CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Old Irish - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"f6c6617c-f52e-4de5-9394-dd653275726d","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Old_Irish","wgTitle":"Old Irish","wgCurRevisionId":1259240791,"wgRevisionId":1259240791,"wgArticleId":1460121,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages with plain IPA","Harv and Sfn no-target errors","Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use Hiberno-English from August 2023","All Wikipedia articles written in Hiberno-English","Use dmy dates from October 2013","Articles containing Old Irish (to 900)-language text","Pages with Old Irish IPA","Language articles with Linguasphere code","Languages with ISO 639-2 code", "Language articles with unreferenced extinction date","Articles containing Irish-language text","Articles containing Scottish Gaelic-language text","Articles containing Manx-language text","All articles with incomplete citations","Articles with incomplete citations from July 2024","All accuracy disputes","Accuracy disputes from July 2024","Articles containing Middle Irish (900-1200)-language text","Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from March 2018","Articles with permanently dead external links","Old Irish","Languages attested from the 8th century","Medieval history of Ireland","Medieval languages","Culture of medieval Scotland"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Old_Irish","wgRelevantArticleId":1460121,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove": [],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":40000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q35308","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false, "wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups", "ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Old Irish - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Irish"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Irish"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Old_Irish rootpage-Old_Irish skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Old+Irish" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Old+Irish" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Old+Irish" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Old+Irish" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Notable characteristics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Stress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Orthography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Orthography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stops_following_vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stops_following_vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Stops following vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stops_following_vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stops_following_other_consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stops_following_other_consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Stops following other consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stops_following_other_consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_consonants_l,_n,_r" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_consonants_l,_n,_r"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>The consonants <i>l, n, r</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_consonants_l,_n,_r-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Old Irish</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_irland%C3%A9s_antiguu" title="Idioma irlandés antiguu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Idioma irlandés antiguu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C9%99dim_%C4%B0rland_dili" title="Qədim İrland dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qədim İrland dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%96%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Старажытнаірландская мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Старажытнаірландская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%96%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Старажытнаірляндзкая мова – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Старажытнаірляндзкая мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Староирландски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Староирландски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heniwerzhoneg" title="Heniwerzhoneg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Heniwerzhoneg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irland%C3%A8s_antic" title="Irlandès antic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Irlandès antic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staroir%C5%A1tina" title="Staroirština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Staroirština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen_Wyddeleg" title="Hen Wyddeleg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hen Wyddeleg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altirische_Sprache" title="Altirische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Altirische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_irland%C3%A9s_antiguo" title="Idioma irlandés antiguo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma irlandés antiguo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malnovirlanda_lingvo" title="Malnovirlanda lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Malnovirlanda lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irlandera_zaharra" title="Irlandera zaharra – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Irlandera zaharra" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D9%87%D9%86" title="ایرلندی کهن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ایرلندی کهن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vieil_irlandais" title="Vieil irlandais – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vieil irlandais" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_tSean-Ghaeilge" title="An tSean-Ghaeilge – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An tSean-Ghaeilge" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenn_Yernish" title="Shenn Yernish – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Shenn Yernish" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seann-Gh%C3%A0idhlig" title="Seann-Ghàidhlig – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Seann-Ghàidhlig" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_irlandesa_antiga" title="Lingua irlandesa antiga – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua irlandesa antiga" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80_%EC%95%84%EC%9D%BC%EB%9E%9C%EB%93%9C%EC%96%B4" title="고대 아일랜드어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대 아일랜드어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staroirski_jezik" title="Staroirski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Staroirski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Irlandia_Kuno" title="Bahasa Irlandia Kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Irlandia Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_irlandesa_antiga" title="Lengua irlandesa antiga – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Lengua irlandesa antiga" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Староирски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Староирски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oudiers" title="Oudiers – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oudiers" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E3%82%A2%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AB%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E8%AA%9E" title="古アイルランド語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古アイルランド語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammelirsk" title="Gammelirsk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gammelirsk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamalirsk" title="Gamalirsk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Gamalirsk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_staroirlandzki" title="Język staroirlandzki – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język staroirlandzki" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_irlandesa_antiga" title="Língua irlandesa antiga – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua irlandesa antiga" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Древнеирландский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Древнеирландский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auld_Erse_leid" title="Auld Erse leid – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Auld Erse leid" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Old Irish" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staroirski_jezik" title="Staroirski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Staroirski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forniriska" title="Forniriska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Forniriska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eski_%C4%B0rlandaca" title="Eski İrlandaca – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Eski İrlandaca" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BE%D1%96%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Давньоірландська мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Давньоірландська мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%A2%D8%A6%D8%B1%D8%B4" title="قدیم آئرش – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قدیم آئرش" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Ireland_c%E1%BB%95" title="Tiếng Ireland cổ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Ireland cổ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E6%84%9B%E7%88%BE%E8%98%AD%E8%AA%9E" title="古愛爾蘭語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="古愛爾蘭語" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q35308#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Old_Irish" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Old_Irish" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Old_Irish" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&oldid=1259240791" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Old_Irish&id=1259240791&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FOld_Irish"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FOld_Irish"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Old_Irish&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wiktionary mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wiktionary:About_Old_Irish" hreflang="en"><span>Wiktionary</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q35308" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Oldest widely attested Gaelic language</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Old Irish</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Old Gaelic</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;"><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">Goídelc</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="sga-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[ˈɡoːi̯ðʲelɡ]</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Ireland, <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">6th–10th century; evolved into <a href="/wiki/Middle_Irish" title="Middle Irish">Middle Irish</a> by around the 10th century</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Celtic_languages" title="Insular Celtic languages">Insular Celtic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Goidelic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Old Irish</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early form</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ogham_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Ogham script">Ogham</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=397">sga</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/sga" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:sga">sga</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/oldi1246">oldi1246</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=50-AAA-ad">50-AAA-ad</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Old Irish</b>, also called <b>Old Gaelic</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-koch_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koch-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Old_Irish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Irish language">Old Irish</a>: <i lang="sga">Goídelc</i>, <small><a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham script</a></small>: ᚌᚑᚔᚇᚓᚂᚉ; <a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>: <i lang="ga">Sean-Ghaeilge</i>; <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Gaelic language">Scottish Gaelic</a>: <i lang="gd">Seann-Ghàidhlig</i>; <a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a>: <i lang="gv">Shenn Yernish</i> or <span title="Manx-language text"><i lang="gv">Shenn Ghaelg</i></span>), is the oldest form of the <a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Goidelic/Gaelic language</a> for which there are extensive written texts. It was used from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 600 to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 900. The main contemporary texts are dated <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 700–850; by 900 the language had already transitioned into early <a href="/wiki/Middle_Irish" title="Middle Irish">Middle Irish</a>. Some Old Irish texts date from the 10th century, although these are presumably copies of texts written at an earlier time. Old Irish is forebear to <a href="/wiki/Modern_Irish" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Irish">Modern Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-koch_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koch-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Old Irish is known for having a particularly complex system of <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> and especially of <a href="/wiki/Allomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Allomorphy">allomorphy</a> (more or less unpredictable variations in stems and suffixes in differing circumstances), as well as a complex <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">sound system</a> involving grammatically significant <a href="/wiki/Irish_initial_mutations" title="Irish initial mutations">consonant mutations</a> to the initial consonant of a word. Apparently,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>* 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> neither characteristic was present in the preceding <a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a> period, though initial mutations likely existed in a non-grammaticalised form in the prehistoric era.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaskuła2006_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaskuła2006-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (July 2024)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Contemporary Old Irish scholarship is still greatly influenced by the works of a small number of scholars active in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, such as <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Thurneysen" title="Rudolf Thurneysen">Rudolf Thurneysen</a> (1857–1940) and <a href="/wiki/Osborn_Bergin" title="Osborn Bergin">Osborn Bergin</a> (1873–1950). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_characteristics">Notable characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Notable characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Notable characteristics of Old Irish compared with other old <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>, are: </p> <ul><li>Initial mutations, including lenition, nasalisation and aspiration/gemination.</li> <li>A complex system of verbal allomorphy.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="This reference citation appears to be to a self-published source. (July 2024)">self-published source</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>A system of <i>conjugated prepositions</i> that is unusual in Indo-European languages but common to Celtic languages. There is a great deal of allomorphy here, as well.</li> <li>Infixed or prefixed object prepositions, which are inserted between the verb stem and its initial prefix(es). If a verb lacks any such prefixes, a dummy prefix is normally added.</li> <li>Special verbal conjugations are used to signal the beginning of a <a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">relative clause</a>.</li></ul> <p>Old Irish also preserves most aspects of the complicated <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> (PIE) system of morphology. Nouns and adjectives are <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">declined</a> in three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter); three numbers (singular, dual, plural); and five cases (nominative, vocative, accusative, dative and genitive). Most <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_nouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European nouns">PIE noun stem classes</a> are maintained (<i>o</i>-, <i>yo</i>-, <i>ā</i>-, <i>yā</i>-, <i>i</i>-, <i>u</i>-, <i>r</i>-, <i>n</i>-, <i>s</i>-, and consonant stems). Most of the complexities of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verbs" title="Proto-Indo-European verbs">PIE verbal conjugation</a> are also maintained, and there are new complexities introduced by various <a href="/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">sound changes</a> (see <a href="#Verbal_allomorphy">below</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Irish was the only known member of the <a href="/wiki/Goidelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Goidelic">Goidelic</a> branch of the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a>, which is, in turn, a subfamily of the wider <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European language">Indo-European language</a> family that also includes the <a href="/wiki/Slavonic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavonic languages">Slavonic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a> subfamilies, along with several others. Old Irish is the ancestor of all modern Goidelic languages: <a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Modern Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a>. </p><p>A still older form of Irish is known as <a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a>. Fragments of Primitive Irish, mainly personal names, are known from inscriptions on stone written in the <a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a> alphabet. The inscriptions date from about the 4th to the 6th centuries. Primitive Irish appears to have been very close to <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Common Celtic</a>, the ancestor of all <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a>, and it had a lot of the characteristics of other archaic Indo-European languages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Relatively little survives in the way of strictly contemporary sources. They are represented mainly by shorter or longer <a href="/wiki/Gloss_(margin_text)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gloss (margin text)">glosses</a> on the margins or <a href="/wiki/Interlinear_gloss" title="Interlinear gloss">between the lines</a> of religious <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <a href="/wiki/Manuscripts" class="mw-redirect" title="Manuscripts">manuscripts</a>, most of them preserved in monasteries in Germany, Italy, Switzerland, France and Austria, having been taken there by <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Scottish_mission" title="Hiberno-Scottish mission">early Irish missionaries</a>. Whereas in Ireland, many of the older manuscripts appear to have been worn out through extended and heavy use, their counterparts on the Continent were much less prone to the same risk because once they ceased to be understood, they were rarely consulted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThurneysen19464_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThurneysen19464-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest Old Irish passages may be the transcripts found in the <a href="/wiki/Cambrai_Homily" title="Cambrai Homily">Cambrai Homily</a>, which is thought to belong to the early 8th century. The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Armagh" title="Book of Armagh">Book of Armagh</a> contains texts from the early 9th century. Important Continental collections of glosses from the 8th and 9th century include the <a href="/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg" title="Würzburg">Würzburg</a> Glosses (mainly) on the <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Epistles" class="mw-redirect" title="Pauline Epistles">Pauline Epistles</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> Glosses on a commentary to the <a href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">Psalms</a> and the <a href="/wiki/St_Gallen" class="mw-redirect" title="St Gallen">St Gall</a> Glosses on <a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a>'s Grammar. </p><p>Further examples are found at <a href="/wiki/Karlsruhe" title="Karlsruhe">Karlsruhe</a> (Germany), Paris (France), Milan, <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a> (Italy). A late 9th-century manuscript from the <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_Reichenau" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbey of Reichenau">abbey of Reichenau</a>, now in <a href="/wiki/St._Paul_in_Carinthia" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Paul in Carinthia">St. Paul in Carinthia</a> (Austria), contains a spell and four Old Irish poems. The <i><a href="/wiki/Liber_Hymnorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Liber Hymnorum">Liber Hymnorum</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Stowe_Missal" title="Stowe Missal">Stowe Missal</a></i> date from about 900 to 1050. </p><p>In addition to contemporary witnesses, the vast majority of Old Irish texts are attested in manuscripts of a variety of later dates. Manuscripts of the later Middle Irish period, such as the <span title="Middle Irish (900-1200)-language text"><span lang="mga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lebor_na_hUidre" title="Lebor na hUidre">Lebor na hUidre</a></span></span> and the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Leinster" title="Book of Leinster">Book of Leinster</a>, contain texts which are thought to derive from written exemplars in Old Irish now lost and retain enough of their original form to merit classification as Old Irish. </p><p>The preservation of certain linguistic forms current in the Old Irish period may provide reason to assume that an Old Irish original directly or indirectly underlies the transmitted text or texts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonant</a> inventory of Old Irish is shown in the chart below. The complexity of Old Irish phonology is from a four-way split of phonemes inherited from Primitive Irish, with both a <a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">fortis–lenis</a> and a "broad–slender" (<a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">velarised</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatalised</a>) distinction arising from historical changes. The sounds <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/f<span class="wrap"> </span>v<span class="wrap"> </span>θ<span class="wrap"> </span>ð<span class="wrap"> </span>x<span class="wrap"> </span>ɣ<span class="wrap"> </span>h<span class="wrap"> </span>ṽ<span class="wrap"> </span>n<span class="wrap"> </span>l<span class="wrap"> </span>r/</span> are the broad lenis equivalents of broad fortis <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p<span class="wrap"> </span>b<span class="wrap"> </span>t<span class="wrap"> </span>d<span class="wrap"> </span>k<span class="wrap"> </span>ɡ<span class="wrap"> </span>s<span class="wrap"> </span>m<span class="wrap"> </span>N<span class="wrap"> </span>L<span class="wrap"> </span>R/</span>; likewise for the slender (palatalised) equivalents. (However, most <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/f<span class="wrap"> </span>fʲ/</span> sounds actually derive historically from <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span>, since <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span> was relatively rare in Old Irish, being a recent import from other languages such as Latin.) </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">broad</span> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">m</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">N  n</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">slender</span> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">mʲ</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">Nʲ  nʲ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋʲ</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Plosive</a> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">broad</span> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">p  b</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t  d</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">k  ɡ</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">slender</span> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pʲ  bʲ</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʲ  dʲ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʲ  ɡʲ</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">broad</span> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">f  v</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">θ  ð</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">s</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">x  ɣ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">h</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">slender</span> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">fʲ  vʲ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">θʲ  ðʲ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sʲ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">xʲ  ɣʲ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">hʲ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">Nasalized</a> <br />fricative </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">broad</span> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ṽ</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">slender</span> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ṽʲ</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">broad</span> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">R  r</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">slender</span> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">Rʲ  rʲ</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">broad</span> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">L  l</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">slender</span> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">Lʲ  lʲ</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>Some details of Old Irish <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetics</a> are not known. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sʲ/</span> may have been pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɕ]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃ]</span>, as in Modern Irish. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/hʲ/</span> may have been the same sound as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/xʲ/</span>. The precise articulation of the fortis <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorants</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/N/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/Nʲ/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/L/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/Lʲ/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/R/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/Rʲ/</span> is unknown, but they were probably longer, <a href="/wiki/Tenseness" title="Tenseness">tenser</a> and generally more strongly articulated than their lenis counterparts <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/nʲ/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/l/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/lʲ/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/r/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/rʲ/</span>, as in the Modern Irish and Scottish dialects that still possess a four-way distinction in the <a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">coronal</a> <a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">laterals</a>. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/Nʲ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/Lʲ/</span> may have been pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɲ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʎ]</span> respectively. The difference between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/R(ʲ)/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r(ʲ)/</span> may have been that the former were <a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">trills</a> while the latter were <a href="/wiki/Flap_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Flap consonant">flaps</a>. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m(ʲ)/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ṽ(ʲ)/</span> were derived from an original fortis–lenis pair. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Irish had distinctive <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">vowel length</a> in both <a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">monophthongs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a>. Short diphthongs were <a href="/wiki/Mora_(linguistics)" title="Mora (linguistics)">monomoraic</a>, taking up the same amount of time as short vowels, while long diphthongs were bimoraic, the same as long vowels. (This is much like the situation in <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> but different from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> whose shorter and longer diphthongs were bimoraic and trimoraic, respectively: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ai/</span> vs. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aːi/</span>.) The inventory of Old Irish long vowels changed significantly over the Old Irish period, but the short vowels changed much less. </p><p>The following short vowels existed: </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">Monophthongs </th> <th colspan="2">Diphthongs </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">i</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ĭu</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">o</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ĕu</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">(ŏu)</span><sup>1</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td colspan="2" align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">a</span>, (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">æ<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>œ</span>?) </td> <td colspan="2" align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ău</span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p><sup>1</sup>The short diphthong <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŏu</span> likely existed very early in the Old Irish period, but merged with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> later on and in many instances was replaced with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> due to paradigmatic levelling. It is attested once in the phrase <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">i r<b>ou</b>th</i></span> by the <i>prima manus</i> of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=W%C3%BCrzburg_Glosses&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Würzburg Glosses (page does not exist)">Würzburg Glosses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æ<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>œ/</span> arose from the u-infection of stressed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> by a <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> that preceded a palatalized consonant. This vowel faced much inconsistency in spelling, often detectable by a word containing it being variably spelled with <span class="nowrap">⟨au, ai, e, i, u⟩</span> across attestations. <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">Tulach</i></span> "hill, mound" is the most commonly cited example of this vowel, with the spelling of its inflections including <i>tulach</i> itself, <i>telaig</i>, <i>telocho</i>, <i>tilchaib</i>, <i>taulich</i> and <i>tailaig</i>. This special vowel also ran rampant in many words starting with the stressed prefix <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">air-</i></span> (from Proto-Celtic <i>*ɸare</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Archaic Old Irish (before about 750) had the following inventory of long vowels: </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">Monophthongs </th> <th colspan="2">Diphthongs </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iu</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ui</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e₁ː,<span class="wrap"> </span>e₂ː</span><sup>1</sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">o₁ː</span>, (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">o₂ː</span>?)<sup>2</sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eu</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oi</span>, (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ou</span>)<sup>3</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aː</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ai,<span class="wrap"> </span>au</span><sup>3</sup> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p><sup>1</sup>Both <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e₁ː/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e₂ː/</span> were normally written <span class="nowrap">⟨é⟩</span> but must have been pronounced differently because they have different origins and distinct outcomes in later Old Irish. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e₁ː/</span> stems from Proto-Celtic *ē (< PIE *ei), or from <i>ē</i> in words borrowed from Latin. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e₂ː/</span> generally stems from <a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">compensatory lengthening</a> of short *e because of loss of the following consonant (in certain clusters) or a directly following vowel in <a href="/wiki/Hiatus_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiatus (linguistics)">hiatus</a>. It is generally thought that <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e₁ː/</span> was higher than <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e₂ː/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKortlandt20078_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKortlandt20078-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perhaps <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e₁ː/</span> was <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[eː]</span> while <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e₂ː/</span> was <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛː]</span>. They are clearly distinguished in later Old Irish, in which <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e₁ː/</span> becomes <span class="nowrap">⟨ía⟩</span> (but <span class="nowrap">⟨é⟩</span> before a palatal consonant). <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e₂ː/</span> becomes <span class="nowrap">⟨é⟩</span> in all circumstances. Furthermore, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e₂ː/</span> is subject to <i>u</i>-affection, becoming <span class="nowrap">⟨éu⟩</span> or <span class="nowrap">⟨íu⟩</span>, while <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e₁ː/</span> is not. </p><p><sup>2</sup>A similar distinction may have existed between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o₁ː/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o₂ː/</span>, both written <span class="nowrap">⟨ó⟩</span>, and stemming respectively from former diphthongs (*eu, *au, *ou) and from compensatory lengthening. However, in later Old Irish both sounds appear usually as <span class="nowrap">⟨úa⟩</span>, sometimes as <span class="nowrap">⟨ó⟩</span>, and it is unclear whether <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o₂ː/</span> existed as a separate sound any time in the Old Irish period. </p><p><sup>3</sup><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ou/</span> existed only in early archaic Old Irish (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>700 or earlier); afterwards it merged into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/au/</span>. Neither sound occurred before another consonant, and both sounds became <span class="nowrap">⟨ó⟩</span> in later Old Irish (often <span class="nowrap">⟨ú⟩</span> or <span class="nowrap">⟨u⟩</span> before another vowel). The late <span class="nowrap">⟨ó⟩</span> does not develop into <span class="nowrap">⟨úa⟩</span>, suggesting that <span class="nowrap">⟨áu⟩</span> > <span class="nowrap">⟨ó⟩</span> postdated <span class="nowrap">⟨ó⟩</span> > <span class="nowrap">⟨úa⟩</span>. </p><p>Later Old Irish had the following inventory of long vowels: </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">Monophthongs </th> <th colspan="2">Diphthongs </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iu,<span class="wrap"> </span>ia</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ui,<span class="wrap"> </span>ua</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eu</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oi?</span><sup>1</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aː</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p><sup>1</sup>Early Old Irish <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ai/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oi/</span> merged in later Old Irish. It is unclear what the resulting sound was, as scribes continued to use both <span class="nowrap">⟨aí⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨oí⟩</span> to indicate the merged sound. The choice of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oi/</span> in the table above is somewhat arbitrary. </p><p>The distribution of short <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a> in <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">unstressed</a> <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> is a little complicated. All short vowels may appear in absolutely final position (at the very end of a word) after both broad and slender consonants. The front vowels <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> are often spelled <span class="nowrap">⟨ae⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨ai⟩</span> after broad consonants, which might indicate a retracted pronunciation here, perhaps something like <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɘ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɨ]</span>. All ten possibilities are shown in the following examples: </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Old Irish </th> <th>Pronunciation </th> <th>English </th> <th>Annotations </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">marba</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈmarv<b>a</b>/</span> </td> <td>kill </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">1</a> <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">sg.</a> <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subj.</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">léicea</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈLʲeːɡʲ<b>a</b>/</span> </td> <td>leave </td> <td>1 sg. subj. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">marbae</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈmarv<b>e</b>/</span> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈmarv<b>ɘ</b>]?</span>) </td> <td>kill </td> <td>2 sg. subj. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">léice</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈLʲeːɡʲ<b>e</b>/</span> </td> <td>leave </td> <td>2 sg. subj. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">marbai</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈmarv<b>i</b>/</span> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈmarv<b>ɨ</b>]</span>?) </td> <td>kill </td> <td>2 sg. <a href="/wiki/Indicative_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicative mood">indic.</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">léici</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈlʲeːɡʲ<b>i</b>/</span> </td> <td>leave </td> <td>2 sg. indic. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">súlo</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈsuːl<b>o</b>/</span> </td> <td>eye </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">gen.</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">doirseo</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈdoRʲsʲ<b>o</b>/</span> </td> <td>door </td> <td>gen. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">marbu</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈmarv<b>u</b>/</span> </td> <td>kill </td> <td>1 sg. indic. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">léiciu</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈLʲeːɡʲ<b>u</b>/</span> </td> <td>leave </td> <td>1 sg. indic. </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>The distribution of short vowels in unstressed syllables, other than when absolutely final, was quite restricted. It is usually thought that there were only two allowed phonemes: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> (written <span class="nowrap">⟨a, ai, e, i⟩</span> depending on the quality of surrounding consonants) and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> (written <span class="nowrap">⟨u⟩</span> or <span class="nowrap">⟨o⟩</span>). The phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> tended to occur when the following syllable contained an *ū in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a> (for example, <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">dligud</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈdʲlʲiɣ<b>u</b>ð/</span> "law" (dat.) < PC *<i>dligedū</i>), or after a broad <a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">labial</a> (for example, <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">lebor</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈLʲev<b>u</b>r/</span> "book"; <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">domun</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈdoṽ<b>u</b>n/</span> "world"). The phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> occurred in other circumstances. The occurrence of the two phonemes was generally unrelated to the nature of the corresponding Proto-Celtic vowel, which could be any monophthong: long or short. </p><p>Long vowels also occur in unstressed syllables. However, they rarely reflect Proto-Celtic long vowels, which were shortened prior to the deletion (syncope) of inner syllables. Rather, they originate in one of the following ways: </p> <ul><li>from the late resolution of a <a href="/wiki/Hiatus_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiatus (linguistics)">hiatus</a> of two adjacent vowels (usually as a result of loss of *s between vowels);</li> <li>from <a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">compensatory lengthening</a> in response to loss of a consonant (<span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">cenél</i></span> "kindred, gender" < *<i>cenethl</i>; <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">du·air-chér</i></span> "I have purchased" < *<i>-chechr</i>, preterite of <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">crenaid</i></span> "buys"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThurneysen194679_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThurneysen194679-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>);</li> <li>from assimilation of an unstressed vowel to a corresponding long stressed vowel;</li> <li>from late compounding;</li> <li>from lengthening of short vowels before unlenited <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m,<span class="wrap"> </span>N,<span class="wrap"> </span>L,<span class="wrap"> </span>R/</span>, still in progress in Old Irish (compare <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">erríndem</i></span> "highest" vs. <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">rind</i></span> "peak"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThurneysen194632_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThurneysen194632-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stress">Stress</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Stress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stress is generally on the first syllable of a word. However, in verbs it occurs on the second syllable when the first syllable is a <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">clitic</a> (the verbal prefix <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">as-</i></span> in <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">as·beir</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/asˈberʲ/</span> "he says"). In such cases, the unstressed prefix is indicated in grammatical works with a following <a href="/wiki/Interpunct" title="Interpunct">centre dot</a> (<span class="nowrap">⟨·⟩</span>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Orthography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As with most <a href="/wiki/Category:Medieval_languages" title="Category:Medieval languages">medieval languages</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a> of Old Irish is not fixed, so the following statements are to be taken as generalisations only. Individual <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscripts</a> may vary greatly from these guidelines. </p><p>The Old Irish <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a> consists of the following eighteen <a href="/wiki/Letter_(alphabet)" title="Letter (alphabet)">letters</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>: </p> <dl><dd><i>a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u,</i></dd></dl> <p>in addition to the five <b>long <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a></b>, shown by an <a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a> (´): </p> <dl><dd><i>á, é, í, ó, ú,</i></dd></dl> <p>the <b><a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">lenited</a></b> consonants denoted with a <a href="/wiki/Dot_(diacritic)" title="Dot (diacritic)">superdot</a> (◌̇): </p> <dl><dd><i>ḟ, ṡ,</i></dd></dl> <p>and the <b><a href="/wiki/Eclipsis" class="mw-redirect" title="Eclipsis">eclipsis</a></b> consonants also denoted with a superdot: </p> <dl><dd><i>ṁ, ṅ</i>.