</a>. They also secrete the jelly-like <a href="/wiki/Mesoglea" title="Mesoglea">mesoglea</a> that separates the layers. The layer that faces outwards, known as the <a href="/wiki/Ectoderm" title="Ectoderm">ectoderm</a> ("outside skin"), generally contains the following types of cells:<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Epitheliomuscular cells whose bodies form part of the epithelium but whose bases extend to form <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscle</a> fibers in parallel rows.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 103–104">: 103–104 </span></sup> The fibers of the outward-facing cell layer generally run at right angles to the fibers of the inward-facing one. In <a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoa</a> (anemones, corals, etc.) and <a href="/wiki/Scyphozoa" title="Scyphozoa">Scyphozoa</a> (jellyfish), the <a href="/wiki/Mesoglea" title="Mesoglea">mesoglea</a> also contains some muscle cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidocyte" title="Cnidocyte">Cnidocytes</a>, the harpoon-like "nettle cells" that give the <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> Cnidaria its name. These appear between or sometimes on top of the muscle cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">Nerve</a> cells. <a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">Sensory</a> cells appear between or sometimes on top of the muscle cells,<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and communicate via <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapses</a> (gaps across which chemical signals flow) with <a href="/wiki/Motor_nerve" title="Motor nerve">motor nerve</a> cells, which lie mostly between the bases of the muscle cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some form a simple <a href="/wiki/Nerve_net" title="Nerve net">nerve net</a>.</li> <li>Interstitial cells, which are unspecialized and can replace lost or damaged cells by transforming into the appropriate types. These are found between the bases of muscle cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In addition to epitheliomuscular, nerve and interstitial cells, the inward-facing <a href="/wiki/Gastrodermis" title="Gastrodermis">gastroderm</a> ("stomach skin") contains <a href="/wiki/Gland" title="Gland">gland</a> cells that secrete digestive <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a>. In some species it also contains low concentrations of cnidocytes, which are used to subdue prey that is still struggling.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mesoglea contains small numbers of <a href="/wiki/Amoeba_(genus)" title="Amoeba (genus)">amoeba</a>-like cells,<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and muscle cells in some species.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the number of middle-layer cells and types are much lower than in sponges.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polymorphism">Polymorphism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Polymorphism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a> refers to the occurrence of structurally and functionally more than two different types of individuals within the same organism. It is a characteristic feature of Cnidarians, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Polyp_(zoology)" title="Polyp (zoology)">polyp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medusae" class="mw-redirect" title="Medusae">medusa</a> forms, or of <a href="/wiki/Zooids" class="mw-redirect" title="Zooids">zooids</a> within colonial organisms like those in <a href="/wiki/Hydrozoa" title="Hydrozoa">Hydrozoa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Hydrozoa" title="Hydrozoa">Hydrozoans</a>, colonial individuals arising from individual zooids will take on separate tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in <i><a href="/wiki/Obelia" title="Obelia">Obelia</a></i> there are feeding individuals, the <a href="/wiki/Gastrozooid" title="Gastrozooid">gastrozooids</a>; the individuals capable of asexual reproduction only, the gonozooids, blastostyles and free-living or sexually reproducing individuals, the <a href="/wiki/Medusae" class="mw-redirect" title="Medusae">medusae</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cnidocytes">Cnidocytes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cnidocytes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These "nettle cells" function as <a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoons</a>, since their <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/payload" class="extiw" title="wikt:payload">payloads</a> remain connected to the bodies of the cells by threads. Three types of <a href="/wiki/Cnidocyte" title="Cnidocyte">cnidocytes</a> are known:<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hydra_nematocyst_firing_01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Hydra_nematocyst_firing_01.png/200px-Hydra_nematocyst_firing_01.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Hydra_nematocyst_firing_01.png 1.5x" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption> Firing sequence of the cnida in a hydra's nematocyst<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:blue; color:white;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> Operculum (lid)<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:red; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> "Finger" that turns inside out<br />/ / / Barbs<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:yellow; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> Venom<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:silver; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> Victim's skin<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffcad0; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> Victim's tissues</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nematocyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Nematocyst">Nematocysts</a> inject <a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">venom</a> into prey, and usually have barbs to keep them embedded in the victims. Most species have nematocysts.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirocyst&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spirocyst (page does not exist)">Spirocysts</a> do not penetrate the victim or inject venom, but entangle it by means of small sticky hairs on the thread.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptychocyst&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ptychocyst (page does not exist)">Ptychocysts</a> are not used for prey capture — instead the threads of discharged ptychocysts are used for building protective tubes in which their owners live. Ptychocysts are found only in the <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a> <a href="/wiki/Ceriantharia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceriantharia">Ceriantharia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tube-dwelling_anemone" title="Tube-dwelling anemone">tube anemones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The main components of a cnidocyte are:<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hydra_nematocyst_01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Hydra_nematocyst_01.png/200px-Hydra_nematocyst_01.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Hydra_nematocyst_01.png 1.5x" data-file-width="209" data-file-height="124" /></a><figcaption> A <a href="/wiki/Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">hydra</a>'s nematocyst, before firing.<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00b900; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> "trigger" cilium<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>A <a href="/wiki/Cilium" title="Cilium">cilium</a> (fine hair) which projects above the surface and acts as a trigger. Spirocysts do not have cilia.</li> <li>A tough capsule, the <a href="/wiki/Cnida" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnida">cnida</a>, which houses the thread, its payload and a mixture of chemicals that may include venom or <a href="/wiki/Adhesive" title="Adhesive">adhesives</a> or both. ("cnida" is derived from the Greek word κνίδη, which means "nettle"<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)</li> <li>A tube-like extension of the wall of the cnida that points into the cnida, like the finger of a rubber glove pushed inwards. When a cnidocyte fires, the finger pops out. If the cell is a venomous nematocyte, the "finger"'s tip reveals a set of barbs that anchor it in the prey.</li> <li>The thread, which is an extension of the "finger" and coils round it until the cnidocyte fires. The thread is usually hollow and delivers chemicals from the cnida to the target.</li> <li>An <a href="/wiki/Operculum_(animal)" title="Operculum (animal)">operculum</a> (lid) over the end of the cnida. The lid may be a single hinged flap or three flaps arranged like slices of pie.</li> <li>The cell body, which produces all the other parts.</li></ul> <p>It is difficult to study the firing mechanisms of cnidocytes as these structures are small but very complex. At least four hypotheses have been proposed:<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Rapid contraction of fibers round the cnida may increase its internal pressure.</li> <li>The thread may be like a coiled spring that extends rapidly when released.</li> <li>In the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Chironex" title="Chironex">Chironex</a></i> (the "sea wasp"), chemical changes in the cnida's contents may cause them to expand rapidly by <a href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</a>.</li> <li>Chemical changes in the liquid in the cnida make it a much more <a href="/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration">concentrated</a> solution, so that <a href="/wiki/Osmotic_pressure" title="Osmotic pressure">osmotic pressure</a> forces water in very rapidly to dilute it. This mechanism has been observed in nematocysts of the class <a href="/wiki/Hydrozoa" title="Hydrozoa">Hydrozoa</a>, sometimes producing pressures as high as 140 <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmosphere (unit)">atmospheres</a>, similar to that of <a href="/wiki/Scuba_set" title="Scuba set">scuba</a> air tanks, and fully extending the thread in as little as 2 milliseconds (0.002 second).<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Cnidocytes can only fire once, and about 25% of a hydra's nematocysts are lost from its tentacles when capturing a <a href="/wiki/Brine_shrimp" title="Brine shrimp">brine shrimp</a>. Used cnidocytes have to be replaced, which takes about 48 hours. To minimise wasteful firing, two types of stimulus are generally required to trigger cnidocytes: nearby <a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">sensory</a> cells detect chemicals in the water, and their cilia respond to contact. This combination prevents them from firing at distant or non-living objects. Groups of cnidocytes are usually connected by nerves and, if one fires, the rest of the group requires a weaker minimum stimulus than the cells that fire first.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Locomotion">Locomotion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Locomotion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Chrysaora_quinquecirrha-Sea_nettle_%28jellyfish%29.ogv/200px--Chrysaora_quinquecirrha-Sea_nettle_%28jellyfish%29.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" height="150" data-durationhint="28" data-mwtitle="Chrysaora_quinquecirrha-Sea_nettle_(jellyfish).ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Chrysaora_quinquecirrha-Sea_nettle_(jellyfish).ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e0/Chrysaora_quinquecirrha-Sea_nettle_%28jellyfish%29.ogv/Chrysaora_quinquecirrha-Sea_nettle_%28jellyfish%29.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Chrysaora_quinquecirrha-Sea_nettle_%28jellyfish%29.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e0/Chrysaora_quinquecirrha-Sea_nettle_%28jellyfish%29.ogv/Chrysaora_quinquecirrha-Sea_nettle_%28jellyfish%29.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e0/Chrysaora_quinquecirrha-Sea_nettle_%28jellyfish%29.ogv/Chrysaora_quinquecirrha-Sea_nettle_%28jellyfish%29.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e0/Chrysaora_quinquecirrha-Sea_nettle_%28jellyfish%29.ogv/Chrysaora_quinquecirrha-Sea_nettle_%28jellyfish%29.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e0/Chrysaora_quinquecirrha-Sea_nettle_%28jellyfish%29.ogv/Chrysaora_quinquecirrha-Sea_nettle_%28jellyfish%29.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption> A swimming sea nettle known as the purple-striped jelly (<i><a href="/wiki/Chrysaora_colorata" title="Chrysaora colorata">Chrysaora colorata</a></i>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Medusae swim by a form of jet propulsion: muscles, especially inside the rim of the bell, squeeze water out of the cavity inside the bell, and the springiness of the mesoglea powers the recovery stroke. Since the tissue layers are very thin, they provide too little power to swim against currents and just enough to control movement within currents.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">Hydras</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemones</a> can move slowly over rocks and sea or stream beds by various means: creeping like snails, crawling like <a href="/wiki/Geometer_moth" title="Geometer moth">inchworms</a>, or by <a href="/wiki/Cartwheel_(gymnastics)" title="Cartwheel (gymnastics)">somersaulting</a>. A few can swim clumsily by waggling their bases.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nervous_system_and_senses">Nervous system and senses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Nervous system and senses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cnidarians are generally thought to have no brains or even central nervous systems. However, they do have integrative areas of neural tissue that could be considered some form of centralization. Most of their bodies are innervated by decentralized nerve nets that control their swimming musculature and connect with sensory structures, though each clade has slightly different structures.<sup id="cite_ref-Central_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Central-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These sensory structures, usually called rhopalia, can generate signals in response to various types of stimuli such as light, pressure, chemical changes, and much more. Medusa usually have several of them around the margin of the bell that work together to control the motor nerve net, that directly innervates the swimming muscles. Most cnidarians also have a parallel system. In scyphozoans, this takes the form of a diffuse nerve net, which has modulatory effects on the nervous system.<sup id="cite_ref-Control_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Control-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As well as forming the "signal cables" between sensory neurons and motoneurons, intermediate neurons in the nerve net can also form ganglia that act as local coordination centers. Communication between nerve cells can occur by chemical synapses or gap junctions in hydrozoans, though gap junctions are not present in all groups. Cnidarians have many of the same neurotransmitters as bilaterians, including chemicals such as glutamate, GABA, and glycine.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline, octopamine, histamine, and acetylcholine, on the other hand, are absent.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This structure ensures that the musculature is excited rapidly and simultaneously, and can be directly stimulated from any point on the body, and it also is better able to recover after injury.<sup id="cite_ref-Central_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Central-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Control_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Control-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Medusae and complex swimming colonies such as <a href="/wiki/Siphonophore" class="mw-redirect" title="Siphonophore">siphonophores</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chondrophore" title="Chondrophore">chondrophores</a> sense tilt and acceleration by means of <a href="/wiki/Statocyst" title="Statocyst">statocysts</a>, chambers lined with hairs which detect the movements of internal mineral grains called statoliths. If the body tilts in the wrong direction, the animal rights itself by increasing the strength of the swimming movements on the side that is too low. Most species have <a href="/wiki/Ocelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocelli">ocelli</a> ("simple eyes"), which can detect sources of light. However, the agile <a href="/wiki/Box_jellyfish" title="Box jellyfish">box jellyfish</a> are unique among Medusae because they possess four kinds of true eyes that have <a href="/wiki/Retinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Retinas">retinas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornea" title="Cornea">corneas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lens_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (anatomy)">lenses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-live_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-live-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the eyes probably do not form images, Cubozoa can clearly distinguish the direction from which light is coming as well as negotiate around solid-colored objects.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-live_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-live-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feeding_and_excretion">Feeding and excretion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Feeding and excretion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cnidarians feed in several ways: <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a>, absorbing dissolved <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic</a> chemicals, <a href="/wiki/Filter_feeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Filter feeding">filtering</a> food particles out of the water, obtaining <a href="/wiki/Nutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrients">nutrients</a> from <a href="/wiki/Symbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiotic">symbiotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> within their cells, and parasitism. Most obtain the majority of their food from predation but some, including the <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a> <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hetroxenia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hetroxenia (page does not exist)">Hetroxenia</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Leptogorgia" title="Leptogorgia">Leptogorgia</a></i>, depend almost completely on their <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbionts</a> and on absorbing dissolved nutrients.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cnidaria give their symbiotic algae <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, some nutrients, and protection against predators.