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id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Ernesto Laclau</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 33 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-33" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">33 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88_%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%84%D9%88" title="إرنستو لاكلو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إرنستو لاكلو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laklau" title="Ernesto Laklau – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ernesto Laklau" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8B_%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%89" title="আর্নেস্তো লাক্লাউ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আর্নেস্তো লাক্লাউ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%81%CE%BD%CE%AD%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF_%CE%9B%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%BF%CF%85" title="Ερνέστο Λακλάου – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ερνέστο Λακλάου" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88_%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%88" title="ارنستو لاکلائو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ارنستو لاکلائو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%BC%D5%B6%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B8_%D4%BC%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B8%D6%82" title="Էռնեստո Լակլաու – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էռնեստո Լակլաու" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83" title="Ернесто Лаклау – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ернесто Лаклау" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%8F%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B_%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8B" title="ഏണസ്റ്റോ ലെക്ലോ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഏണസ്റ്റോ ലെക്ലോ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88_%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%84%D9%88" title="ارنستو لاكلو – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ارنستو لاكلو" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%83%AB%E3%83%8D%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%BB%E3%83%A9%E3%82%AF%E3%83%A9%E3%82%A6" title="エルネスト・ラクラウ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エルネスト・ラクラウ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE,_%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Лакло, Эрнесто – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лакло, Эрнесто" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83" title="Ернесто Лаклау – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ернесто Лаклау" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ernesto Laclau" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83" title="Ернесто Лаклау – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ернесто Лаклау" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E5%86%85%E6%96%AF%E6%89%98%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E5%85%8B%E5%8A%B3" title="埃内斯托·拉克劳 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="埃内斯托·拉克劳" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q454802#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Ernesto Laclau</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Presentaci%C3%B3n_del_Documental_CATASTROIKA_y_Presentaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Revista_Debates_y_Combates_(7215329954).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Presentaci%C3%B3n_del_Documental_CATASTROIKA_y_Presentaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Revista_Debates_y_Combates_%287215329954%29.jpg/220px-Presentaci%C3%B3n_del_Documental_CATASTROIKA_y_Presentaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Revista_Debates_y_Combates_%287215329954%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Presentaci%C3%B3n_del_Documental_CATASTROIKA_y_Presentaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Revista_Debates_y_Combates_%287215329954%29.jpg/330px-Presentaci%C3%B3n_del_Documental_CATASTROIKA_y_Presentaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Revista_Debates_y_Combates_%287215329954%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Presentaci%C3%B3n_del_Documental_CATASTROIKA_y_Presentaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Revista_Debates_y_Combates_%287215329954%29.jpg/440px-Presentaci%C3%B3n_del_Documental_CATASTROIKA_y_Presentaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Revista_Debates_y_Combates_%287215329954%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5616" data-file-height="3744" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Ernesto Laclau in 2012</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">6 October 1935<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Buenos_Aires" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a>, Argentina</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">13 April 2014<span style="display:none">(2014-04-13)</span> (aged 78)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a>, Spain</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/20th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="20th-century philosophy">20th-</a>/<a href="/wiki/21st-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="21st-century philosophy">21st-century philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Post-Marxism" title="Post-Marxism">Post-Marxism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">Identity politics</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Ernesto Laclau</b> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Spanish:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="es-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Spanish" title="Help:IPA/Spanish">[laˈklaw]</a></span>; 6 October 1935 – 13 April 2014) was an Argentine <a href="/wiki/Political_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Political