</dd></dl> <p>Old Irish <b><a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraphs</a></b> include the lenition consonants: </p> <dl><dd><i>ch, fh, th, ph, sh</i>,</dd></dl> <p>the eclipsis consonants: </p> <dl><dd><i>mb, nd, ng</i>; <i>ṁb, ṅd, ṅg</i>,</dd></dl> <p>the <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminatives</a>: </p> <dl><dd><i>bb, cc, ll, mm, nn, pp, rr, tt</i>,</dd></dl> <p>and the <a href="/wiki/Diphthongs" class="mw-redirect" title="Diphthongs">diphthongs</a>: </p> <dl><dd><i>aé/áe/aí/ái, oé/óe/oí/ói</i>,</dd> <dd><i>uí, ía, áu, úa, éu, óu, iu, au, eu</i>,</dd> <dd><i>ai, ei, oi, ui</i>; <i>ái, éi, ói, úi</i>.</dd></dl> <p>The following table indicates the broad pronunciation of various consonant letters in various environments: </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="6">Broad consonant phonemes </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Letter </th> <th colspan="3">Word-initial </th> <th colspan="2">Non-initial </th></tr> <tr> <th>unmutated </th> <th>eclipsed </th> <th>lenited </th> <th>single </th> <th>geminate </th></tr> <tr> <td>b </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨mb⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨bb⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>c </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨ch⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨cc⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>d </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨nd⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/N/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>/</span> </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>f </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨ḟ/fh⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="wrap"> </span>/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/</span> </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>g </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨ng⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>/</span> </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>h </td> <td colspan="5">See explanation below </td></tr> <tr> <td>l </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/L/</span> </td> <td>— </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨ll⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/L/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>m </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/</span> </td> <td>— </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">ṽ</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨mm⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>n </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/N/</span> </td> <td>— </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨nn⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/N/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>p </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨ph⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨pp⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>r </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/R/</span> </td> <td>— </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨rr⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/R/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>s₁ </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/</span> </td> <td>— </td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨ṡ/sh⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/</span> </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>s₂<sup>1</sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/</span> </td> <td>— </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="nowrap">⟨f/ph⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/</span> </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>t </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨th⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>/</span> </td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨tt⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/</span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <div style="font-size:85%;"> <dl><dd>Angle brackets <span class="nowrap">⟨⟩</span> here indicate graphemic differences to the unmutated consonant.</dd> <dd>A dash (—) here indicates that the respective consonant is not subject to eclipsis. These consonants are: <i>r, l, n, s</i><sup id="cite_ref-dking_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dking-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <sup>1</sup>The <i>s₂</i> arises from older <i>*sw</i> or <i>*sɸ</i> which is lenited to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/f/</span>. In Old Irish there are only several words containing <i>s₂</i>: <i><b>s</b>ïur :: <b>f</b>ïur, <b>ph</b>ïur</i>, sister; <i><b>s</b>esser :: mór<b>f</b>esser</i>, six persons / seven (lit. great six) persons; or in reduplicated verbs <i>do·<b>s</b>einn :: do·<b>s</b>e<b>ph</b>ainn</i>, pursue.</div> <p>When the consonants <i>b, d, g</i> are eclipsed by the preceding word (always from a word-initial position), their spelling and pronunciation change to: <span class="nowrap">⟨mb⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨nd⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/N/</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨ng⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>/</span><sup id="cite_ref-dking_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dking-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Generally, geminating a consonant ensures its unmutated sound. While the letter <span class="nowrap">⟨c⟩</span> may be voiced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/</span> at the end of some words, but when it is written double <span class="nowrap">⟨cc⟩</span> it is always voiceless <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</span> in regularised texts; however, even final <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span> was often written "cc", as in <i>bec / becc</i> "small, little" (Modern Irish and Scottish <i>beag</i>, Manx <i>beg</i>). </p><p>In later Irish manuscripts, lenited <i>f</i> and <i>s</i> are denoted with the letter <i>h</i> <span class="nowrap">⟨fh⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨sh⟩</span>, instead of using a superdot <span class="nowrap">⟨ḟ⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨ṡ⟩</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-dking_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dking-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When initial <i>s</i> stemmed from Primitive Irish <i>*sw-</i>, its lenited version is <span class="nowrap">⟨f⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiceless bilabial fricative">ɸ</a>]</span>. </p><p>The slender (<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatalised</a>) variants of the 13 consonants are denoted with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">ʲ</a>/</span> marking the letter. They occur in the following environments: </p> <ul><li>Before a written <i>e, é, i, í</i></li> <li>After a written <i>i</i>, when not followed by a vowel letter (but not after the diphthongs <i>aí, oí, uí</i>)</li></ul> <p>Although Old Irish has both a sound <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/</span> and a letter <i>h</i>, there is no consistent relationship between the two. Vowel-initial words are sometimes written with an unpronounced <i>h</i>, especially if they are very short (the Old Irish <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">preposition</a> <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">i</i></span> "in" was sometimes written <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">hi</i></span>) or if they need to be emphasised (the name of Ireland, <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">Ériu</i></span>, was sometimes written <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">Hériu</i></span>). On the other hand, words that begin with the sound <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> are usually written without it: <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">a ór</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a<span class="wrap"> </span>hoːr/</span> "her gold". If the sound and the spelling <a href="/wiki/Co-occurrence" title="Co-occurrence">co-occur</a>, it is by coincidence, as <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">ní hed</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/Nʲiː<span class="wrap"> </span>heð/</span> "it is not". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stops_following_vowels">Stops following vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Stops following vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The voiceless stops of Old Irish are <i>c, p, t</i>. They contrast with the voiced stops <i>g, b, d</i>. Additionally, the letter <i>m</i> can behave similarly to a stop following vowels. These seven consonants often mutate when not in the word-initial position. </p><p>In non-initial positions, the single-letter voiceless stops <i>c, p,</i> and <i>t</i> become the voiced stops <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>/</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>/</span> respectively unless they are written double. Ambiguity in these letters' pronunciations arises when a single consonant follows an <i>l, n,</i> or <i>r</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-dking_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dking-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lenited stops <i>ch, ph,</i> and <i>th</i> become <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>/</span> respectively. </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">Non-initial voiceless stops <span class="nowrap">⟨c⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨p⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨t⟩</span> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Old Irish </th> <th>Pronunciation </th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">macc</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mak/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">son</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">bec</i></span> or <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">becc</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bʲeɡ/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">small</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">op</i></span> or <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">opp</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ob/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">refuse</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">bratt</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/brat/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">mantle</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">brot</i></span> or <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">brott</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/brod/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">goad</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Lenited consonants <span class="nowrap">⟨ch⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨ph⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨th⟩</span> </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">ech</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ex/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">horse</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">oíph</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oif/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">beauty</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">áth</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aːθ/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">ford</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>The voiced stops <i>b, d,</i> and <i>g</i> become fricative <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>/</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>/</span>, respectively—identical sounds to their word-initial lenitions. </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">Non-initial voiced stops <span class="nowrap">⟨g⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨b⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨d⟩</span> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Old Irish </th> <th>Pronunciation </th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">dub</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/duv/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">black</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">mod</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/moð/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">work</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">mug</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/muɣ/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">slave</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">claideb</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/klaðʲəv/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">sword</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">claidib</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/klaðʲəvʲ/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">swords</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>In non-initial positions, the letter <i>m</i> usually becomes the nasal fricative <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">ṽ</a>/</span>, but in some cases it becomes a nasal stop, denoted as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/</span>. In cases in which it becomes a stop, <i>m</i> is often written double to avoid ambiguity. </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">Non-initial consonant <span class="nowrap">⟨m⟩</span> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Old Irish </th> <th>Pronunciation </th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">dám</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/daːṽ/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">company</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">lom</i></span> or <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">lomm</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/Lom/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">bare</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stops_following_other_consonants">Stops following other consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Stops