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<span>Deuterium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deuterium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manhattan_Project" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manhattan_Project"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Manhattan Project</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manhattan_Project-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-war_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-war_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Post-war years</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-war_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmochemistry_and_the_Miller–Urey_experiment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmochemistry_and_the_Miller–Urey_experiment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Cosmochemistry and the Miller–Urey experiment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmochemistry_and_the_Miller–Urey_experiment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Death and legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Harold Urey</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 74 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-74" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">74 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AF_%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="هارولد يوري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="هارولد يوري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuri_Harold_Kleyton" title="Yuri Harold Kleyton – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yuri Harold Kleyton" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AF_%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="هارولد یوری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="هارولد یوری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF" title="হ্যারল্ড ক্লেটন ইউরি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="হ্যারল্ড ক্লেটন ইউরি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%AE%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Гаральд Клейтан Юры – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гаральд Клейтан Юры" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B4_%D0%AE%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Харолд Юри – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Харолд Юри" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Clayton_Urey" title="Harold Clayton Urey – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Harold Clayton Urey" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Clayton_Urey" title="Harold Clayton Urey – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Harold Clayton Urey" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AF_%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="هارولد أوري – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="هارولد أوري" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_C._Urey" title="Harold C. Urey – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Harold C. Urey" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BD%CF%84_%CE%93%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%8D%CF%81%CF%85" title="Χάρολντ Γιούρυ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χάρολντ Γιούρυ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Clayton_Urey" title="Harold Clayton Urey – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Harold Clayton Urey" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AF_%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="هارولد یوری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هارولد یوری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Clayton_Urey" title="Harold Clayton Urey – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Harold Clayton Urey" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Clayton_Urey" title="Harold Clayton Urey – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Harold Clayton Urey" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80,_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8" title="युरी, हॅरल्ड क्लेटन – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="युरी, हॅरल्ड क्लेटन" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EB%9F%B4%EB%93%9C_%EC%9C%A0%EB%A6%AC" title="해럴드 유리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해럴드 유리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%A4_%D4%BF%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%B5%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B6_%D5%85%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%AB" title="Հարոլդ Կլեյտոն Յուրի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հարոլդ Կլեյտոն Յուրի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Clayton_Urey" title="Harold Clayton Urey – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Harold Clayton Urey" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Clayton_Urey" title="Harold Clayton Urey – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Harold Clayton Urey" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Clayton_Urey" title="Harold Clayton Urey – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Harold Clayton Urey" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_C._Urey" title="Harold C. Urey – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Harold C. Urey" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%93_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99" title="הרולד יורי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הרולד יורי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_C._Urey" title="Harold C. Urey – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Harold C. Urey" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%93_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ჰაროლდ იური – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჰაროლდ იური" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haroldus_Clayton_Urey" title="Haroldus Clayton Urey – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Haroldus Clayton Urey" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harolds_J%C5%ABrijs" title="Harolds Jūrijs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Harolds Jūrijs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_C._Urey" title="Harold C. Urey – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Harold C. Urey" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BE%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C_%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%87" title="ഹാരോൾഡ്‌ യുറേ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഹാരോൾഡ്‌ യുറേ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%93_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ჰაროლდ იური – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჰაროლდ იური" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AF_%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%89" title="هارولد يورى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="هارولد يورى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AF_%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="هارولد یوری – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="هارولد یوری" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8F%E3%83%AD%E3%83%AB%E3%83%89%E3%83%BB%E3%83%A6%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC" title="ハロルド・ユーリー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ハロルド・ユーリー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Clayton_Urey" title="Harold Clayton Urey – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Harold Clayton Urey" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Clayton_Urey" title="Harold Clayton Urey – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Harold Clayton Urey" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Clayton_Urey" title="Harold Clayton Urey – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Harold Clayton Urey" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84%DA%88_%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%B9%D9%86_%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%92" title="ہیرولڈ کلیٹن یورے – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ہیرولڈ کلیٹن یورے" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Clayton_Urey" title="Harold Clayton Urey – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Harold Clayton Urey" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Clayton_Urey" title="Harold Clayton Urey – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Harold Clayton Urey" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D1%80%D0%B8,_%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Юри, Гарольд Клейтон – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Юри, Гарольд Клейтон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Clayton_Urey" title="Harold Clayton Urey – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Harold Clayton Urey" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%98%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%88%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Харолд Клејтон Јури – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Харолд Клејтон Јури" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Clayton_Urey" title="Harold Clayton Urey – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Harold Clayton Urey" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Clayton_Urey" title="Harold Clayton Urey – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Harold Clayton Urey" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%80" title="அரால்டு இயூரீ – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அரால்டு இயூரீ" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%AE%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Һарольд Клейтон Юри – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Һарольд Клейтон Юри" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%AE%D1%80%D1%96" title="Гарольд Клейтон Юрі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гарольд Клейтон Юрі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84%DA%88_%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="ہارلڈ اری – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ہارلڈ اری" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%88%E7%BD%97%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E5%B0%A4%E9%87%8C" title="哈罗德·尤里 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="哈罗德·尤里" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Harold Urey" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%88%E6%B4%9B%E5%B0%A4%E9%87%8C" title="哈洛尤里 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="哈洛尤里" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%88%E7%BE%85%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E5%B0%A4%E9%87%8C" title="哈羅德·尤里 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="哈羅德·尤里" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q179777#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American physical chemist (1893–1981)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Harold Urey</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:;"><span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Member_of_the_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Member of the Royal Society">ForMemRS</a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:HD.3F.004_(11086396296).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/HD.3F.004_%2811086396296%29.jpg/220px-HD.3F.004_%2811086396296%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/HD.3F.004_%2811086396296%29.jpg/330px-HD.3F.004_%2811086396296%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/HD.3F.004_%2811086396296%29.jpg/440px-HD.3F.004_%2811086396296%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2470" data-file-height="3200" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Urey in 1934</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Harold Clayton Urey</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1893-04-29</span>)</span>April 29, 1893<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Walkerton,_Indiana" title="Walkerton, Indiana">Walkerton, Indiana</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">January 5, 1981<span style="display:none">(1981-01-05)</span> (aged 87)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/San_Diego,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="San Diego, California">San Diego, California</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Earlham_College" title="Earlham College">Earlham College</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Montana" title="University of Montana">University of Montana</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">BSc</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a> (<a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Discovery of <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Urey_experiment" title="Miller–Urey experiment">Miller–Urey experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate%E2%80%93silicate_cycle" title="Carbonate–silicate cycle">Carbonate–silicate cycle</a>, aka "Urey reactions"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Chemistry">Nobel Prize for Chemistry</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Gibbs_Award" title="Willard Gibbs Award">Willard Gibbs Award</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davy_Medal" title="Davy Medal">Davy Medal</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Medal" title="Franklin Medal">Franklin Medal</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medal_for_Merit" title="Medal for Merit">Medal for Merit</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Member_of_the_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Member of the Royal Society">Foreign Member of the Royal Society</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Lawrence_Smith_Medal" title="J. Lawrence Smith Medal">J. Lawrence Smith Medal</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Medal_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society">Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priestley_Medal" title="Priestley Medal">Priestley Medal</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/V._M._Goldschmidt_Award" title="V. M. Goldschmidt Award">V. M. Goldschmidt Award</a> (1975)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical chemistry</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Copenhagen" title="University of Copenhagen">University of Copenhagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Nuclear_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute for Nuclear Studies">Institute for Nuclear Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Diego" title="University of California, San Diego">University of California, San Diego</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Miller" title="Stanley Miller">Stanley Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmon_Craig" title="Harmon Craig">Harmon Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Cohn" title="Mildred Cohn">Mildred Cohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Wasserburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerald Wasserburg">Gerald Wasserburg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Harold_Urey_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Harold_Urey_signature.svg/150px-Harold_Urey_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Harold_Urey_signature.svg/225px-Harold_Urey_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Harold_Urey_signature.svg/300px-Harold_Urey_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="170" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Harold Clayton Urey</b> <span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:;"><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Member_of_the_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Member of the Royal Society">ForMemRS</a></span></span> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/j/: 'y' in 'yes'">j</span><span title="/ʊər/: 'our' in 'tour'">ʊər</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">YOOR</span>-ee</i></a>; April 29, 1893 – January 5, 1981) was an American <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemist" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical chemist">physical chemist</a> whose pioneering work on <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> earned him the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> in 1934 for the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a>. He played a significant role in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">atom bomb</a>, as well as contributing to theories on the <a href="/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Urey_experiment" title="Miller–Urey experiment">development of organic life from non-living matter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Born in <a href="/wiki/Walkerton,_Indiana" title="Walkerton, Indiana">Walkerton, Indiana</a>, Urey studied <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> under <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>. After he received his <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> in 1923, he was awarded a fellowship by <a href="/wiki/The_American-Scandinavian_Foundation" title="The American-Scandinavian Foundation">the American-Scandinavian Foundation</a> to study at the <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr_Institute" title="Niels Bohr Institute">Niels Bohr Institute</a> in <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a>. He was a research associate at <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a> before becoming an associate professor of chemistry at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>. In 1931, he began work with the separation of isotopes that resulted in the discovery of deuterium. </p><p>During World War II, Urey turned his knowledge of isotope separation to the problem of <a href="/wiki/Uranium_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium enrichment">uranium enrichment</a>. He headed the group located at Columbia University that developed isotope separation using <a href="/wiki/Gaseous_diffusion" title="Gaseous diffusion">gaseous diffusion</a>. The method was successfully developed, becoming the sole method used in the early post-war period. After the war, Urey became professor of chemistry at the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Nuclear_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute for Nuclear Studies">Institute for Nuclear Studies</a>, and later Ryerson professor of chemistry at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. </p><p>Urey speculated that the early terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a> was composed of <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, and hydrogen. One of his Chicago graduate students was <a href="/wiki/Stanley_L._Miller" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanley L. Miller">Stanley L. Miller</a>, who showed in the <a href="/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Urey_experiment" title="Miller–Urey experiment">Miller–Urey experiment</a> that, if such a mixture were exposed to electric sparks and water, it can interact to produce <a href="/wiki/Amino_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acids">amino acids</a>, commonly considered the building blocks of life. Work with <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_oxygen" title="Isotopes of oxygen">isotopes of oxygen</a> led to pioneering the new field of <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">paleoclimatic</a> research. In 1958, he accepted a post as a professor at large at the new <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Diego" title="University of California, San Diego">University of California, San Diego</a> (UCSD), where he helped create the science faculty. He was one of the founding members of UCSD's school of chemistry, which was created in 1960. He became increasingly interested in space science, and when <a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a> returned <a href="/wiki/Moon_rock" title="Moon rock">Moon rock</a> samples from the Moon, Urey examined them at the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_Receiving_Laboratory" title="Lunar Receiving Laboratory">Lunar Receiving Laboratory</a>. Lunar astronaut <a href="/wiki/Harrison_Schmitt" title="Harrison Schmitt">Harrison Schmitt</a> said that Urey approached him as a volunteer for a one-way mission to the Moon, stating "I will go, and I don't care if I don't come back."<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harold_Urey&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Harold Clayton Urey was born on April 29, 1893, in <a href="/wiki/Walkerton,_Indiana" title="Walkerton, Indiana">Walkerton, Indiana</a>, the son of Samuel Clayton Urey,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein19707_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein19707-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shindell_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shindell-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a school teacher and a minister in the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Brethren" title="Church of the Brethren">Church of the Brethren</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995365_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995365-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his wife, Cora Rebecca née Reinoehl.