theory">political theorist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>. He is often described as an 'inventor' of <a href="/wiki/Post-marxism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-marxism">post-Marxist</a> political theory. He is well known for his collaborations with his long-term partner, <a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Chantal Mouffe</a>. </p><p>He studied history at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Buenos_Aires" title="University of Buenos Aires">University of Buenos Aires</a> <a href="/wiki/Faculty_of_Philosophy_and_Letters,_University_of_Buenos_Aires" title="Faculty of Philosophy and Letters, University of Buenos Aires">Faculty of Philosophy and Letters</a>, graduating with a <a href="/wiki/Licenciatura" class="mw-redirect" title="Licenciatura">licenciatura</a> in 1964, and received a PhD from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Essex" title="University of Essex">University of Essex</a> in 1977. </p><p>From 1986 he served as Professor of Political Theory at the University of Essex, where he founded and directed for many years the graduate programme in <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Discourse_Analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Discourse Analysis">Discourse Analysis</a>, as well as the Centre for Theoretical Studies in the Humanities and the Social Sciences. Under his directorship, the Ideology and Discourse Analysis programme has provided a research framework for the development of a distinct type of discourse analysis that draws on post-structuralist theory (especially the work of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Saussure</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a>), <a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">post-analytic thought</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a>) and psychoanalysis (primarily the work of <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Lacan</a>) to provide innovative analysis of concrete political phenomena, such as identities, discourses and hegemonies. This theoretical and analytical orientation is known today as the '<a href="/wiki/Essex_School_of_discourse_analysis" title="Essex School of discourse analysis">Essex School of discourse analysis</a>'.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over his career Laclau lectured extensively in many universities in North America, South America, Western Europe, Australia, and South Africa. He also held positions at <a href="/wiki/SUNY_Buffalo" class="mw-redirect" title="SUNY Buffalo">SUNY Buffalo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_University" title="Northwestern University">Northwestern University</a>, both in the US. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernesto_Laclau&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Laclau studied history at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Buenos_Aires" title="University of Buenos Aires">University of Buenos Aires</a><sup id="cite_ref-La_Nacion_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-La_Nacion-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was a member of the <a href="/wiki/National_Left_(Argentina)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Left (Argentina)">PSIN</a> (Socialist Party of the National Left) until 1969, when the British historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawm" title="Eric Hobsbawm">Eric Hobsbawm</a> supported his entrance to Oxford.<sup id="cite_ref-P12_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-P12-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had close links with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jorge_Abelardo_Ramos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jorge Abelardo Ramos (page does not exist)">Jorge Abelardo Ramos</a>, the founder of the PSIN, although he stated in 2005 that the latter had evolved in a direction he did not appreciate.<sup id="cite_ref-P12_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-P12-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same interview, he claimed that he came from a <a href="/wiki/Hip%C3%B3lito_Yrigoyen" title="Hipólito Yrigoyen">Yrigoyenista</a> family, and that the Peronist politician <a href="/wiki/Arturo_Jauretche" title="Arturo Jauretche">Arturo Jauretche</a>, a strong opponent of <a href="/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_Pedro_Justo" title="Agustín Pedro Justo">Justo</a>'s dictatorship during the <a href="/wiki/Infamous_Decade" title="Infamous Decade">Infamous Decade</a> of the 1930s, was a close friend of his father.<sup id="cite_ref-P12_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-P12-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his later years, he had close ties with the Argentine Socialist Confederation (Spanish: <i>Confederación Socialista Argentina</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in Argentina he is associated with <a href="/wiki/Peronism" title="Peronism">Peronism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Laclau died of a <a href="/wiki/Heart_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart attack">heart attack</a> in Seville in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Work">Work</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernesto_Laclau&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Laclau's early work was influenced by Althusserian Marxism and focused on issues debated within Neo-Marxist circles in the 1970s, such as the role of the state, the dynamics of capitalism, the importance of building popular movements, and the possibility of revolution. Laclau's most significant book is <i><a href="/wiki/Hegemony_and_Socialist_Strategy" title="Hegemony and Socialist Strategy">Hegemony and Socialist Strategy</a></i>, which he co-authored with <a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Chantal Mouffe</a> in 1985. The position outlined in this book is usually described as post-Marxist because it rejects (a) <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> <a href="/wiki/Economic_determinism" title="Economic determinism">economic determinism</a> and (b) the view that <a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">class struggle</a> is the most important antagonism in society. In their 2001 introduction to the second edition Laclau and Mouffe commented on this label, stating that whilst '<i>post</i>-Marxist' they were also 'post-<i>Marxist</i>':<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaclauMouffe2001_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaclauMouffe2001-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> their work, though a departure from traditional Western Marxism, retained similar concerns and ideas. A key innovation in <i>Hegemony and Socialist Strategy</i> was Laclau and Mouffe's argument that left-wing movements need to build alliances with a wide variety of different groups if they are to be successful and establish a left-wing 'hegemony'. In the final chapter of the book, the project of "radical and plural democracy" was advocated: a democracy in which subjects accept the importance of the values of liberty and equality, but fight over what the terms mean. </p><p>In <i>Hegemony and Socialist Strategy</i> Laclau and Mouffe also offered a constructivist account of 'discourse'. By drawing on the work of the later Wittgenstein, they argued that social entities only become meaningful through both linguistic and non-linguistic discursive articulation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaclauMouffe2001108_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaclauMouffe2001108-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, the meaning of something is never pre-given but is, instead, constructed through social practices. In a later summary of his view, Laclau claims there is support for this broad sense of discourse in Saussure. "By discourse... I do not mean something that is essentially restricted to the areas of speech and writing, but any complex of elements in which relations play the constitutive role. This means that elements do not pre-exist the relational complex but are constituted through it. Thus 'relation' and 'objectivity' are synonymous. Saussure asserted that there are no positive terms in language, only differences — something is what it is only through its differential relations to something else."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaclau200568_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaclau200568-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Laclau subsequently used this account of discourse to re-consider the nature of identity, arguing that all political identities are discursive - even if they are experienced by individuals as 'natural' (even to the point where one's identity is not recognised as an identity). For example, though an individual may think that they are just 'born male' this is, for Laclau<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> not the case: 'maleness' is a socially constructed category that has no innate meaning. </p><p>In his more recent works Laclau returned to a topic that was prevalent in his earliest writings: populism. In <i>On Populist Reason</i>, Laclau considered the nature of populism in political discourse, the creation of a popular hegemonic bloc such as "the people", and the importance of affect in politics. Building on his earlier work, Laclau argued that the basis of populism lies in the creation of "<a href="/wiki/Empty_signifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Empty signifier">empty signifiers</a>": words and ideas that express a universal idea of justice, and symbolically structure the political environment. Against those who see populism as a threat to democracy, Laclau argued that it is an essential component of it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaclau2005_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaclau2005-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_with_Slavoj_Žižek"><span id="Relationship_with_Slavoj_.C5.BDi.C5.BEek"></span><span class="anchor" id="Laclau's_relationship_with_Slavoj_Žižek"></span> Relationship with Slavoj Žižek</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernesto_Laclau&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Relationship with Slavoj Žižek"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Laclau is known for his long standing dialogue with Lacanian "arch-Marxist" <a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Slavoj Žižek</a>. This dates back to at least 1989, when Laclau wrote the introduction to Žižek's first book in English (<i>The Sublime Object of Ideology</i>). Žižek is widely recognized as responsible for Laclau's increased acceptance of Lacanian ideas and his essay "Beyond Discourse Analysis",<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was published in Laclau's <i>New Reflections on the Revolutions of Our Time</i> (1990), provided a psychoanalytic critique of Laclau's work. In 2000, Laclau, Žižek and Judith Butler published the trialogue <i><a href="/wiki/Contingency,_Hegemony,_Universality" title="Contingency, Hegemony, Universality">Contingency, Hegemony, Universality</a></i>, in which each responded to the others' works in a three-essay cycle. Although Žižek and Laclau noted their similarities and mutual respect, significant political and theoretical differences emerged between all three interlocutors. Following several acrimonious publications in the early 2000s, Laclau wrote in <i>On Populist Reason</i> (2005) that Žižek had an impractical and confused approach to politics, describing him as "waiting for the Martians".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaclau2005232_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaclau2005232-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their disagreement escalated in the pages of <i>Critical Inquiry</i> in 2006, when in a spate of essays the two argued in an increasingly hostile manner about political action, Marxism and class struggle, Hegel, populism, and the Lacanian Real.