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id="toc-Opening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Opening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sonorization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sonorization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Sonorization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sonorization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vocalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Vocalization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vocalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mixed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mixed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Mixed</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mixed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Diachronic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diachronic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Diachronic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diachronic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Synchronic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Synchronic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Synchronic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Synchronic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Allophonic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allophonic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Allophonic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allophonic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammatical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammatical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Grammatical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammatical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spirantization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spirantization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2.1</span> <span>Spirantization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spirantization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_of_secondary_articulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_secondary_articulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2.2</span> <span>Loss of secondary articulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_secondary_articulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debuccalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debuccalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2.3</span> <span>Debuccalization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debuccalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2.4</span> <span>Elision</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduction_of_place_markedness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduction_of_place_markedness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2.5</span> <span>Reduction of place markedness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduction_of_place_markedness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blocked_lenition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blocked_lenition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Blocked lenition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blocked_lenition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Orthography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonant_gradation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonant_gradation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Consonant gradation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonant_gradation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fortition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fortition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Fortition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fortition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>General references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%87%D9%8A%D9%84_(%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9)" title="تسهيل (لغة) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تسهيل (لغة)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenici%C3%B3n" title="Lenición – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Lenición" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blotadur_(yezhoniezh)" title="Blotadur (yezhoniezh) – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Blotadur (yezhoniezh)" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenici%C3%B3" title="Lenició – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Lenició" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenisierung" title="Lenisierung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Lenisierung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenici%C3%B3n" title="Lenición – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenición" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B1%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="نرم‌شدگی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نرم‌شدگی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9nition" title="Lénition – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Lénition" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9imhi%C3%BA" title="Séimhiú – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Séimhiú" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boggaghys" title="Boggaghys – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Boggaghys" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A8imheachadh" title="Sèimheachadh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Sèimheachadh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenici%C3%B3n" title="Lenición – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lenición" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenisi" title="Lenisi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Lenisi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenizione" title="Lenizione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lenizione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%97%D7%9C%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D" title="היחלשות עיצורים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היחלשות עיצורים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Лениция – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Лениция" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenitio" title="Lenitio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lenitio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenicija" title="Lenicija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Lenicija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenitie" title="Lenitie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Lenitie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Len%C3%ADci%C3%B3" title="Leníció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Leníció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenitie" title="Lenitie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Lenitie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%90%E9%9F%B3%E5%BC%B1%E5%8C%96" title="子音弱化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="子音弱化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenisering" title="Lenisering – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Lenisering" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenicja" title="Lenicja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Lenicja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leni%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Lenição – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Lenição" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Лениция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лениция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenitzione" title="Lenitzione – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Lenitzione" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Леніція – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Леніція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BC%94%E9%9F%B3%E5%BC%B1%E5%8C%96" title="輔音弱化 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="輔音弱化" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q935716#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a 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(linguistics)">alternation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Metathesis_(linguistics)" title="Metathesis (linguistics)">Metathesis</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_metathesis" title="Quantitative metathesis">Quantitative metathesis</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lenition</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_gradation" title="Consonant gradation">Consonant gradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_voicing_and_devoicing" title="Consonant voicing and devoicing">Consonant voicing and devoicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assibilation" title="Assibilation">Assibilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirantization" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirantization">Spirantization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization">L-vocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debuccalization" title="Debuccalization">Debuccalization</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <a href="/wiki/Fortition" title="Fortition">Fortition</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">Epenthesis</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prothesis_(linguistics)" title="Prothesis (linguistics)">Prothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paragoge" title="Paragoge">Paragoge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unpacking_(linguistics)" title="Unpacking (linguistics)">Unpacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_breaking" title="Vowel breaking">Vowel breaking</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">Elision</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apheresis_(linguistics)" title="Apheresis (linguistics)">Apheresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncope_(phonology)" title="Syncope (phonology)">Syncope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocope" title="Apocope">Apocope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplology" title="Haplology">Haplology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_reduction" title="Cluster reduction">Cluster reduction</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Transphonologization" title="Transphonologization">Transphonologization</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">Compensatory lengthening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">Nasalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)#Origin" title="Tone (linguistics)">Tonogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_tone" title="Floating