<sup id="cite_ref-KPC_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KPC-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of mostly German ancestry, the family name had English origins.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had a younger brother, Clarence, and a younger sister, Martha. The family moved to <a href="/wiki/Glendora,_California" title="Glendora, California">Glendora, California</a>, after Samuel became seriously ill with <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, in hopes that the climate would improve his health. When it became clear that he would die, the family moved back to Indiana to live with Cora's widowed mother. Samuel died when Harold was six years old.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein19708_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein19708-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shindell_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shindell-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Urey was educated in an <a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a> grade school, from which he graduated at the age of 14. He then attended high school in <a href="/wiki/Kendallville,_Indiana" title="Kendallville, Indiana">Kendallville, Indiana</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KPC_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KPC-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After graduating in 1911, he obtained a teacher's certificate from <a href="/wiki/Earlham_College" title="Earlham College">Earlham College</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-NNDB_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NNDB-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and taught in a small school house in Indiana. He later moved to Montana, where his mother was then living, and continued to teach there.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995365_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995365-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Urey entered the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Montana" title="University of Montana">University of Montana</a> in <a href="/wiki/Missoula" class="mw-redirect" title="Missoula">Missoula</a> in the autumn of 1914.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197015_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197015-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike Eastern universities of the time, the University of Montana was co-educational in both students and teachers.<sup id="cite_ref-Shindell_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shindell-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Urey earned a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor of Science</a> (BS) degree in <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a> there in 1917.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197072_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197072-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_entry_into_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="United States entry into World War I">United States entry into World War I</a> that same year, there was strong pressure to support the war effort. Urey had been raised in a religious sect that opposed war. One of his professors suggested that he support the wartime effort by working as a chemist. Urey took a job with the <a href="/wiki/AlliedSignal" title="AlliedSignal">Barrett Chemical Company</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, making <a href="/wiki/TNT" title="TNT">TNT</a>, rather than joining the army as a soldier.<sup id="cite_ref-Shindell_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shindell-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the war, he returned to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Montana" title="University of Montana">University of Montana</a> as an instructor in <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197019–20_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197019–20-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NNDB_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NNDB-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An academic career required a doctorate, so in 1921 Urey enrolled in a <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> program at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>, where he studied <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> under <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995366_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995366-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His initial attempt at a thesis was on the <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">ionization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cesium" class="mw-redirect" title="Cesium">cesium</a> vapor. He ran into difficulties, and <a href="/wiki/Meghnad_Saha" title="Meghnad Saha">Meghnad Saha</a> published a better paper on the same subject.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197026_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197026-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AIP_interview_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AIP_interview-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Urey then wrote his thesis on the ionization states of an <a href="/wiki/Ideal_gas" title="Ideal gas">ideal gas</a>, which was subsequently published in the <i><a href="/wiki/Astrophysical_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrophysical Journal">Astrophysical Journal</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995367_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995367-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After he received his PhD in 1923, Urey was awarded a fellowship by <a href="/wiki/The_American-Scandinavian_Foundation" title="The American-Scandinavian Foundation">the American-Scandinavian Foundation</a> to study at the <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr_Institute" title="Niels Bohr Institute">Niels Bohr Institute</a> in <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a>, where he met <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Kramers" title="Hans Kramers">Hans Kramers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georg_von_Hevesy" class="mw-redirect" title="Georg von Hevesy">Georg von Hevesy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_C._Slater" title="John C. Slater">John Slater</a>. At the conclusion of his stay, he traveled to Germany, where he met <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995368_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995368-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On returning to the United States, Urey received an offer of a <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Research Council">National Research Council</a> fellowship to <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>, and also received an offer to be a research associate at <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a>. He chose the latter. Before taking up the job, he traveled to <a href="/wiki/Seattle,_Washington" class="mw-redirect" title="Seattle, Washington">Seattle, Washington</a>, to visit his mother. On the way, he stopped by <a href="/wiki/Everett,_Washington" title="Everett, Washington">Everett, Washington</a>, where he knew Dr. Kate Daum, a colleague from the University of Montana.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dr. Daum introduced Urey to her sister, Frieda. Urey and Frieda soon became engaged. They were married at her father's house in <a href="/wiki/Lawrence,_Kansas" title="Lawrence, Kansas">Lawrence, Kansas</a>, in 1926.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197019–20_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197019–20-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The couple had four children: <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Baranger" title="Elizabeth Baranger">Gertrude Bessie (Elizabeth)</a>, born in 1927; Frieda Rebecca, born in 1929; Mary Alice, born in 1934; and John Clayton Urey, born in 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197037,_47–48,_72_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197037,_47–48,_72-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At Johns Hopkins, Urey and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ruark" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Ruark">Arthur Ruark</a> wrote <i>Atoms, Quanta and Molecules</i> (1930), one of the first English texts on quantum mechanics and its applications to atomic and molecular systems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995368_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995368-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1929, Urey became an associate professor of chemistry at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, where his colleagues included <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Schoenheimer" title="Rudolph Schoenheimer">Rudolph Schoenheimer</a>, David Rittenberg, and T. I. Taylor.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deuterium">Deuterium</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harold_Urey&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Deuterium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1920s, <a href="/wiki/William_Giauque" title="William Giauque">William Giauque</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herrick_L._Johnston" title="Herrick L. Johnston">Herrick L. Johnston</a> discovered the stable <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_oxygen" title="Isotopes of oxygen">isotopes of oxygen</a>. Isotopes were not well understood at the time; <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a> would not discover the <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> until 1932. Two systems were in use for classifying them, based on chemical and physical properties. The latter was determined using the <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectrograph">mass spectrograph</a>. Since it was known that the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic weight">atomic weight</a> of oxygen was almost exactly 16 times as heavy as hydrogen, <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Thayer_Birge" title="Raymond Thayer Birge">Raymond Birge</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Menzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Menzel">Donald Menzel</a> hypothesized that hydrogen had more than one isotope as well. Based upon the difference between the results of the two methods, they predicted that only one hydrogen atom in 4,500 was of the heavy isotope.<sup id="cite_ref-Physics_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Physics-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1931, Urey set out to find it. Urey and George M. Murphy (1903–1968)<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> calculated from the <a href="/wiki/Balmer_series" title="Balmer series">Balmer series</a> that the heavy isotope should have lines <a href="/wiki/Blueshift" class="mw-redirect" title="Blueshift">blueshifted</a> (correspondingly the light isotope <a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">redshifted</a>) by 1.1 to 1.8 <a href="/wiki/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m" class="mw-redirect" title="Ångström">ångströms</a> (1.1<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>−10</sup> to 1.8<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>−10</sup> <a href="/wiki/Metre" title="Metre">metres</a>). Urey had access to a 21-foot (6.4 m) <a href="/wiki/Diffraction_grating" title="Diffraction grating">grating</a> <a href="/wiki/Spectrograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectrograph">spectrograph</a>, a sensitive device that had been recently installed at Columbia and was capable of resolving the Balmer series. With a resolution of 1 Å per millimetre, the machine should have produced a difference of about 1 millimetre.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995370–371_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995370–371-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, since only one atom in 4,500 was heavy, the line on the spectrograph was very faint. Urey therefore decided to delay publishing their results until he had more conclusive evidence that it was heavy hydrogen.<sup id="cite_ref-Physics_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Physics-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Urey and Murphy calculated from the <a href="/wiki/Debye_model" title="Debye model">Debye model</a> that the heavy isotope would have a slightly higher boiling point than the light one. By carefully warming liquid hydrogen, 5 litres of liquid hydrogen could be distilled to 1 millilitre, which would be enriched in the heavy isotope by 100 to 200 times. To obtain five litres of liquid hydrogen, they traveled to the cryogenics laboratory at the <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Standards" class="mw-redirect" title="National Bureau of Standards">National Bureau of Standards</a> in Washington, D.C., where they obtained the help of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Brickwedde" title="Ferdinand Brickwedde">Ferdinand Brickwedde</a>, whom Urey had known at Johns Hopkins.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995370–371_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995370–371-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first sample that Brickwedde sent was evaporated at 20 K (−253.2 °C; −423.7 °F) at a pressure of 1 standard atmosphere (100 kPa). To their surprise, this showed no evidence of enrichment. Brickwedde then prepared a second sample evaporated at 14 K (−259.1 °C; −434.5 °F) at a pressure of 53 mmHg (7.1 kPa). On this sample, the Balmer lines for heavy hydrogen were seven times as intense.<sup id="cite_ref-Physics_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Physics-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The paper announcing the discovery of heavy hydrogen, later named <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a>, was jointly published by Urey, Murphy, and Brickwedde in 1932.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Urey was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> in 1934 "for his discovery of heavy hydrogen".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He declined to attend the ceremony in Stockholm, so that he could be present at the birth of his daughter Mary Alice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197047_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197047-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was elected to both the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a> and the United States <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> the following year.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Working with <a href="/wiki/Edward_Wight_Washburn" title="Edward Wight Washburn">Edward W. Washburn</a> from the Bureau of Standards, Urey subsequently discovered the cause of the anomalous sample. Brickwedde's hydrogen had been separated from water by <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a>, resulting in a depleted sample. Moreover, <a href="/wiki/Francis_William_Aston" title="Francis William Aston">Francis William Aston</a> had reported that his calculated value for the atomic weight of hydrogen was wrong, thereby invalidating Birge and Menzel's original reasoning. The discovery of deuterium stood, however.<sup id="cite_ref-Physics_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Physics-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Urey and Washburn attempted to use electrolysis to create pure <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a>. Their technique was sound, but they were beaten to it in 1933 by Lewis, who had the resources of the University of California at his disposal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197045_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197045-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using the <a href="/wiki/Born%E2%80%93Oppenheimer_approximation" title="Born–Oppenheimer approximation">Born–Oppenheimer approximation</a>, Urey and <a href="/wiki/David_Rittenberg" title="David Rittenberg">David Rittenberg</a> calculated the properties of gases containing hydrogen and deuterium. They extended this to enriching compounds of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. These could be used as tracers in <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>, resulting in a whole new way of examining chemical reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995373–375_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995373–375-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He founded the <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Chemical_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Chemical Physics">Journal of Chemical Physics</a></i> in 1932, and was its first editor, serving in that capacity until 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995392_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995392-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At Columbia, Urey chaired the University Federation for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom. He supported <a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticist</a> <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Streit" title="Clarence Streit">Clarence Streit</a>'s proposal for a federal union of the world's major <a href="/wiki/Democracies" class="mw-redirect" title="Democracies">democracies</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Republican_faction_(Spanish_Civil_War)" title="Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)">republican</a> cause during the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a>. He was an early opponent of German <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a> and assisted refugee scientists, including <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>, by helping them find work in the United States, and to adjust to life in a new country.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995389_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995389-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manhattan_Project">Manhattan Project</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harold_Urey&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Manhattan Project"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the time World War II broke out in Europe in 1939, Urey was recognized as a world expert on isotope separation. Thus far, separation had involved only the light elements. In 1939 and 1940, Urey published two papers on the separation of heavier isotopes in which he proposed centrifugal separation. This assumed great importance due to speculation by Niels Bohr that <a href="/wiki/Uranium_235" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium 235">uranium 235</a> was <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995377–378_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995377–378-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because it was considered "very doubtful whether a chain reaction can be established without separating 235 from the rest of the uranium,"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196222_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196222-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Urey began intensive studies of how uranium enrichment might be achieved.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196221–22_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196221–22-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apart from centrifugal separation, <a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a> suggested that <a href="/wiki/Gaseous_diffusion" title="Gaseous diffusion">gaseous diffusion</a> might be a possible method. A third possibility was <a href="/wiki/Uranium_enrichment#Thermal_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium enrichment">thermal diffusion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196230–32_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196230–32-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Urey coordinated all isotope separation research efforts, including the effort to produce heavy water, which could be used as a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">neutron moderator</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995379_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995379-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196245,_50_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196245,_50-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S1_Committee_1942.