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently in a 2014 interview with David Howarth, Laclau stated that his relationship with Žižek had deteriorated due to the latter adopting a "frantic ultra-Leftist stance, wrapped in a Leninism of kindergarten".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernesto_Laclau&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory</i> (NLB, 1977)</li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLaclauMouffe2001" class="citation book cs1">Laclau, Ernesto; <a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe, Chantal</a> (2001) [1985]. <i><a href="/wiki/Hegemony_and_Socialist_Strategy" title="Hegemony and Socialist Strategy">Hegemony and Socialist Strategy</a></i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Verso_Books" title="Verso Books">Verso Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781859843307" title="Special:BookSources/9781859843307"><bdi>9781859843307</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hegemony+and+Socialist+Strategy&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Verso+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9781859843307&rft.aulast=Laclau&rft.aufirst=Ernesto&rft.au=Mouffe%2C+Chantal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnesto+Laclau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i>New Reflections on the Revolution of our Time</i> (Verso, 1990)</li> <li><i>The Making of Political Identities</i> (editor) (Verso, 1994)</li> <li><i>Emancipation(s)</i> (Verso, 1996)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Contingency,_Hegemony,_Universality" title="Contingency, Hegemony, Universality">Contingency, Hegemony, Universality</a></i> (with <a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Judith Butler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Slavoj Žižek</a>) (Verso, 2000)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>On Populist Reason</i>. Phronesis. London: <a href="/wiki/Verso_Books" title="Verso Books">Verso Books</a>. 2005. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781859846513" title="Special:BookSources/9781859846513"><bdi>9781859846513</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Populist+Reason&rft.place=London&rft.series=Phronesis&rft.pub=Verso+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781859846513&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnesto+Laclau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i>The Rhetorical Foundations of Society</i> (Verso, 2014)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernesto_Laclau&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Chantal Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essex_School_of_discourse_analysis" title="Essex School of discourse analysis">Essex School of discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony_discursive_theory_Laclau-Mouffe" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegemony discursive theory Laclau-Mouffe">Hegemony discursive theory Laclau-Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_deconstructionists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of deconstructionists">List of deconstructionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Louis Althusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peronism" title="Peronism">Peronism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Marxism" title="Post-Marxism">Post-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_JF_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard JF Day">Richard JF Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Slavoj Žižek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Newman" title="Saul Newman">Saul Newman</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernesto_Laclau&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTownshend2003" class="citation journal cs1">Townshend, Jules (February 2003). "Discourse theory and political analysis: a new paradigm from the Essex School?". <i>British Journal of Politics and International Relations</i>. <b>5</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">129–</span>142. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-856X.00100">10.1111/1467-856X.00100</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146283536">146283536</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Politics+and+International+Relations&rft.atitle=Discourse+theory+and+political+analysis%3A+a+new+paradigm+from+the+Essex+School%3F&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E129-%3C%2Fspan%3E142&rft.date=2003-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-856X.00100&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146283536%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Townshend&rft.aufirst=Jules&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnesto+Laclau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-La_Nacion-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-La_Nacion_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180918161506/https://www.lanacion.com.ar/1680569-cuales-eran-las-principales-ideas-de-la-obra-de-ernesto-laclau">"Cuáles eran las principales ideas de la obra de Ernesto Laclau"</a> [What were the main ideas of the work of Ernesto Laclau]. <i><a href="/wiki/La_Nacion" class="mw-redirect" title="La Nacion">La Nacion</a></i> (in Spanish). 13 April 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1680569-cuales-eran-las-principales-ideas-de-la-obra-de-ernesto-laclau">the original</a> on 18 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=La+Nacion&rft.atitle=Cu%C3%A1les+eran+las+principales+ideas+de+la+obra+de+Ernesto+Laclau&rft.date=2014-04-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lanacion.com.ar%2F1680569-cuales-eran-las-principales-ideas-de-la-obra-de-ernesto-laclau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnesto+Laclau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-P12-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-P12_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-P12_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-P12_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/suplementos/radar/9-2286-2005-06-09.html">"Las manos en la masa - Ernesto Laclau contra Negri, Hardt y Zizek"</a> [Hands in the dough - Ernesto Laclau against Negri, Hardt and Zizek]. <i><a href="/wiki/Pagina/12" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagina/12">Pagina/12</a></i> (in Spanish). 