tone">Floating tone</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(phonology)" title="Assimilation (phonology)">Assimilation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_(phonetics)" title="Fusion (phonetics)">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coarticulation" title="Coarticulation">Coarticulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">Palatalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">Velarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">Labialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Final-obstruent_devoicing" title="Final-obstruent devoicing">Final devoicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphony" title="Metaphony">Metaphony</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vowel_harmony" title="Vowel harmony">vowel harmony</a>, <a href="/wiki/I-mutation" title="I-mutation">umlaut</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_harmony" title="Consonant harmony">Consonant harmony</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dissimilation" title="Dissimilation">Dissimilation</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sandhi" title="Sandhi">Sandhi</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liaison_(French)" title="Liaison (French)">Liaison</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linking_and_intrusive_R" title="Linking and intrusive R">linking R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_mutation" title="Consonant mutation">Consonant mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">Tone sandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_hiatus" title="Vowel hiatus">Vowel hiatus</a></li></ul> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center; padding-right: 1em;"><a href="/wiki/Synalepha" title="Synalepha">Synalepha</a></div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">Elision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crasis" title="Crasis">Crasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synaeresis" title="Synaeresis">Synaeresis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diaeresis_(prosody)" title="Diaeresis (prosody)">diaeresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synizesis" title="Synizesis">Synizesis</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Other types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apophony" title="Apophony">Apophony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affrication" class="mw-redirect" title="Affrication">Affrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">Gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clipping_(phonetics)" title="Clipping (phonetics)">Clipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fronting_(sound_change)" title="Fronting (sound change)">Fronting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raising_(sound_change)" title="Raising (sound change)">Raising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betacism" title="Betacism">Betacism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iotacism" title="Iotacism">Iotacism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_(phonetics)" title="Fusion (phonetics)">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_change#Merger" title="Phonological change">Merger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">Compensatory lengthening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monophthongization" title="Monophthongization">Monophthongization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhotacism" title="Rhotacism">Rhotacism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhinoglottophilia" title="Rhinoglottophilia">Rhinoglottophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulcalization" title="Sulcalization">Sulcalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shm-reduplication" title="Shm-reduplication">Shm-reduplication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_mutation" title="Consonant mutation">Consonant mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_shift" title="Vowel shift">Vowel shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chain_shift" title="Chain shift">Chain shift</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; padding-top: 1px;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sound_change" title="Template:Sound change"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sound_change" title="Template talk:Sound change"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sound_change" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sound change"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <b><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA)</b>. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> </span>⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <b>lenition</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">sound change</a> that alters <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a>, making them “weaker” in some way. The word <i>lenition</i> itself means "softening" or "weakening" (from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">lēnis</i></span> 'weak'). Lenition can happen both <a href="/wiki/Synchronic_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchronic analysis">synchronically</a> (within a language at a particular point in time) and <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">diachronically</a> (as a <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">language changes over time</a>). Lenition can involve such changes as <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voicing</a> a voiceless consonant, causing a consonant to relax <a href="/wiki/Occlusive" title="Occlusive">occlusion</a>, to lose its <a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">place of articulation</a> (a phenomenon called <i><a href="/wiki/Debuccalization" title="Debuccalization">debuccalization</a></i>, which turns a consonant into a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">glottal consonant</a> like <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</span>), or even causing a consonant to disappear entirely. </p><p>An example of synchronic lenition is found in most varieties of <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a>, in the form of <a href="/wiki/Flapping" title="Flapping">tapping</a>: the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/</span> of a word like <i>wait</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[weɪt]</span> is pronounced as the more sonorous <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>]</span> in the related form <i>waiting</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈweɪɾɪŋ]</span>. Some varieties of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> show <a href="/wiki/Debuccalization" title="Debuccalization">debuccalization</a> of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>]</span> at the end of a <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllable</a>, so that a word like <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">estamos</i></span> "we are" is pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ehˈtamoh]</span>. An example of diachronic lenition can be found in the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, where the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/</span> of Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">patrem</i></span> ("father", <a href="/wiki/Accusative" class="mw-redirect" title="Accusative">accusative</a>) has become <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>/</span> in <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> and Spanish <span title="multiple-language text"><i lang="mul">padre</i></span> (the latter weakened synchronically <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>/</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental approximant">ð̞</a>]</span>), while in Catalan <span title="Catalan-language text"><i lang="ca">pare</i></span>, French <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">père</i></span> and Portuguese <span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt">pai</i></span> historical <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/</span> has disappeared completely. </p><p>In some languages, lenition has been grammaticalized into a <a href="/wiki/Consonant_mutation" title="Consonant mutation">consonant mutation</a>, which means it is no longer triggered by its <a href="/wiki/Phonological" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological">phonological</a> environment but is now governed by its <a href="/wiki/Syntactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntactic">syntactic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> environment. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>, the word <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">cath</i></span> "cat" begins with the sound <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</span>, but after the <a href="/wiki/Definite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite article">definite article</a> <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">y</i></span>, the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</span> changes to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span>: "the cat" in Welsh is <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">y gath</i></span>. This was historically due to intervocalic lenition, but in the plural, lenition does not happen, so "the cats" is <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">y cathod</i></span>, not *<span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">y gathod</i></span>. The change of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span> in <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">y gath</i></span> is thus caused by the syntax of the phrase, not by the modern phonological position of the consonant <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</span>. </p><p>The opposite of lenition, <a href="/wiki/Fortition" title="Fortition">fortition</a>, a sound change that makes a consonant "stronger", is less common, but Breton and Cornish have "hard mutation" forms which represent fortition. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lenition involves changes in <a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">manner of articulation</a>, sometimes accompanied by small changes in <a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">place of articulation</a>. There are two main lenition pathways: opening and sonorization. In both cases, a stronger sound becomes a weaker one. Lenition can be seen as a movement on the <a href="/wiki/Sonority_hierarchy" title="Sonority hierarchy">sonority hierarchy</a> from less sonorous to more sonorous, or on a strength hierarchy from stronger to weaker. </p><p>In examples below, a <a href="/wiki/Greater-than_sign" title="Greater-than sign">greater-than sign</a> indicates that one sound changes to another. The notation <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ts]</span> means that <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> changes to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ts]</span>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">sound change of palatalization</a> sometimes involves lenition. </p><p>Lenition includes the loss of a feature, such as <a href="/wiki/Glottalic_consonant" title="Glottalic consonant">deglottalization</a>, in which <a href="/wiki/Glottalization" title="Glottalization">glottalization</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">ejective articulation</a> is lost: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʼ]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kˀ]</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span>. </p><p>The tables below show common sound changes involved in lenition. In some cases, lenition may skip one of the sound changes. The change voiceless stop > fricative is more common than the series of changes voiceless stop > affricate > fricative. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opening">Opening</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Opening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the opening type of lenition, the articulation becomes more open with each step. Opening lenition involves several sound changes: shortening of double consonants, <a href="/wiki/Affrication" class="mw-redirect" title="Affrication">affrication</a> of stops, <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Spirantization">spirantization</a> or <a href="/wiki/Assibilation" title="Assibilation">assibilation</a> of stops or affricates, <a href="/wiki/Debuccalization" title="Debuccalization">debuccalization</a>, and finally <a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">elision</a>. </p> <ul><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tt]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tː]</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> (shortening, example in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>)</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ts]</span> (affrication, for example <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">terra</i> to <a href="/wiki/Aromanian_language" title="Aromanian language">Aromanian</a>: <i lang="rup">tsarã</i>)</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ts]</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span> (spirantization, example in <a href="/wiki/Gilbertese_language" title="Gilbertese language">Gilbertese language</a>)</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̚]</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔ]</span>; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span> (debuccalization, example in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> or <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>)</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ts]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span> > ∅ (elision)</li></ul> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>geminated stop</th> <th>→</th> <th>stop</th> <th>→</th> <th>affricate</th> <th>→</th> <th>fricative</th> <th>→</th> <th>placeless approximant</th> <th>→</th> <th>no sound </th></tr> <tr> <td>original sound</td> <td>→</td> <td>degemination</td> <td>→</td> <td>affrication</td> <td>→</td> <td>spirantization<br /> (deaffrication)</td> <td>→</td> <td>debuccalization</td> <td>→</td> <td>elision </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pp]<span class="wrap"> </span>or<span class="wrap"> </span>[ppʰ]</span></td> <td rowspan="2">→</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[p]<span class="wrap"> </span>or<span class="wrap"> </span>[pʰ]</span></td> <td>→</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɸ]</span></td> <td>→</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɸ]</span></td> <td>→</td> <td rowspan="5"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span></td> <td rowspan="5">→</td> <td rowspan="5">(zero) </td></tr> <tr> <td>→</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pf]</span></td> <td>→</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[f]</span></td> <td>→ </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tt]<span class="wrap"> </span>or<span class="wrap"> </span>[ttʰ]</span></td> <td rowspan="2">→</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]<span class="wrap"> </span>or<span class="wrap"> </span>[tʰ]</span></td> <td>→</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tθ]</span></td> <td>→</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[θ]</span></td> <td>→ </td></tr> <tr> <td>→</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ts]</span></td> <td>→</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span></td> <td>→ </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kk]<span class="wrap"> </span>or<span class="wrap"> </span>[kkʰ]</span></td> <td>→</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]<span class="wrap"> </span>or<span class="wrap"> </span>[kʰ]</span></td> <td>→</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kx]</span></td> <td>→</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[x]</span></td> <td>→ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sonorization">Sonorization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sonorization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The sonorization type involves voicing. Sonorizing lenition involves several sound changes: voicing, approximation, and vocalization.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="More sound changes are involved, and if there are specific names for the different changes, these should be listed. (February 2015)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d]</span> (voicing, example in <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>)</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d]</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ð]</span> (approximation, example in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>)</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d]</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span> (vocalization)</li></ul> <p>Sonorizing lenition occurs especially often intervocalically (between vowels). In this position, lenition can be seen as a type of <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Assimilation (linguistics)">assimilation</a> of the consonant to the surrounding vowels, in which features of the consonant that are not present in the surrounding vowels (e.g. obstruction, voicelessness) are gradually eliminated. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>stop</th> <th>→ </th> <th>voiced stop</th> <th>→ </th> <th colspan="3">continuant<br /> (fricative, trill, etc.)</th> <th>→ </th> <th colspan="3">approximant</th> <th>→ </th> <th>no sound </th></tr> <tr> <td>original sound</td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Consonant_voicing_and_devoicing" title="Consonant voicing and devoicing">voicing</a><br /> (sonorization)</td> <td>→ </td> <td colspan="3">spirantization, trilling</td> <td>→ </td> <td colspan="3">approximation</td> <td>→ </td> <td>elision </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[p]</span></td> <td rowspan="3">→ </td> <td rowspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[b]</span></td> <td>→ </td> <td style="border-right: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β]</span></td> <td colspan="2" style="border-left: 0px;"></td> <td>→ </td> <td style="border-right: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β̞]</span></td> <td style="border-right: 0px; border-left: 0px;"></td> <td style="border-left: 0px;"></td> <td>→ </td> <td rowspan="8">(zero) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">→ </td> <td rowspan="2" style="border-right: 0px;"></td> <td rowspan="2" style="border-right: 0px; border-left: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[v]</span></td> <td rowspan="2" style="border-left: 0px;"></td> <td>→ </td> <td style="border-right: 0px;"></td> <td style="border-right: 0px; border-left: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʋ]</span></td> <td style="border-left: 0px;"></td> <td>→ </td></tr> <tr> <td>→ </td> <td style="border-right: 0px;"></td> <td style="border-right: 0px; border-left: 0px;"></td> <td style="border-left: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[w]</span></td> <td>→ </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span></td> <td rowspan="3">→ </td> <td rowspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d]</span></td> <td>→ </td> <td style="border-right: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ð]</span></td> <td style="border-right: 0px; border-left: 0px;"></td> <td style="border-left: 0px;"></td> <td>→ </td> <td colspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ð̞]</span></td> <td>→ </td></tr> <tr> <td>→ </td> <td style="border-right: 0px;"></td> <td style="border-right: 0px; border-left: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[z]</span></td> <td style="border-left: 0px;"></td> <td>→ </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɹ]</span></td> <td rowspan="2">→ </td></tr> <tr> <td>→ </td> <td style="border-right: 0px;"></td> <td style="border-right: 0px; border-left: 0px;"></td> <td style="border-left: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[r]</span></td> <td>→ </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span></td> <td rowspan="2">→ </td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡ]</span></td> <td rowspan="2">→ </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɣ]</span></td> <td>→ </td> <td style="border-right: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɰ]</span></td> <td colspan="2" style="border-left: 0px;"></td> <td>→ </td></tr> <tr> <td>→ </td> <td style="border-right: 0px;"></td> <td colspan="2" style="border-left: 0px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j],<span class="wrap"> </span>[w]</span></td> <td>→ </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some of the sounds generated by lenition are often subsequently "normalized" into related but cross-linguistically more common sounds. An example would be the changes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[b]</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β]</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[v]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d]</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ð]</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[z]</span>. Such normalizations correspond to diagonal movements down and to the right in the above table. In other cases, sounds are lenited and normalized at the same time; examples would be direct changes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[b]</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[v]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d]</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[z]</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vocalization">Vocalization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vocalization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization"><i>L</i>-vocalization</a> is a subtype of the sonorization type of lenition. It has two possible results: a velar approximant or back vowel, or a palatal approximant or front vowel. In <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <i>l</i>-vocalization of the sequence <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/al/</span> resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthong</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/au/</span>, which was <a href="/wiki/Monophthongized" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophthongized">monophthongized</a>, yielding the <a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">monophthong</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> in Modern French. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>lateral approximant</th> <th>→</th> <th>semivowel</th> <th>→</th> <th>vowel </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l]</span></td> <td>→</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[w]</span><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɰ]</span></td> <td>→</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[u]</span><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[o]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>→</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j]</span></td> <td>→</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mixed">Mixed</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mixed"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sometimes a particular example of lenition mixes the opening and sonorization pathways. For example, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰ]</span> may spirantize or open to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[x]</span>, then voice or sonorize to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɣ]</span>. </p><p>Lenition can be seen in <a href="/wiki/Canadian_English" title="Canadian English">Canadian</a> and <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a>, where <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> soften to a tap <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾ]</span> (<a href="/wiki/Flapping" title="Flapping">flapping</a>) when not in initial position and followed by an unstressed vowel. For example, both <i>rate</i> and <i>raid</i> plus the suffix <i>-er</i> are pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɹeɪ̯ɾɚ]</span>. The Italian of Central and Southern Italy has a number of lenitions, the most widespread of which is the deaffrication of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t͡ʃ/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃ]</span> between vowels: post-pausal <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">cena</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈt͡ʃeːna]</span> 'dinner' but post-vocalic <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">la cena</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[laˈʃeːna]</span> 'the dinner'; the name <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">Luciano</i></span>, although structurally <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/luˈt͡ʃano/</span>, is normally pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[luˈʃaːno]</span>. In Tuscany, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d͡ʒ/</span> likewise is realized <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʒ]</span> between vowels, and in typical speech of Central Tuscany, the voiceless stops <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p<span class="wrap"> </span>t<span class="wrap"> </span>k/</span> in the same position are pronounced respectively <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɸ<span class="wrap"> </span>θ<span class="wrap"> </span>x/h]</span>, as in <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/la<span class="wrap"> </span>kasa/</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[laˈhaːsa]</span> 'the house', <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/buko/</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈbuːho]</span> 'hole'. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diachronic">Diachronic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Diachronic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Diachronic_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Diachronic linguistics">Diachronic</a> lenition is found, for example, in the change from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> into <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, in which the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/intervocalic" class="extiw" title="wikt:intervocalic">intervocalic</a> voiceless stops <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[p<span class="wrap"> </span>t<span class="wrap"> </span>k]</span> first changed into their voiced counterparts <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[b<span class="wrap"> </span>d<span class="wrap"> </span>ɡ]</span>, and later into the approximants or fricatives <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β̞<span class="wrap"> </span>ð̞<span class="wrap"> </span>ɣ̞]</span>: <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vita</i></span> > <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">vida</i></span>, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">lupa</i></span> > <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">loba</i></span>, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">caeca</i></span> > <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">ciega</i></span>, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">apotheca</i></span> > <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">bodega</i></span>. One stage in these changes goes beyond phonetic to have become a <a href="/wiki/Phonological_change" title="Phonological change">phonological restructuring</a>, e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lupa/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/loba/</span> (compare <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lupa/</span> in Italian, with no change in the phonological status of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span>). The subsequent further weakening of the series to phonetic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β̞<span class="wrap"> </span>ð̞<span class="wrap"> </span>ɣ̞]</span>, as in <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[loβ̞a]</span> is diachronic in the sense that the developments took place over time and displaced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[b,<span class="wrap"> </span>d,<span class="wrap"> </span>g]</span> as the normal pronunciations between vowels. It is also synchronic in an analysis of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β̞<span class="wrap"> </span>ð̞<span class="wrap"> </span>ɣ̞]</span> as <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophonic</a> realizations of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b,<span class="wrap"> </span>d,<span class="wrap"> </span>g/</span>: illustrating with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bino/</span> 'wine' is pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bino]</span> after pause, but with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β̞]</span> intervocalically, as in <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[de<span class="wrap"> </span>β̞ino]</span> 'of wine'; likewise, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/loba/</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[loβ̞a]</span>. </p><p>A similar development occurred in the Celtic languages, where non-geminate intervocalic consonants were converted into their corresponding weaker counterparts through lenition (usually stops into fricatives but also laterals and trills into weaker laterals and taps), and voiceless stops became voiced. For example, Indo-European intervocalic *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-t-</span></span> in <i>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">teu̯teh₂</span></span></i> "people" resulted in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Celtic">Proto-Celtic</a> <i lang="cel-x-proto"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/tout%C4%81#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/toutā">*toutā</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a> <i>*<span title="Primitive Irish-language text"><span lang="pgl">tōθā</span></span></i>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> <i lang="sga"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/t%C3%BAath#Old_Irish" class="extiw" title="wikt:túath">túath</a></i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t̪ʰuaθ/</span> and ultimately debuccalisation in most Irish and some Scottish dialects to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t̪ʰuəh/</span>, shift in Central Southern Irish to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t̪ʰuəx/</span>, and complete deletion in some Modern Irish and most Modern Scots Gaelic dialects, thus <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t̪ʰuə/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An example of historical lenition in the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic language">Germanic languages</a> is evidenced by Latin-English cognates such as <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">pater</i></span>, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">tenuis</i></span>, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">cornu</i></span> vs. <i>father</i>, <i>thin</i>, <i>horn</i>. The Latin words preserved the original stops, which became fricatives in old Germanic by <a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's law</a>. A few centuries later, the <a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a> led to a second series of lenitions in <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a>, chiefly of post-vocalic stops, as evidenced in the English-German cognates <i>ripe</i>, <i>water</i>, <i>make</i> vs. <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">reif</i></span>, <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Wasser</i></span>, <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">machen</i></span>. </p><p>Although actually a much more profound change encompassing syllable restructuring, simplification of <a href="/wiki/Geminate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Geminate consonant">geminate consonants</a> as in the passage from Latin to Spanish such as cuppa > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈkopa/</span> 'cup' is often viewed as a type of lenition (compare geminate-preserving Italian <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈkɔppa/</span>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Synchronic">Synchronic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Synchronic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Allophonic">Allophonic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Allophonic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All varieties of <a href="/wiki/Sardinian_language" title="Sardinian language">Sardinian</a>, with the sole exception of <a href="/wiki/Nuorese_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuorese dialect">Nuorese</a>, offer an example of <a href="/wiki/Sandhi" title="Sandhi">sandhi</a> in which the rule of intervocalic lenition applying to the voiced series /b d g/ extends across word boundaries. Since it is a fully active synchronic rule, lenition is not normally indicated in the standard orthographies.