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/S1_Committee_1942.jpg/220px-S1_Committee_1942.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/S1_Committee_1942.jpg/330px-S1_Committee_1942.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/S1_Committee_1942.jpg/440px-S1_Committee_1942.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="783" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">S-1 Executive Committee</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Grove" title="Bohemian Grove">Bohemian Grove</a>, September 13, 1942. From left to right are Urey, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_O._Lawrence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest O. Lawrence">Ernest O. Lawrence</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyman_J._Briggs" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyman J. Briggs">Lyman J. Briggs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eger_V._Murphree" title="Eger V. Murphree">Eger V. Murphree</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_H._Compton" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur H. Compton">Arthur H. Compton</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In May 1941, Urey was appointed to the <a href="/wiki/S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">Committee on Uranium</a>, which oversaw the uranium project as part of the <a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Research_Committee" title="National Defense Research Committee">National Defense Research Committee</a> (NDRC).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196275_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196275-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1941, Urey and <a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a> led a diplomatic mission to England to establish co-operation on development of the atomic bomb. The British were optimistic about gaseous diffusion,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196244_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196244-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it was clear that both gaseous and centrifugal methods faced formidable technical obstacles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196263–64_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196263–64-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May 1943, as the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> gained momentum. Urey became head of the wartime Substitute Alloy Materials Laboratories (<a href="/wiki/SAM_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="SAM Laboratories">SAM Laboratories</a>) at Columbia, which was responsible for the heavy water and all the isotope enrichment processes except <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a>'s electromagnetic process.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962128–129_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962128–129-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early reports on the centrifugal method indicated that it was not as efficient as predicted. Urey suggested that a more efficient but technically more complicated countercurrent system be used instead of the previous flow-through method. By November 1941, technical obstacles seemed formidable enough for the process to be abandoned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196297,_108_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196297,_108-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Countercurrent centrifuges were developed after the war, and today are the favored method in many countries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995381_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995381-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The gaseous diffusion process remained more encouraging, although it too had technical obstacles to overcome.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196297–101_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196297–101-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of 1943, Urey had over 700 people working for him on gaseous diffusion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995382_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995382-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process involved hundreds of cascades, in which corrosive <a href="/wiki/Uranium_hexafluoride" title="Uranium hexafluoride">uranium hexafluoride</a> diffused through gaseous barriers, becoming progressively more enriched at every stage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196297–101_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196297–101-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A major problem was finding proper seals for the pumps, but by far the greatest difficulty lay in constructing an appropriate diffusion barrier.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962124–129_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962124–129-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Construction of the huge <a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25</a> gaseous diffusion plant was well under way before a suitable barrier became available in quantity in 1944. As a backup, Urey championed thermal diffusion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962629–630_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962629–630-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Worn out by the effort, Urey left the project in February 1945, handing over his responsibilities to R. H. Crist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197051–52_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197051–52-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The K-25 plant commenced operation in March 1945, and as the bugs were worked out, the plant operated with remarkable efficiency and economy. For a time, uranium was fed into the <a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S50 liquid thermal diffusion plant</a>, then the K-25 gaseous, and finally the <a href="/wiki/Y-12_National_Security_Complex" title="Y-12 National Security Complex">Y-12 electromagnetic separation plant</a>; but soon after the war ended the thermal and electromagnetic separation plants were closed down, and separation was performed by K-25 alone. Along with its twin, K-27, constructed in 1946, it became the principal isotope separation plant in the early post-war period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995383_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995383-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962629–630_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962629–630-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For his work on the Manhattan Project, Urey was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Medal_for_Merit" title="Medal for Merit">Medal for Merit</a> by the Project director, <a href="/wiki/Major_General_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Major General (United States)">Major General</a> <a href="/wiki/Leslie_R._Groves,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Leslie R. Groves, Jr.">Leslie R. Groves, Jr.</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197051–52_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197051–52-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-war_years">Post-war years</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harold_Urey&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Post-war years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the war, Urey became professor of chemistry at the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Nuclear_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute for Nuclear Studies">Institute for Nuclear Studies</a>, and then became Ryerson professor of chemistry at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> in 1952.<sup id="cite_ref-NNDB_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NNDB-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He did not continue his pre-war research with isotopes. However, applying the knowledge gained with hydrogen to oxygen, he realized that the <a href="/wiki/Fractionation" title="Fractionation">fractionation</a> between <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a> and water for <a href="/wiki/Oxygen-18" title="Oxygen-18">oxygen-18</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen-16" title="Oxygen-16">oxygen-16</a> would decrease by a factor of 1.04 between 0 and 25 °C (32 and 77 °F). The ratio of the isotopes could then be used to determine average temperatures, assuming that the measurement equipment was sufficiently sensitive. The team included his colleague <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Buchsbaum" title="Ralph Buchsbaum">Ralph Buchsbaum</a>. Examination of a 100-million-year-old <a href="/wiki/Belemnite" class="mw-redirect" title="Belemnite">belemnite</a> then indicated the summer and winter temperatures that it had lived through over a period of four years. For this pioneering <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">paleoclimatic</a> research, Urey was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Arthur_L._Day_Medal" title="Arthur L. Day Medal">Arthur L. Day Medal</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Geological_Society_of_America" title="Geological Society of America">Geological Society of America</a>, and the Goldschmidt Medal of the <a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Society" title="Geochemical Society">Geochemical Society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995376–377_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995376–377-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While at the University of Chicago, Urey contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Urey%E2%80%93Bigeleisen%E2%80%93Mayer_equation" title="Urey–Bigeleisen–Mayer equation">Urey–Bigeleisen–Mayer equation</a>, a model of stable isotope fractionation. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Miller-Urey_experiment-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Miller-Urey_experiment-en.svg/300px-Miller-Urey_experiment-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Miller-Urey_experiment-en.svg/450px-Miller-Urey_experiment-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Miller-Urey_experiment-en.svg/600px-Miller-Urey_experiment-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="653" data-file-height="608" /></a><figcaption>Miller–Urey experiment</figcaption></figure> <p>Urey actively campaigned against the 1946 <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">May-Johnson bill</a> because he feared that it would lead to military control of nuclear energy, but supported and fought for the McMahon bill that replaced it, and ultimately created the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a>. Urey's commitment to the ideal of <a href="/wiki/World_government" title="World government">world government</a> dated from before the war, but the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear war">nuclear war</a> made it only more urgent in his mind. He went on lecture tours against war, and became involved in Congressional debates regarding nuclear issues. He argued publicly on behalf of <a href="/wiki/Ethel_and_Julius_Rosenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethel and Julius Rosenberg">Ethel and Julius Rosenberg</a>, and was called before the <a href="/wiki/House_Un-American_Activities_Committee" title="House Un-American Activities Committee">House Un-American Activities Committee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995389–390_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995389–390-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cosmochemistry_and_the_Miller–Urey_experiment"><span id="Cosmochemistry_and_the_Miller.E2.80.93Urey_experiment"></span>Cosmochemistry and the Miller–Urey experiment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harold_Urey&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cosmochemistry and the Miller–Urey experiment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In later life, Urey helped develop the field of <a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">cosmochemistry</a> and is credited with coining the term. His work on oxygen-18 led him to develop theories about the <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements" title="Abundance of the chemical elements">abundance of the chemical elements</a> on Earth, and of their abundance and evolution in the stars. Urey summarized his work in <i>The Planets: Their Origin and Development</i> (1952). Urey speculated that the early terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a> was composed of <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, and hydrogen. One of his Chicago graduate students, <a href="/wiki/Stanley_L._Miller" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanley L. Miller">Stanley L. Miller</a>, showed in the <i><a href="/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Urey_experiment" title="Miller–Urey experiment">Miller–Urey experiment</a></i> that, if such a mixture is exposed to electric sparks and to water, it can interact to produce <a href="/wiki/Amino_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acids">amino acids</a>, commonly considered the building blocks of life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995385–386_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995385–386-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Urey spent a year in the United Kingdom as a visiting professor at <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University">Oxford University</a> in 1956 and 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-Harold_C._Urey_–_Biographical_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harold_C._Urey_–_Biographical-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1958, he reached the University of Chicago's retirement age of 65, but he accepted a post as a professor at large at the new <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Diego" title="University of California, San Diego">University of California, San Diego</a> (UCSD), and moved to <a href="/wiki/La_Jolla,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="La Jolla, California">La Jolla, California</a>. He was subsequently made a <a href="/wiki/Professor_emeritus" class="mw-redirect" title="Professor emeritus">professor emeritus</a> there from 1970 to 1981.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995386–387_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995386–387-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197062–64_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197062–64-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NNDB_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NNDB-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Urey helped build up the science faculty there. He was one of the founding members of UCSD's school of chemistry, which was created in 1960, along with Stanley Miller, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Suess" title="Hans Suess">Hans Suess</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_R._Arnold" title="James R. Arnold">Jim Arnold</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995386–387_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995386–387-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197066–68_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197066–68-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 1950s and early 1960s, space science became a topic of research in the wake of the launch of <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a>. Urey helped persuade <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> to make uncrewed probes to the Moon a priority. When <a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a> returned <a href="/wiki/Moon_rock" title="Moon rock">Moon rock</a> samples from the Moon, Urey examined them at the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_Receiving_Laboratory" title="Lunar Receiving Laboratory">Lunar Receiving Laboratory</a>. The samples supported Urey's contention that the Moon and the Earth shared a common origin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995386–387_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995386–387-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197066–68_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197066–68-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While at UCSD, Urey published 105 scientific papers, 47 of them about lunar topics. When asked why he continued to work so hard, he joked, "Well, you know I'm not on tenure anymore."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995393_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995393-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death_and_legacy">Death and legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harold_Urey&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Death and legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Urey enjoyed gardening and raising <a href="/wiki/Cattleya" title="Cattleya">cattleya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cymbidium" title="Cymbidium">cymbidium</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Orchids" class="mw-redirect" title="Orchids">orchids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995394_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995394-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He died at La Jolla, California, and is buried in the Fairfield Cemetery in <a href="/wiki/DeKalb_County,_Indiana" title="DeKalb County, Indiana">DeKalb County, Indiana</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NNDB_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NNDB-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Apart from his Nobel Prize, he also won the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Medal" title="Franklin Medal">Franklin Medal</a> in 1943, the <a href="/wiki/J._Lawrence_Smith_Medal" title="J. Lawrence Smith Medal">J. Lawrence Smith Medal</a> in 1962, the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Medal_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society">Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society</a> in 1966, the Golden Plate Award of the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Achievement" title="Academy of Achievement">American Academy of Achievement</a> in 1966,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Priestley_Medal" title="Priestley Medal">Priestley Medal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">American Chemical Society</a> in 1973. In 1964 he received the <a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995395–398_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995395–398-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He became a <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">Fellow of the Royal Society</a> in 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-frs_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frs-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Named after him are <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">lunar</a> <a href="/wiki/Impact_crater" title="Impact crater">impact crater</a> <a href="/wiki/Urey_(crater)" title="Urey (crater)">Urey</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-NNDB_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NNDB-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> asteroid <a href="/wiki/4716_Urey" class="mw-redirect" title="4716 Urey">4716 Urey</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/H._C._Urey_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="H. C. Urey Prize">H. C. Urey Prize</a>, awarded for achievement in <a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">planetary sciences</a> by the <a href="/wiki/American_Astronomical_Society" title="American Astronomical Society">American Astronomical Society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Harold C. Urey Middle School in Walkerton, Indiana, is also named for him,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as is Urey Hall, the chemistry building at Revelle College, UCSD, in La Jolla<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Harold C. Urey Lecture Hall at the University of Montana.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> UCSD has also established a Harold C. Urey chair whose first holder was James Arnold.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Urey's daughter, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Baranger" title="Elizabeth Baranger">Elizabeth Baranger</a>, also became a notable physicist.