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Predatory species use their <a href="/wiki/Cnidocyte" title="Cnidocyte">cnidocytes</a> to poison or entangle prey, and those with venomous <a href="/wiki/Nematocyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Nematocyst">nematocysts</a> may start digestion by injecting digestive <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a>. The "smell" of fluids from wounded prey makes the tentacles fold inwards and wipe the prey off into the mouth. In medusae, the tentacles around the edge of the bell are often short and most of the prey capture is done by "oral arms", which are extensions of the edge of the mouth and are often frilled and sometimes branched to increase their surface area. These "oral arms" aid in Cnidarians ability to move prey towards their mouth once it has been poisoned and entangled. Medusae often trap prey or suspended food particles by swimming upwards, spreading their tentacles and oral arms and then sinking. In species for which suspended food particles are important, the tentacles and oral arms often have rows of <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a> whose beating creates currents that flow towards the mouth, and some produce nets of <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a> to trap particles.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their digestion is both intra and extracellular. </p><p>Once the food is in the digestive cavity, <a href="/wiki/Gland" title="Gland">gland</a> cells in the <a href="/wiki/Gastrodermis" title="Gastrodermis">gastroderm</a> release enzymes that reduce the prey to slurry, usually within a few hours. This circulates through the digestive cavity and, in colonial cnidarians, through the connecting tunnels, so that gastroderm cells can absorb the nutrients. Absorption may take a few hours, and digestion within the cells may take a few days. The circulation of nutrients is driven by water currents produced by cilia in the gastroderm or by muscular movements or both, so that nutrients reach all parts of the digestive cavity.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nutrients reach the outer cell layer by <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a> or, for animals or zooids such as medusae which have thick <a href="/wiki/Mesoglea" title="Mesoglea">mesogleas</a>, are transported by mobile cells in the mesoglea.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indigestible remains of prey are expelled through the mouth. The main waste product of cells' internal processes is <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, which is removed by the external and internal water currents.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Respiration">Respiration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Respiration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are no respiratory organs, and both cell layers absorb oxygen from and expel <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> into the surrounding water. When the water in the digestive cavity becomes stale it must be replaced, and nutrients that have not been absorbed will be expelled with it. Some <a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoa</a> have ciliated grooves on their tentacles, allowing them to pump water out of and into the digestive cavity without opening the mouth. This improves respiration after feeding and allows these animals, which use the cavity as a <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_skeleton" title="Hydrostatic skeleton">hydrostatic skeleton</a>, to control the water pressure in the cavity without expelling undigested food.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cnidaria that carry <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic">photosynthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Symbiont" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiont">symbionts</a> may have the opposite problem, an excess of oxygen, which may prove <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">toxic</a>. The animals produce large quantities of <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidants</a> to neutralize the excess oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regeneration">Regeneration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Regeneration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All cnidarians can <a href="/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)" title="Regeneration (biology)">regenerate</a>, allowing them to recover from injury and to reproduce <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexually</a>. Medusae have limited ability to regenerate, but polyps can do so from small pieces or even collections of separated cells. This enables corals to recover even after apparently being destroyed by predators.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reproduction">Reproduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Reproduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="noresize thumb tright" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:195px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="height:294px; overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:0px; top:0px; width:200px; position:absolute;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Schleiden-meduse-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Life cycle of a jellyfish:[11][12] 1–3 Larva searches for site 4–8 Polyp grows 9–11 Polyp strobilates 12–14 Medusa grows"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Schleiden-meduse-2.jpg/200px-Schleiden-meduse-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Schleiden-meduse-2.jpg/300px-Schleiden-meduse-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Schleiden-meduse-2.jpg/400px-Schleiden-meduse-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="1042" /></a></span></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:yellow; font-size:10px; font-weight:bold; line-height:12px;"> <div id="annotation_100x231" style="position:absolute; left:100px; top:231px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:#ffcccc; color:inherit;"> 1 </span></div> <div id="annotation_60x232" style="position:absolute; left:60px; top:232px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:#ffcccc; color:inherit;"> 2 </span></div> <div id="annotation_9x232" style="position:absolute; left:9px; top:232px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:#ffcccc; color:inherit;"> 3 </span></div> <div id="annotation_4x260" style="position:absolute; left:4px; top:260px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:#ffcccc; color:inherit;"> 4 </span></div> <div id="annotation_40x260" style="position:absolute; left:40px; top:260px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:#ffcccc; color:inherit;"> 5 </span></div> <div id="annotation_78x260" style="position:absolute; left:78px; top:260px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:#ffcccc; color:inherit;"> 6 </span></div> <div id="annotation_120x260" style="position:absolute; left:120px; top:260px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:#ffcccc; color:inherit;"> 7 </span></div> <div id="annotation_151x216" style="position:absolute; left:151px; top:216px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:#ffcccc; color:inherit;"> 8 </span></div> <div id="annotation_166x147" style="position:absolute; left:166px; top:147px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:#ffcccc; color:inherit;"> 9 </span></div> <div id="annotation_104x159" style="position:absolute; left:104px; top:159px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:#ffcccc; color:inherit;"> 10 </span></div> <div id="annotation_50x162" style="position:absolute; left:50px; top:162px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:#ffcccc; color:inherit;"> 11 </span></div> <div id="annotation_29x38" style="position:absolute; left:29px; top:38px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:#ffcccc; color:inherit;"> 12 </span></div> <div id="annotation_87x60" style="position:absolute; left:87px; top:60px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:#ffcccc; color:inherit;"> 13 </span></div> <div id="annotation_161x62" style="position:absolute; left:161px; top:62px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:#ffcccc; color:inherit;"> 14 </span></div> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Schleiden-meduse-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Schleiden-meduse-2.jpg/200px-Schleiden-meduse-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Schleiden-meduse-2.jpg/300px-Schleiden-meduse-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Schleiden-meduse-2.jpg/400px-Schleiden-meduse-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="1042" /></a></span></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Schleiden-meduse-2.jpg" title="File:Schleiden-meduse-2.jpg"> </a></div>Life cycle of a <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><b>1–3</b> Larva searches for site<br /><b>4–8</b> Polyp grows<br /><b>9–11</b> Polyp <a href="/wiki/Strobilation" title="Strobilation">strobilates</a><br /><b>12–14</b> Medusa grows</div> </div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual">Sexual</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sexual"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cnidarian <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a> often involves a complex life cycle with both <a href="/wiki/Polyp_(zoology)" title="Polyp (zoology)">polyp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medusa_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Medusa (biology)">medusa</a> stages. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Scyphozoa" title="Scyphozoa">Scyphozoa</a> (jellyfish) and <a href="/wiki/Cubozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Cubozoa">Cubozoa</a> (box jellies) a <a href="/wiki/Planula" title="Planula">larva</a> swims until it finds a good site, and then becomes a polyp. This grows normally but then absorbs its tentacles and splits horizontally into a series of disks that become juvenile medusae, a process called <a href="/wiki/Strobilation" title="Strobilation">strobilation</a>. The juveniles swim off and slowly grow to maturity, while the polyp re-grows and may continue strobilating periodically. The adult medusae have <a href="/wiki/Gonad" title="Gonad">gonads</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Gastrodermis" title="Gastrodermis">gastroderm</a>, and these release <a href="/wiki/Ovum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovum">ova</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> into the water in the breeding season.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This phenomenon of succession of differently organized generations (one asexually reproducing, sessile polyp, followed by a <a href="/wiki/Free-swimming" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-swimming">free-swimming</a> medusa or a sessile polyp that reproduces sexually)<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is sometimes called "alternation of asexual and sexual phases" or "metagenesis", but should not be confused with the <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">alternation of generations</a> as found in plants. </p><p>Shortened forms of this life cycle are common, for example some oceanic scyphozoans omit the polyp stage completely, and cubozoan polyps produce only one medusa. <a href="/wiki/Hydrozoa" title="Hydrozoa">Hydrozoa</a> have a variety of life cycles. Some have no polyp stages and some (e.g. <i><a href="/wiki/Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">hydra</a></i>) have no medusae. In some species, the medusae remain attached to the polyp and are responsible for sexual reproduction; in extreme cases these reproductive zooids may not look much like medusae. Meanwhile, life cycle reversal, in which polyps are formed directly from medusae without the involvement of sexual reproduction process, was observed in both Hydrozoa (<i>Turritopsis dohrnii</i><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>Laodicea undulata</i><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and Scyphozoa (<i>Aurelia</i> sp.1<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). <a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoa</a> have no medusa stage at all and the polyps are responsible for sexual reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spawning is generally driven by environmental factors such as changes in the water temperature, and their release is triggered by lighting conditions such as sunrise, sunset or the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_phase" title="Lunar phase">phase of the moon</a>. Many species of Cnidaria may spawn simultaneously in the same location, so that there are too many ova and sperm for predators to eat more than a tiny percentage — one famous example is the <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a>, where at least 110 <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a> and a few non-cnidarian <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> produce enough gametes to turn the water cloudy. These mass spawnings may produce <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybrids</a>, some of which can settle and form polyps, but it is not known how long these can survive. In some species the ova release chemicals that attract sperm of the same species.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fertilized eggs develop into larvae by dividing until there are enough cells to form a hollow sphere (<a href="/wiki/Blastula" class="mw-redirect" title="Blastula">blastula</a>) and then a depression forms at one end (<a href="/wiki/Gastrulation" title="Gastrulation">gastrulation</a>) and eventually becomes the digestive cavity. However, in cnidarians the depression forms at the end further from the yolk (at the <a href="/wiki/Animal_pole" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal pole">animal pole</a>), while in <a href="/wiki/Bilaterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilaterian">bilaterians</a> it forms at the other end (<a href="/wiki/Vegetal_pole" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegetal pole">vegetal pole</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The larvae, called <a href="/wiki/Planula" title="Planula">planulae</a>, swim or crawl by means of <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are cigar-shaped but slightly broader at the "front" end, which is the aboral, vegetal-pole end and eventually attaches to a substrate if the species has a polyp stage.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anthozoan larvae either have large <a href="/wiki/Yolk" title="Yolk">yolks</a> or are capable of feeding on <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a>, and some already have <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiotic">endosymbiotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> that help to feed them. Since the parents are immobile, these feeding capabilities extend the larvae's range and avoid overcrowding of sites. Scyphozoan and hydrozoan larvae have little yolk and most lack endosymbiotic algae, and therefore have to settle quickly and <a href="/wiki/Metamorphose" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamorphose">metamorphose</a> into polyps. Instead, these species rely on their medusae to extend their ranges.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asexual">Asexual</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Asexual"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All known cnidaria can reproduce <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexually</a> by various means, in addition to regenerating after being fragmented. <a href="/wiki/Hydrozoa" title="Hydrozoa">Hydrozoan</a> polyps only bud, while the medusae of some hydrozoans can divide down the middle. <a href="/wiki/Scyphozoa" title="Scyphozoa">Scyphozoan</a> polyps can both bud and split down the middle. In addition to both of these methods, <a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoa</a> can split horizontally just above the base. Asexual reproduction makes the daughter cnidarian a clone of the adult. The ability of Cnidarians to asexually reproduce ensures a greater number of mature medusa that can mature to reproduce sexually.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_12-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="DNA_repair">DNA repair</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: DNA repair"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two classical <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a> pathways, <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide_excision_repair" title="Nucleotide excision repair">nucleotide excision repair</a> and <a href="/wiki/Base_excision_repair" title="Base excision repair">base excision repair</a>, are present in <a href="/wiki/Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">hydra</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Barve2021_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barve2021-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and these repair pathways facilitate unhindered reproduction. The identification of these pathways in hydra is based, in part, on the presence in the hydra <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> of genes homologous to genes in other genetically well studied species that have been demonstrated to play key roles in these DNA repair pathways.<sup id="cite_ref-Barve2021_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barve2021-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cnidarians were for a long time grouped with <a href="/wiki/Ctenophore" class="mw-redirect" title="Ctenophore">Ctenophores</a> in the phylum <a href="/wiki/Coelenterata" title="Coelenterata">Coelenterata</a>, but increasing awareness of their differences caused them to be placed in separate phyla. Modern cnidarians are generally classified into four main <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">classes</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sessile <a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_pen" title="Sea pen">sea pens</a>); swimming <a href="/wiki/Scyphozoa" title="Scyphozoa">Scyphozoa</a> (jellyfish) and <a href="/wiki/Cubozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Cubozoa">Cubozoa</a> (box jellies); and <a href="/wiki/Hydrozoa" title="Hydrozoa">Hydrozoa</a>, a diverse group that includes all the freshwater cnidarians as well as many marine forms, and has both sessile members such as <i><a href="/wiki/Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">Hydra</a></i> and colonial swimmers such as the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Man_o%27_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese Man o' War">Portuguese Man o' War</a>. <a href="/wiki/Staurozoa" title="Staurozoa">Staurozoa</a> have recently been recognised as a <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a> in their own right rather than a sub-group of Scyphozoa, and the parasitic <a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polypodiozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Polypodiozoa">Polypodiozoa</a> are now recognized as highly derived cnidarians rather than more closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">bilaterians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-E._7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-E.