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β]</span>: <span title="Sardinian-language text"><i lang="sc">baca</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈbaka]</span> "cow" → <span title="Sardinian-language text"><i lang="sc">sa baca</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sa<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈβaka]</span> "the cow" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ð]</span>: <span title="Sardinian-language text"><i lang="sc">domu</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈdɔmu]</span> "house" → <span title="Sardinian-language text"><i lang="sc">sa domu</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sa<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈðɔmu]</span> "the house" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɣ]</span>: <span title="Sardinian-language text"><i lang="sc">gupu</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɡupu]</span> "ladle" → <span title="Sardinian-language text"><i lang="sc">su gupu</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[su<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈɣupu]</span> "the ladle" </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Tuscan_gorgia" title="Tuscan gorgia">series of synchronic lenitions</a> involving opening, or loss of occlusion, rather than voicing is found for post-vocalic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p<span class="wrap"> </span>t<span class="wrap"> </span>k/</span> in many <a href="/wiki/Tuscan_dialect" title="Tuscan dialect">Tuscan dialects</a> of <a href="/wiki/Central_Italy" title="Central Italy">Central Italy</a>. Stereotypical <a href="/wiki/Florentine_dialect" title="Florentine dialect">Florentine</a>, for example, has the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kasa/</span> as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈkaːsa]</span> <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">casa</i></span> 'house' in a post-pause realization, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[iŋˈkaːsa]</span> <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">in casa</i></span> 'in (the) house' post-consonant, but <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[laˈhaːsa]</span> <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">la casa</i></span> 'the house' intervocalically. Word-internally, the normal realization is also <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span>: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈbuko/</span> <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">buco</i></span> 'hole' → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈbuːho]</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Grammatical">Grammatical</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Grammatical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a>, the phenomenon of intervocalic lenition historically extended across word boundaries. This explains the rise of <a href="/wiki/Grammaticalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammaticalisation">grammaticalised</a> initial <a href="/wiki/Consonant_mutation" title="Consonant mutation">consonant mutations</a> in modern Celtic languages through the loss of endings. A <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a> example would be the lack of lenition in <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">am fear</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/əm<span class="wrap"> </span>fɛr/</span> ("the man") and lenition in <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">a’ bhean</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə<span class="wrap"> </span>vɛn/</span> ("the woman"). The following examples show the development of a phrase consisting of a definite article plus a masculine noun (taking the ending <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">-os</i></span>) compared with a feminine noun taking the ending <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">-a</i></span>. The historic development of lenition in those two cases can be reconstructed as follows: </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Celtic">Proto-Celtic</a> <span title="Proto-Celtic-language text">*<i lang="cel">(s)indo<b>s w</b>iros</i></span> IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[wiɾos]</span> → Old Irish <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">ind fer</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[fʲeɾ]</span> → Middle Irish <span title="Middle Irish (900-1200)-language text"><i lang="mga">in fer</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[fʲeɾ]</span> → <a href="/wiki/Classical_Gaelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Gaelic">Classical Gaelic</a> <span title="Hiberno-Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="ghc">an fear</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[fʲeɾ]</span> → Modern Gaelic <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">am fear</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[fɛɾ]</span></dd></dl> <dl><dd>Proto-Celtic <span title="Proto-Celtic-language text">*<i lang="cel">(s)ind<b>ā be</b>nā</i></span> IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[vʲenaː]</span> → Old Irish <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">ind ben</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[vʲen]</span> → Middle Irish <span title="Middle Irish (900-1200)-language text"><i lang="mga">in ben</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[vʲen]</span> → Classical Gaelic <span title="Hiberno-Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="ghc">an bhean</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[vʲen]</span> → Modern Gaelic <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">a' bhean</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[vɛn]</span></dd></dl> <p>Synchronic lenition in Scottish Gaelic affects almost all consonants (except <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l̪ˠ/</span>, which has lost its lenited counterpart in most areas).<sup id="cite_ref-Oftedal_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oftedal-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Changes such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n̪ˠ/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> involve the loss of <a href="/wiki/Secondary_articulation" title="Secondary articulation">secondary articulation</a>; in addition, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/rˠ/</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɾ/</span> involves the reduction of a <a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">trill</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Tap_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Tap consonant">tap</a>. The spirantization of Gaelic nasal <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/v/</span> is unusual among forms of lenition, but it is triggered by the same environment as more prototypical lenition. (It may also leave a residue of <a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">nasalization</a> in adjacent vowels.)<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The orthography shows that by inserting an <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">h</i></span> (except after <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">l n r</i></span>). </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Spirantization">Spirantization</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Spirantization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/v/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">bog</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pok/</span> "soft" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé bhog</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>vok/</span> "very soft" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pj/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/vj/</span> (before a <a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">back vowel</a>)</td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">beò</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pjɔː/</span> 'alive' → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé bheò</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>vjɔː/</span> 'very alive' </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰ/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/x/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">cas</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰas̪/</span> "steep" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé chas</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>xas̪/</span> "very steep" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰʲ/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ç/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">ciùin</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰʲuːɲ/</span> "quiet" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé chiùin</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>çuːɲ/</span> "very quiet" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t̪/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɣ/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">dubh</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t̪uh/</span> "black" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé dhubh</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>ɣuh/</span> "very black" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʲ/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʝ/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">deiseil</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʲeʃal/</span> "ready" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé dheiseil</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>ʝeʃal/</span> "very ready" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɣ/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">garbh</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kaɾav/</span> "rough" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé gharbh</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>ɣaɾav/</span> "very