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harold_Urey&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate%E2%80%93silicate_cycle" title="Carbonate–silicate cycle">Carbonate–silicate cycle</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harold_Urey&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMillerOró1981" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, S. L.; Oró, J. (1981). "Harold C. 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Harold C. Urey was Noble Prize Winner in Chemistry"</a>. KPC News. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kpcnews.net/special-sections/reflections3/reflections4.html">the original</a> on January 5, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 7,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kendallville+graduate+worked+on+Manhattan+Project+in+World+War+II+%E2%80%93+Drr.+Harold+C.+Urey+was+Noble+Prize+Winner+in+Chemistry&rft.pub=KPC+News&rft.aulast=Housholder&rft.aufirst=Terry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kpcnews.net%2Fspecial-sections%2Freflections3%2Freflections4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarold+Urey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrey1965" class="citation interview cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Urey, Harold</a> (March 3, 1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/voices/oral-histories/harold-ureys-interview/">"Harold Urey's Interview"</a>. <i>Voices of the Manhattan Project</i> (Interview). Interviewed by Stephane Groueff. <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Heritage_Foundation" title="Atomic Heritage Foundation">Atomic Heritage Foundation</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 20,</span> 2024</span>. <q>The name is English. All the rest of my grandparents are German. Their names are Hofstettler. Hofstettler is a corruption. It was Hochstettler or something. And Eckhart and Reinoehl, very German, you see.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Voices+of+the+Manhattan+Project&rft.atitle=Harold+Urey%27s+Interview&rft.date=1965-03-03&rft.aulast=Urey&rft.aufirst=Harold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fahf.nuclearmuseum.org%2Fvoices%2Foral-histories%2Fharold-ureys-interview%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarold+Urey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein19708-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein19708_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSilversteinSilverstein1970">Silverstein & Silverstein 1970</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NNDB-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NNDB_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NNDB_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NNDB_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NNDB_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NNDB_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NNDB_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nndb.com/people/873/000092597/">"Harold C. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 6,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Harold+C.+Urey+%E2%80%93+Biographical&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fchemistry%2Flaureates%2F1934%2Furey-bio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarold+Urey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995386–387-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995386–387_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995386–387_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995386–387_56-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995">Arnold, Bigeleisen & Hutchison 1995</a>, pp. 386–387.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197062–64-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197062–64_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSilversteinSilverstein1970">Silverstein & Silverstein 1970</a>, pp. 62–64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197066–68-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197066–68_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilversteinSilverstein197066–68_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSilversteinSilverstein1970">Silverstein & Silverstein 1970</a>, pp. 66–68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995393-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995393_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995">Arnold, Bigeleisen & Hutchison 1995</a>, p. 393.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995394-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995394_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995">Arnold, Bigeleisen & Hutchison 1995</a>, p. 394.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#science-exploration">"Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement"</a>. <i>www.achievement.org</i>. <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Achievement" class="mw-redirect" title="American Academy of Achievement">American Academy of Achievement</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.achievement.org&rft.atitle=Golden+Plate+Awardees+of+the+American+Academy+of+Achievement&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fachievement.org%2Four-history%2Fgolden-plate-awards%2F%23science-exploration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarold+Urey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995395–398-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995395–398_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995">Arnold, Bigeleisen & Hutchison 1995</a>, pp. 395–398.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-frs-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-frs_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohenRuncornSuessThode1983" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen, K. P.; <a href="/wiki/Keith_Runcorn" title="Keith Runcorn">Runcorn, S. K.</a>; Suess, H. E.; <a href="/wiki/Harry_Thode" title="Harry Thode">Thode, H. G.</a> (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1983.0022">"Harold Clayton Urey 29 April 1893-5 January 1981"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Biographical_Memoirs_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society">Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society</a></i>. <b>29</b>: 622–659. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1983.0022">10.1098/rsbm.1983.0022</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/769815">769815</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biographical+Memoirs+of+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Harold+Clayton+Urey+29+April+1893-5+January+1981&rft.volume=29&rft.pages=622-659&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.1983.0022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F769815%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=K.+P.&rft.au=Runcorn%2C+S.+K.&rft.au=Suess%2C+H.+E.&rft.au=Thode%2C+H.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frsbm.1983.0022&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarold+Urey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi">"4716 Urey (1989 UL5)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 9,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=4716+Urey+%281989+UL5%29&rft.pub=NASA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fssd.jpl.nasa.gov%2Fsbdb.cgi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarold+Urey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dps.aas.org/prizes/urey">"Harold C. Urey Prize in Planetary Science"</a>. Division for Planetary Sciences of the American Astronomical Society<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 9,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Harold+C.+Urey+Prize+in+Planetary+Science&rft.pub=Division+for+Planetary+Sciences+of+the+American+Astronomical+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdps.aas.org%2Fprizes%2Furey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarold+Urey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usa.com/public-school/harold-c-urey-middle-school-walkerton-in-180912001504.html?nv=koontz-lake-in-public-schools">"Harold C. Urey Middle School"</a>. USA.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 9,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Harold+C.+Urey+Middle+School&rft.pub=USA.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usa.com%2Fpublic-school%2Fharold-c-urey-middle-school-walkerton-in-180912001504.html%3Fnv%3Dkoontz-lake-in-public-schools&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarold+Urey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://facilities.ucsd.edu/NA/NamedBuildings/Building.htm?Bkey=516">"Urey Hall"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Diego" title="University of California, San Diego">University of California, San Diego</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 9,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Urey+Hall&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+San+Diego&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffacilities.ucsd.edu%2FNA%2FNamedBuildings%2FBuilding.htm%3FBkey%3D516&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarold+Urey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.umt.edu/news/2020/08/080720urey.php">"UM's Urey Lecture Hall Transformation Nears Completion"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Montana" title="University of Montana">University of Montana</a>. August 7, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 10,</span> 2021</span>. <q>Urey Hall was named after UM alumni and instructor Harold C. Urey, who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1934 for his discovery of deuterium, the heavy form of hydrogen.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UM%27s+Urey+Lecture+Hall+Transformation+Nears+Completion&rft.pub=University+of+Montana&rft.date=2020-08-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.umt.edu%2Fnews%2F2020%2F08%2F080720urey.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarold+Urey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libraries.ucsd.edu/historyofucsd/#ark:bb2492745p">"Dr James R. Arnold"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Diego" title="University of California, San Diego">University of California, San Diego</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 9,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dr+James+R.+Arnold&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+San+Diego&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibraries.ucsd.edu%2Fhistoryofucsd%2F%23ark%3Abb2492745p&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarold+Urey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarpenter2004" class="citation cs2">Carpenter, Mackenzie (May 30, 2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.post-gazette.com/uncategorized/2004/05/31/NEWSMAKER-Elizabeth-Baranger-Pioneering-woman-professor-at-Pitt-shuns-spotlight/stories/200405310108">"Newsmaker: Elizabeth Baranger / Pioneering woman professor at Pitt shuns spotlight"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_Post-Gazette" title="Pittsburgh Post-Gazette">Pittsburgh Post-Gazette</a></i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pittsburgh+Post-Gazette&rft.atitle=Newsmaker%3A+Elizabeth+Baranger+%2F+Pioneering+woman+professor+at+Pitt+shuns+spotlight&rft.date=2004-05-30&rft.aulast=Carpenter&rft.aufirst=Mackenzie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.post-gazette.com%2Funcategorized%2F2004%2F05%2F31%2FNEWSMAKER-Elizabeth-Baranger-Pioneering-woman-professor-at-Pitt-shuns-spotlight%2Fstories%2F200405310108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarold+Urey" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harold_Urey&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnoldBigeleisenHutchison1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_R._Arnold" title="James R. Arnold">Arnold, James R</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bigeleisen" title="Jacob Bigeleisen">Bigeleisen, Jacob</a>; <a href="/wiki/Clyde_A._Hutchison,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Clyde A. Hutchison, Jr.">Hutchison, Clyde A. Jr</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/hurey.html">"Harold Clayton Urey 1893–1981"</a>. <i>Biographical Memoirs</i>: 363–411<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 7,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biographical+Memoirs&rft.atitle=Harold+Clayton+Urey+1893%E2%80%931981&rft.pages=363-411&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=James+R&rft.au=Bigeleisen%2C+Jacob&rft.au=Hutchison%2C+Clyde+A.+Jr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Freadingroom%2Fbooks%2Fbiomems%2Fhurey.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarold+Urey" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Hewlett" title="Richard G. Hewlett">Hewlett, Richard G.</a>; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.governmentattic.org/5docs/TheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf"><i>The New World, 1939–1946</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07186-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07186-5"><bdi>978-0-520-07186-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/637004643">637004643</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 26,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+World%2C+1939%E2%80%931946&rft.place=University+Park&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F637004643&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07186-5&rft.aulast=Hewlett&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Oscar+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.governmentattic.org%2F5docs%2FTheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarold+Urey" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Shindell" class="citation book cs1">Shindell, Matthew (2019). <i>The Life and Science of Harold C. Urey</i>. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-66208-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-66208-4"><bdi>978-0-226-66208-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+and+Science+of+Harold+C.+Urey&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-226-66208-4&rft.aulast=Shindell&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarold+Urey" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilversteinSilverstein1970" class="citation book cs1">Silverstein, Alvin; Silverstein, Virginia B. (1970). <i>Harold Urey: the Man who Explored from Earth to Moon</i>. New York: J. Day. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/115279">115279</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harold+Urey%3A+the+Man+who+Explored+from+Earth+to+Moon&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=J.+Day&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F115279&rft.aulast=Silverstein&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rft.au=Silverstein%2C+Virginia+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarold+Urey" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harold_Urey&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libraries.ucsd.edu/speccoll/findingaids/mss0044.html">Harold Clayton Urey Papers</a> MSS 44. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libraries.ucsd.edu/collections/sca/">Special Collections & Archives</a>, UC San Diego Library.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/harold-ureys-interview">1965 Audio Interview with Harold Urey by Stephane Groueff</a> Voices of the Manhattan Project</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/hurey.html">National Academy of Sciences biography</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmsJpJLRGc4">Harold Urey – Explaining why he rejects the notion of the moon breaking away from the earth – 1972</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/192">Harold Urey</a> on Nobelprize.org <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179777#P8024" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span> including the Nobel Lecture on February 14, 1935 <i>Some Thermodynamic Properties of Hydrogen and Deuterium</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.HCUREY">Guide to the Harold C. Urey Papers 1932-1953</a> at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/scrc/">University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1952ptod.conf.....U/abstract">The planets: Their origin and development.</a> Mrs. Hepsa Ely Silliman Memorial Lectures. Urey describes the <a href="/wiki/Carbonate%E2%80%93silicate_cycle" title="Carbonate–silicate cycle">carbonate–silicate geochemical cycle</a> controlling the long-term climate on Earth during the geological ages (see Berner, Lasaga and Garrels (1983) on the subject).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Berner, Robert; Lasaga, Antonio; Garrels, Robert (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.283.7.641">"The carbonate-silicate geochemical cycle and its effect on atmospheric carbon dioxide over the past 100 million years"</a>. <i>American Journal of Science</i>. <b>283</b> (7): 641–683. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983AmJS..283..641B">1983AmJS..283..641B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.283.7.641">10.2475/ajs.283.7.641</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=The+carbonate-silicate+geochemical+cycle+and+its+effect+on+atmospheric+carbon+dioxide+over+the+past+100+million+years&rft.volume=283&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=641-683&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2475%2Fajs.283.7.641&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983AmJS..283..641B&rft.aulast=Berner&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Lasaga%2C+Antonio&rft.au=Garrels%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2475%252Fajs.283.7.641&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarold+Urey" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Template:Nobel Prize in Chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Template talk:Nobel Prize in Chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Prize in Chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Chemistry" title="List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1901: <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Henricus_van_%27t_Hoff" title="Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff">Jacobus van 't Hoff</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1902: <a href="/wiki/Emil_Fischer" title="Emil Fischer">Emil Fischer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1903: <a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1904: <a href="/wiki/William_Ramsay" title="William Ramsay">William Ramsay</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1905: <a href="/wiki/Adolf_von_Baeyer" title="Adolf von Baeyer">Adolf von Baeyer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1906: <a href="/wiki/Henri_Moissan" title="Henri Moissan">Henri Moissan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1907: <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Buchner" title="Eduard Buchner">Eduard Buchner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1908: <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1909: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Ostwald" title="Wilhelm Ostwald">Wilhelm Ostwald</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1910: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Wallach" title="Otto Wallach">Otto Wallach</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1911: <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1912: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Grignard" title="Victor Grignard">Victor Grignard</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Sabatier_(chemist)" title="Paul Sabatier (chemist)">Paul Sabatier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1913: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Werner" title="Alfred Werner">Alfred Werner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1914: <a href="/wiki/Theodore_William_Richards" title="Theodore William Richards">Theodore Richards</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1915: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Willst%C3%A4tter" title="Richard Willstätter">Richard Willstätter</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1916</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1917</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1918: <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1919</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1920: <a href="/wiki/Walther_Nernst" title="Walther Nernst">Walther Nernst</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1921: <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Soddy" title="Frederick Soddy">Frederick Soddy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1922: <a href="/wiki/Francis_William_Aston" title="Francis William