-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-haaretz_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haaretz-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Hydrozoa" title="Hydrozoa">Hydrozoa</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Scyphozoa" title="Scyphozoa">Scyphozoa</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Cubozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Cubozoa">Cubozoa</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoa</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Number of species<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td>3,600</td> <td>228</td> <td>42</td> <td>6,100</td> <td>1300 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Examples </th> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">Hydra</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Siphonophore" class="mw-redirect" title="Siphonophore">siphonophores</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">Jellyfish</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Box_jelly" class="mw-redirect" title="Box jelly">Box jellies</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">Sea anemones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_pen" title="Sea pen">sea pens</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Myxobolus_cerebralis" title="Myxobolus cerebralis">Myxobolus cerebralis</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Cells found in <a href="/wiki/Mesoglea" title="Mesoglea">mesoglea</a> </th> <td>No</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nematocyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Nematocyst">Nematocysts</a> in <a href="/wiki/Exodermis" title="Exodermis">exodermis</a> </th> <td>No</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Medusa phase in life cycle </th> <td>In some species</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>No</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Number of medusae produced per polyp </th> <td>Many</td> <td>Many</td> <td>One</td> <td>(not applicable)</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Stauromedusae, small <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sessility (zoology)">sessile</a> cnidarians with stalks and no medusa stage, have traditionally been classified as members of the Scyphozoa, but recent research suggests they should be regarded as a separate class, Staurozoa.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a>, microscopic <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a>, were first classified as <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research then found that <i><a href="/wiki/Polypodium_hydriforme" title="Polypodium hydriforme">Polypodium hydriforme</a></i>, a non-Myxozoan parasite <i>within</i> the egg cells of <a href="/wiki/Sturgeon" title="Sturgeon">sturgeon</a>, is closely related to the Myxozoa and suggested that both <i>Polypodium</i> and the Myxozoa were intermediate between cnidarians and <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">bilaterian</a> animals.<sup id="cite_ref-ZrzavýHypša2003MyxozoaPolypodium_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ZrzavýHypša2003MyxozoaPolypodium-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recent research demonstrates that the previous identification of bilaterian genes reflected contamination of the Myxozoan samples by material from their host organism, and they are now firmly identified as heavily derived cnidarians, and more closely related to Hydrozoa and Scyphozoa than to Anthozoa.<sup id="cite_ref-E._7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-E.-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-haaretz_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haaretz-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some researchers classify the extinct <a href="/wiki/Conulariida" title="Conulariida">conulariids</a> as cnidarians, while others propose that they form a completely separate <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Current classification according to the <a href="/wiki/World_Register_of_Marine_Species" title="World Register of Marine Species">World Register of Marine Species</a>: </p> <ul><li>class <a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoa</a> <small>Ehrenberg, 1834</small> <ul><li>subclass <a href="/wiki/Ceriantharia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceriantharia">Ceriantharia</a> <small>Perrier, 1893</small> — Tube-dwelling anemones</li> <li>subclass <a href="/wiki/Hexacorallia" title="Hexacorallia">Hexacorallia</a> <small>Haeckel, 1896</small> — stony corals</li> <li>subclass <a href="/wiki/Octocorallia" title="Octocorallia">Octocorallia</a> <small>Haeckel, 1866</small> — soft corals and sea fans</li></ul></li> <li>class <a href="/wiki/Cubozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Cubozoa">Cubozoa</a> <small>Werner, 1973</small> — box jellies</li> <li>class <a href="/wiki/Hydrozoa" title="Hydrozoa">Hydrozoa</a> <small>Owen, 1843</small> — hydrozoans (fire corals, hydroids, hydroid jellyfishes, siphonophores...)</li> <li>class <a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a> <small>Grassé, 1970</small> — obligate parasites</li> <li>class <a href="/wiki/Polypodiozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Polypodiozoa">Polypodiozoa</a> <small>Raikova, 1994</small> — (uncertain status)</li> <li>class <a href="/wiki/Scyphozoa" title="Scyphozoa">Scyphozoa</a> <small>Goette, 1887</small> — "true" jellyfishes</li> <li>class <a href="/wiki/Staurozoa" title="Staurozoa">Staurozoa</a> <small>Marques & Collins, 2004</small> — stalked jellyfishes</li></ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="text-align:center;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cerianthus_filiformis.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cerianthus filiformis (Ceriantharia)"><img alt="Cerianthus filiformis (Ceriantharia)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Cerianthus_filiformis.jpg/270px-Cerianthus_filiformis.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Cerianthus_filiformis.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Cerianthus_filiformis" title="Cerianthus filiformis">Cerianthus filiformis</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Ceriantharia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceriantharia">Ceriantharia</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 87.333333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 85.333333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Haeckel_Actiniae.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sea anemones (Actinaria, part of Hexacorallia)"><img alt="Sea anemones (Actinaria, part of Hexacorallia)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Haeckel_Actiniae.jpg/128px-Haeckel_Actiniae.jpg" decoding="async" width="86" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Haeckel_Actiniae.jpg/192px-Haeckel_Actiniae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Haeckel_Actiniae.jpg/256px-Haeckel_Actiniae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3289" data-file-height="4615" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sea anemones (<a href="/wiki/Actinaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinaria">Actinaria</a>, part of <a href="/wiki/Hexacorallia" title="Hexacorallia">Hexacorallia</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 181.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 179.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hertshoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coral Acropora muricata (Scleractinia, part of Hexacorallia)"><img alt="Coral Acropora muricata (Scleractinia, part of Hexacorallia)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Hertshoon.jpg/269px-Hertshoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Hertshoon.jpg/404px-Hertshoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Hertshoon.jpg/538px-Hertshoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Coral <i><a href="/wiki/Acropora_muricata" title="Acropora muricata">Acropora muricata</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Scleractinia" title="Scleractinia">Scleractinia</a>, part of <a href="/wiki/Hexacorallia" title="Hexacorallia">Hexacorallia</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 144.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 142.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gorgonia_ventalina,_Bahamas.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sea fan Gorgonia ventalina (Alcyonacea, part of Octocorallia)"><img alt="Sea fan Gorgonia ventalina (Alcyonacea, part of Octocorallia)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Gorgonia_ventalina%2C_Bahamas.jpg/214px-Gorgonia_ventalina%2C_Bahamas.jpg" decoding="async" width="143" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Gorgonia_ventalina%2C_Bahamas.jpg/321px-Gorgonia_ventalina%2C_Bahamas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Gorgonia_ventalina%2C_Bahamas.jpg/428px-Gorgonia_ventalina%2C_Bahamas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2808" data-file-height="2361" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sea fan <i><a href="/wiki/Gorgonia_ventalina" title="Gorgonia ventalina">Gorgonia ventalina</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Alcyonacea" title="Alcyonacea">Alcyonacea</a>, part of <a href="/wiki/Octocorallia" title="Octocorallia">Octocorallia</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 181.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 179.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carybdea_branchi9.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Box jellyfish Carybdea branchi (Cubozoa)"><img alt="Box jellyfish Carybdea branchi (Cubozoa)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Carybdea_branchi9.jpg/269px-Carybdea_branchi9.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Carybdea_branchi9.jpg/404px-Carybdea_branchi9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Carybdea_branchi9.jpg/539px-Carybdea_branchi9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="428" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Box jellyfish <i><a href="/wiki/Carybdea_branchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Carybdea branchi">Carybdea branchi</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Cubozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Cubozoa">Cubozoa</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 89.333333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 87.333333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Portuguese_Man-O-War_(Physalia_physalis).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Siphonophore Physalia physalis (Hydrozoa)"><img alt="Siphonophore Physalia physalis (Hydrozoa)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Portuguese_Man-O-War_%28Physalia_physalis%29.jpg/131px-Portuguese_Man-O-War_%28Physalia_physalis%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="88" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Portuguese_Man-O-War_%28Physalia_physalis%29.jpg/197px-Portuguese_Man-O-War_%28Physalia_physalis%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Portuguese_Man-O-War_%28Physalia_physalis%29.jpg/262px-Portuguese_Man-O-War_%28Physalia_physalis%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1508" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Siphonophore <i><a href="/wiki/Physalia_physalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Physalia physalis">Physalia physalis</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Hydrozoa" title="Hydrozoa">Hydrozoa</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 113.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 111.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fdl17-9-grey.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Myxobolus cerebralis (Myxozoa)"><img alt="Myxobolus cerebralis (Myxozoa)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Fdl17-9-grey.jpg/167px-Fdl17-9-grey.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Fdl17-9-grey.jpg/251px-Fdl17-9-grey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Fdl17-9-grey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="315" data-file-height="339" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Myxobolus_cerebralis" title="Myxobolus cerebralis">Myxobolus cerebralis</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 221.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 219.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Polypodium_hydriforme.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Polypodium hydriforme (Polypodiozoa)"><img alt="Polypodium hydriforme (Polypodiozoa)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Polypodium_hydriforme.jpg/329px-Polypodium_hydriforme.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Polypodium_hydriforme.jpg/494px-Polypodium_hydriforme.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Polypodium_hydriforme.jpg/658px-Polypodium_hydriforme.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="657" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Polypodium_hydriforme" title="Polypodium hydriforme">Polypodium hydriforme</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Polypodiozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Polypodiozoa">Polypodiozoa</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 178.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 176.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Phyllorhiza_punctata_macro_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jellyfish Phyllorhiza punctata (Scyphozoa)"><img alt="Jellyfish Phyllorhiza punctata (Scyphozoa)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Phyllorhiza_punctata_macro_II.jpg/265px-Phyllorhiza_punctata_macro_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="177" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Phyllorhiza_punctata_macro_II.jpg/397px-Phyllorhiza_punctata_macro_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Phyllorhiza_punctata_macro_II.jpg/530px-Phyllorhiza_punctata_macro_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="680" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Jellyfish <i><a href="/wiki/Phyllorhiza_punctata" title="Phyllorhiza punctata">Phyllorhiza punctata</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Scyphozoa" title="Scyphozoa">Scyphozoa</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 156px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 154px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Haliclystus_antarcticus_1B.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stalked jelly Haliclystus antarcticus (Staurozoa)"><img alt="Stalked jelly Haliclystus antarcticus (Staurozoa)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Haliclystus_antarcticus_1B.jpg/231px-Haliclystus_antarcticus_1B.jpg" decoding="async" width="154" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Haliclystus_antarcticus_1B.jpg/346px-Haliclystus_antarcticus_1B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Haliclystus_antarcticus_1B.jpg/462px-Haliclystus_antarcticus_1B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="780" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Stalked jelly <i><a href="/wiki/Haliclystus_antarcticus" title="Haliclystus antarcticus">Haliclystus antarcticus</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Staurozoa" title="Staurozoa">Staurozoa</a>)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many cnidarians are limited to shallow waters because they depend on <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiotic">endosymbiotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> for much of their nutrients. The life cycles of most have polyp stages, which are limited to locations that offer stable substrates. Nevertheless, major cnidarian groups contain species that have escaped these limitations. <a href="/wiki/Hydrozoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrozoan">Hydrozoans</a> have a worldwide range: some, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">Hydra</a></i>, live in freshwater; <i><a href="/wiki/Obelia" title="Obelia">Obelia</a></i> appears in the coastal waters of all the oceans; and <i><a href="/wiki/Liriope_(cnidarian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Liriope (cnidarian)">Liriope</a></i> can form large shoals near the surface in mid-ocean. Among <a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">anthozoans</a>, a few <a href="/wiki/Scleractinia" title="Scleractinia">scleractinian</a> <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_pen" title="Sea pen">sea pens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gorgonia" title="Gorgonia">sea fans</a> live in deep, cold waters, and some sea anemones inhabit polar seabeds while others live near <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a> over 10 km (33,000 ft) below sea-level. <a href="/wiki/Reef" title="Reef">Reef</a>-building corals are limited to tropical seas between 30°N and 30°S with a maximum depth of 46 m (151 ft), temperatures between 20 and 28 °C (68 and 82 °F), high <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</a>, and low <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> levels. <a href="/wiki/Stauromedusae" title="Stauromedusae">Stauromedusae</a>, although usually classified as jellyfish, are stalked, <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sessility (zoology)">sessile</a> animals that live in cool to <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> waters.<sup id="cite_ref-Shostak_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shostak-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cnidarians range in size from a mere handful of cells for the parasitic myxozoans<sup id="cite_ref-haaretz_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haaretz-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> through <i>Hydra'</i>s length of <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>5–20 mm (<span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span>–<span class="frac"><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> in),<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the <a href="/wiki/Lion%27s_mane_jellyfish" title="Lion's mane jellyfish">Lion's mane jellyfish</a>, which may exceed 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in diameter and 75 m (246 ft) in length.<sup id="cite_ref-Safina_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Safina-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prey of cnidarians ranges from plankton to animals several times larger than themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-Shostak_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shostak-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some cnidarians are <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a>, mainly on jellyfish but a few are major pests of fish.<sup id="cite_ref-Shostak_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shostak-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others obtain most of their nourishment from endosymbiotic algae or dissolved nutrients.