rough" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʲ/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʝ/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">geur</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʲiaɾ/</span> "sharp" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé gheur</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>ʝiaɾ/</span> "very sharp" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/v/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">maol</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mɯːl̪ˠ/</span> "bald" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé mhaol</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>vɯːl̪ˠ/</span> "very bald" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mj/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/vj/</span> (before a back vowel)</td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">meallta</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mjaul̪ˠt̪ə/</span> "deceitful" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé mheallta</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>vjaul̪ˠt̪ə/</span> "very deceitful" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pʰ/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/f/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">pongail</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pʰɔŋɡal/</span> "exact" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé phongail</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>fɔŋɡal/</span> "very exact" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pʰj/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/fj/</span> (before a back vowel)</td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">peallagach</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pʰjal̪ˠakəx/</span> "shaggy" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé pheallagach</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>fjal̪ˠakəx/</span> "very shaggy" </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Loss_of_secondary_articulation">Loss of secondary articulation</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Loss of secondary articulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n̪ˠ/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">nàdarra</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n̪ˠaːt̪ərˠə/</span> "natural" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé nàdarra</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>naːt̪ərˠə/</span> "very natural" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/rˠ/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɾ/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">rag</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/rˠak/</span> "stiff" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé rag</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>ɾak/</span> "very stiff" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l̪ˠ/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lˠ/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">lag</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l̪ˠak/</span> "weak" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé lag</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>lˠak/</span> "very weak" (in <a href="/wiki/Harris,_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Harris, Scotland">Harris</a> Gaelic only) </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Debuccalization">Debuccalization</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Debuccalization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s̪/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">sona</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s̪ɔnə/</span> "happy" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé shona</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>hɔnə/</span> "very happy" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">seasmhach</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃes̪vəx/</span> "constant" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé sheasmhach</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>hes̪vəx/</span> "very constant" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/hj/</span> (before a back vowel)</td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">seòlta</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃɔːl̪ˠt̪ə/</span> "sly" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé sheòlta</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>hjɔːl̪ˠt̪ə/</span> "very sly" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t̪ʰ/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">tana</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t̪ʰanə/</span> "thin" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé thana</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>hanə/</span> "very thin" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰʲ/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">tinn</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʲiːɲ/</span> "ill" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé thinn</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>hiːɲ/</span> "very ill" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰʲ/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/hj/</span> (before a back vowel)</td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">teann</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰʲaun̪ˠ/</span> "tight" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé theann</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>hjaun̪ˠ/</span> "very tight" </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Elision">Elision</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Elision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/f/</span></td> <td>→ Ø</td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">fann</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/faun̪ˠ/</span> "faint" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé fhann</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>aun̪ˠ/</span> "very faint" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/fj/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> (before a back vowel)</td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">feòrachail</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/fjɔːɾəxal/</span> "inquisitive" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé fheòrachail</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>jɔːɾəxal/</span> "very inquisitive" </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Reduction_of_place_markedness">Reduction of place markedness</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Reduction of place markedness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">In the modern <a href="/wiki/Goidelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Goidelic">Goidelic</a> languages, grammatical lenition also triggers the reduction of <a href="/wiki/Markedness" title="Markedness">markedness</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">place of articulation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">coronal</a> <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorants</a> (<span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">l</i></span>, <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">r</i></span>, and <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">n</i></span> sounds). In Scottish Gaelic, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> are the weak counterparts of palatal <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɲ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʎ/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɲ/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">neulach</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɲial̪ˠəx/</span> "cloudy" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé neulach</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>nial̪ˠəx/</span> "very cloudy" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʎ/</span></td> <td>→ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span></td> <td><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">leisg</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʎeʃkʲ/</span> "lazy" → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">glé leisg</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kleː<span class="wrap"> </span>leʃkʲ/</span> "very lazy" </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blocked_lenition">Blocked lenition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Blocked lenition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some languages which have lenition have in addition complex rules affecting situations where lenition might be expected to occur but does not, often those involving <a href="/wiki/Homorganic_consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Homorganic consonants">homorganic consonants</a>. This is colloquially known as 'blocked lenition', or more technically as 'homorganic inhibition' or 'homorganic blocking'. In Scottish Gaelic, for example, there are three homorganic groups:<sup id="cite_ref-Blas_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blas-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>d n t l s (usually called the <a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">dental</a> group in spite of the non-dental nature of the palatals)</li> <li>c g (usually called the <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar</a> group)</li> <li>b f m p (usually called the <a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">labial</a> group)</li></ul> <p>In a position where lenition is expected due to the grammatical environment, lenition tends to be blocked if there are two adjacent homorganic consonants across the word boundary. For example:<sup id="cite_ref-Blas_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blas-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">aon</i></span> 'one' (which causes lenition) → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">aon chas</i></span> 'one leg' vs <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">ao<b>n t</b>aigh</i></span> 'one house' (not <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">aon *thaigh</i></span>)</li> <li><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">air an</i></span> 'on the' (which causes lenition) → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">air a' chas mhòr</i></span> 'on the big leg' vs <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">air a<b>n t</b>aigh <b>d</b>onn</i></span> "on the brown house" (not <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">air an *thaigh *dhonn</i></span>)</li></ul> <p>In modern Scottish Gaelic this rule is only <a href="/wiki/Productivity_(linguistics)" title="Productivity (linguistics)">productive</a> in the case of dentals but not the other two groups for the vast majority of speakers. It also does not affect