Aston">Francis Aston</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1923: <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Pregl" title="Fritz Pregl">Fritz Pregl</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1924</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1925: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Adolf_Zsigmondy" title="Richard Adolf Zsigmondy">Richard Zsigmondy</a></span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1926: <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Svedberg" title="Theodor Svedberg">Theodor Svedberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1927: <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Otto_Wieland" title="Heinrich Otto Wieland">Heinrich Wieland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1928: <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Windaus" title="Adolf Windaus">Adolf Windaus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1929: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Harden" title="Arthur Harden">Arthur Harden</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hans_von_Euler-Chelpin" title="Hans von Euler-Chelpin">Hans von Euler-Chelpin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1930: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Fischer" title="Hans Fischer">Hans Fischer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1931: <a href="/wiki/Carl_Bosch" title="Carl Bosch">Carl Bosch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Bergius" title="Friedrich Bergius">Friedrich Bergius</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1932: <a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuir</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1933</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1934: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Harold Urey</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1935: <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie" title="Frédéric Joliot-Curie">Frédéric Joliot-Curie</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Irène Joliot-Curie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1936: <a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1937: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Haworth" title="Norman Haworth">Norman Haworth</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Karrer" title="Paul Karrer">Paul Karrer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1938: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Kuhn" title="Richard Kuhn">Richard Kuhn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1939: <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Butenandt" title="Adolf Butenandt">Adolf Butenandt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Ru%C5%BEi%C4%8Dka" title="Leopold Ružička">Leopold Ružička</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1940</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1941</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1942</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1943: <a href="/wiki/George_de_Hevesy" title="George de Hevesy">George de Hevesy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1944: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1945: <a href="/wiki/Artturi_Ilmari_Virtanen" title="Artturi Ilmari Virtanen">Artturi Virtanen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1946: <a href="/wiki/James_B._Sumner" title="James B. Sumner">James B. Sumner</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Howard_Northrop" title="John Howard Northrop">John Northrop</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Meredith_Stanley" title="Wendell Meredith Stanley">Wendell Meredith Stanley</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1947: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Robinson_(chemist)" title="Robert Robinson (chemist)">Robert Robinson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1948: <a href="/wiki/Arne_Tiselius" title="Arne Tiselius">Arne Tiselius</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1949: <a href="/wiki/William_Giauque" title="William Giauque">William Giauque</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1950: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Diels" title="Otto Diels">Otto Diels</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Alder" title="Kurt Alder">Kurt Alder</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1951: <a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1952: <a href="/wiki/Archer_Martin" title="Archer Martin">Archer Martin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Laurence_Millington_Synge" title="Richard Laurence Millington Synge">Richard Synge</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1953: <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Staudinger" title="Hermann Staudinger">Hermann Staudinger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1954: <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1955: <a href="/wiki/Vincent_du_Vigneaud" title="Vincent du Vigneaud">Vincent du Vigneaud</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1956: <a href="/wiki/Cyril_Norman_Hinshelwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyril Norman Hinshelwood">Cyril Hinshelwood</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Semyonov" title="Nikolay Semyonov">Nikolay Semyonov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1957: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_R._Todd" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander R. Todd">Alexander Todd</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1958: <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1959: <a href="/wiki/Jaroslav_Heyrovsk%C3%BD" title="Jaroslav Heyrovský">Jaroslav Heyrovský</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1960: <a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1961: <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1962: <a href="/wiki/Max_Perutz" title="Max Perutz">Max Perutz</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Kendrew" title="John Kendrew">John Kendrew</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1963: <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ziegler" title="Karl Ziegler">Karl Ziegler</a> / <a href="/wiki/Giulio_Natta" title="Giulio Natta">Giulio Natta</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1964: <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Hodgkin" title="Dorothy Hodgkin">Dorothy Hodgkin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1965: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Woodward</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1966: <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Mulliken" title="Robert S. Mulliken">Robert S. Mulliken</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1967: <a href="/wiki/Manfred_Eigen" title="Manfred Eigen">Manfred Eigen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ronald_George_Wreyford_Norrish" title="Ronald George Wreyford Norrish">Ronald Norrish</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Porter" title="George Porter">George Porter</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1968: <a href="/wiki/Lars_Onsager" title="Lars Onsager">Lars Onsager</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1969: <a href="/wiki/Derek_Barton" title="Derek Barton">Derek Barton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Odd_Hassel" title="Odd Hassel">Odd Hassel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1970: <a href="/wiki/Luis_Federico_Leloir" title="Luis Federico Leloir">Luis Federico Leloir</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1971: <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Herzberg" title="Gerhard Herzberg">Gerhard Herzberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1972: <a href="/wiki/Christian_B._Anfinsen" title="Christian B. Anfinsen">Christian B. Anfinsen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Moore" title="Stanford Moore">Stanford Moore</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Stein" title="William Howard Stein">William Stein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1973: <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Otto_Fischer" title="Ernst Otto Fischer">Ernst Otto Fischer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Wilkinson" title="Geoffrey Wilkinson">Geoffrey Wilkinson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1974: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Flory" title="Paul Flory">Paul Flory</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1975: <a href="/wiki/John_Cornforth" title="John Cornforth">John Cornforth</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Prelog" title="Vladimir Prelog">Vladimir Prelog</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1976: <a href="/wiki/William_Lipscomb" title="William Lipscomb">William Lipscomb</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1977: <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Prigogine" title="Ilya Prigogine">Ilya Prigogine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1978: <a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Mitchell" title="Peter D. Mitchell">Peter D. Mitchell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1979: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_C._Brown" title="Herbert C. Brown">Herbert C. Brown</a> / <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wittig" title="Georg Wittig">Georg Wittig</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1980: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gilbert" title="Walter Gilbert">Walter Gilbert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1981: <a href="/wiki/Kenichi_Fukui" title="Kenichi Fukui">Kenichi Fukui</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roald_Hoffmann" title="Roald Hoffmann">Roald Hoffmann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1982: <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Klug" title="Aaron Klug">Aaron Klug</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1983: <a href="/wiki/Henry_Taube" title="Henry Taube">Henry Taube</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1984: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bruce_Merrifield" title="Robert Bruce Merrifield">Robert Merrifield</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1985: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Hauptman" title="Herbert A. Hauptman">Herbert A. Hauptman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Karle" title="Jerome Karle">Jerome Karle</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1986: <a href="/wiki/Dudley_R._Herschbach" title="Dudley R. Herschbach">Dudley R. Herschbach</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yuan_T._Lee" title="Yuan T. Lee">Yuan T. Lee</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Polanyi" title="John Polanyi">John Polanyi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1987: <a href="/wiki/Donald_J._Cram" title="Donald J. Cram">Donald J. Cram</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Lehn" title="Jean-Marie Lehn">Jean-Marie Lehn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_J._Pedersen" title="Charles J. Pedersen">Charles J. Pedersen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1988: <a href="/wiki/Johann_Deisenhofer" title="Johann Deisenhofer">Johann Deisenhofer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Huber" title="Robert Huber">Robert Huber</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hartmut_Michel" title="Hartmut Michel">Hartmut Michel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1989: <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Altman" title="Sidney Altman">Sidney Altman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cech" title="Thomas Cech">Thomas Cech</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1990: <a href="/wiki/Elias_James_Corey" title="Elias James Corey">Elias Corey</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1991: <a href="/wiki/Richard_R._Ernst" title="Richard R. Ernst">Richard R. Ernst</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1992: <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_A._Marcus" title="Rudolph A. Marcus">Rudolph A. Marcus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1993: <a href="/wiki/Kary_Mullis" title="Kary Mullis">Kary Mullis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Smith_(chemist)" title="Michael Smith (chemist)">Michael Smith</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1994: <a href="/wiki/George_Andrew_Olah" title="George Andrew Olah">George Olah</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1995: <a href="/wiki/Paul_J._Crutzen" title="Paul J. Crutzen">Paul J. Crutzen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Mario_Molina" title="Mario Molina">Mario Molina</a> / <a href="/wiki/F._Sherwood_Rowland" title="F. Sherwood Rowland">F. Sherwood Rowland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1996: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Curl" title="Robert Curl">Robert Curl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Harry_Kroto" title="Harry Kroto">Harold Kroto</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Smalley" title="Richard Smalley">Richard Smalley</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1997: <a href="/wiki/Paul_D._Boyer" title="Paul D. Boyer">Paul D. Boyer</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_E._Walker" title="John E. Walker">John E. Walker</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jens_Christian_Skou" title="Jens Christian Skou">Jens Christian Skou</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1998: <a href="/wiki/Walter_Kohn" title="Walter Kohn">Walter Kohn</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Pople" title="John Pople">John Pople</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1999: <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Zewail" title="Ahmed Zewail">Ahmed Zewail</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2000: <a href="/wiki/Alan_J._Heeger" title="Alan J. Heeger">Alan J. Heeger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alan_MacDiarmid" title="Alan MacDiarmid">Alan MacDiarmid</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Shirakawa" title="Hideki Shirakawa">Hideki Shirakawa</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">2001: <a href="/wiki/William_Standish_Knowles" title="William Standish Knowles">William Knowles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ry%C5%8Dji_Noyori" title="Ryōji Noyori">Ryoji Noyori</a> / <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barry_Sharpless" title="Karl Barry Sharpless">K. Barry Sharpless</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2002: <a href="/wiki/John_B._Fenn" title="John B. Fenn">John B. Fenn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Koichi_Tanaka" title="Koichi Tanaka">Koichi Tanaka</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kurt_W%C3%BCthrich" title="Kurt Wüthrich">Kurt Wüthrich</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2003: <a href="/wiki/Peter_Agre" title="Peter Agre">Peter Agre</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roderick_MacKinnon" title="Roderick MacKinnon">Roderick MacKinnon</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2004: <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Ciechanover" title="Aaron Ciechanover">Aaron Ciechanover</a> / <a href="/wiki/Avram_Hershko" title="Avram Hershko">Avram Hershko</a> / <a href="/wiki/Irwin_Rose" title="Irwin Rose">Irwin Rose</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2005: <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Grubbs" title="Robert H. Grubbs">Robert H. Grubbs</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_R._Schrock" title="Richard R. Schrock">Richard R. Schrock</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yves_Chauvin" title="Yves Chauvin">Yves Chauvin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2006: <a href="/wiki/Roger_D._Kornberg" title="Roger D. Kornberg">Roger D. Kornberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2007: <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Ertl" title="Gerhard Ertl">Gerhard Ertl</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2008: <a href="/wiki/Osamu_Shimomura" title="Osamu Shimomura">Osamu Shimomura</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Chalfie" title="Martin Chalfie">Martin Chalfie</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roger_Y._Tsien" title="Roger Y. Tsien">Roger Y. Tsien</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2009: <a href="/wiki/Venki_Ramakrishnan" title="Venki Ramakrishnan">Venkatraman Ramakrishnan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Steitz" title="Thomas A. Steitz">Thomas A. Steitz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ada_Yonath" title="Ada Yonath">Ada E. Yonath</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2010: <a href="/wiki/Richard_F._Heck" title="Richard F. Heck">Richard F. Heck</a> / <a href="/wiki/Akira_Suzuki" title="Akira Suzuki">Akira Suzuki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ei-ichi_Negishi" title="Ei-ichi Negishi">Ei-ichi Negishi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2011: <a href="/wiki/Dan_Shechtman" title="Dan Shechtman">Dan Shechtman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2012: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lefkowitz" title="Robert Lefkowitz">Robert Lefkowitz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Kobilka" title="Brian Kobilka">Brian Kobilka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2013: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Karplus" title="Martin Karplus">Martin Karplus</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Levitt_(biophysicist)" title="Michael Levitt (biophysicist)">Michael Levitt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arieh_Warshel" title="Arieh Warshel">Arieh Warshel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2014: <a href="/wiki/Eric_Betzig" title="Eric Betzig">Eric Betzig</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Hell" title="Stefan Hell">Stefan Hell</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_E._Moerner" title="William E. Moerner">William E. Moerner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2015: <a href="/wiki/Tomas_Lindahl" title="Tomas Lindahl">Tomas Lindahl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_L._Modrich" title="Paul L. Modrich">Paul L. Modrich</a> / <a href="/wiki/Aziz_Sancar" title="Aziz Sancar">Aziz Sancar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2016: <a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Sauvage" title="Jean-Pierre Sauvage">Jean-Pierre Sauvage</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fraser_Stoddart" title="Fraser Stoddart">Fraser Stoddart</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ben_Feringa" title="Ben Feringa">Ben Feringa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2017: <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Dubochet" title="Jacques Dubochet">Jacques Dubochet</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Frank" title="Joachim Frank">Joachim Frank</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Henderson_(biologist)" title="Richard Henderson (biologist)">Richard Henderson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2018: <a href="/wiki/Frances_Arnold" title="Frances Arnold">Frances Arnold</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Winter" title="Gregory Winter">Gregory Winter</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Smith_(chemist)" title="George Smith (chemist)">George Smith</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2019: <a href="/wiki/John_B._Goodenough" title="John B. Goodenough">John B. Goodenough</a> / <a href="/wiki/M._Stanley_Whittingham" title="M. Stanley Whittingham">M. Stanley Whittingham</a> / <a href="/wiki/Akira_Yoshino" title="Akira Yoshino">Akira Yoshino</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2020: <a href="/wiki/Emmanuelle_Charpentier" title="Emmanuelle Charpentier">Emmanuelle Charpentier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Doudna" title="Jennifer Doudna">Jennifer Doudna</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2021: <a href="/wiki/David_MacMillan" title="David MacMillan">David MacMillan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_List" title="Benjamin List">Benjamin List</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2022: <a href="/wiki/Carolyn_Bertozzi" title="Carolyn Bertozzi">Carolyn R. Bertozzi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Morten_P._Meldal" title="Morten P. Meldal">Morten P. Meldal</a> / <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barry_Sharpless" title="Karl Barry Sharpless">Karl Barry Sharpless</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2023: <a href="/wiki/Moungi_Bawendi" title="Moungi Bawendi">Moungi G. Bawendi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_E._Brus" title="Louis E. Brus">Louis