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinde2001_11-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinde2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Predators of cnidarians include: <a href="/wiki/Nudibranch" title="Nudibranch">sea slugs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">flatworms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">comb jellies</a>, which can incorporate <a href="/wiki/Nematocyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Nematocyst">nematocysts</a> into their own bodies for self-defense (nematocysts used by cnidarian predators are referred to as kleptocnidae);<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Starfish" title="Starfish">starfish</a>, notably the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_thorns_starfish" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown of thorns starfish">crown of thorns starfish</a>, which can devastate corals;<sup id="cite_ref-Shostak_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shostak-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Butterfly_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Butterfly fish">butterfly fish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parrot_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Parrot fish">parrot fish</a>, which eat corals;<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and marine <a href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">turtles</a>, which eat jellyfish.<sup id="cite_ref-Safina_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Safina-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some sea anemones and jellyfish have a <a href="/wiki/Symbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiotic">symbiotic</a> relationship with some fish; for example <a href="/wiki/Clownfish" title="Clownfish">clownfish</a> live among the tentacles of sea anemones, and each partner protects the other against predators.<sup id="cite_ref-Shostak_39-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shostak-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a> form some of the world's most productive ecosystems. Common coral reef cnidarians include both Anthozoans (hard corals, octocorals, anemones) and Hydrozoans (fire corals, lace corals). The endosymbiotic algae of many cnidarian species are very effective <a href="/wiki/Primary_productivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary productivity">primary producers</a>, in other words converters of <a href="/wiki/Inorganic" class="mw-redirect" title="Inorganic">inorganic</a> chemicals into <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic</a> ones that other organisms can use, and their coral hosts use these organic chemicals very efficiently. In addition, reefs provide complex and varied habitats that support a wide range of other organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Barnes_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnes-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fringing_reef" title="Fringing reef">Fringing reefs</a> just below low-<a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tide</a> level also have a mutually beneficial relationship with <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangrove</a> forests at high-tide level and <a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">seagrass meadows</a> in between: the reefs protect the mangroves and seagrass from strong currents and waves that would damage them or <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erode</a> the sediments in which they are rooted, while the mangroves and seagrass protect the coral from large influxes of <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a>, fresh water and <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollutants</a>. This additional level of variety in the environment is beneficial to many types of coral reef animals, which for example may feed in the sea grass and use the reefs for protection or breeding.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolutionary_history">Evolutionary history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Evolutionary history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stranded_Cambrian_scyphozoans.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Stranded_Cambrian_scyphozoans.jpg/220px-Stranded_Cambrian_scyphozoans.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Stranded_Cambrian_scyphozoans.jpg/330px-Stranded_Cambrian_scyphozoans.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Stranded_Cambrian_scyphozoans.jpg/440px-Stranded_Cambrian_scyphozoans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Stranded scyphozoans on a <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> tidal flat in <a href="/wiki/Blackberry_Hill" title="Blackberry Hill">Blackberry Hill</a>, Wisconsin.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cladocora.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Cladocora.jpg/220px-Cladocora.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Cladocora.jpg/330px-Cladocora.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Cladocora.jpg/440px-Cladocora.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2089" data-file-height="1876" /></a><figcaption>The fossil coral <i><a href="/wiki/Cladocora" title="Cladocora">Cladocora</a></i> from <a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a> rocks in <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fossil_record">Fossil record</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Fossil record"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest widely accepted animal fossils are rather modern-looking cnidarians, possibly from around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=580">580</a> million years ago</span>, although fossils from the <a href="/wiki/Doushantuo_Formation" title="Doushantuo Formation">Doushantuo Formation</a> can only be dated approximately.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The identification of some of these as embryos of animals has been contested, but other fossils from these rocks strongly resemble tubes and other <a href="/wiki/Biomineralization" title="Biomineralization">mineralized</a> structures made by <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their presence implies that the cnidarian and <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">bilaterian</a> lineages had already diverged.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Ediacaran fossil <i><a href="/wiki/Charnia" title="Charnia">Charnia</a></i> used to be classified as a <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sea_pen" title="Sea pen">sea pen</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> more recent study of growth patterns in <i>Charnia</i> and modern cnidarians has cast doubt on this hypothesis,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leaving the Canadian polyp <i><a href="/wiki/Haootia" title="Haootia">Haootia</a></i> and the British <i><a href="/wiki/Auroralumina" title="Auroralumina">Auroralumina</a></i> as the only recognized cnidarian body fossils from the Ediacaran. <i>Auroralumina</i> is the earliest known animal <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predator</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Few fossils of cnidarians without mineralized <a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">skeletons</a> are known from more recent rocks, except in <a href="/wiki/Lagerst%C3%A4tte" title="Lagerstätte">lagerstätten</a> that preserved soft-bodied animals.<sup id="cite_ref-UCMP_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCMP-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A few mineralized fossils that resemble <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a> have been found in rocks from the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> period, and corals diversified in the Early <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-UCMP_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCMP-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These corals, which were wiped out in the <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction event</a> about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=252">252</a> million years ago</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-UCMP_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCMP-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> did not dominate reef construction since <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Alga">algae</a> also played a major part.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> era <a href="/wiki/Rudist" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudist">rudist</a> bivalves were the main reef-builders, but they were wiped out in the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=66">66</a> million years ago</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and since then the main reef-builders have been <a href="/wiki/Scleractinia" title="Scleractinia">scleractinian</a> corals.<sup id="cite_ref-UCMP_56-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCMP-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phylogeny">Phylogeny</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Phylogeny"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is difficult to reconstruct the early stages in the <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> "family tree" of animals using only <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a> (their shapes and structures), because the large differences between <a href="/wiki/Porifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Porifera">Porifera</a> (sponges), Cnidaria plus <a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a> (comb jellies), <a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a> (all the more complex animals) make comparisons difficult. Hence reconstructions now rely largely or entirely on <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">molecular phylogenetics</a>, which groups organisms according to similarities and differences in their <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>, usually in their <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> or <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is now generally thought that the <a href="/wiki/Calcarea" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcarea">Calcarea</a> (sponges with <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> <a href="/wiki/Sponge_spicules" class="mw-redirect" title="Sponge spicules">spicules</a>) are more closely related to Cnidaria, <a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a> (comb jellies) and <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a> (all the more complex animals) than they are to the other groups of sponges.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1866 it was proposed that Cnidaria and Ctenophora were more closely related to each other than to Bilateria and formed a group called <a href="/wiki/Coelenterata" title="Coelenterata">Coelenterata</a> ("hollow guts"), because Cnidaria and Ctenophora both rely on the flow of water in and out of a single cavity for feeding, excretion and respiration. In 1881, it was proposed that Ctenophora and Bilateria were more closely related to each other, since they shared features that Cnidaria lack, for example muscles in the middle layer (<a href="/wiki/Mesoglea" title="Mesoglea">mesoglea</a> in Ctenophora, <a href="/wiki/Mesoderm" title="Mesoderm">mesoderm</a> in Bilateria). However more recent analyses indicate that these similarities are rather vague, and the current view, based on molecular phylogenetics, is that Cnidaria and Bilateria are more closely related to each other than either is to Ctenophora. This grouping of Cnidaria and Bilateria has been labelled "<a href="/wiki/Planulozoa" title="Planulozoa">Planulozoa</a>" because it suggests that the earliest Bilateria were similar to the <a href="/wiki/Planula" title="Planula">planula</a> larvae of Cnidaria.<sup id="cite_ref-Collins_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collins-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, in 2005 Katja Seipel and Volker Schmid suggested that cnidarians and ctenophores are simplified descendants of <a href="/wiki/Triploblastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Triploblastic">triploblastic</a> animals, since ctenophores and the medusa stage of some cnidarians have <a href="/wiki/Striated_muscle" class="mw-redirect" title="Striated muscle">striated muscle</a>, which in bilaterians arises from the <a href="/wiki/Mesoderm" title="Mesoderm">mesoderm</a>. They did not commit themselves on whether bilaterians evolved from early cnidarians or from the hypothesized triploblastic ancestors of cnidarians.<sup id="cite_ref-Seipel_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seipel-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Resolving the evolutionary relationships within Cnidaria has been equally challenging, with almost every possible combination of clades being proposed. As time went on though, a semi-consensus has started to emerge. The enigmatic <i><a href="/wiki/Polypodium_hydriforme" title="Polypodium hydriforme">Polypodium hydriforme</a></i> and subphylum <a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a> have been firmly placed within the Cnidaria and have been shown to be closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Medusozoa" title="Medusozoa">Medusozoa</a>. In addition, these two groups have been found to likely be each others closest relatives which, if true, would form the clade "Endocnidozoa". The relationships within the Medusozoa are currently probably the most contentious part of the tree. Traditionally, the class <a href="/wiki/Scyphozoa" title="Scyphozoa">Scyphozoa</a> also included <a href="/wiki/Staurozoa" title="Staurozoa">Staurozoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cubozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Cubozoa">Cubozoa</a>, but significant morphological differences eventually lead to the split of the three.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The group containing them has since been named "Acraspeda". The relationships between these three and <a href="/wiki/Hydrozoa" title="Hydrozoa">Hydrozoa</a> have since and still are debated. A relationship between Scyphozoa and Cubozoa with Staurozoa as its sister has seen support in nearly all studies, but the position of the remaining class, Hydrozoa, is not understood. Several studies have found that Acraspeda is paraphyletic, with Hydrozoa being more closely related to Scyphozoa than to the other classes.<sup id="cite_ref-Kayal2013_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kayal2013-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, other studies have recovered Acraspeda as being monophyletic.<sup id="cite_ref-Kayal18_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kayal18-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Novosolov2022_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Novosolov2022-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subphylum <a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoa</a> is argued to have either 2 or 3 classes, but the relationships between them is not disputed; the <a href="/wiki/Tube-dwelling_anemone" title="Tube-dwelling anemone">tube-dwelling anemones</a> of the class Ceriantharia have consistently shown to be more closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Hexacorallia" title="Hexacorallia">Hexacorallia</a> than to the <a href="/wiki/Octocorallia" title="Octocorallia">Octocorallia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kayal18_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kayal18-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Novosolov2022_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Novosolov2022-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kayal2013_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kayal2013-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1258728058">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><b>Cnidaria</b> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">    </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">    </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Ceriantharia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceriantharia">Ceriantharia</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cerianthus_membranaceus_Spallanzani,_1784.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Cerianthus_membranaceus_Spallanzani%2C_1784.jpg/60px-Cerianthus_membranaceus_Spallanzani%2C_1784.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Cerianthus_membranaceus_Spallanzani%2C_1784.jpg/90px-Cerianthus_membranaceus_Spallanzani%2C_1784.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Cerianthus_membranaceus_Spallanzani%2C_1784.jpg/120px-Cerianthus_membranaceus_Spallanzani%2C_1784.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1470" data-file-height="1228" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Hexacorallia" title="Hexacorallia">Hexacorallia</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Brain_coral.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Brain_coral.jpg/60px-Brain_coral.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Brain_coral.jpg/90px-Brain_coral.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Brain_coral.jpg/120px-Brain_coral.jpg 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Octocorallia" title="Octocorallia">Octocorallia</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Virgularia_sp._(Purple_sea_pen).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Virgularia_sp._%28Purple_sea_pen%29.jpg/55px-Virgularia_sp._%28Purple_sea_pen%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="55" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Virgularia_sp._%28Purple_sea_pen%29.jpg/83px-Virgularia_sp._%28Purple_sea_pen%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Virgularia_sp._%28Purple_sea_pen%29.jpg/110px-Virgularia_sp._%28Purple_sea_pen%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="2400" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">Endocnidozoa </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">    </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Malacosporea" class="mw-redirect" title="Malacosporea">Malacosporea</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:T._bryosalmonae_parasites_in_rainbow_trout_kidney._Tissue_section_stained_with_haematoxylin_and_eosin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/T._bryosalmonae_parasites_in_rainbow_trout_kidney._Tissue_section_stained_with_haematoxylin_and_eosin.jpg/60px-T._bryosalmonae_parasites_in_rainbow_trout_kidney._Tissue_section_stained_with_haematoxylin_and_eosin.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/T._bryosalmonae_parasites_in_rainbow_trout_kidney._Tissue_section_stained_with_haematoxylin_and_eosin.jpg/90px-T._bryosalmonae_parasites_in_rainbow_trout_kidney._Tissue_section_stained_with_haematoxylin_and_eosin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/T._bryosalmonae_parasites_in_rainbow_trout_kidney._Tissue_section_stained_with_haematoxylin_and_eosin.jpg/120px-T._bryosalmonae_parasites_in_rainbow_trout_kidney._Tissue_section_stained_with_haematoxylin_and_eosin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1232" data-file-height="972" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Myxosporea" title="Myxosporea">Myxosporea</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fdl17-9-grey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Fdl17-9-grey.jpg/55px-Fdl17-9-grey.jpg" decoding="async" width="55" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Fdl17-9-grey.jpg/83px-Fdl17-9-grey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Fdl17-9-grey.jpg/110px-Fdl17-9-grey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="315" data-file-height="339" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Polypodiozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Polypodiozoa">Polypodiozoa</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Polypodium_hydriforme_C.