all environments any more. For example, while <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">aon</i></span> still invokes the rules of blocked lenition, a noun followed by an adjective generally no longer does so. Hence:<sup id="cite_ref-Blas_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blas-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">ad</i></span> "hat" (a feminine noun causing lenition) → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">ad dhonn</i></span> "a brown hat" (although some highly conservative speakers retain <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">ad donn</i></span>)</li> <li><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">caileag</i></span> "girl" (a feminine noun causing lenition) → <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">caileag ghlic</i></span> "a smart girl" (not <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">caileag *glic</i></span>)</li></ul> <p>There is a significant number of frozen forms involving the other two groups (labials and velars) and environments as well, especially in surnames and place names:<sup id="cite_ref-Blas_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blas-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">Ma<b>cG</b>umaraid</i></span> 'Montgomery' (<span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">mac</i></span> + <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">Gumaraid</i></span>) vs <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">Ma<b>cDh</b>òmhnaill</i></span> 'MacDonald (<span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">mac</i></span> + <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">Dòmhnall</i></span>)</li> <li><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">Cai<b>mb</b>eul</i></span> 'Campbell' (<span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">cam</i></span> 'crooked' + <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">beul</i></span> 'mouth') vs <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">Ca<b>msh</b>ron</i></span> 'Cameron' (<span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">cam</i></span> + <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">sròn</i></span> 'nose')</li> <li><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">sgia<b>n-d</b>ubh</i></span> '<a href="/wiki/Sgian-dubh" title="Sgian-dubh">Sgian-dubh</a>' (<span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">sgian</i></span> 'knife' + <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">dubh</i></span> '1 black 2 hidden'; <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">sgian</i></span> as a feminine noun today would normally cause lenition on a following adjective) vs <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">sgian dhubh</i></span> "a black knife" (i.e., a common knife which just happens to be black)</li></ul> <p>Though rare, in some instances the rules of blocked lenition can be invoked by lost historical consonants, for example, in the case of the past-tense <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a> <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">bu</i></span>, which in <a href="/wiki/Common_Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Celtic">Common Celtic</a> had a final -t. In terms of blocked lenition, it continues to behave as a dental-final particle invoking blocked lenition rules:<sup id="cite_ref-Blas_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blas-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">bu <b>d</b>ona am biadh</i></span> "bad was the food" versus <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">bu <b>mh</b>òr am beud</i></span> 'great was the pity</li></ul> <p>In Brythonic languages, only fossilized vestiges of lenition blocking occur, for example in Welsh <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">no<b>s d</b>a</i></span> 'good night' lenition is blocked<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">nos</i></span> as a feminine noun normally causes lenition of a following modifier, for example <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Gwener</i></span> 'Friday' yields <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">nos Wener</i></span> 'Friday night'). Within Celtic, blocked lenition phenomena also occur in Irish (for example <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">ao<b>n d</b>oras</i></span> 'one door', <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">an chéa<b>d d</b>uine</i></span> 'the first person') and <a href="/wiki/Manx_Gaelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Manx Gaelic">Manx</a> (for example <span title="Manx-language text"><i lang="gv">u<b>n d</b>orrys</i></span> 'one door', <span title="Manx-language text"><i lang="gv">yn chie<b>d d</b>ooinney</i></span> 'the first man') however. </p><p>Outside Celtic, in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> orthographic b d g are retained as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[b,<span class="wrap"> </span>d,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɡ]</span> following nasals rather than their normal lenited forms <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β,<span class="wrap"> </span>ð,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɣ]</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Orthography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Welsh_morphology" title="Welsh morphology">Welsh morphology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irish_initial_mutations" title="Irish initial mutations">Irish initial mutations</a></div> <p>In the modern Celtic languages, lenition of the "fricating" type is usually denoted by adding an <i>h</i> to the lenited letter. In Welsh, for example, <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">c</i></span>, <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">p</i></span>, and <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">t</i></span> change into <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">ch</i></span>, <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">ph</i></span>, <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">th</i></span> as a result of the so-called "aspirate mutation" (<span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">carreg</i></span>, "stone" → <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">ei charreg</i></span> "her stone"). An exception is <a href="/wiki/Manx_orthography" class="mw-redirect" title="Manx orthography">Manx orthography</a>, which tends to be more phonetic, but in some cases, etymological principles are applied. In the <a href="/wiki/Gaelic_type" title="Gaelic type">Gaelic script</a>, fricating lenition (usually called simply <i>lenition</i>) is indicated by a <a href="/wiki/Dot_above" class="mw-redirect" title="Dot above">dot above</a> the affected consonant, and in the Roman script, the convention is to suffix the letter <span title="Manx-language text"><i lang="gv">h</i></span> to the consonant, to signify that it is lenited. Thus, <span title="Manx-language text"><i lang="gv">a ṁáṫair</i></span> is equivalent to <span title="Manx-language text"><i lang="gv">a mháthair</i></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Middle_Irish" title="Middle Irish">Middle Irish</a> manuscripts, lenition of <span title="Middle Irish (900-1200)-language text"><i lang="mga">s</i></span> and <span title="Middle Irish (900-1200)-language text"><i lang="mga">f</i></span> was indicated by the dot above, and lenition of <span title="Middle Irish (900-1200)-language text"><i lang="mga">p</i></span>, <span title="Middle Irish (900-1200)-language text"><i lang="mga">t</i></span>, and <span title="Middle Irish (900-1200)-language text"><i lang="mga">c</i></span> was indicated by the postposed <span title="Middle Irish (900-1200)-language text"><i lang="mga">h</i></span>; lenition of other letters was not indicated consistently in the orthography. </p><p>Voicing lenition is represented by a simple letter switch in the <a href="/wiki/Brythonic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Brythonic languages">Brythonic languages</a>, for instance <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">carreg</i></span>, "stone" → <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">y garreg</i></span>, "the stone" in Welsh. In <a href="/wiki/Irish_orthography" title="Irish orthography">Irish orthography</a>, it is shown by writing the "weak" consonant alongside the (silent) "strong" one: <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">peann</i></span>, "pen" → <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">ár bpeann</i></span> "our pen", <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">ceann</i></span>, "head" → <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">ár gceann</i></span> "our head" (sonorization is traditionally called "eclipsis" in Irish grammar). </p><p>Although nasalization as a feature also occurs in most Scottish Gaelic dialects, it is not shown in the orthography on the whole, as it is synchronic (the result of certain types of nasals affecting a following sound), rather than the diachronic Irish type sonorization (after historic nasals). For example <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">taigh</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̪ʰɤj]</span> "house" → <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">an taigh</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ən̪ˠˈd̪ʱɤj]</span> "the house".