E. Brus</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alexey_Ekimov" title="Alexey Ekimov">Alexei I. Ekimov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2024: <a href="/wiki/David_Baker_(biochemist)" title="David Baker (biochemist)">David Baker</a> / <a href="/wiki/Demis_Hassabis" title="Demis Hassabis">Demis Hassabis</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_M._Jumper" title="John M. Jumper">John M. Jumper</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="1934_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1934_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1934 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1934_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1934 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1934_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1934 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1934_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1934 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Harold Urey</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1934_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1934 Nobel Prize in Literature">1934</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pirandello" title="Luigi Pirandello">Luigi Pirandello</a> (Italy)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Henderson" title="Arthur Henderson">Arthur Henderson</a> (Great Britain)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>None</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Whipple" title="George Whipple">George Whipple</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Minot" title="George Minot">George Minot</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_P._Murphy" title="William P. Murphy">William P. Murphy</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1929_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1929 Nobel Prize winners">1929</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1930_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1930 Nobel Prize winners">1930</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1931_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1931 Nobel Prize winners">1931</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1932_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1932 Nobel Prize winners">1932</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1933_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1933 Nobel Prize winners">1933</a></dd> <dd><b>1934 </b></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1935_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1935 Nobel Prize winners">1935</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1936_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1936 Nobel Prize winners">1936</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1937_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1937 Nobel Prize winners">1937</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1938_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1938 Nobel Prize winners">1938</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1939_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1939 Nobel Prize winners">1939</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_National_Medal_of_Science_laureates" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:National_Medal_of_Science" title="Template:National Medal of Science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:National_Medal_of_Science" title="Template talk:National Medal of Science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:National_Medal_of_Science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:National Medal of Science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_National_Medal_of_Science_laureates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">United States National Medal of Science</a> <a href="/wiki/Laureate" title="Laureate">laureates</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Behavioral_and_social_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Behavioral and social science</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Neal_E._Miller" title="Neal E. Miller">Neal Elgar Miller</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anne_Anastasi" title="Anne Anastasi">Anne Anastasi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Stigler" title="George Stigler">George J. Stigler</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Hurwicz" title="Leonid Hurwicz">Leonid Hurwicz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Suppes" title="Patrick Suppes">Patrick Suppes</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George A. Miller</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_J._Gibson" title="Eleanor J. Gibson">Eleanor J. Gibson</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Shepard" title="Roger Shepard">Roger N. Shepard</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Paul Samuelson</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Kaye_Estes" title="William Kaye Estes">William K. Estes</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Julius_Wilson" title="William Julius Wilson">William Julius Wilson</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Robert M. Solow</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/R._Duncan_Luce" title="R. Duncan Luce">R. Duncan Luce</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Kenneth Arrow</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gordon_H._Bower" title="Gordon H. Bower">Gordon H. Bower</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Posner_(psychologist)" title="Michael Posner (psychologist)">Michael I. Posner</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Mishkin" title="Mortimer Mishkin">Mortimer Mishkin</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anne_Treisman" title="Anne Treisman">Anne Treisman</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Axelrod_(political_scientist)" title="Robert Axelrod (political scientist)">Robert Axelrod</a></dd> <dt>2015</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Biological_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Biological sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/C._B._van_Niel" title="C. B. van Niel">C. B. van Niel</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Theodosius Dobzhansky</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberg" title="Marshall Warren Nirenberg">Marshall W. Nirenberg</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francis_Peyton_Rous" title="Francis Peyton Rous">Francis P. Rous</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Gaylord_Simpson" title="George Gaylord Simpson">George G. Simpson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_Van_Slyke" title="Donald Van Slyke">Donald D. Van Slyke</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_F._Knipling" title="Edward F. Knipling">Edward F. Knipling</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Albert_Lipmann" title="Fritz Albert Lipmann">Fritz Albert Lipmann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Cumming_Rose" title="William Cumming Rose">William C. Rose</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sewall_Wright" title="Sewall Wright">Sewall Wright</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Stewart_Cole" title="Kenneth Stewart Cole">Kenneth S. Cole</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_Harlow" title="Harry Harlow">Harry F. Harlow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Heidelberger" title="Michael Heidelberger">Michael Heidelberger</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sturtevant" title="Alfred Sturtevant">Alfred H. Sturtevant</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Horace_Barker" title="Horace Barker">Horace Barker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Brodie_(biochemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard Brodie (biochemist)">Bernard B. Brodie</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Detlev_Bronk" title="Detlev Bronk">Detlev W. Bronk</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jay_Laurence_Lush" title="Jay Laurence Lush">Jay Lush</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Burrhus Frederic Skinner</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Huebner" title="Robert Huebner">Robert Huebner</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Albert_Sabin" title="Albert Sabin">Albert B. Sabin</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_I._Arnon" title="Daniel I. Arnon">Daniel I. Arnon</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Earl_W._Sutherland_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Earl W. Sutherland Jr.">Earl W. Sutherland Jr.</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Britton_Chance" title="Britton Chance">Britton Chance</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Chargaff" title="Erwin Chargaff">Erwin Chargaff</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_V._Neel" title="James V. Neel">James V. Neel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Augustine_Shannon" class="mw-redirect" title="James Augustine Shannon">James Augustine Shannon</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hallowell_Davis" title="Hallowell Davis">Hallowell Davis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Gyorgy" title="Paul Gyorgy">Paul Gyorgy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sterling_B._Hendricks" title="Sterling B. Hendricks">Sterling B. Hendricks</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Orville_Vogel" title="Orville Vogel">Orville Alvin Vogel</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Guillemin" title="Roger Guillemin">Roger Guillemin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Keith_Roberts_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Keith Roberts Porter">Keith Roberts Porter</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Efraim_Racker" title="Efraim Racker">Efraim Racker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Burris" title="Robert H. Burris">Robert H. Burris</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_C._Crosby" title="Elizabeth C. Crosby">Elizabeth C. Crosby</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Kornberg" title="Arthur Kornberg">Arthur Kornberg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Severo_Ochoa" title="Severo Ochoa">Severo Ochoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Earl_Reece_Stadtman" title="Earl Reece Stadtman">Earl Reece Stadtman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/G._Ledyard_Stebbins" title="G. Ledyard Stebbins">George Ledyard Stebbins</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Alfred_Weiss" title="Paul Alfred Weiss">Paul Alfred Weiss</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1981</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Handler" title="Philip Handler">Philip Handler</a></dd> <dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Seymour_Benzer" title="Seymour Benzer">Seymour Benzer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Glenn_W._Burton" title="Glenn W. Burton">Glenn W. Burton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Cohn" title="Mildred Cohn">Mildred Cohn</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Howard_Bachrach" title="Howard Bachrach">Howard L. Bachrach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wendell_L._Roelofs" title="Wendell L. Roelofs">Wendell L. Roelofs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Berta_Scharrer" title="Berta Scharrer">Berta Scharrer</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Cohen_(biochemist)" title="Stanley Cohen (biochemist)">Stanley Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_Henderson" title="Donald Henderson">Donald A. Henderson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Mountcastle" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernon Mountcastle">Vernon B. Mountcastle</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Emil_Palade" title="George Emil Palade">George Emil Palade</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joan_A._Steitz" title="Joan A. Steitz">Joan A. Steitz</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_E._DeBakey" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael E. DeBakey">Michael E. DeBakey</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Theodor_O._Diener" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodor O. Diener">Theodor O. Diener</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_Eagle" title="Harry Eagle">Harry Eagle</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khorana" title="Har Gobind Khorana">Har Gobind Khorana</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_S._Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael S. Brown">Michael S. Brown</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Norman_Cohen" title="Stanley Norman Cohen">Stanley Norman Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Goldstein" title="Joseph L. Goldstein">Joseph L. Goldstein</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Hilleman" title="Maurice Hilleman">Maurice R. Hilleman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric R. Kandel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rosalyn_Sussman_Yalow" title="Rosalyn Sussman Yalow">Rosalyn Sussman Yalow</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Katherine_Esau" title="Katherine Esau">Katherine Esau</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Hamburger" title="Viktor Hamburger">Viktor Hamburger</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Leder" title="Philip Leder">Philip Leder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_W._Sperry" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger W. Sperry">Roger W. Sperry</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harland_G._Wood" title="Harland G. Wood">Harland G. Wood</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Baruj_Benacerraf" title="Baruj Benacerraf">Baruj Benacerraf</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_W._Boyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert W. Boyer">Herbert W. Boyer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_E._Koshland_Jr." title="Daniel E. Koshland Jr.">Daniel E. Koshland Jr.</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_B._Lewis" title="Edward B. Lewis">Edward B. Lewis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_G._Nathan" title="David G. Nathan">David G. Nathan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/E._Donnall_Thomas" title="E. Donnall Thomas">E. Donnall Thomas</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mary_Ellen_Avery" title="Mary Ellen Avery">Mary Ellen Avery</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/G._Evelyn_Hutchinson" title="G. Evelyn Hutchinson">G. Evelyn Hutchinson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elvin_A._Kabat" title="Elvin A. Kabat">Elvin A. Kabat</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kates" title="Robert Kates">Robert W. Kates</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Salvador Luria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Marks_(scientist)" title="Paul Marks (scientist)">Paul A. Marks</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Folke_K._Skoog" title="Folke K. Skoog">Folke K. Skoog</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_C._Zamecnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul C. Zamecnik">Paul C. Zamecnik</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Singer" title="Maxine Singer">Maxine Singer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Howard_Martin_Temin" title="Howard Martin Temin">Howard Martin Temin</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Nathans" title="Daniel Nathans">Daniel Nathans</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Salome_G._Waelsch" class="mw-redirect" title="Salome G. Waelsch">Salome G. Waelsch</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Eisner" title="Thomas Eisner">Thomas Eisner</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_F._Neufeld" title="Elizabeth F. Neufeld">Elizabeth F. Neufeld</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Rich" title="Alexander Rich">Alexander Rich</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Patrick" title="Ruth Patrick">Ruth Patrick</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Weinberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert A. Weinberg">Robert A. Weinberg</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Ames" title="Bruce Ames">Bruce Ames</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Janet_Rowley" title="Janet Rowley">Janet Rowley</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_Baltimore" title="David Baltimore">David Baltimore</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Jared Diamond</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Margulis" title="Lynn Margulis">Lynn Margulis</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nancy_C._Andreasen" class="mw-redirect" title="Nancy C. Andreasen">Nancy C. Andreasen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_H._Raven" title="Peter H. Raven">Peter H. Raven</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_Woese" title="Carl Woese">Carl Woese</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francisco_J._Ayala" title="Francisco J. Ayala">Francisco J. Ayala</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George F. Bass</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mario_R._Capecchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mario R. Capecchi">Mario R. Capecchi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ann_Graybiel" title="Ann Graybiel">Ann Graybiel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gene_Likens" title="Gene Likens">Gene E. Likens</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Victor_A._McKusick" title="Victor A. McKusick">Victor A. McKusick</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_Varmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Varmus">Harold Varmus</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_E._Darnell" title="James E. Darnell">James E. Darnell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Evelyn_M._Witkin" title="Evelyn M. Witkin">Evelyn M. Witkin</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Bishop" title="J. Michael Bishop">J. Michael Bishop</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_H._Snyder" title="Solomon H. Snyder">Solomon H. Snyder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_Yanofsky" title="Charles Yanofsky">Charles Yanofsky</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Borlaug" title="Norman Borlaug">Norman E. Borlaug</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Phillip_A._Sharp" class="mw-redirect" title="Phillip A. Sharp">Phillip A. Sharp</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Starzl" title="Thomas Starzl">Thomas E. Starzl</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Fauci" title="Anthony Fauci">Anthony Fauci</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Torsten_N._Wiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Torsten N. Wiesel">Torsten N. Wiesel</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rita_R._Colwell" title="Rita R. Colwell">Rita R. Colwell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nina_Fedoroff" title="Nina Fedoroff">Nina Fedoroff</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lubert_Stryer" title="Lubert Stryer">Lubert Stryer</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lefkowitz" title="Robert Lefkowitz">Robert J. Lefkowitz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bert_W._O%27Malley" title="Bert W. O'Malley">Bert W. O'Malley</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francis_Collins" title="Francis Collins">Francis S. Collins</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elaine_Fuchs" title="Elaine Fuchs">Elaine Fuchs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Craig_Venter" title="Craig Venter">J. Craig Venter</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Susan_L._Lindquist" class="mw-redirect" title="Susan L. Lindquist">Susan L. Lindquist</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_B._Prusiner" title="Stanley B. Prusiner">Stanley B. Prusiner</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_L._Brinster" title="Ralph L. Brinster">Ralph L. Brinster</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Jaenisch" title="Rudolf Jaenisch">Rudolf Jaenisch</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Shapiro" title="Lucy Shapiro">Lucy Shapiro</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leroy_Hood" title="Leroy Hood">Leroy Hood</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sallie_Chisholm" class="mw-redirect" title="Sallie Chisholm">Sallie Chisholm</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/May_Berenbaum" title="May Berenbaum">May Berenbaum</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Alberts" title="Bruce Alberts">Bruce Alberts</a></dd> <dt>2013</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rakesh_K._Jain" class="mw-redirect" title="Rakesh