5 June 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pagina%2F12&rft.atitle=Las+manos+en+la+masa+-+Ernesto+Laclau+contra+Negri%2C+Hardt+y+Zizek&rft.date=2005-06-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pagina12.com.ar%2Fdiario%2Fsuplementos%2Fradar%2F9-2286-2005-06-09.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnesto+Laclau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lavanguardiaweb.com/detalle.php?a=una-apuesta-por-la-transformacion&t=30&d=203">"Una apuesta por la transformación"</a> [A commitment to transformation]. <i>La Vanguardia</i> (in Spanish).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=La+Vanguardia&rft.atitle=Una+apuesta+por+la+transformaci%C3%B3n&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lavanguardiaweb.com%2Fdetalle.php%3Fa%3Duna-apuesta-por-la-transformacion%26t%3D30%26d%3D203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnesto+Laclau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://noticias.perfil.com/noticias/general/2014-04-13-ernesto-laclau-el-ideologo-de-la-argentina-dividida.phtml">"Ernesto Laclau, el ideólogo de la Argentina dividida"</a> [Ernesto Laclau, the ideologue of divided Argentina]. <i>Perfil</i> (in Spanish). 14 April 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150419015759/http://noticias.perfil.com/2014-04-13-46955-ernesto-laclau-el-ideologo-de-la-argentina-dividida/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Perfil&rft.atitle=Ernesto+Laclau%2C+el+ide%C3%B3logo+de+la+Argentina+dividida&rft.date=2014-04-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnoticias.perfil.com%2Fnoticias%2Fgeneral%2F2014-04-13-ernesto-laclau-el-ideologo-de-la-argentina-dividida.phtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnesto+Laclau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140414130300/http://rivadavia.com.ar/articulos/ultimo-momento-fallecio-en-sevilla-el-teorico-y-politologo-ernesto-laclau/">"ÚLTIMO MOMENTO: Falleció en Sevilla, el téorico y politólogo argentino, Ernesto Laclau | Radio Rivadavia"</a> [LAST MOMENT: The Argentine theoretician and political scientist, Ernesto Laclau | Radio Rivadavia] (in Spanish). Rivadavia.com.ar. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rivadavia.com.ar/articulos/ultimo-momento-fallecio-en-sevilla-el-teorico-y-politologo-ernesto-laclau/">the original</a> on 14 April 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%C3%9ALTIMO+MOMENTO%3A+Falleci%C3%B3+en+Sevilla%2C+el+t%C3%A9orico+y+polit%C3%B3logo+argentino%2C+Ernesto+Laclau+%26%23124%3B+Radio+Rivadavia&rft.pub=Rivadavia.com.ar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frivadavia.com.ar%2Farticulos%2Fultimo-momento-fallecio-en-sevilla-el-teorico-y-politologo-ernesto-laclau%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnesto+Laclau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackburn" class="citation web cs1">Blackburn, Robin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.versobooks.com/blogs/1556-ernesto-laclau-1935-2014">"Ernesto Laclau, 1935-2014"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Verso_Books" title="Verso Books">Verso Books</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ernesto+Laclau%2C+1935-2014&rft.pub=Verso+Books&rft.aulast=Blackburn&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.versobooks.com%2Fblogs%2F1556-ernesto-laclau-1935-2014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnesto+Laclau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaclauMouffe2001-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaclauMouffe2001_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaclauMouffe2001">Laclau & Mouffe 2001</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaclauMouffe2001108-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaclauMouffe2001108_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaclauMouffe2001">Laclau & Mouffe 2001</a>, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaclau200568-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaclau200568_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaclau2005">Laclau 2005</a>, p. 68.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFLaclau2005 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaclau2005-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaclau2005_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaclau2005">Laclau 2005</a>.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFLaclau2005 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFŽižek1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek, Slavoj</a> (1990). <i>Beyond Discourse Analysis</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Verso_Books" title="Verso Books">Verso Books</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">249–</span>260.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+Discourse+Analysis&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E249-%3C%2Fspan%3E260&rft.pub=Verso+Books&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=%C5%BDi%C5%BEek&rft.aufirst=Slavoj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnesto+Laclau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaclau2005232-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaclau2005232_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaclau2005">Laclau 2005</a>, p. 232.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFLaclau2005 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaclau2006" class="citation journal cs1">Laclau, Ernesto (2006). "Why Constructing A People is the Main Task of Radical Politics". <i>Critical Inquiry</i>. <b>32</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">646–</span>680. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F508086">10.1086/508086</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/508086">10.1086/508086</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146643004">146643004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+Inquiry&rft.atitle=Why+Constructing+A+People+is+the+Main+Task+of+Radical+Politics&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E646-%3C%2Fspan%3E680&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146643004%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1086%2F508086%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F508086&rft.aulast=Laclau&rft.aufirst=Ernesto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnesto+Laclau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFŽižek2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek, Slavoj</a> (2006). "Schlagend, aber nicht Treffend!". <i>Critical Inquiry</i>. <b>33</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">185–</span>211. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F509751">10.1086/509751</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/509751">10.1086/509751</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154718020">154718020</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+Inquiry&rft.atitle=Schlagend%2C+aber+nicht+Treffend%21&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E185-%3C%2Fspan%3E211&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154718020%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1086%2F509751%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F509751&rft.aulast=%C5%BDi%C5%BEek&rft.aufirst=Slavoj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnesto+Laclau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaclau2014" class="citation book cs1">Laclau, Ernesto (2014). <i>Ernesto Laclau: Post-Marxism, Populism and Critique</i>. Abingdon: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 271.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ernesto+Laclau%3A+Post-Marxism%2C+Populism+and+Critique&rft.place=Abingdon&rft.pages=271&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Laclau&rft.aufirst=Ernesto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnesto+Laclau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernesto_Laclau&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Ernesto Laclau</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ernesto+Laclau">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ernesto+Laclau&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><b>By Ernesto Laclau</b> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Ernesto+Laclau">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Ernesto+Laclau&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul> </div></div> </div> <ul><li>Anna Marie Smith, <i>Laclau and Mouffe: The Radical Democratic Imaginary</i>, London: Routledge, 1998.</li> <li>David Howarth, <i>Discourse</i>, Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 2000.</li> <li>Louise Philips and Marianne Jorgensen, <i>Discourse Analysis as Theory and Method</i>, London: Sage, 2002.</li> <li>David Howarth, Aletta Norval and <a href="/wiki/Yannis_Stavrakakis" title="Yannis Stavrakakis">Yannis Stavrakakis</a> (eds), <i>Discourse Theory and Political Analysis</i>, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002.</li> <li>Simon Critchley and Oliver Marchart (eds), <i>Laclau: A Critical Reader</i>, London: Routledge, 2004.</li> <li>Warren Breckman, <i>Adventures of the Symbolic: Postmarxism and Radical Democracy</i>, New York: Columbia University Press, 2013</li> <li>David Howarth and Jacob Torfing (eds) <i>Discourse Theory in European Politics</i>, Houndmills: Palgrave, 2005.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernesto_Laclau&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ernesto_Laclau" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ernesto Laclau">Ernesto Laclau</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050427221537/http://www.essex.ac.uk/centres/Theostud/">Centre for Theoretical Studies, University of Essex</a> Includes Laclau papers on populism and the philosophical roots of discourse theory</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050411130431/http://www.essex.ac.uk/idaworld/">Ideology and Discourse Analysis network</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.redpepper.org.uk/Hearts-Minds-and-Radical-Democracy">Hearts, Minds and Radical Democracy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160514211930/http://www.redpepper.org.uk/hearts-minds-and-radical-democracy/">Archived</a> 14 May 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Interview with Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070311012625/http://www.revistateina.com/teina/web/teina5/dos7.htm">Entrevista a Ernesto Laclau sobre el juego de la política</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120207011053/http://www.change.univ.gda.pl/laclau.htm">Curriculum Vitae</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amielandmelburn.org.uk/collections/mt/pdf/91_12_56.pdf">God Only Knows</a> 1991 article in Marxism Today</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amielandmelburn.org.uk/collections/mt/pdf/81_01_17.pdf">Socialist strategy: where next?</a> 1981 article in Marxism Today by Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy152" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_legitimacy" title="Political legitimacy">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px 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href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000109038513">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/56658491">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/95572/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJt46hYw4H6Qg7MhGD6HYP">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/119504901">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n82094744">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external 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