<sup id="cite_ref-Oftedal_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oftedal-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consonant_gradation">Consonant gradation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Consonant gradation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Consonant_gradation" title="Consonant gradation">Consonant gradation</a></div> <p>The phenomenon of consonant gradation in <a href="/wiki/Finnic_languages" title="Finnic languages">Finnic languages</a> is also a form of lenition. </p><p>An example with <a href="/wiki/Geminate" class="mw-redirect" title="Geminate">geminate</a> consonants comes from <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a>, where geminates become simple consonants while retaining voicing or voicelessness (e.g. <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">katto</i></span> → <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">katon</i></span>, <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">dubbaan</i></span> → <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">dubata</i></span>). It is also possible for entire consonant clusters to undergo lenition, as in <a href="/wiki/Votic_language" title="Votic language">Votic</a>, where voiceless clusters become voiced, e.g. <span title="Votic-language text"><i lang="vot">itke-</i></span> "to cry" → <span title="Votic-language text"><i lang="vot">idgön</i></span>. </p><p>If a language has no obstruents other than voiceless stops, other sounds are encountered, as in Finnish, where the lenited grade is represented by <a href="/wiki/Chroneme" title="Chroneme">chronemes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">approximants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flap_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Flap consonant">taps</a> or even <a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">trills</a>. For example, Finnish used to have a complete set of spirantization reflexes for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p<span class="wrap"> </span>t<span class="wrap"> </span>k/</span>, though these have been lost in favour of similar-sounding phonemes. In the <a href="/wiki/South_Ostrobothnian_dialect" title="South Ostrobothnian dialect">Southern Ostrobothnian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tavastian_dialects" title="Tavastian dialects">Tavastian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southwest_Finnish_dialects" title="Southwest Finnish dialects">southwestern</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> dialects of Finnish, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ð/</span> mostly changed into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>, thus the dialects have a synchronic lenition of an alveolar stop into an alveolar trill <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/<span class="wrap"> </span>→<span class="wrap"> </span>/r/</span>. Furthermore, the same phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> undergoes <a href="/wiki/Assibilation" title="Assibilation">assibilation</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span> before the vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span>, e.g. root <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">vete-</i></span> "water" → <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">vesi</i></span> and <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">vere-</i></span>. Here, <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">vete-</i></span> is the stem, <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">vesi</i></span> is its nominative, and <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">vere-</i></span> is the same stem under consonant gradation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fortition">Fortition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Fortition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fortition" title="Fortition">Fortition</a></div> <p>Fortition is the opposite of lenition: a consonant mutation in which a consonant changes from one considered weak to one considered strong. Fortition is less frequent than lenition in the languages of the world, but word-initial and word-final fortition is fairly frequent. </p><p>Italian, for example, presents numerous regular examples of word-initial fortition both historically (Lat. <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Januarius</i></span> with initial <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> > <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">gennaio</i></span>, with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dʒ]</span>) and synchronically (e.g., <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈkaza/</span> "house, home" → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈkaːza]</span> but <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈkaza/</span> "at home" → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aˈkːaːza]</span>). </p><p>Catalan is among numerous Romance languages with diachronic <a href="/wiki/Final-obstruent_devoicing" title="Final-obstruent devoicing">word-final devoicing</a> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">frigidus</i></span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*/ˈfɾɛd/</span> > <span title="Catalan-language text"><i lang="ca">fred</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈfɾɛt]</span>. Fortition also occurs in Catalan for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b<span class="wrap"> </span>d<span class="wrap"> </span>ɡ/</span> in consonant clusters with a lateral consonant (Lat. <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">populus</i></span> > <span title="Catalan-language text"><i lang="ca">poble</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈpɔbːɫə]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈpɔpːɫə]</span>. </p><p>Word-medially, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lː/</span> is subject to fortition in numerous Romance languages, ranging from <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɖː]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dː]</span> in many <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Italy" title="Languages of Italy">speech types on Italian soil</a> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dʒ]</span> in some varieties of Spanish. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apophony" title="Apophony">Apophony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Begadkefat" title="Begadkefat">Begadkefat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chain_shift" title="Chain shift">Chain shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_mutation" title="Consonant mutation">Consonant mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_spirant_law" title="Germanic spirant law">Germanic spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Grimm's Law">Grimm's Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rendaku" title="Rendaku">Rendaku</a> – a similar phenomenon in the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscan_gorgia" title="Tuscan gorgia">Tuscan gorgia</a> – a specific form of lenition found in the <a href="/wiki/Tuscan_dialect" title="Tuscan dialect">Tuscan dialect</a> of <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStifter2006" class="citation book cs1">Stifter, David (2006). <i>Sengoídelc: Old Irish for Beginners</i>. Syracuse University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-3072-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-3072-2"><bdi>978-0-8156-3072-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sengo%C3%ADdelc%3A+Old+Irish+for+Beginners&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-3072-2&rft.aulast=Stifter&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALenition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mensching, G. (1992). <i>Einführung in die Sardische Sprache</i>, Romanistischer Verlag, Bonn</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oftedal-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oftedal_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oftedal_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Oftedal, M. (1956) <i>The Gaelic of Leurbost</i> Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap, Oslo</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ternes, E. (1989) <i>The Phonemic Analysis of Scottish Gaelic</i> Helmut Buske Verkag, Hamburg</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blas-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blas_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blas_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blas_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blas_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blas_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauer2011" class="citation book cs1">Bauer, Michael (2011). <i>Blas Na Gāidhlig: The Practical Guide to Scottish Gaelic Pronunciation</i>. Akerbeltz. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-907165-00-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-907165-00-9"><bdi>978-1-907165-00-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blas+Na+G%C4%81idhlig%3A+The+Practical+Guide+to+Scottish+Gaelic+Pronunciation&rft.pub=Akerbeltz&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-907165-00-9&rft.aulast=Bauer&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALenition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConroy2008" class="citation web cs1">Conroy, Kevin M (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/151480254.pdf">"Celtic initial consonant mutations - nghath and bhfuil?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Boston College University Libraries<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Celtic+initial+consonant+mutations+-+nghath+and+bhfuil%3F&rft.pub=Boston+College+University+Libraries&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Conroy&rft.aufirst=Kevin+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F151480254.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALenition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoibeard_O._MaolalaighIain_MacAonghuis1997" class="citation book cs1">Roibeard O. Maolalaigh; Iain MacAonghuis (1997). <i>Scottish Gaelic in 3 Months</i>. Hunter Pub Incorporated. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85285-234-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85285-234-7"><bdi>978-0-85285-234-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scottish+Gaelic+in+3+Months&rft.pub=Hunter+Pub+Incorporated&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-85285-234-7&rft.au=Roibeard+O.+Maolalaigh&rft.au=Iain+MacAonghuis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALenition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211008052514/sokl.uef.fi/aineistot/aidinkieli/murteet/d-vastin.html">"Yleiskielen d:n murrevastineet"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sokl.uef.fi/aineistot/aidinkieli/murteet/d-vastin.html">the original</a> on 2021-10-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Yleiskielen+d%3An+murrevastineet&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsokl.uef.fi%2Faineistot%2Faidinkieli%2Fmurteet%2Fd-vastin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALenition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_references">General references</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lenition&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: General references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Crowley, Terry (1997). <i>An Introduction to Historical Linguistics</i>. 3rd edition. Oxford University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOftedal1985" class="citation book cs1">Oftedal, Magne (1985). <i>Lenition in Celtic and in Insular Spanish: The Secondary Voicing of Stops in Gran Canaria</i>. Oxford University Press, USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8200072827" title="Special:BookSources/8200072827"><bdi>8200072827</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lenition+in+Celtic+and+in+Insular+Spanish%3A+The+Secondary+Voicing+of+Stops+in+Gran+Canaria&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+USA&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=8200072827&rft.aulast=Oftedal&rft.aufirst=Magne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALenition" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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