following other consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ambiguity arises in the pronunciation of the stop consonants (<i>c, g, t, d, p, b</i>) when they follow <i>l, n,</i> or <i>r</i>: </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">Homographs involving <span class="nowrap">⟨l⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨n⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨r⟩</span> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Old Irish </th> <th>Pronunciation </th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">derc</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dʲerk/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">hole</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">derc</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dʲerɡ/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">red</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">daltae</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/daLte/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">fosterling</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">celtae</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʲeLde/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">who hide</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">anta</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aNta/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">of remaining</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">antae</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aNde/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">who remain</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>After <i>m</i>, the letter <i>b</i> is naturally a stop <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>/</span>. After <i>d, l, r</i>, the letter <i>b</i> is fricative <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>/</span>: </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">Consonant <span class="nowrap">⟨b⟩</span> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Old Irish </th> <th>Pronunciation </th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">imb</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/imʲbʲ/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">butter</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">odb</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oðv/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">knot</span></span> (in a tree) </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">delb</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dʲelv/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">image</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">marb</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/marv/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">dead</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>After <i>n</i> or <i>r</i>, the letter <i>d</i> is a stop <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>/</span>: </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">Consonant <span class="nowrap">⟨d⟩</span> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Old Irish </th> <th>Pronunciation </th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">bind</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bʲiNʲdʲ/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">melodious</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">cerd</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʲeRd/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">art, skill</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>After <i>n, l</i>, or <i>r</i>, the letter <i>g</i> is usually a stop <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/</span>, but it becomes a fricative <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>/</span> in a few words: </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">Consonant <span class="nowrap">⟨g⟩</span> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Old Irish </th> <th>Pronunciation </th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">long</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/Loŋɡ/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">ship</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">delg</i></span> or <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">delc</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dʲelɡ/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">thorn</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">argat</i></span> or <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">arggat</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/arɡəd/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">silver</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">ingen</i></span><sup id="cite_ref-ingen_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ingen-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>* 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/inʲɣʲən/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">daughter</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">ingen</i></span><sup id="cite_ref-ingen_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ingen-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>* 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iNʲɡʲən/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">nail, claw</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">bairgen</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/barʲɣʲən/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">loaf of bread</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_consonants_l,_n,_r"><span id="The_consonants_l.2C_n.2C_r"></span>The consonants <i>l, n, r</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The consonants l, n, r"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The letters <i>l, n, r</i> are generally written double when they indicate <i>tense sonorants</i> and single when they indicate <i>lax sonorants</i>. Originally, it reflected an actual difference between single and geminate consonants, as tense sonorants in many positions (such as between vowels or word-finally) developed from geminates. As the gemination was lost, the use of written double consonants was repurposed to indicate tense sonorants. Doubly written consonants of this sort do not occur in positions where tense sonorants developed from non-geminated Proto-Celtic sonorants (such as word-initially or before a consonant). </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Old Irish </th> <th>Pronunciation </th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">corr</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/koR/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">crane</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">cor</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kor/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">putting</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">coll</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/koL/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">hazel</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">col</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kol/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">sin</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">sonn</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/soN/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">stake</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">son</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/son/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">sound</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">ingen</i></span><sup id="cite_ref-ingen_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ingen-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>* 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/inʲɣʲən/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">daughter</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">ingen</i></span><sup id="cite_ref-ingen_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ingen-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>* 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iNʲɡʲən/</span> </td> <td><span title="English-language text"><span lang="en">nail, claw</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>Geminate consonants appear to have existed since the beginning of the Old Irish period, but they were simplified by the end, as is generally reflected by the spelling. Eventually, however, <i>ll, mm, nn, rr</i> were repurposed to indicate nonlenited variants of those sounds in certain positions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels_2">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Written vowels <i>a, ai, e, i</i> in poststressed syllables (except when absolutely word-final) all seem to represent phonemic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>/</span>. The particular vowel that appears is determined by the quality (broad vs. slender) of the surrounding consonants and has no relation to the etymological vowel quality: </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Preceding consonant</th> <th>Following consonant</th> <th>Spelling</th> <th>Example </th></tr> <tr> <td>broad</td> <td>broad</td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨a⟩</span></td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">díg<b>a</b>l</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈdʲiːɣəl/</span> "vengeance" (<a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nom.</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>broad</td> <td>slender (in open syllable)</td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨a⟩</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>broad</td> <td>slender (in closed syllable)</td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨ai⟩</span></td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">díg<b>ai</b>l</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈdʲiːɣəlʲ/</span> "vengeance" (<a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">acc.</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dat.</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>slender</td> <td>broad</td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨e⟩</span></td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">dlig<b>e</b>d</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈdʲlʲiɣʲəð/</span> "law" (<a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">acc.</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>slender</td> <td>slender</td> <td><span class="nowrap">⟨i⟩</span></td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">dlig<b>i</b>d</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈdʲlʲiɣʲəðʲ/</span> "law" (<a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">gen.</a>) </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>It seems likely that spelling variations reflected <a href="/wiki/Allophonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Allophonic">allophonic</a> variations in the pronunciation of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Old_Irish" title="Phonological history of Old Irish">Phonological history of Old Irish</a></div> <p>Old Irish underwent extensive phonological changes from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a> in both consonants and vowels.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Final syllables were lost or <a href="/wiki/Transphonologization" title="Transphonologization">transphonologized</a> as grammatical mutations on the following word. In addition, unstressed syllables faced various reductions and deletions of their vowels. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish_grammar" title="Old Irish grammar">Old Irish grammar</a></div> <p>Old Irish is a <a href="/wiki/Fusional_language" title="Fusional language">fusional</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nominative-accusative_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative-accusative language">nominative-accusative</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Verb-subject-object" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb-subject-object">VSO</a> language. </p><p>Nouns <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">decline</a> for 5 <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">cases</a>: <a href="/wiki/Nominative" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative">nominative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accusative" class="mw-redirect" title="Accusative">accusative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prepositional_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepositional case">prepositional</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vocative" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocative">vocative</a>; 3 <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">genders</a>: masculine, feminine, neuter; 3 <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">numbers</a>: <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number#Singular_versus_plural" title="Grammatical number">singular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural</a>. <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">Adjectives</a> <a href="/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">agree</a> with nouns in <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">gender</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Prepositional_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepositional case">prepositional case</a> is called the <a href="/wiki/Dative" class="mw-redirect" title="Dative">dative</a> by convention. </p><p>Verbs <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">conjugate</a> for 3 <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tenses</a>: <a href="/wiki/Past_tense" title="Past tense">past</a>, <a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">present</a>, <a href="/wiki/Future_tense" title="Future tense">future</a>; 3 <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspects</a>: <a href="/wiki/Uses_of_English_verb_forms#Simple" title="Uses of English verb forms">simple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" title="Imperfective aspect">imperfective</a>; 4 <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">moods</a>: <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood#Indicative" title="Grammatical mood">indicative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conditional_mood" title="Conditional mood">conditional</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a>; 2 <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical voice">voices</a>: <a href="/wiki/Active_voice" title="Active voice">active</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive</a>; <a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_verb_forms" title="Dependent and independent verb forms">independent</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_verb_forms" title="Dependent and independent verb forms">dependent</a> forms; and <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish_grammar#Independent_and_dependent_forms" title="Old Irish grammar">simple</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish_grammar#Independent_and_dependent_forms" title="Old Irish grammar">complex</a> forms. Verbs display <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical voice">voice</a>, and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Portmanteau" class="mw-redirect" title="Portmanteau">portmanteau</a> forms through <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixes</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Word_stem" title="Word stem">stem</a> vowel changes for the former four. <a href="/wiki/Clitic#Proclitic" title="Clitic">Proclitics</a> form a verbal complex with the core verb, and the verbal complex is often preceded by preverbal <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">particles</a> such as <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">ní</i></span> (negative marker), <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">in</i></span> (interrogative marker), <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">ro</i></span> (perfective marker). <a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)#Types" title="Object (grammar)">Direct object</a> <a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">personal pronouns</a> occur between the <a href="/wiki/Preverb" title="Preverb">preverb</a> and the verbal <a href="/wiki/Word_stem" title="Word stem">stem</a>. Verbs <a href="/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">agree</a> with their <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> in <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">person</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a>. A single verb can stand as an entire sentence. Emphatic particles such as -sa and -se are affixed to the end of the verb. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Preposition_and_postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition and postposition">Prepositions</a> <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflect</a> for <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a>, and different prepositions <a href="/wiki/Government_(linguistics)" title="Government (linguistics)">govern</a> different <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical cases">cases</a>, sometimes depending on the <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a> intended. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_literature" title="Early Irish literature">Early Irish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_the_Irish_Language" title="Dictionary of the Irish Language">Dictionary of the Irish Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auraicept_na_n-%C3%89ces" title="Auraicept na n-Éces">Auraicept na n-Éces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goidelic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Goidelic substrate hypothesis">Goidelic substrate hypothesis</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It is difficult to know for sure, given how little <a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a> is attested and the limitations of the <a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a> alphabet used to write it.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ingen-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ingen_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ingen_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ingen_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ingen_15-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><i>ingen</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/inʲɣʲən/</span> "daughter" < Ogam <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">inigena</span> < Proto-Celtic *eni-genā (cf. <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>indigenā</i> "(female) native", <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> <i>engónē</i> "granddaughter").</li> <li><i>ingen</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iNʲɡʲən/</span> "claw, nail" < Proto-Celtic *angʷīnā < PIE *h₃n̥gʷʰ- (cf. Latin <i>unguis</i>).</li></ul> </span></li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abdn.ac.uk/registry/courses/course/CE3063/2021">"CE3063: Introduction to Old Gaelic 1A - Catalogue of Courses"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CE3063%3A+Introduction+to+Old+Gaelic+1A+-+Catalogue+of+Courses&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abdn.ac.uk%2Fregistry%2Fcourses%2Fcourse%2FCE3063%2F2021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-koch-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-koch_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-koch_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2006" class="citation book cs1">Koch, John Thomas (2006). <i>Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia</i>. ABC-CLIO. p. 831. <q>The Old Irish of the period c. 600–c. 900 AD is as yet virtually devoid of dialect differences, and may be treated as the common ancestor of the Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx of the Middle Ages and modern period; Old Irish is thus sometimes called 'Old Gaelic' to avoid confusion.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+culture%3A+a+historical+encyclopedia&rft.pages=831&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÓ_Baoill1997" class="citation book cs1">Ó Baoill, Colm (1997). "13: The Scots-Gaelic Interface". <i>The Edinburgh History of the Scots Language</i>. Edinburgh University Press. p. 551. <q>The oldest form of the standard that we have is the language of the period c. AD 600–900, usually called 'Old Irish' – but this use of the word 'Irish' is a misapplication (popular among English-speakers in both Ireland and Scotland), for that period of the language would be more accurately called 'Old Gaelic'.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=13%3A+The+Scots-Gaelic+Interface&rft.btitle=The+Edinburgh+History+of+the+Scots+Language&rft.pages=551&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=%C3%93+Baoill&rft.aufirst=Colm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaskuła2006-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaskuła2006_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJaskuła2006">Jaskuła 2006</a>.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFJaskuła2006 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBo2008" class="citation web cs1">Bo (27 September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mvtabilitie.blogspot.com/2008/09/also-known-as-most-demanding.html">"THE CANTOS OF MVTABILITIE: The Old Irish Verbal System"</a>. <i>THE CANTOS OF MVTABILITIE</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181025190100/http://mvtabilitie.blogspot.com/2008/09/also-known-as-most-demanding.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=THE+CANTOS+OF+MVTABILITIE&rft.atitle=THE+CANTOS+OF+MVTABILITIE%3A+The+Old+Irish+Verbal+System&rft.date=2008-09-27&rft.au=Bo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmvtabilitie.blogspot.com%2F2008%2F09%2Falso-known-as-most-demanding.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThurneysen19464-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThurneysen19464_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThurneysen1946">Thurneysen 1946</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Greene1976" class="citation journal cs1">David Greene (1976). "The Diphthongs of Old Irish". <i>Ériu</i>. <b>27</b>: 26–45. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30007667">30007667</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%C3%89riu&rft.atitle=The+Diphthongs+of+Old+Irish&rft.volume=27&rft.pages=26-45&rft.date=1976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30007667%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=David+Greene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stifter, David (1998). "Old Irish ²fén 'bog'?" <i>Die Sprache</i> <b>40</b>(2), pp. 226-228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Qiu, Fangzhe (2019). "Old Irish aue 'descendant' and its descendants". <i>Indogermanische Forschungen</i> <b>124</b>(1), pp. 343–374</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKortlandt20078-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKortlandt20078_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKortlandt2007">Kortlandt 2007</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThurneysen194679-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThurneysen194679_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThurneysen1946">Thurneysen 1946</a>, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThurneysen194632-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThurneysen194632_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThurneysen1946">Thurneysen 1946</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dking-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dking_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dking_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dking_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dking_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dennis King. "Old-Irish Spelling and Pronunciation." <i>Sabhal Mòr Ostaig</i>, 11 Dec 1998, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/sengoidelc/donncha/labhairt.html">http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/sengoidelc/donncha/labhairt.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190730132104/http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/sengoidelc/donncha/labhairt.html">Archived</a> 30 July 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRanko_Matasović2007" class="citation book cs1">Ranko Matasović (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VgBtaDT-evYC&dq=proto-insular-celtic&pg=PA97">"Insular Celtic as a Language Area"</a>. In Tristram, Hildegard L.C. (ed.). <i>The Celtic Languages in Contact Papers from the Workshop Within the Framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies, Bonn, 26-27 July 2007</i>. Bonn: Potsdam University Press. p. 108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783940793072" title="Special:BookSources/9783940793072"><bdi>9783940793072</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Insular+Celtic+as+a+Language+Area&rft.btitle=The+Celtic+Languages+in+Contact+Papers+from+the+Workshop+Within+the+Framework+of+the+XIII+International+Congress+of+Celtic+Studies%2C+Bonn%2C+26-27+July+2007&rft.place=Bonn&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=Potsdam+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9783940793072&rft.au=Ranko+Matasovi%C4%87&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVgBtaDT-evYC%26dq%3Dproto-insular-celtic%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeekes1995" class="citation book cs1">Beekes, Robert (1995). <i>Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Indo-European+Linguistics%3A+An+Introduction&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Beekes&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFortson2004" class="citation book cs1">Fortson, Benjamin W. IV (2004). <i>Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+Language+and+Culture%3A+An+Introduction&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Fortson&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+W.+IV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1995" class="citation book cs1">Green, Antony (1995). <i>Old Irish Verbs and Vocabulary</i>. Somerville, Massachusetts: Cascadilla Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57473-003-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-57473-003-7"><bdi>1-57473-003-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Irish+Verbs+and+Vocabulary&rft.place=Somerville%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Cascadilla+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=1-57473-003-7&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Antony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKortlandt2007" class="citation book cs1">Kortlandt, Frederik Herman Henri (2007). <i>Italo-Celtic Origins and the Prehistory of the Irish Language</i>. Leiden Studies in Indo-European. Vol. 14. Rodopi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-420-2177-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-420-2177-8"><bdi>978-90-420-2177-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Italo-Celtic+Origins+and+the+Prehistory+of+the+Irish+Language&rft.series=Leiden+Studies+in+Indo-European&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-420-2177-8&rft.aulast=Kortlandt&rft.aufirst=Frederik+Herman+Henri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehmannW._P._Lehmann1975" class="citation book cs1">Lehmann, R. P. M.; <a href="/wiki/Winfred_P._Lehmann" title="Winfred P. Lehmann">W. P. Lehmann</a> (1975). <i>An Introduction to Old Irish</i>. New York: Modern Language Association of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87352-289-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-87352-289-3"><bdi>0-87352-289-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Old+Irish&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Modern+Language+Association+of+America&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-87352-289-3&rft.aulast=Lehmann&rft.aufirst=R.+P.+M.&rft.au=W.+P.+Lehmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatasović2011" class="citation book cs1">Matasović, Ranko (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://exadmin.matita.net/uploads/pagine/644703631_handouts_pavia_matasovic.pdf"><i>Problems in the Reconstruction of Proto-Celtic</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Pavia Summer School in Indo-European Linguistics.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Problems+in+the+Reconstruction+of+Proto-Celtic&rft.pub=Pavia+Summer+School+in+Indo-European+Linguistics.&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Matasovi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Ranko&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fexadmin.matita.net%2Fuploads%2Fpagine%2F644703631_handouts_pavia_matasovic.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged March 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCone1987" class="citation book cs1">McCone, Kim (1987). <i>The Early Irish Verb</i>. Maynooth: An Sagart. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-870684-00-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-870684-00-1"><bdi>1-870684-00-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Irish+Verb&rft.place=Maynooth&rft.pub=An+Sagart&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=1-870684-00-1&rft.aulast=McCone&rft.aufirst=Kim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCone2005" class="citation book cs1">McCone, Kim (2005). <i>A First Old Irish Grammar and Reader</i>. Maynooth: Department of Old and Middle Irish, National University of Ireland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-901519-36-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-901519-36-7"><bdi>0-901519-36-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+First+Old+Irish+Grammar+and+Reader&rft.place=Maynooth&rft.pub=Department+of+Old+and+Middle+Irish%2C+National+University+of+Ireland&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-901519-36-7&rft.aulast=McCone&rft.aufirst=Kim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connell1912" class="citation book cs1">O'Connell, Frederick William (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grammaroldirish00oconuoft"><i>A Grammar of Old Irish</i></a>. Belfast: Mayne, Boyd & Son.