K. Jain">Rakesh K. Jain</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Falkow" title="Stanley Falkow">Stanley Falkow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mary-Claire_King" title="Mary-Claire King">Mary-Claire King</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Simon_Levin" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon Levin">Simon Levin</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Chemistry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Chemistry</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Adams" title="Roger Adams">Roger Adams</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/F._Albert_Cotton" title="F. Albert Cotton">F. Albert Cotton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Stork" title="Gilbert Stork">Gilbert Stork</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roald_Hoffmann" title="Roald Hoffmann">Roald Hoffmann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_C._Pimentel" title="George C. Pimentel">George C. Pimentel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_N._Zare" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard N. Zare">Richard N. Zare</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_B._Gray" title="Harry B. Gray">Harry B. Gray</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Tseh_Lee" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuan Tseh Lee">Yuan Tseh Lee</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_S._Marvel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl S. Marvel">Carl S. Marvel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frank_H._Westheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank H. Westheimer">Frank H. Westheimer</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Summer_Johnson" title="William Summer Johnson">William S. Johnson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_H._Stockmayer" title="Walter H. Stockmayer">Walter H. Stockmayer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Max_Tishler" title="Max Tishler">Max Tishler</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_O._Baker" title="William O. Baker">William O. Baker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Konrad_E._Bloch" class="mw-redirect" title="Konrad E. Bloch">Konrad E. Bloch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elias_J._Corey" class="mw-redirect" title="Elias J. Corey">Elias J. Corey</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Barry_Bernstein" title="Richard Barry Bernstein">Richard B. Bernstein</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_A._Marcus" title="Rudolph A. Marcus">Rudolph A. Marcus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harden_M._McConnell" title="Harden M. McConnell">Harden M. McConnell</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elkan_Blout" title="Elkan Blout">Elkan Blout</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karl_August_Folkers" title="Karl August Folkers">Karl Folkers</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_D._Roberts" title="John D. Roberts">John D. Roberts</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Breslow" title="Ronald Breslow">Ronald Breslow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gertrude_B._Elion" title="Gertrude B. Elion">Gertrude B. Elion</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dudley_R._Herschbach" title="Dudley R. Herschbach">Dudley R. Herschbach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Howard_Ensign_Simmons_Jr." title="Howard Ensign Simmons Jr.">Howard E. Simmons Jr.</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_J._Cram" title="Donald J. Cram">Donald J. Cram</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Hackerman" title="Norman Hackerman">Norman Hackerman</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_S._Hammond" title="George S. Hammond">George S. Hammond</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cech" title="Thomas Cech">Thomas Cech</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Isabella_L._Karle" class="mw-redirect" title="Isabella L. Karle">Isabella L. Karle</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davidson_(biologist)" title="Norman Davidson (biologist)">Norman Davidson</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Darleane_C._Hoffman" title="Darleane C. Hoffman">Darleane C. Hoffman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_S._Johnston" title="Harold S. Johnston">Harold S. Johnston</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_W._Cahn" title="John W. Cahn">John W. Cahn</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_M._Whitesides" title="George M. Whitesides">George M. Whitesides</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stuart_A._Rice" title="Stuart A. Rice">Stuart A. Rice</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(chemist)" title="John Ross (chemist)">John Ross</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Susan_Solomon" title="Susan Solomon">Susan Solomon</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_D._Baldeschwieler" title="John D. Baldeschwieler">John D. Baldeschwieler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_F._Hirschmann" title="Ralph F. Hirschmann">Ralph F. Hirschmann</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ernest_R._Davidson" title="Ernest R. Davidson">Ernest R. Davidson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A1bor_A._Somorjai" title="Gábor A. Somorjai">Gábor A. Somorjai</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_I._Brauman" class="mw-redirect" title="John I. Brauman">John I. Brauman</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Lippard" title="Stephen J. Lippard">Stephen J. Lippard</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tobin_J._Marks" title="Tobin J. Marks">Tobin J. Marks</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marvin_H._Caruthers" title="Marvin H. Caruthers">Marvin H. Caruthers</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Dervan" title="Peter Dervan">Peter B. Dervan</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mostafa_El-Sayed" title="Mostafa El-Sayed">Mostafa A. El-Sayed</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joanna_Fowler" title="Joanna Fowler">Joanna Fowler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/JoAnne_Stubbe" title="JoAnne Stubbe">JoAnne Stubbe</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Benkovic" title="Stephen J. Benkovic">Stephen J. Benkovic</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marye_Anne_Fox" title="Marye Anne Fox">Marye Anne Fox</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jacqueline_K._Barton" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacqueline K. Barton">Jacqueline K. Barton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Stang" title="Peter J. Stang">Peter J. Stang</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allen_J._Bard" title="Allen J. Bard">Allen J. Bard</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/M._Frederick_Hawthorne" title="M. Frederick Hawthorne">M. Frederick Hawthorne</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Judith_P._Klinman" class="mw-redirect" title="Judith P. Klinman">Judith P. Klinman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jerrold_Meinwald" title="Jerrold Meinwald">Jerrold Meinwald</a></dd> <dt>2013</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Geraldine_L._Richmond" title="Geraldine L. Richmond">Geraldine L. Richmond</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/A._Paul_Alivisatos" class="mw-redirect" title="A. Paul Alivisatos">A. Paul Alivisatos</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Engineering_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Engineering sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1962</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Theodore_von_K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n" title="Theodore von Kármán">Theodore von Kármán</a></dd> <dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Robinson_Pierce" class="mw-redirect" title="John Robinson Pierce">John Robinson Pierce</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_S._Draper" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles S. Draper">Charles S. Draper</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Ammann" title="Othmar Ammann">Othmar H. Ammann</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hugh_L._Dryden" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh L. Dryden">Hugh L. Dryden</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Clarence_L._Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarence L. Johnson">Clarence L. Johnson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warren_K._Lewis" title="Warren K. Lewis">Warren K. Lewis</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Claude_E._Shannon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude E. Shannon">Claude E. Shannon</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edwin_H._Land" title="Edwin H. Land">Edwin H. Land</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Igor_I._Sikorsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Igor I. Sikorsky">Igor I. Sikorsky</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/J._Presper_Eckert" title="J. Presper Eckert">J. Presper Eckert</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nathan_M._Newmark" title="Nathan M. Newmark">Nathan M. Newmark</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jack_St._Clair_Kilby" class="mw-redirect" title="Jack St. Clair Kilby">Jack St. Clair Kilby</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_E._Mueller" class="mw-redirect" title="George E. Mueller">George E. Mueller</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_E._Edgerton" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold E. Edgerton">Harold E. Edgerton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_T._Whitcomb" title="Richard T. Whitcomb">Richard T. Whitcomb</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Kompfner" title="Rudolf Kompfner">Rudolf Kompfner</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Brazelton_Peck" title="Ralph Brazelton Peck">Ralph Brazelton Peck</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Abel_Wolman" title="Abel Wolman">Abel Wolman</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Manson_Benedict" title="Manson Benedict">Manson Benedict</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Hayward_Pickering" class="mw-redirect" title="William Hayward Pickering">William Hayward Pickering</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Terman" title="Frederick Terman">Frederick E. Terman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Morris_Cohen_(scientist)" title="Morris Cohen (scientist)">Morris Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Goldmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter C. Goldmark">Peter C. Goldmark</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Wilhelm_M%C3%BCller" title="Erwin Wilhelm Müller">Erwin Wilhelm Müller</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Emmett_N._Leith" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmett N. Leith">Emmett N. Leith</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Raymond_D._Mindlin" title="Raymond D. Mindlin">Raymond D. Mindlin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Noyce" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert N. Noyce">Robert N. Noyce</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Earl_R._Parker" title="Earl R. Parker">Earl R. Parker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Simon_Ramo" title="Simon Ramo">Simon Ramo</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_H._Heinemann" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward H. Heinemann">Edward H. Heinemann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Katz" title="Donald L. Katz">Donald L. Katz</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bill_Hewlett" title="Bill Hewlett">Bill Hewlett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Low" title="George Low">George Low</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_G._Trump" title="John G. Trump">John G. Trump</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hans_Wolfgang_Liepmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Wolfgang Liepmann">Hans Wolfgang Liepmann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tung-Yen_Lin" title="Tung-Yen Lin">Tung-Yen Lin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bernard_M._Oliver" title="Bernard M. Oliver">Bernard M. Oliver</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Byron_Bird" title="Robert Byron Bird">Robert Byron Bird</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/H._Bolton_Seed" class="mw-redirect" title="H. Bolton Seed">H. Bolton Seed</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Weber_(engineer)" title="Ernst Weber (engineer)">Ernst Weber</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_C._Drucker" title="Daniel C. Drucker">Daniel C. Drucker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Willis_M._Hawkins" class="mw-redirect" title="Willis M. Hawkins">Willis M. Hawkins</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_W._Housner" title="George W. Housner">George W. Housner</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_George_Drickamer" title="Harry George Drickamer">Harry George Drickamer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_E._Grier" title="Herbert E. Grier">Herbert E. Grier</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Dresselhaus" title="Mildred Dresselhaus">Mildred Dresselhaus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nick_Holonyak_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Nick Holonyak Jr.">Nick Holonyak Jr.</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_H._Heilmeier" title="George H. Heilmeier">George H. Heilmeier</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Luna_B._Leopold" class="mw-redirect" title="Luna B. Leopold">Luna B. Leopold</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/H._Guyford_Stever" class="mw-redirect" title="H. Guyford Stever">H. Guyford Stever</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Calvin_F._Quate" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvin F. Quate">Calvin F. Quate</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Roy_Whinnery" title="John Roy Whinnery">John Roy Whinnery</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Y._Cho" title="Alfred Y. Cho">Alfred Y. Cho</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ray_W._Clough" class="mw-redirect" title="Ray W. Clough">Ray W. Clough</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hermann_A._Haus" title="Hermann A. Haus">Hermann A. Haus</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_L._Flanagan" title="James L. Flanagan">James L. Flanagan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/C._Kumar_N._Patel" title="C. Kumar N. Patel">C. Kumar N. Patel</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eli_Ruckenstein" title="Eli Ruckenstein">Eli Ruckenstein</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_N._Stevens" title="Kenneth N. Stevens">Kenneth N. Stevens</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yuan-Cheng_Fung" title="Yuan-Cheng Fung">Yuan-Cheng B. Fung</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Acrivos" title="Andreas Acrivos">Andreas Acrivos</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leo_Beranek" title="Leo Beranek">Leo Beranek</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Prausnitz" title="John Prausnitz">John M. Prausnitz</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edwin_N._Lightfoot" title="Edwin N. Lightfoot">Edwin N. Lightfoot</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jan_D._Achenbach" title="Jan D. Achenbach">Jan D. Achenbach</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Langer" title="Robert S. Langer">Robert S. Langer</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_J._Wineland" title="David J. Wineland">David J. Wineland</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_E._K%C3%A1lm%C3%A1n" title="Rudolf E. Kálmán">Rudolf E. Kálmán</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amnon_Yariv" title="Amnon Yariv">Amnon Yariv</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shu_Chien" title="Shu Chien">Shu Chien</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_B._Goodenough" title="John B. Goodenough">John B. Goodenough</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kailath" title="Thomas Kailath">Thomas Kailath</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mathematical,_statistical,_and_computer_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Lefschetz" title="Solomon Lefschetz">Solomon Lefschetz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marston_Morse" title="Marston Morse">H. Marston Morse</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Zariski" title="Oscar Zariski">Oscar Zariski</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Milnor" title="John Milnor">John Milnor</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Cohen" title="Paul Cohen">Paul Cohen</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Neyman" title="Jerzy Neyman">Jerzy Neyman</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Feller" title="William Feller">William Feller</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Brauer" title="Richard Brauer">Richard Brauer</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Tukey" title="John Tukey">John Tukey</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_W._Backus" class="mw-redirect" title="John W. Backus">John W. Backus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shiing-Shen_Chern" title="Shiing-Shen Chern">Shiing-Shen Chern</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Dantzig" title="George Dantzig">George Dantzig</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kurt_O._Friedrichs" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurt O. Friedrichs">Kurt Otto Friedrichs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hassler_Whitney" title="Hassler Whitney">Hassler Whitney</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Doob" title="Joseph L. Doob">Joseph L. Doob</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Donald E. Knuth</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marshall_H._Stone" title="Marshall H. Stone">Marshall H. Stone</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herman_Goldstine" title="Herman Goldstine">Herman Goldstine</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Isadore_Singer" title="Isadore Singer">Isadore Singer</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lax" title="Peter Lax">Peter Lax</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Zygmund" title="Antoni Zygmund">Antoni Zygmund</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Raoul_Bott" title="Raoul Bott">Raoul Bott</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Freedman" title="Michael Freedman">Michael Freedman</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_E._Gomory" title="Ralph E. Gomory">Ralph E. Gomory</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Keller" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph B. Keller">Joseph B. Keller</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Karlin" title="Samuel Karlin">Samuel Karlin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Saunders_Mac_Lane" title="Saunders Mac Lane">Saunders Mac Lane</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_C._Spencer" title="Donald C. Spencer">Donald C. Spencer</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_F._Carrier" title="George F. Carrier">George F. Carrier</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Cole_Kleene" title="Stephen Cole Kleene">Stephen Cole Kleene</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)" title="John McCarthy (computer scientist)">John McCarthy</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Calder%C3%B3n" title="Alberto Calderón">Alberto Calderón</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allen_Newell" title="Allen Newell">Allen Newell</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Martin_David_Kruskal" title="Martin David Kruskal">Martin David Kruskal</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Cocke_(computer_scientist)" title="John Cocke (computer scientist)">John Cocke</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Louis_Nirenberg" title="Louis Nirenberg">Louis Nirenberg</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Karp" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Karp">Richard Karp</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Smale" title="Stephen Smale">Stephen Smale</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shing-Tung_Yau" title="Shing-Tung Yau">Shing-Tung Yau</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cathleen_Synge_Morawetz" title="Cathleen Synge Morawetz">Cathleen Synge Morawetz</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Felix_Browder" title="Felix Browder">Felix Browder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coifman" title="Ronald