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Polypodium_hydriforme_C.jpg/60px-Polypodium_hydriforme_C.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="46" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Polypodium_hydriforme_C.jpg/90px-Polypodium_hydriforme_C.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Polypodium_hydriforme_C.jpg/120px-Polypodium_hydriforme_C.jpg 2x" data-file-width="390" data-file-height="299" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Medusozoa" title="Medusozoa">Medusozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first" style="border-left:none;border-right:none;border-bottom:1px dashed;">    </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Hydrozoa" title="Hydrozoa">Hydrozoa</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Porpita_porpita.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Porpita_porpita.jpg/60px-Porpita_porpita.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Porpita_porpita.jpg/90px-Porpita_porpita.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Porpita_porpita.jpg/120px-Porpita_porpita.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2176" data-file-height="2200" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel" style="border-right:none;border-left:1px solid;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Staurozoa" title="Staurozoa">Staurozoa</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Haliclystus_octoradiatus_-_Becherqualle_an_Seegras.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Haliclystus_octoradiatus_-_Becherqualle_an_Seegras.jpg/60px-Haliclystus_octoradiatus_-_Becherqualle_an_Seegras.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Haliclystus_octoradiatus_-_Becherqualle_an_Seegras.jpg/90px-Haliclystus_octoradiatus_-_Becherqualle_an_Seegras.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Haliclystus_octoradiatus_-_Becherqualle_an_Seegras.jpg/120px-Haliclystus_octoradiatus_-_Becherqualle_an_Seegras.jpg 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="570" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">    </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Cubozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Cubozoa">Cubozoa</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cubozoa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Cubozoa.jpg/60px-Cubozoa.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Cubozoa.jpg/90px-Cubozoa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Cubozoa.jpg/120px-Cubozoa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="444" data-file-height="470" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Scyphozoa" title="Scyphozoa">Scyphozoa</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jellyfish_(4159680946).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Jellyfish_%284159680946%29.jpg/60px-Jellyfish_%284159680946%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Jellyfish_%284159680946%29.jpg/90px-Jellyfish_%284159680946%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Jellyfish_%284159680946%29.jpg/120px-Jellyfish_%284159680946%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1342" data-file-height="1294" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>In molecular phylogenetics analyses from 2005 onwards, important groups of developmental genes show the same variety in cnidarians as in <a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">chordates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact cnidarians, and especially <a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">anthozoans</a> (sea anemones and corals), retain some genes that are present in <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a> but not in bilaterians.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mitochondrial genome in the medusozoan cnidarians, unlike those in other animals, is linear with fragmented genes.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reason for this difference is unknown. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interaction_with_humans">Interaction with humans</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Interaction with humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cubozoas.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Cubozoas.JPG/220px-Cubozoas.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Cubozoas.JPG/330px-Cubozoas.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Cubozoas.JPG 2x" data-file-width="394" data-file-height="274" /></a><figcaption>The dangerous <i><a href="/wiki/Carukia_barnesi" title="Carukia barnesi">Carukia barnesi</a></i>, one of the known species of <a href="/wiki/Box_jellyfish" title="Box jellyfish">box jellyfish</a> which can cause <a href="/wiki/Irukandji_syndrome" title="Irukandji syndrome">Irukandji syndrome</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Jellyfish stings killed about 1,500 people in the 20th century,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and cubozoans are particularly dangerous. On the other hand, some large jellyfish are considered a <a href="/wiki/Delicacy" title="Delicacy">delicacy</a> in <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a> have long been economically important as providers of fishing grounds, protectors of shore buildings against currents and tides, and more recently as centers of tourism. However, they are vulnerable to over-fishing, mining for construction materials, <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a>, and damage caused by tourism. </p> <div class="noresize thumb tleft" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:132px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="height:162px; overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:0px; top:-90px; width:150px; position:absolute;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Avispa_marina.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The dangerous "sea wasp" Chironex fleckeri"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Avispa_marina.jpg/150px-Avispa_marina.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Avispa_marina.jpg/225px-Avispa_marina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Avispa_marina.jpg/300px-Avispa_marina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:transparent; line-height:110%;"> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Avispa_marina.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Avispa_marina.jpg/150px-Avispa_marina.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Avispa_marina.jpg/225px-Avispa_marina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Avispa_marina.jpg/300px-Avispa_marina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Avispa_marina.jpg" title="File:Avispa marina.jpg"> </a></div>The dangerous "sea wasp" <i><a href="/wiki/Chironex_fleckeri" title="Chironex fleckeri">Chironex fleckeri</a></i></div> </div></div> <p>Beaches protected from tides and storms by coral reefs are often the best places for housing in tropical countries. Reefs are an important food source for low-technology fishing, both on the reefs themselves and in the adjacent seas.<sup id="cite_ref-Clark_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, despite their great <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">productivity</a>, reefs are vulnerable to over-fishing, because much of the <a href="/wiki/Organic_carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic carbon">organic carbon</a> they produce is exhaled as <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> by organisms at the middle levels of the <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a> and never reaches the larger species that are of interest to fishermen.<sup id="cite_ref-Barnes_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnes-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tourism centered on reefs provides much of the income of some tropical islands, attracting photographers, divers and sports fishermen. However, human activities damage reefs in several ways: mining for construction materials; <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a>, including large influxes of fresh water from <a href="/wiki/Storm_drain" title="Storm drain">storm drains</a>; commercial fishing, including the use of <a href="/wiki/Dynamite" title="Dynamite">dynamite</a> to stun fish and the capture of young fish for <a href="/wiki/Aquarium" title="Aquarium">aquariums</a>; and tourist damage caused by boat anchors and the cumulative effect of walking on the reefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Clark_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coral, mainly from the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> has long been used in <a href="/wiki/Jewellery" title="Jewellery">jewellery</a>, and demand rose sharply in the 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some large <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a> species of the <a href="/wiki/Rhizostomeae" title="Rhizostomeae">Rhizostomeae</a> order are commonly consumed in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> and Southeast Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Omori2001_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Omori2001-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In parts of the range, fishing industry is restricted to daylight hours and calm conditions in two short seasons, from March to May and August to November.<sup id="cite_ref-Omori2001_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Omori2001-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The commercial value of jellyfish food products depends on the skill with which they are prepared, and "Jellyfish Masters" guard their <a href="/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">trade secrets</a> carefully. Jellyfish is very low in <a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugars</a>, but cheap preparation can introduce undesirable amounts of <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metal_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metal (chemistry)">heavy metals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The "sea wasp" <i><a href="/wiki/Chironex_fleckeri" title="Chironex fleckeri">Chironex fleckeri</a></i> has been described as the world's most venomous jellyfish and is held responsible for 67 deaths, although it is difficult to identify the animal as it is almost transparent. Most stingings by <i>C. fleckeri</i> cause only mild symptoms.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seven other <a href="/wiki/Cubozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Cubozoa">box jellies</a> can cause a set of symptoms called <a href="/wiki/Irukandji_syndrome" title="Irukandji syndrome">Irukandji syndrome</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Little_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Little-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which takes about 30 minutes to develop,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and from a few hours to two weeks to disappear.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hospital treatment is usually required, and there have been a few deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-Little_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Little-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of the parasitic <a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoans</a> are commercially important pathogens in <a href="/wiki/Salmonid" class="mw-redirect" title="Salmonid">salmonid</a> aquaculture.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Scyphozoa" title="Scyphozoa">Scyphozoa</a> species – <i><a href="/wiki/Pelagia_noctiluca" title="Pelagia noctiluca">Pelagia noctiluca</a></i> – and a <a href="/wiki/Hydrozoa" title="Hydrozoa">Hydrozoa</a> – <i><a href="/wiki/Muggiaea_atlantica" title="Muggiaea atlantica">Muggiaea atlantica</a></i> – have caused repeated mass mortality in <a href="/wiki/Salmon_farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Salmon farm">salmon farms</a> over the years around <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-IrishTimes_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IrishTimes-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A loss valued at £1 million struck in November 2007, 20,000 died off <a href="/wiki/Clare_Island" title="Clare Island">Clare Island</a> in 2013 and four fish farms collectively lost tens of thousands of salmon in September 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-IrishTimes_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IrishTimes-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Classes in Medusozoa based on <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=718920#null">"ITIS Report – Taxon: Subphylum Medusozoa"</a>. Universal Taxonomic Services<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-03-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ITIS+Report+%E2%80%93+Taxon%3A+Subphylum+Medusozoa&rft.pub=Universal+Taxonomic+Services&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.itis.gov%2Fservlet%2FSingleRpt%2FSingleRpt%3Fsearch_topic%3DTSN%26search_value%3D718920%23null&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACnidaria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Collins-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Collins_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Collins_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins,_A.G.2002" class="citation journal cs1">Collins, A.G. (May 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1420-9101.2002.00403.x">"Phylogeny of Medusozoa and the Evolution of Cnidarian Life Cycles"</a>. <i>Journal of Evolutionary Biology</i>. <b>15</b> (3): 418–432. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1420-9101.2002.00403.x">10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00403.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11108911">11108911</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Evolutionary+Biology&rft.atitle=Phylogeny+of+Medusozoa+and+the+Evolution+of+Cnidarian+Life+Cycles&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=418-432&rft.date=2002-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1420-9101.2002.00403.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A11108911%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Collins%2C+A.G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1046%252Fj.1420-9101.2002.00403.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACnidaria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Subphyla Anthozoa and Medusozoa based on <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929102538/http://www.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=11551">"The Taxonomicon – Taxon: Phylum Cnidaria"</a>. Universal Taxonomic Services. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=11551">the original</a> on 2007-09-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-07-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Taxonomicon+%E2%80%93+Taxon%3A+Phylum+Cnidaria&rft.pub=Universal+Taxonomic+Services&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.taxonomy.nl%2FTaxonomicon%2FTaxonTree.aspx%3Fid%3D11551&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACnidaria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-cnidaria" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=cnidaria">"cnidaria"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=cnidaria&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dcnidaria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACnidaria" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=browser&id%5B%5D=2&id%5B%5D=1267#focus">"WoRMS - World Register of Marine Species"</a>. <i>www.marinespecies.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3800%2Fpbr.5.106">"Synopsis of edible jellyfishes collected from Southeast Asia, with notes on jellyfish fisheries"</a>. <i>Plankton and Benthos Research</i>. <b>5</b> (3): 106–118. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3800%2Fpbr.5.106">10.3800/pbr.5.106</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1880-8247">1880-8247</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plankton+and+Benthos+Research&rft.atitle=Synopsis+of+edible+jellyfishes+collected+from+Southeast+Asia%2C+with+notes+on+jellyfish+fisheries&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=106-118&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3800%2Fpbr.5.106&rft.issn=1880-8247&rft.au=Kitamura%2C+M.&rft.au=Omori%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3800%252Fpbr.5.106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACnidaria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOmori,_M.Kitamura,_M.2004" class="citation journal cs1">Omori, M.; Kitamura, M. (2004). "Taxonomic review of three Japanese species of edible jellyfish (Scyphozoa: Rhizostomeae)". <i>Plankton Biol. Ecol</i>. <b>51</b> (1): 36–51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plankton+Biol.+Ecol.&rft.atitle=Taxonomic+review+of+three+Japanese+species+of+edible+jellyfish+%28Scyphozoa%3A+Rhizostomeae%29&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=36-51&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Omori%2C+M.&rft.au=Kitamura%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACnidaria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Omori2001-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Omori2001_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Omori2001_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOmoriNakano2001" class="citation journal cs1">Omori, M.; Nakano, E. (May 2001). "Jellyfish fisheries in southeast Asia". <i>Hydrobiologia</i>. <b>451</b> (1–3): 19–26. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001HyBio.451...19O">2001HyBio.451...19O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1011879821323">10.1023/A:1011879821323</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6518460">6518460</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hydrobiologia&rft.atitle=Jellyfish+fisheries+in+southeast+Asia&rft.volume=451&rft.issue=1%E2%80%933&rft.pages=19-26&rft.date=2001-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6518460%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1011879821323&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001HyBio.451...19O&rft.aulast=Omori&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Nakano%2C+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACnidaria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFY-H._Peggy_HsiehFui-Ming_LeongJack_Rudloe2001" class="citation journal cs1">Y-H. Peggy Hsieh; Fui-Ming Leong; Jack Rudloe (May 2001). "Jellyfish as food". <i>Hydrobiologia</i>. <b>451</b> (1–3): 11–17. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001HyBio.451...11P">2001HyBio.451...11P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1011875720415">10.1023/A:1011875720415</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20719121">20719121</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hydrobiologia&rft.atitle=Jellyfish+as+food&rft.volume=451&rft.issue=1%E2%80%933&rft.pages=11-17&rft.date=2001-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A20719121%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1011875720415&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001HyBio.451...11P&rft.au=Y-H.