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+Old+Irish&rft.place=Belfast&rft.pub=Mayne%2C+Boyd+%26+Son&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=O%27Connell&rft.aufirst=Frederick+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgrammaroldirish00oconuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuin1975" class="citation book cs1">Quin, E. G. (1975). <i>Old-Irish Workbook</i>. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-901714-08-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-901714-08-9"><bdi>0-901714-08-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old-Irish+Workbook&rft.place=Dublin&rft.pub=Royal+Irish+Academy&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-901714-08-9&rft.aulast=Quin&rft.aufirst=E.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRinge2006" class="citation book cs1">Ringe, Don (2006). <i>From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Proto-Indo-European+to+Proto-Germanic&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Ringe&rft.aufirst=Don&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSihler1995" class="citation book cs1">Sihler, Andrew (1995). <i>New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Comparative+Grammar+of+Greek+and+Latin&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Sihler&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStifter2006" class="citation book cs1">Stifter, David (2006). <i>Sengoídelc: Old Irish for Beginners</i>. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8156-3072-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8156-3072-7"><bdi>0-8156-3072-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sengo%C3%ADdelc%3A+Old+Irish+for+Beginners&rft.place=Syracuse%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-8156-3072-7&rft.aulast=Stifter&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrachan1949" class="citation book cs1">Strachan, John (1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oldirishparadigm00strauoft"><i>Old-Irish Paradigms and Selections from the Old-Irish Glosses</i></a>. Revised by <a href="/wiki/Osborn_Bergin" title="Osborn Bergin">Osborn Bergin</a> (Fourth ed.). Dublin: Royal Irish Academy. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-901714-35-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-901714-35-6"><bdi>0-901714-35-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old-Irish+Paradigms+and+Selections+from+the+Old-Irish+Glosses&rft.place=Dublin&rft.edition=Fourth&rft.pub=Royal+Irish+Academy&rft.date=1949&rft.isbn=0-901714-35-6&rft.aulast=Strachan&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foldirishparadigm00strauoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurneysen1946" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Thurneysen" title="Rudolf Thurneysen">Thurneysen, Rudolf</a> (1946). <i>A Grammar of Old Irish</i>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/D._A._Binchy" title="D. A. Binchy">D. A. Binchy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Osborn_Bergin" title="Osborn Bergin">Osborn Bergin</a>. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85500-161-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-85500-161-6"><bdi>1-85500-161-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+Old+Irish&rft.place=Dublin&rft.pub=Dublin+Institute+for+Advanced+Studies&rft.date=1946&rft.isbn=1-85500-161-6&rft.aulast=Thurneysen&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiggesFeargal_Ó_Béarra2006" class="citation book cs1">Tigges, Wim; Feargal Ó Béarra (2006). <i>An Old Irish Primer</i>. Nijmegen: Stichting Uitgeverij de Keltische Draak. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-806863-5-2" title="Special:BookSources/90-806863-5-2"><bdi>90-806863-5-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Old+Irish+Primer&rft.place=Nijmegen&rft.pub=Stichting+Uitgeverij+de+Keltische+Draak&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=90-806863-5-2&rft.aulast=Tigges&rft.aufirst=Wim&rft.au=Feargal+%C3%93+B%C3%A9arra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Irish" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">For a list of words relating to Old Irish, see the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Old_Irish_language" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:Old Irish language"><i><b>Old Irish language</b></i> category of words</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a>, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ceantar.org/Dicts/MB2/index.html">An Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language</a> MacBain, Alexander Gairm Publications, 1982</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/sengoidelc/duil-belrai/english.html">Old Irish dictionary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160430011241/http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/sengoidelc/duil-belrai/english.html">Archived</a> 30 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/iriol">Old Irish Online</a> by Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc">Linguistics Research Center</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin" title="University of Texas at Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dil.ie/">eDIL</a> (digital edition of the <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_the_Irish_Language" title="Dictionary of the Irish Language">Dictionary of the Irish Language</a></i>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spw.uni-goettingen.de/projects/aig/lng-sga.html">glottothèque - Ancient Indo-European Grammars online</a>, an online collection of introductory videos to Ancient Indo-European languages produced by the University of Göttingen</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Irish_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Irish_language" title="Template:Irish language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Irish_language" title="Template talk:Irish language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Irish_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Irish language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Irish_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Irish_language" title="History of the Irish language">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Celtic">Proto-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Insular Celtic">Insular Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Goidelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Goidelic">Proto-Goidelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Irish" title="Middle Irish">Middle Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Irish" title="Early Modern Irish">Early Modern Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Irish" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Irish">Modern Irish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sociolinguistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish-speaking_people" title="List of Irish-speaking people">List of <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">Gaeilgeoirí</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connacht_Irish" title="Connacht Irish">Connacht Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munster_Irish" title="Munster Irish">Munster Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_Irish" class="mw-redirect" title="Newfoundland Irish">Newfoundland Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leinster_Irish" class="mw-redirect" title="Leinster Irish">Leinster Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulster_Irish" title="Ulster Irish">Ulster Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_of_the_Irish_language" title="Status of the Irish language">Status</a> (<a href="/wiki/Irish_language_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Irish language in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language_outside_Ireland" title="Irish language outside Ireland">Outside Ireland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Irish_language_in_Newfoundland" title="Irish language in Newfoundland">in Newfoundland</a>)</li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/English_loanwords_in_Irish" title="English loanwords in Irish">Béarlachas</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A1inne" title="Fáinne">Fáinne</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Irish_grammar" title="Irish grammar">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/An_Caighde%C3%A1n_Oifigi%C3%BAil" title="An Caighdeán Oifigiúil">An Caighdeán Oifigiúil</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_initial_mutations" title="Irish initial mutations">Initial mutations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_declension" title="Irish declension">Declension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_conjugation" title="Irish conjugation">Conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_verb_forms" title="Dependent and independent verb forms">Dependent and independent forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_phonology" title="Irish phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_syntax" title="Irish syntax">Syntax</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_orthography" title="Irish orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_type" title="Gaelic type">Gaelic type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Braille" title="Irish Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_literature" title="Early Irish literature">Early literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_literature_in_Irish" title="Modern literature in Irish">Modern literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_lexicography" title="Irish lexicography">Lexicography</a></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/An_Caighde%C3%A1n_Oifigi%C3%BAil" title="An Caighdeán Oifigiúil">An Caighdeán Oifigiúil</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_language_media" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Irish language media">Media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/Comhar" title="Comhar">Comhar</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/Feasta" title="Feasta">Feasta</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/An_tUltach" title="An tUltach">An tUltach</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/Tuairisc.ie" title="Tuairisc.ie">Tuairisc.ie</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/N%C3%B3s" title="Nós">Nós</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/An_Gael" title="An Gael">An Gael</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/Irish_Independent" title="Irish Independent">Seachtain</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Television</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/TG4" title="TG4">TG4</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/C%C3%BAla_4" class="mw-redirect" title="Cúla 4">Cúla 4</a></span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RT%C3%89_One" title="RTÉ One">RTÉ One</a> <small>(<span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/Nuacht_RT%C3%89" title="Nuacht RTÉ">Nuacht RTÉ</a></i></span>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BBC_Two_Northern_Ireland" title="BBC Two Northern Ireland">BBC Two NI</a> <small>(sporadic)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NVTV" title="NVTV">NVTV</a> <small>(sporadic)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radio</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style: normal;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/RT%C3%89_Raidi%C3%B3_na_Gaeltachta" title="RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta">RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Raidi%C3%B3_R%C3%AD-R%C3%A1" title="Raidió Rí-Rá">Raidió Rí-Rá</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Raidi%C3%B3_Na_Life" title="Raidió Na Life">Raidió Na Life</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Raidi%C3%B3_F%C3%A1ilte" title="Raidió Fáilte">Raidió Fáilte</a></span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BBC_Radio_Ulster" title="BBC Radio Ulster">BBC Radio Ulster</a> <small>(<span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/Blas_(Radio_Ulster)" title="Blas (Radio Ulster)">Blas</a></i></span>)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publishers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style: normal;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tuairisc.ie" title="Tuairisc.ie">Tuairisc.ie</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/An_G%C3%BAm" title="An Gúm">An Gúm</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Cl%C3%B3_Iar-Chonnacht" title="Cló Iar-Chonnacht">Cló Iar-Chonnacht</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Coisc%C3%A9im" title="Coiscéim">Coiscéim</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gael_Linn" title="Gael Linn">Gael Linn</a></span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Texts_Society" title="Irish Texts Society">Irish Texts Society</a></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1irs%C3%A9al_agus_Dill" title="Sáirséal agus Dill">Sáirséal agus Dill</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gl%C3%B3r_na_nGael" title="Glór na nGael">Glór na nGael</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Qualifications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaving_Certificate_(Ireland)" title="Leaving Certificate (Ireland)">Leaving Cert Irish</a></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/Teastas_Eorpach_na_Gaeilge" title="Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge">Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Names</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_name" title="Irish name">Personal and family names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish-language_given_names" title="List of Irish-language given names">List of personal names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Irish_language" title="Category:Irish language">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Scottish_Gaelic" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Scottish_Gaelic_language" title="Template:Scottish Gaelic language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Scottish_Gaelic_language" title="Template talk:Scottish Gaelic language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Scottish_Gaelic_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Scottish Gaelic language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Scottish_Gaelic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scottish_Gaelic" title="History of Scottish Gaelic">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Celtic_languages" title="Insular Celtic languages">Insular Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Goidelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Irish" title="Middle Irish">Middle Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelicisation" title="Gaelicisation">Gaelicisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Irish" title="Early Modern Irish">Early Modern Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_Renaissance" title="Scottish Gaelic Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <small>(present)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dialects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Minch_Gaelic" title="Mid-Minch Gaelic">Mid-Minch Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebridean_Gaelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebridean Gaelic">Hebridean Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argyll_Gaelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Argyll