Coifman">Ronald R. Coifman</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Griggs_Thompson" class="mw-redirect" title="John Griggs Thompson">John Griggs Thompson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karen_Uhlenbeck" title="Karen Uhlenbeck">Karen Uhlenbeck</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Calyampudi_Radhakrishna_Rao" class="mw-redirect" title="Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao">Calyampudi R. Rao</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elias_M._Stein" title="Elias M. Stein">Elias M. Stein</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Glimm" title="James Glimm">James G. Glimm</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_R._de_Boor" title="Carl R. de Boor">Carl R. de Boor</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Sullivan" title="Dennis Sullivan">Dennis P. Sullivan</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bradley_Efron" title="Bradley Efron">Bradley Efron</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hyman_Bass" title="Hyman Bass">Hyman Bass</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Kleinrock" title="Leonard Kleinrock">Leonard Kleinrock</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Viterbi" title="Andrew Viterbi">Andrew J. Viterbi</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_B._Mumford" class="mw-redirect" title="David B. Mumford">David B. Mumford</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Tapia" title="Richard A. Tapia">Richard A. Tapia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/S._R._Srinivasa_Varadhan" title="S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan">S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_W._Golomb" title="Solomon W. Golomb">Solomon W. Golomb</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Barry_Mazur" title="Barry Mazur">Barry Mazur</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Chorin" title="Alexandre Chorin">Alexandre Chorin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_Blackwell" title="David Blackwell">David Blackwell</a></dd> <dt>2013</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Artin" title="Michael Artin">Michael Artin</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Physical_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Physical sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis W. Alvarez</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Julian Schwinger</a></dd> <dd><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Harold Urey</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Burns Woodward</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman" title="Leon M. Lederman">Leon M. Lederman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Rubey" class="mw-redirect" title="William Rubey">William Rubey</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bjerknes" title="Jacob Bjerknes">Jacob Bjerknes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Henry_Eyring_(chemist)" title="Henry Eyring (chemist)">Henry Eyring</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_H._Van_Vleck" class="mw-redirect" title="John H. Van Vleck">John H. Van Vleck</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Beams" title="Jesse Beams">Jesse Beams</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francis_Birch_(geophysicist)" title="Francis Birch (geophysicist)">Francis Birch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Breit" title="Gregory Breit">Gregory Breit</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Louis_Hammett" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Hammett">Louis Hammett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Doughty_Bartlett" title="Paul Doughty Bartlett">Paul Bartlett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Friedman" title="Herbert Friedman">Herbert Friedman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lars_Onsager" title="Lars Onsager">Lars Onsager</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_C._Brown" title="Herbert C. Brown">Herbert C. Brown</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Panofsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolfgang Panofsky">Wolfgang Panofsky</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Dicke" title="Robert H. Dicke">Robert H. Dicke</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allan_R._Sandage" class="mw-redirect" title="Allan R. Sandage">Allan R. Sandage</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_C._Slater" title="John C. Slater">John C. Slater</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_A._Wheeler" class="mw-redirect" title="John A. Wheeler">John A. Wheeler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Saul_Winstein" title="Saul Winstein">Saul Winstein</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_Djerassi" title="Carl Djerassi">Carl Djerassi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Ewing" title="Maurice Ewing">Maurice Ewing</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arie_Jan_Haagen-Smit" title="Arie Jan Haagen-Smit">Arie Jan Haagen-Smit</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Haensel" title="Vladimir Haensel">Vladimir Haensel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Seitz" title="Frederick Seitz">Frederick Seitz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Rathbun_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Rathbun Wilson">Robert Rathbun Wilson</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Nicolaas Bloembergen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Flory" title="Paul Flory">Paul Flory</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">William Alfred Fowler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Linus_Carl_Pauling" class="mw-redirect" title="Linus Carl Pauling">Linus Carl Pauling</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Sanborn_Pitzer" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer">Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hans_A._Bethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans A. Bethe">Hans A. Bethe</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_O._Hirschfelder" title="Joseph O. Hirschfelder">Joseph O. Hirschfelder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Sarett" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Sarett">Lewis Sarett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Bright_Wilson" title="Edgar Bright Wilson">Edgar Bright Wilson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Goudsmit" title="Samuel Goudsmit">Samuel Goudsmit</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_S._Gutowsky" title="Herbert S. Gutowsky">Herbert S. Gutowsky</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Rossini" title="Frederick Rossini">Frederick Rossini</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Verner_Suomi" class="mw-redirect" title="Verner Suomi">Verner Suomi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Henry_Taube" title="Henry Taube">Henry Taube</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Uhlenbeck" title="George Uhlenbeck">George Uhlenbeck</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_P._Feynman" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard P. Feynman">Richard P. Feynman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herman_Mark" class="mw-redirect" title="Herman Mark">Herman Mark</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_M._Purcell" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward M. Purcell">Edward M. Purcell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Sinfelt" class="mw-redirect" title="John Sinfelt">John Sinfelt</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lyman_Spitzer" title="Lyman Spitzer">Lyman Spitzer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Victor_F._Weisskopf" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor F. Weisskopf">Victor F. Weisskopf</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Warren_Anderson" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Warren Anderson">Philip W. Anderson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu" title="Yoichiro Nambu">Yoichiro Nambu</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Charles H. Townes</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/E._Margaret_Burbidge" class="mw-redirect" title="E. Margaret Burbidge">E. Margaret Burbidge</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Goldhaber" title="Maurice Goldhaber">Maurice Goldhaber</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Landsberg" title="Helmut Landsberg">Helmut Landsberg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_Munk" title="Walter Munk">Walter Munk</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Frederick Reines</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bruno_B._Rossi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruno B. Rossi">Bruno B. Rossi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Schrieffer" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Robert Schrieffer">J. Robert Schrieffer</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_J._Buchsbaum" title="Solomon J. Buchsbaum">Solomon J. Buchsbaum</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/H._Richard_Crane" title="H. Richard Crane">H. Richard Crane</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herman_Feshbach" title="Herman Feshbach">Herman Feshbach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hofstadter" title="Robert Hofstadter">Robert Hofstadter</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning" title="Yang Chen-Ning">Chen-Ning Yang</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Abelson" title="Philip Abelson">Philip Abelson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_Elsasser" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Elsasser">Walter Elsasser</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_C._Lauterbur" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul C. Lauterbur">Paul C. Lauterbur</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Pake" title="George Pake">George Pake</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_A._Van_Allen" class="mw-redirect" title="James A. Van Allen">James A. Van Allen</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/D._Allan_Bromley" title="D. Allan Bromley">D. Allan Bromley</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chu_Ching-wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Chu Ching-wu">Paul Ching-Wu Chu</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kohn" title="Walter Kohn">Walter Kohn</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Foster_Ramsey_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.">Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jack_Steinberger" title="Jack Steinberger">Jack Steinberger</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arnold_O._Beckman" class="mw-redirect" title="Arnold O. Beckman">Arnold O. Beckman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Parker" title="Eugene Parker">Eugene Parker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_P._Sharp" title="Robert P. Sharp">Robert Sharp</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Henry_Stommel" title="Henry Stommel">Henry Stommel</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allan_McLeod_Cormack" class="mw-redirect" title="Allan McLeod Cormack">Allan M. Cormack</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edwin_M._McMillan" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin M. McMillan">Edwin M. McMillan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Pound" title="Robert Pound">Robert Pound</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Revelle" title="Roger Revelle">Roger Revelle</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arthur_L._Schawlow" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur L. Schawlow">Arthur L. Schawlow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_C._Stone" title="Edward C. Stone">Ed Stone</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Steven Weinberg</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eugene_M._Shoemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene M. Shoemaker">Eugene M. Shoemaker</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vera_Rubin" title="Vera Rubin">Vera Rubin</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Albert_Overhauser" title="Albert Overhauser">Albert Overhauser</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frank_Press" title="Frank Press">Frank Press</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hans_Dehmelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Dehmelt">Hans Dehmelt</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Goldreich" title="Peter Goldreich">Peter Goldreich</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wallace_S._Broecker" class="mw-redirect" title="Wallace S. Broecker">Wallace S. Broecker</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Rosenbluth" title="Marshall Rosenbluth">Marshall Rosenbluth</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Martin_Schwarzschild" title="Martin Schwarzschild">Martin Schwarzschild</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Wetherill" title="George Wetherill">George Wetherill</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Don_L._Anderson" title="Don L. Anderson">Don L. Anderson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_N._Bahcall" title="John N. Bahcall">John N. Bahcall</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">James Cronin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leo_Kadanoff" title="Leo Kadanoff">Leo Kadanoff</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Willis_E._Lamb" class="mw-redirect" title="Willis E. Lamb">Willis E. Lamb</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_P._Ostriker" title="Jeremiah P. Ostriker">Jeremiah P. Ostriker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_F._White" title="Gilbert F. White">Gilbert F. White</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marvin_L._Cohen" title="Marvin L. Cohen">Marvin L. Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis_Jr." title="Raymond Davis Jr.">Raymond Davis Jr.</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_Keeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Keeling">Charles Keeling</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Garwin" title="Richard Garwin">Richard Garwin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/W._Jason_Morgan" title="W. Jason Morgan">W. Jason Morgan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_Witten" title="Edward Witten">Edward Witten</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/G._Brent_Dalrymple" class="mw-redirect" title="G. Brent Dalrymple">G. Brent Dalrymple</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Riccardo_Giacconi" title="Riccardo Giacconi">Riccardo Giacconi</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Clayton" title="Robert N. Clayton">Robert N. Clayton</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_A._Alpher" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph A. Alpher">Ralph A. Alpher</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lonnie_Thompson" title="Lonnie Thompson">Lonnie Thompson</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kleppner" title="Daniel Kleppner">Daniel Kleppner</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fay_Ajzenberg-Selove" title="Fay Ajzenberg-Selove">Fay Ajzenberg-Selove</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pence_Slichter" title="Charles Pence Slichter">Charles P. Slichter</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Berni_Alder" title="Berni Alder">Berni Alder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_E._Gunn_(astronomer)" class="mw-redirect" title="James E. Gunn (astronomer)">James E. Gunn</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yakir_Aharonov" title="Yakir Aharonov">Yakir Aharonov</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Esther_M._Conwell" title="Esther M. Conwell">Esther M. Conwell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warren_M._Washington" title="Warren M. Washington">Warren M. Washington</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Drell" title="Sidney Drell">Sidney Drell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Faber" title="Sandra Faber">Sandra Faber</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sylvester_James_Gates" title="Sylvester James Gates">Sylvester James Gates</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Burton Richter</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sean_Solomon" title="Sean Solomon">Sean C. Solomon</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Ann_Jackson" title="Shirley Ann Jackson">Shirley Ann Jackson</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Manhattan_Project" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Manhattan_Project" title="Template talk:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Manhattan_Project" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Timeline of the Manhattan Project">Timeline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ames_Project" title="Ames Project">Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Chicago</a> (<a href="/wiki/Site_A" title="Site A">Site A</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Project" title="Dayton Project">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Camel" title="Project Camel">Inyokern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Los Alamos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Oak Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendover_Air_Force_Base" title="Wendover Air Force Base">Wendover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">Heavy water sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Duffield" title="Priscilla Duffield">Priscilla Duffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Farrell_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Thomas Farrell (United States Army officer)">Thomas Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lansdale_Jr." title="John Lansdale Jr.">John Lansdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_McKibbin" title="Dorothy McKibbin">Dorothy McKibbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterling_Parsons" title="William Sterling Parsons">Deak Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Pash" title="Boris Pash">Boris Pash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William Purnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tibbets" title="Paul Tibbets">Paul Tibbets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Uanna" title="William L. Uanna">Bud Uanna</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Harold Urey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Charles_Wilson" title="Roscoe Charles Wilson">Roscoe Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">Aage Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Koval" title="George Koval">George Koval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Norman Ramsey Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">James Rainwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsos_Mission" title="Alsos Mission">Alsos Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Peppermint" title="Operation Peppermint">Operation Peppermint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/509th_Composite_Group" title="509th Composite Group">509th Composite Group</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enola_Gay" title="Enola Gay">Enola Gay</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Artiste" title="The Great Artiste">The Great Artiste</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">Pumpkin bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_scientists_and_technicians_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bismuth_phosphate_process" title="Bismuth phosphate process">Bismuth phosphate process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">Demon core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25 Project</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Primer" title="Los Alamos Primer">Los Alamos Primer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_who_worked_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="List of Nobel laureates who worked on the Manhattan Project">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">S-1 Executive Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S-50 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Y-12 Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179777#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179777#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a 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href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:urey.harold-c">zbMATH</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1000698">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd132048000.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/132048000">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" 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