+Peggy+Hsieh&rft.au=Fui-Ming+Leong&rft.au=Jack+Rudloe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACnidaria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenberg,_M.I.Hendrickson,_R.G.Silverberg,_M.Campbell,_C.2004" class="citation book cs1">Greenberg, M.I.; Hendrickson, R.G.; Silverberg, M.; et al. (2004). "Box Jellyfish Envenomation". <i>Greenberg's Text-atlas of Emergency Medicine</i>. 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(1964). "Cause and effect in Irukandji stingings". <i>Medical Journal of Australia</i>. <b>1</b> (24): 897–904. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5694%2Fj.1326-5377.1964.tb114424.x">10.5694/j.1326-5377.1964.tb114424.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14172390">14172390</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+Journal+of+Australia&rft.atitle=Cause+and+effect+in+Irukandji+stingings&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=897-904&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5694%2Fj.1326-5377.1964.tb114424.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14172390&rft.au=Barnes%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACnidaria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGradyBurnett2003" class="citation journal cs1">Grady J, Burnett J (December 2003). "Irukandji-like syndrome in South Florida divers". <i>Annals of Emergency Medicine</i>. <b>42</b> (6): 763–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0196-0644%2803%2900513-4">10.1016/S0196-0644(03)00513-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14634600">14634600</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Emergency+Medicine&rft.atitle=Irukandji-like+syndrome+in+South+Florida+divers&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=763-6&rft.date=2003-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0196-0644%2803%2900513-4&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14634600&rft.aulast=Grady&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Burnett%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACnidaria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradenRasmussenPurcellEllis2017" class="citation journal cs1">Braden, Laura M.; Rasmussen, Karina J.; Purcell, Sara L.; et al. (December 19, 2017). Appleton, Judith A. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5736826">"Acquired Protective Immunity in Atlantic Salmon Salmo salar against the Myxozoan Kudoa thyrsites Involves Induction of MHIIβ + CD83 + Antigen-Presenting Cells"</a>. <i>Infection and Immunity</i>. <b>86</b> (1): e00556–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FIAI.00556-17">10.1128/IAI.00556-17</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0019-9567">0019-9567</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5736826">5736826</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28993459">28993459</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Infection+and+Immunity&rft.atitle=Acquired+Protective+Immunity+in+Atlantic+Salmon+Salmo+salar+against+the+Myxozoan+Kudoa+thyrsites+Involves+Induction+of+MHII%CE%B2+%2B+CD83+%2B+Antigen-Presenting+Cells&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=e00556-17&rft.date=2017-12-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5736826%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0019-9567&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28993459&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FIAI.00556-17&rft.aulast=Braden&rft.aufirst=Laura+M.&rft.au=Rasmussen%2C+Karina+J.&rft.au=Purcell%2C+Sara+L.&rft.au=Ellis%2C+Lauren&rft.au=Mahony%2C+Amelia&rft.au=Cho%2C+Steven&rft.au=Whyte%2C+Shona+K.&rft.au=Jones%2C+Simon+R.+M.&rft.au=Fast%2C+Mark+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5736826&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACnidaria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IrishTimes-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IrishTimes_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IrishTimes_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Sullivan2017" class="citation web cs1">O'Sullivan, Kevin (2017-10-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irishtimes.com/news/environment/stinger-jellyfish-swarms-wipe-out-farmed-salmon-in-west-of-ireland-1.3247245">"Stinger jellyfish swarms wipe out farmed salmon in west of Ireland"</a>. <i>The <a href="/wiki/Irish_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish Times">Irish Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=Stinger+jellyfish+swarms+wipe+out+farmed+salmon+in+west+of+Ireland&rft.date=2017-10-06&rft.aulast=O%27Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fnews%2Fenvironment%2Fstinger-jellyfish-swarms-wipe-out-farmed-salmon-in-west-of-ireland-1.3247245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACnidaria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Arai, M.N. (1997). <i>A Functional Biology of Scyphozoa.</i> London: Chapman & Hall [p. 316]. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-412-45110-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-412-45110-7">0-412-45110-7</a>.</li> <li>Ax, P. (1999). <i>Das System der Metazoa I. Ein Lehrbuch der phylogenetischen Systematik.</i> Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart-Jena: Gustav Fischer. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-437-30803-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-437-30803-3">3-437-30803-3</a>.</li> <li>Barnes, R.S.K., P. Calow, P. J. W. Olive, D. W. Golding & J. I. Spicer (2001). <i>The invertebrates—a synthesis.</i> Oxford: Blackwell. 3rd edition [chapter 3.4.2, p. 54]. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-632-04761-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-632-04761-5">0-632-04761-5</a>.</li> <li>Brusca, R.C., G.J. Brusca (2003). <i>Invertebrates.</i> Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. 2nd edition [chapter 8, p. 219]. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87893-097-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-87893-097-3">0-87893-097-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Dalby" title="Andrew Dalby">Dalby, A.</a> (2003). <i>Food in the Ancient World: from A to Z.</i> London: Routledge.</li> <li>Moore, J.(2001). <i>An Introduction to the Invertebrates.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press [chapter 4, p. 30]. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-77914-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-77914-6">0-521-77914-6</a>.</li> <li>Schäfer, W. (1997). Cnidaria, Nesseltiere. In Rieger, W. (ed.) <i>Spezielle Zoologie. Teil 1. Einzeller und Wirbellose Tiere.</i> Stuttgart-Jena: Gustav Fischer. Spektrum Akademischer Verl., Heidelberg, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8274-1482-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-8274-1482-2">3-8274-1482-2</a>.</li> <li>Werner, B. 4. Stamm Cnidaria. In: V. Gruner (ed.) <i>Lehrbuch der speziellen Zoologie.</i> Begr. von Kaestner. 2 Bde. Stuttgart-Jena: Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart-Jena. 1954, 1980, 1984, Spektrum Akad. Verl., Heidelberg-Berlin, 1993. 5th edition. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-334-60474-8" title="Special:BookSources/3-334-60474-8">3-334-60474-8</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Journal_articles">Journal articles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Journal articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>D. Bridge, B. Schierwater, C. W. Cunningham, R. DeSalle R, L. W. Buss: <i>Mitochondrial DNA structure and the molecular phylogeny of recent cnidaria classes.</i> in: <i>Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.</i> Philadelphia USA 89.1992, p. 8750. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0097-3157">0097-3157</a></li> <li>D. Bridge, C. W. Cunningham, R. DeSalle, L. W. Buss: <i>Class-level relationships in the phylum Cnidaria—Molecular and morphological evidence.</i> in: <i>Molecular biology and evolution.</i> Oxford University Press, Oxford 12.1995, p. 679. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0737-4038">0737-4038</a></li> <li>D. G. Fautin: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/z02-133">Reproduction of Cnidaria</a><span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span>.</i> in: <i>Canadian Journal of Zoology.</i> Ottawa Ont. 80.2002, p. 1735. (<a href="/wiki/PDF" title="PDF">PDF</a>, online) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0008-4301">0008-4301</a></li> <li>G. O. Mackie: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/z02-138">What's new in cnidarian biology?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190218062823/http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/z02-138">Archived</a> 2019-02-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a><span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></i> in: <i>Canadian Journal of Zoology.</i> Ottawa Ont. 80.2002, p. 1649. (PDF, online) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0008-4301">0008-4301</a></li> <li>P. Schuchert: <i>Phylogenetic analysis of the Cnidaria.</i> in: <i>Zeitschrift für zoologische Systematik und Evolutionsforschung.</i> Paray, Hamburg-Berlin 31.1993, p. 161. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0044-3808">0044-3808</a></li> <li>G. Kass-Simon, A. A. Scappaticci Jr.: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/z02-135">The behavioral and developmental physiology of nematocysts.</a><span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></i> in: <i>Canadian Journal of Zoology.</i> Ottawa Ont. 80.2002, p. 1772. (PDF, online) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0044-3808">0044-3808</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._Zrzavý2001" class="citation journal cs1">J. Zrzavý (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14411%2Ffp.2001.013">"The interrelationships of metazoan parasites: a review of phylum- and higher-level hypotheses from recent morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses"</a>. <i>Folia Parasitologica</i>. <b>48</b> (2): 81–103. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14411%2Ffp.2001.013">10.14411/fp.2001.013</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11437135">11437135</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Folia+Parasitologica&rft.atitle=The+interrelationships+of+metazoan+parasites%3A+a+review+of+phylum-+and+higher-level+hypotheses+from+recent+morphological+and+molecular+phylogenetic+analyses&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=81-103&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14411%2Ffp.2001.013&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11437135&rft.au=J.+Zrzav%C3%BD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.14411%252Ffp.2001.013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACnidaria" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cnidaria&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output 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title="commons:Category:Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Cnidaria" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6zJiBc_N1Zk">YouTube: Nematocysts Firing</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WmvjGc2bojk">YouTube:My Anemone Eat Meat</a> Defensive and feeding behaviour of sea anemone</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120119003639/http://www.tafi.org.au/zooplankton/imagekey/cnidaria/index.html">Cnidaria - Guide to the Marine Zooplankton of south eastern Australia</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080930064242/http://www.tafi.org.au/">Tasmanian Aquaculture & Fisheries Institute</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Cnidaria&contgroup=Animals">Cnidaria page at <i>Tree of Life</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paleoportal.org/index.php?globalnav=fossil_gallery&sectionnav=search&taxon_id=55&state_id=&period_id=&assemblage_id=&last_section=search&p=0">Fossil Gallery: Cnidarians</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071024144150/http://www.paleoportal.org/index.php?globalnav=fossil_gallery&sectionnav=search&taxon_id=55&state_id=&period_id=&assemblage_id=&last_section=search&p=0">Archived</a> 2007-10-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180908223624/http://hercules.kgs.ku.edu/Hexacoral/Anemone2/">Hexacorallians of the World</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Eukaryote_classification" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eukaryota" title="Template:Eukaryota"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eukaryota" title="Template talk:Eukaryota"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eukaryota" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eukaryota"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Eukaryote_classification" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a> classification</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domain</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Archaea_classification" title="Template:Archaea classification">Archaea</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Bacteria_classification" title="Template:Bacteria classification">Bacteria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Eukaryota" title="Template:Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a></dd> <dt><span class="nobold">(major groups</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Excavata" title="Template:Excavata">Excavata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Hacrobia" title="Template:Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Cryptista" title="Template:Cryptista">Cryptista</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhizaria" title="Template:Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Alveolata" title="Template:Alveolata">Alveolata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Stramenopile" title="Template:Stramenopile">Stramenopiles</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Plant_classification" title="Template:Plant classification">Plants</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amorphea" title="Amorphea">Amorphea</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Amoebozoa" title="Template:Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Opisthokont_protists" title="Template:Opisthokont protists">Opisthokonta</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Animalia" title="Template:Animalia">Animals</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Fungi_classification" title="Template:Fungi classification">Fungi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Mesomycetozoea" title="Template:Mesomycetozoea">Mesomycetozoea</a>)</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Amorphea" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><span style="margin:-21px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Amorphea" title="Amorphea">Amorphea</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Amoebozoa" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><a href="/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discosea" title="Discosea">Discosea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubulinea" title="Tubulinea">Tubulinea</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Eumycetozoa" title="Eumycetozoa">Eumycetozoa</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variosea" class="mw-redirect" title="Variosea">Variosea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archamoebea" class="mw-redirect" title="Archamoebea">Archamoebea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutosea" title="Cutosea">Cutosea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);">   <a href="/wiki/Obazoa" title="Obazoa">Obazoa</a>   </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apusomonadidae" title="Apusomonadidae">Apusomonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breviatea" title="Breviatea">Breviatea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Opisthokonta" class="mw-redirect" title="Opisthokonta">Opisthokonta</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Holomycota" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><a href="/wiki/Holomycota" title="Holomycota">Holomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cristidiscoidea" title="Cristidiscoidea">Rotosphaerida</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></b>¹</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><span style="margin:-32px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);">   <a href="/wiki/Holozoa" title="Holozoa">Holozoa</a>   </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Tunicaraptor" title="Tunicaraptor">Tunicaraptor</a></i></li> <li>†<i><a href="/wiki/Bicellum" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicellum">Bicellum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyosporea" title="Ichthyosporea">Ichthyosporea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluriformea" title="Pluriformea">Pluriformea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><a href="/wiki/Filozoa" title="Filozoa">Filozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filasterea" title="Filasterea">Filasterea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><a href="/wiki/Choanozoa" title="Choanozoa">Choanozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Choanoflagellate" title="Choanoflagellate">Choanoflagellata</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></b>¹</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;"><span style="margin:-34px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Provora" title="Provora">Provora</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Haptista" title="Haptista">Haptista</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centroplasthelida" class="mw-redirect" title="Centroplasthelida">Centroplasthelida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptophyte" title="Haptophyte">Haptophyta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);">    <a href="/wiki/TSAR" class="mw-redirect" title="TSAR">TSAR</a>    </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telonemia" title="Telonemia">Telonemia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);">     <a href="/wiki/SAR_supergroup" title="SAR supergroup">SAR</a>     </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cercozoa" title="Cercozoa">Cercozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomyxa" title="Endomyxa">Endomyxa</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">Foraminifera</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Radiolaria" title="Radiolaria">Radiolaria</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Alveolata" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolata">Alveolata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colponemida" class="mw-redirect" title="Colponemida">Colponemida</a>*</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliophora</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80); vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/wiki/Myzozoa" title="Myzozoa">Myzozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Apicomplexa" title="Apicomplexa">Apicomplexa</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrompodellid" title="Chrompodellid">Chrompodellida</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">Dinoflagellata</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perkinsozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Perkinsozoa">Perkinsozoa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Stramenopiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Stramenopiles">Stramenopiles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Platysulcus" title="Platysulcus">Platysulcus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Bigyra" title="Bigyra">Bigyra</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bicosoecea" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicosoecea">Bicosoecida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placidozoa" title="Placidozoa">Placidozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagenista" title="Sagenista">Sagenista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Gyrista" title="Gyrista">Gyrista</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Developea" class="mw-redirect" title="Developea">Developea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirsoniales" class="mw-redirect" title="Pirsoniales">Pirsoniales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyphochytriomycetes" title="Hyphochytriomycetes">Hyphochytriomycetes</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ochrophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ochrophyta">Ochrophyta</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Oomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Oomycetes">Oomycetes</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinophryida" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinophryida">Actinophryida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);">     <a href="/wiki/CAM_clade" class="mw-redirect" title="CAM clade">CAM</a>     </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="/wiki/Pancryptista" title="Pancryptista">Pancryptista</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Microheliella" title="Microheliella">Microheliella</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="/wiki/Cryptista" title="Cryptista">Cryptista</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Palpitomonas" title="Palpitomonas">Palpitomonas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptophyta">Cryptophyta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucophyta">Glaucophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picozoa" title="Picozoa">Picozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodelphidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodelphidia">Rhodelphidia</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta">Rhodophyta</a></b></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Viridiplantae(Plants_sensu_lato)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="/wiki/Viridiplantae" title="Viridiplantae">Viridiplantae</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Plant#Alternative_concepts" title="Plant">Plants <i>sensu lato</i></a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prasinodermophyta" title="Prasinodermophyta">Prasinodermophyta</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></b></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Streptophyta" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="/wiki/Streptophyta" title="Streptophyta">Streptophyta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chlorokybus" title="Chlorokybus">Chlorokybus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mesostigma" title="Mesostigma">Mesostigma</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klebsormidiophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Klebsormidiophyceae">Klebsormidiophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charophyceae" title="Charophyceae">Charophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coleochaetophyceae" title="Coleochaetophyceae">Coleochaetophyceae</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Zygnematophyceae" title="Zygnematophyceae">Zygnematophyceae</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Embryophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryophyta">Embryophyta</a></b>¹</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;"><span style="margin:-23px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Excavata" title="Excavata">Excavates</a>*</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Discoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Discoba">Discoba</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jakobida" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakobida">Jakobida</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tsukubamonas" title="Tsukubamonas">Tsukubamonas</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Discicristata" title="Discicristata">Discicristata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heterolobosea" title="Heterolobosea">Heterolobosea</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Euglenozoa" title="Euglenozoa">Euglenozoa</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metamonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamonada">Metamonada</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Barthelona" title="Barthelona">Barthelona</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anaeramoebae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anaeramoebae (page does not exist)">Anaeramoebae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaeromonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaeromonada">Anaeromonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fornicata" class="mw-redirect" title="Fornicata">Fornicata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parabasalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Parabasalia">Parabasalia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Malawimonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Malawimonada">Malawimonada</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malawimonadidae" title="Malawimonadidae">Malawimonadidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imasidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Imasidae">Imasidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.0em;"><span style="margin:-31px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><i><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Acritarch" title="Acritarch">Acritarchs</a></li> <li>†<i><a href="/wiki/Grypania" title="Grypania">Grypania</a></i></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Gunflint_chert" title="Gunflint chert">Gunflint microbiota</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Chitinozoan" title="Chitinozoan">Chitinozoan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meteora_sporadica" title="Meteora sporadica">Meteora sporadica</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Hemimastigophora" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hemimastigophora" title="Hemimastigophora">Hemimastigophora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spironematellidae" title="Spironematellidae">Spironematellidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramastigidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramastigidae">Paramastigidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancyromonadida" title="Ancyromonadida">Ancyromonadida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancyromonadidae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ancyromonadidae (page does not exist)">Ancyromonadidae</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planomonadidae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Planomonadidae (page does not exist)">Planomonadidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/CRuMs" title="CRuMs">CRuMs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collodictyonidae" title="Collodictyonidae">Collodictyonidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantamonadida" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantamonadida">Mantamonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigifilida" title="Rigifilida">Rigifilida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>¹traditional <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdoms</a> excluded from <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a></li> <li>*<a href="/wiki/Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletic">paraphyletic</a> groups</li> <li><b>bold</b> denotes groups with over 1,000 species</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Extant_animal_phyla" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(235,235,210);background:rgb(211,211,164)"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Animalia" title="Template:Animalia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Animalia" title="Template talk:Animalia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Animalia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Animalia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extant_animal_phyla" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal</a> <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(235,235,210)"><div><div class="hlist"> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domain</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Archaea_classification" title="Template:Archaea classification">Archaea</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Bacteria_classification" title="Template:Bacteria classification">Bacteria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Eukaryota" title="Template:Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a></dd> <dt><span class="nobold">(major groups</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Excavata" title="Template:Excavata">Excavata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Hacrobia" title="Template:Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Cryptista" title="Template:Cryptista">Cryptista</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhizaria" title="Template:Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Alveolata" title="Template:Alveolata">Alveolata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Stramenopile" title="Template:Stramenopile">Stramenopiles</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Plant_classification" title="Template:Plant classification">Plants</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amorphea" title="Amorphea">Amorphea</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Amoebozoa" title="Template:Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Opisthokont_protists" title="Template:Opisthokont protists">Opisthokonta</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Animalia" title="Template:Animalia">Animals</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Fungi_classification" title="Template:Fungi classification">Fungi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Mesomycetozoea" title="Template:Mesomycetozoea">Mesomycetozoea</a>)</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Animalia" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:rgb(245,245,232);width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -25px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge"><b>Porifera (sponges)</b></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora (comb jellies)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/ParaHoxozoa" title="ParaHoxozoa">ParaHoxozoa</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Planulozoa" title="Planulozoa">Planulozoa</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa (<i>Trichoplax</i> and relatives)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><b>Cnidaria (jellyfish and relatives)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a> (Triploblasts)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>(see below↓)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(245,245,232)"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold">The <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">phylogeny</a> of the animal root <a href="/wiki/Animal#Internal_phylogeny" title="Animal">is disputed</a>; see also</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eumetazoa" title="Eumetazoa">Eumetazoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Benthozoa" title="Benthozoa">Benthozoa</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(235,235,210)"><div id="Bilateria" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bilateria" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:rgb(245,245,232);width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -24px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xenacoelomorpha" title="Xenacoelomorpha">Xenacoelomorpha (acoels and relatives)</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordata (chordates)</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Ambulacraria" title="Ambulacraria">Ambulacraria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm"><b>Echinodermata (starfish and relatives)</b></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">Hemichordata (acorn worms and relatives)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Protostomia" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -35px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Protostome" title="Protostome">Protostomia</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -30px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Ecdysozoa" title="Ecdysozoa">Ecdysozoa</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Scalidophora" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Scalidophora" title="Scalidophora">Scalidophora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinorhyncha" title="Kinorhyncha">Kinorhyncha (mud dragons)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priapulida" title="Priapulida">Priapulida (penis worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">N+L+P</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Nematoida" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Nematoida" title="Nematoida">Nematoida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode"><b>Nematoda (roundworms)</b></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematomorpha" title="Nematomorpha">Nematomorpha (horsehair worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="L+P" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">L+P</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loricifera" title="Loricifera">Loricifera (corset animals)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Panarthropoda" title="Panarthropoda">Panarthropoda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Onychophora" title="Onychophora">Onychophora (velvet worms)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod"><b>Arthropoda (arthropods)</b></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade"><b>Tardigrada (waterbears)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -20px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Spiralia" title="Spiralia">Spiralia</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Gnathifera" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Gnathifera_(Spiralia)" title="Gnathifera (Spiralia)">Gnathifera</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha (arrow worms)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnathostomulid" title="Gnathostomulid">Gnathostomulida (jaw worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">M+S</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limnognathia" title="Limnognathia">Micrognathozoa <i>(Limnognathia)</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndermata" title="Syndermata">Syndermata</a> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Rotifer" title="Rotifer">Rotifera (wheel animals)</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala">Acanthocephala (thorny-headed worms)</a></b></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -41px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Platytrochozoa" title="Platytrochozoa">Platytrochozoa</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="R+M" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">R+M</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Rouphozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Rouphozoa">Rouphozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm"><b>Platyhelminthes (flatworms)</b></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrotrich" title="Gastrotrich">Gastrotricha (hairybacks)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Mesozoa" title="Mesozoa">Mesozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthonectida" title="Orthonectida">Orthonectida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicyemida" title="Dicyemida">Dicyemida or Rhombozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salinella" title="Salinella">Monoblastozoa (<i>Salinella</i>)</a>†</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -44px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Lophotrochozoa" title="Lophotrochozoa">Lophotrochozoa</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbion" title="Symbion">Cycliophora (<i>Symbion</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid"><b>Annelida (segmented worms)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">M+K</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca"><b>Mollusca (molluscs)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Kryptotrochozoa" title="Kryptotrochozoa">Kryptotrochozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nemertea" title="Nemertea"><b>Nemertea (ribbon worms)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Lophophorata" title="Lophophorata">Lophophorata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Bryozoa s.l.