Gaelic">Argyll Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Sutherland_Gaelic" title="East Sutherland Gaelic">East Sutherland Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galwegian_Gaelic" title="Galwegian Gaelic">Galwegian Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Gaelic" title="Canadian Gaelic">Canadian Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_phonology_and_orthography" title="Scottish Gaelic phonology and orthography">Dialect phonology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar" title="Scottish Gaelic grammar">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Gaelic alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_verb_forms" title="Dependent and independent verb forms">Dependent and independent verb forms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_orthography" title="Scottish Gaelic orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_literature" title="Scottish Gaelic literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Scottish_Gaelic" title="Bible translations into Scottish Gaelic">Bible translations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_dictionaries" title="Scottish Gaelic dictionaries">Dictionaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official <br />support</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gaelic_development&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gaelic development (page does not exist)">Gaelic development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd"><a href="/wiki/An_Comunn_G%C3%A0idhealach" title="An Comunn Gàidhealach">An Comunn Gàidhealach</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B2rd_na_G%C3%A0idhlig" title="Bòrd na Gàidhlig">Bòrd na Gàidhlig</a></li> <li><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd"><a href="/wiki/Cl%C3%AC_G%C3%A0idhlig" title="Clì Gàidhlig">Clì Gàidhlig</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gaelic_College" title="The Gaelic College">The Gaelic College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabhal_M%C3%B2r_Ostaig" title="Sabhal Mòr Ostaig">Sabhal Mòr Ostaig</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_(Scotland)_Act_1872" title="Education (Scotland) Act 1872">Education (Scotland) Act 1872</a> <small>(past)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Language_(Scotland)_Act_2005" title="Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005">Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_broadcasting_in_Scotland" title="Gaelic broadcasting in Scotland">Media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Newspapers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A0na" title="Dàna">Dàna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stornoway_Gazette" title="Stornoway Gazette">Stornoway Gazette</a> <small>(sporadic)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Highland_Free_Press" title="West Highland Free Press">West Highland Free Press</a> <small>(sporadic)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Broadcasting</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BBC_Alba" title="BBC Alba">BBC Alba</a> <small>(<span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd"><a href="/wiki/BBC_G%C3%A0idhlig" title="BBC Gàidhlig">BBC Gàidhlig</a></i></span>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BBC_Radio_nan_G%C3%A0idheal" title="BBC Radio nan Gàidheal">BBC Radio <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">nan Gàidheal</i></span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publishers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acair_(publisher)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acair (publisher) (page does not exist)">Acair</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Akerbeltz_(publisher)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Akerbeltz (publisher) (page does not exist)">Akerbeltz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birlinn_(publisher)" title="Birlinn (publisher)">Birlinn</a></li> <li><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd"><a href="/wiki/CL%C3%80R" title="CLÀR">CLÀR</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd"><a href="/wiki/%C3%99r-sgeul" title="Ùr-sgeul">Ùr-sgeul</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_medium_education_in_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaelic medium education in Scotland">Gaelic-medium education</a></li> <li><i><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A0idhealtachd" title="Gàidhealtachd">Gàidhealtachd</a></i></span></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_name" title="Scottish Gaelic name">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_music" title="Gaelic music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_National_M%C3%B2d" title="Royal National Mòd">The <i><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">Mòd</i></span></i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_road_signs_in_Scotland" title="Gaelic road signs in Scotland">Road signs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Scottish_Gaelic_language" title="Category:Scottish Gaelic language">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Manx_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Manx_language" title="Template:Manx language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Manx_language" title="Template talk:Manx language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Manx_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Manx language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Manx_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Manx_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Manx language">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Celtic">Proto-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Insular Celtic">Insular Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Goidelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Goidelic">Proto-Goidelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Irish" title="Middle Irish">Middle Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Irish" title="Early Modern Irish">Early Modern Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Grammar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manx_grammar" title="Manx grammar">Manx grammar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35308#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85068102">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="stará irština"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph998489&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000085310&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007560419205171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&oldid=1259240791">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&oldid=1259240791</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Old_Irish" title="Category:Old Irish">Old Irish</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_attested_from_the_8th_century" title="Category:Languages attested from the 8th century">Languages attested from the 8th century</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Medieval_history_of_Ireland" title="Category:Medieval history of Ireland">Medieval history of Ireland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Medieval_languages" title="Category:Medieval languages">Medieval languages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Culture_of_medieval_Scotland" title="Category:Culture of medieval Scotland">Culture of medieval Scotland</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_plain_IPA" title="Category:Pages with plain IPA">Pages with plain IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_no-target_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn no-target errors">Harv and Sfn no-target errors</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_Hiberno-English_from_August_2023" title="Category:Use Hiberno-English from August 2023">Use Hiberno-English from August 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_Hiberno-English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in Hiberno-English">All Wikipedia articles written in Hiberno-English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_October_2013" title="Category:Use dmy dates from October 2013">Use dmy dates from October 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Old_Irish_(to_900)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Old Irish (to 900)-language text">Articles containing Old Irish (to 900)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_Old_Irish_IPA" title="Category:Pages with Old Irish IPA">Pages with Old Irish IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Language_articles_with_Linguasphere_code" title="Category:Language articles with Linguasphere code">Language articles with Linguasphere code</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_with_ISO_639-2_code" title="Category:Languages with ISO 639-2 code">Languages with ISO 639-2 code</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Language_articles_with_unreferenced_extinction_date" title="Category:Language articles with unreferenced extinction date">Language articles with unreferenced extinction date</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Irish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Irish-language text">Articles containing Irish-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Scottish_Gaelic-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Scottish Gaelic-language text">Articles containing Scottish Gaelic-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Manx-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Manx-language text">Articles containing Manx-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_incomplete_citations" title="Category:All articles with incomplete citations">All articles with incomplete citations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_incomplete_citations_from_July_2024" title="Category:Articles with incomplete citations from July 2024">Articles with incomplete citations from July 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_accuracy_disputes" title="Category:All accuracy disputes">All accuracy disputes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Accuracy_disputes_from_July_2024" title="Category:Accuracy disputes from July 2024">Accuracy disputes from July 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Middle_Irish_(900-1200)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Middle Irish (900-1200)-language text">Articles containing Middle Irish (900-1200)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_explicitly_cited_English-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text">Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_March_2018" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from March 2018">Articles with dead external links from March 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 24 November 2024, at 03:41<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Irish&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-694cf4987f-lrw9j","wgBackendResponseTime":161,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.616","walltime":"1.903","ppvisitednodes":{"value":11478,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":283995,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":10098,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":15,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":9,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":99228,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1668.433 1 -total"," 20.28% 338.279 1 Template:Infobox_language"," 19.40% 323.700 162 Template:Lang"," 18.32% 305.713 1 Template:Infobox"," 13.57% 226.453 198 Template:IPA"," 12.47% 208.055 6 Template:Navbox"," 10.74% 179.216 2 Template:Reflist"," 8.36% 139.398 1 Template:Irish_linguistics"," 7.88% 131.399 19 Template:Cite_book"," 5.48% 91.492 2 Template:Cite_web"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.009","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":18876843,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFBeekes1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBo2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_Greene1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFortson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoch2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKortlandt2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLehmannW._P._Lehmann1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatasović2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCone1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCone2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Connell1912\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuin1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRanko_Matasović2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRinge2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSihler1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStifter2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrachan1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThurneysen1946\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTiggesFeargal_Ó_Béarra2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÓ_Baoill1997\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Angbr\"] = 49,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 19,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 2,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA\"] = 197,\n [\"IPA-sga\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAblink\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAslink\"] = 64,\n [\"Infobox language\"] = 1,\n [\"Irish linguistics\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 127,\n [\"Langx\"] = 4,\n [\"Main\"] = 2,\n [\"Manx linguistics\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Scottish Gaelic linguistics\"] = 1,\n [\"Self-published source\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 5,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sm\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 12,\n [\"Smalldiv\"] = 1,\n [\"Use Hiberno-English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Vr\"] = 27,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n [\"Wiktionarycat\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","260","24.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","180","17.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","120","11.3"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","100","9.4"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","80","7.5"],["\u003Cmw.title.lua:50\u003E","60","5.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::interwikiMap","40","3.8"],["(for generator)","40","3.8"],["init \u003CModule:Arguments\u003E","40","3.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","20","1.9"],["[others]","120","11.3"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b7f745dd4-l42nl","timestamp":"20241125144237","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Old Irish","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Old_Irish","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q35308","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q35308","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2005-02-02T19:26:42Z","dateModified":"2024-11-24T03:41:38Z","headline":"oldest widely attested Goidelic Celtic language (c. 600 \u2013 c. 900); extinct language with ISO 639-3 code sga"}</script> </body> </html>