</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta or Kamptozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa"><b>Ectoprocta (moss animals)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Brachiozoa" title="Brachiozoa">Brachiozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">Brachiopoda (lamp shells)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoronid" title="Phoronid">Phoronida (horseshoe worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(245,245,232)"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold">The <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">phylogeny</a> of Bilateria <a href="/wiki/Bilateria#Phylogeny" title="Bilateria">is disputed</a>; see also</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nephrozoa" title="Nephrozoa">Nephrozoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">Deuterostomia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Xenambulacraria" title="Xenambulacraria">Xenambulacraria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Centroneuralia" title="Centroneuralia">Centroneuralia</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><hr /></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Major_groupswithin_phyla" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #f0f0f0;">Major groups<br />within phyla</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Sponges</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demosponge" title="Demosponge">Demosponges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexactinellid" title="Hexactinellid">Glass sponges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcareous_sponge" title="Calcareous sponge">Calcareous sponges</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cnidarians</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoans inc. corals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medusozoa" title="Medusozoa">Medusozoans inc. jellyfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoans</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordates</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cephalochordate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalochordate">Lancelets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunicate" title="Tunicate">Tunicates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">Vertebrates</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">Echinoderms</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crinozoa" title="Crinozoa">Sea lilies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asterozoa" title="Asterozoa">Asterozoans inc. starfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echinozoa" title="Echinozoa">Echinozoans inc. sea urchins</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">Hemichordates</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acorn_worm" title="Acorn worm">Acorn worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterobranchia" title="Pterobranchia">Pterobranchs</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematodes</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromadorea" title="Chromadorea">Chromadorea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enoplea" title="Enoplea">Enoplea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secernentea" title="Secernentea">Secernentea</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chelicerata" title="Chelicerata">Chelicerates inc. arachnids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myriapoda" title="Myriapoda">Myriapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">Crustaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexapoda" title="Hexapoda">Hexapods inc. insects</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">Platyhelminths</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turbellaria" title="Turbellaria">Turbellaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trematoda" title="Trematoda">Trematoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogenea" title="Monogenea">Monogenea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cestoda" title="Cestoda">Cestoda</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Ectoproctans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylactolaemata" title="Phylactolaemata">Phylactolaemata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stenolaemata" title="Stenolaemata">Stenolaemata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnolaemata" title="Gymnolaemata">Gymnolaemata</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">Annelids</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polychaete" title="Polychaete">Polychaetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clitellata" title="Clitellata">Clitellata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sipuncula" title="Sipuncula">Sipuncula</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Molluscs</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gastropoda" title="Gastropoda">Gastropods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">Cephalopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bivalvia" title="Bivalvia">Bivalves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiton" title="Chiton">Chitons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tusk_shell" title="Tusk shell">Tusk shells</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(235,235,210)"><div> <dl><dd>Phyla with ≥1000 extant species <b>bolded</b></dd> <dd>Potentially <a href="/wiki/Dubious_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Dubious species">dubious phyla</a> †</dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Extant_Cnidaria_classes" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cnidaria" title="Template:Cnidaria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cnidaria" title="Template talk:Cnidaria"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cnidaria" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cnidaria"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extant_Cnidaria_classes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cnidaria</a> classes</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Octocorallia" title="Octocorallia">Octocorallia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexacorallia" title="Hexacorallia">Hexacorallia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceriantharia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceriantharia">Ceriantharia</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cnidaria.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Cnidaria.png/140px-Cnidaria.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Cnidaria.png/210px-Cnidaria.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Cnidaria.png/280px-Cnidaria.png 2x" data-file-width="1396" data-file-height="1080" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">Medusozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Box_jellyfish" title="Box jellyfish">Cubozoa <span style="font-size:85%;">(box jellyfish)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrozoa" title="Hydrozoa">Hydrozoa <span style="font-size:85%;">(hydrozoans)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scyphozoa" title="Scyphozoa">Scyphozoa <span style="font-size:85%;">(true jellyfish)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stauromedusae" title="Stauromedusae">Staurozoa <span style="font-size:85%;">(stalked jellyfish)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polypodium_hydriforme" title="Polypodium hydriforme">Polypodiozoa <i><span style="font-size:85%;">(Polypodium)</span></i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malacosporea" class="mw-redirect" title="Malacosporea">Malacosporea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxosporea" title="Myxosporea">Myxosporea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life_on_Earth" title="Template talk:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> phyla/divisions by domain</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bacteria" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acidobacteriota" title="Acidobacteriota">Acidobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquificota" title="Aquificota">Aquificota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armatimonadota" title="Armatimonadota">Armatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atribacterota" title="Atribacterota">Atribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Bacillota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteroidota" title="Bacteroidota">Bacteroidota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balneolota" class="mw-redirect" title="Balneolota">Balneolota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bdellovibrionota" title="Bdellovibrionota">Bdellovibrionota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caldisericota" class="mw-redirect" title="Caldisericota">Caldisericota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calditrichota" class="mw-redirect" title="Calditrichota">Calditrichota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campylobacterota" title="Campylobacterota">Campylobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydiota" title="Chlamydiota">Chlamydiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">Chlorobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota">Chloroflexota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysiogenota" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysiogenota">Chrysiogenota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coprothermobacterota" title="Coprothermobacterota">Coprothermobacterota</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferribacteraceae" title="Deferribacteraceae">Deferribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deinococcota" title="Deinococcota">Deinococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictyoglomus_thermophilum" title="Dictyoglomus thermophilum">Dictyoglomota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elusimicrobiota" title="Elusimicrobiota">Elusimicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrobacterota" title="Fibrobacterota">Fibrobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusobacteriota" title="Fusobacteriota">Fusobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemmatimonadota" title="Gemmatimonadota">Gemmatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignavibacteriota" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignavibacteriota">Ignavibacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiritimatiellota" title="Kiritimatiellota">Kiritimatiellota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentisphaerota" title="Lentisphaerota">Lentisphaerota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoplasmatota" title="Mycoplasmatota">Mycoplasmatota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxococcota" title="Myxococcota">Myxococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospinota" title="Nitrospinota">Nitrospinota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospirota" title="Nitrospirota">Nitrospirota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planctomycetota" title="Planctomycetota">Planctomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota">Pseudomonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodothermota" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodothermota">Rhodothermota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirochaetota" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirochaetota">Spirochaetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synergistota" title="Synergistota">Synergistota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodesulfobacteriota" title="Thermodesulfobacteriota">Thermodesulfobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermomicrobiota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermomicrobiota">Thermomicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermotogota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermotogota">Thermotogota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrucomicrobiota" title="Verrucomicrobiota">Verrucomicrobiota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Archaea" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Euryarchaeota" title="Euryarchaeota">Euryarchaeota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Korarchaeota" title="Korarchaeota">Korarchaeota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Nanoarchaeota" title="Nanoarchaeota">Nanoarchaeota</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrososphaerota" title="Nitrososphaerota">Nitrososphaerota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoproteota" title="Thermoproteota">Thermoproteota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeal_Richmond_Mine_acidophilic_nanoorganisms" title="Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms">Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alveolata" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolata">Alveolata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancyromonadida" title="Ancyromonadida">Ancyromonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apusomonadida" class="mw-redirect" title="Apusomonadida">Apusomonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breviatea" title="Breviatea">Breviatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CRuMs" title="CRuMs">CRuMs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptista" title="Cryptista">Cryptista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cercozoa" title="Cercozoa">Cercozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Discoba">Discoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euglenozoa" title="Euglenozoa">Euglenozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakobea" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakobea">Jakobea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptista" title="Haptista">Haptista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemimastigophora" title="Hemimastigophora">Hemimastigophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malawimonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Malawimonada">Malawimonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamonada">Metamonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provora" title="Provora">Provora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stramenopiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Stramenopiles">Stramenopiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telonemia" title="Telonemia">Telonemia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycota" title="Chytridiomycota">Chytridiomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycota" title="Blastocladiomycota">Blastocladiomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycota" title="Neocallimastigomycota">Neocallimastigomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucophyta">Glaucophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta">Rhodophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charophyta" title="Charophyta">Charophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">Marchantiophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthocerotophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthocerotophyta">Anthocerotophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">Moss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycopodiophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopodiophyta">Lycopodiophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pteridophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridophyta">Pteridophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycadophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadophyta">Cycadophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginkgophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginkgophyta">Ginkgophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">Pinophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">Gnetophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Flowering plant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Sponge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cnidaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenacoelomorpha" title="Xenacoelomorpha">Xenacoelomorpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">Hemichordate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">Echinoderm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinorhyncha" title="Kinorhyncha">Kinorhyncha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loricifera" title="Loricifera">Loricifera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priapulida" title="Priapulida">Priapulida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematomorpha" title="Nematomorpha">Nematomorpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onychophora" title="Onychophora">Onychophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">Tardigrada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">Flatworm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrotricha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrotricha">Gastrotricha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthonectida" title="Orthonectida">Orthonectida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicyemida" title="Dicyemida">Dicyemida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotifera">Rotifera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala">Acanthocephala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnathostomulida" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnathostomulida">Gnathostomulida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micrognathozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Micrognathozoa">Micrognathozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycliophora" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycliophora">Cycliophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemertea" title="Nemertea">Nemertea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoronid" title="Phoronid">Phoronid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Bryozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachiopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachiopoda">Brachiopoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">Annelida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><i><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Parakaryon" title="Parakaryon">Parakaryon</a></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><i>Cnidaria</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25441" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q25441">Q25441</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Animal_Diversity_Web" title="Animal Diversity Web">ADW</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Cnidaria/">Cnidaria</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Faunal_Directory" title="Australian Faunal Directory">AFD</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biodiversity.org.au/afd/taxa/Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Barcode_of_Life_Data_System" title="Barcode of Life Data System">BOLD</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boldsystems.org/index.php/TaxBrowser_TaxonPage?taxid=3">3</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">EoL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eol.org/pages/1745">1745</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/EPPO_Code" title="EPPO Code">EPPO</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/1CNIDP">1CNIDP</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Fauna_Europaea" title="Fauna Europaea">Fauna Europaea</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eu-nomen.eu/portal/taxon.php?GUID=urn:lsid:faunaeur.org:taxname:10979">10979</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Fauna_Europaea" title="Fauna Europaea">Fauna Europaea (new)</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fauna-eu.org/cdm_dataportal/taxon/bad6d16c-dadc-4f71-b3cd-f660d01482ab">bad6d16c-dadc-4f71-b3cd-f660d01482ab</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">GBIF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/species/43">43</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/47534">47534</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">IRMNG</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=151">151</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">ITIS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=48738">48738</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=6073">6073</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">NZOR: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzor.org.nz/names/6e5a7c0d-bd28-48cb-ade4-c4904cbf0b66">6e5a7c0d-bd28-48cb-ade4-c4904cbf0b66</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=641033">641033</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology_Database" title="Paleobiology Database">Paleobiology Database</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=4524">4524</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">uBio: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ubio.org/browser/details.php?namebankID=230490">230490</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/World_Register_of_Marine_Species" title="World Register of Marine Species">WoRMS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=1267">1267</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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