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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mobutu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mobutu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Mobutu</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mobutu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Constitutional changes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Totalitarian_expansion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Totalitarian_expansion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Totalitarian expansion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Totalitarian_expansion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Centralisation_of_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Centralisation_of_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Centralisation of power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Centralisation_of_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growing_conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growing_conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Growing conflict</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growing_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_Congo_War_and_demise_of_Zaire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Congo_War_and_demise_of_Zaire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>First Congo War and demise of Zaire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Congo_War_and_demise_of_Zaire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_and_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_and_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Government and politics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government_and_politics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Government and politics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Government_and_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mobutism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mobutism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Mobutism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mobutism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administrative_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Administrative divisions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_divisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standards_and_abbreviations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standards_and_abbreviations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Standards and abbreviations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standards_and_abbreviations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading_and_external_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading_and_external_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading and external links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading_and_external_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Zaire</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 63 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-63" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">63 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Za%C3%AFre" title="Zaïre – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Zaïre" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="زائير – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="زائير" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zair" title="Zair – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Zair" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="জায়ার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জায়ার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%96%D1%80" title="Рэспубліка Заір – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рэспубліка Заір" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B8%D1%80" title="Заир – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Заир" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zair" title="Zair – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Zair" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zair" title="Zair – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Zair" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%C3%AFr" title="Saïr – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Saïr" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire%27i_Vabariik" title="Zaire'i Vabariik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Zaire'i Vabariik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%96%CE%B1%CE%90%CF%81" title="Ζαΐρ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ζαΐρ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B1" title="زئیر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زئیر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Za%C3%AFre" title="Zaïre – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Zaïre" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%90%EC%9D%B4%EB%A5%B4" title="자이르 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="자이르" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B6%D5%A1%D5%AB%D6%80" title="Զաիր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Զաիր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zair" title="Zair – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Zair" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B8%D1%80" title="Заир – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Заир" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A8" title="זאיר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="זאיר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ზაირი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ზაირი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Za%C3%AFre" title="Zaïre – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Zaïre" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaira" title="Zaira – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Zaira" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9D%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B0" title="झैर – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="झैर" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="زائير – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="زائير" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Za%C3%AFre" title="Zaïre – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zaïre" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B6%E3%82%A4%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB" title="ザイール – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ザイール" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zair" title="Zair – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Zair" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zair" title="Zair – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zair" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zair" title="Zair – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Zair" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zair" title="Zair – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Zair" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B8%D1%80" title="Заир – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Заир" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B8%D1%80" title="Заир – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Заир" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zair" title="Zair – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zair" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%95%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B1" title="زەئیر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زەئیر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B8%D1%80" title="Заир – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Заир" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="சாயிர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சாயிர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="สาธารณรัฐซาอีร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สาธารณรัฐซาอีร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dh%C3%A4ire" title="Dhäire – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Dhäire" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Thuɔŋjäŋ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%97%D1%80" title="Заїр – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Заїр" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B1" title="زائر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="زائر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Zaire" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%89%8E%E4%BC%8A%E7%88%BE" title="扎伊爾 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="扎伊爾" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%96%A9%E4%BC%8A%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9C%8B" title="薩伊共和國 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="薩伊共和國" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zair" title="Zair – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Zair" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-coordinates" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span id="coordinates"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Zaire&params=4_24_S_15_24_E_type:country"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">4°24′S</span> <span class="longitude">15°24′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">4.400°S 15.400°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">-4.400; 15.400</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Country in Central Africa (1971–1997)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1965 to 1997. For the present-day country, see <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Zaire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Zaire (disambiguation)">Zaire (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Republic of Zaire</div><div class="ib-country-names"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">République du Zaïre</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>)</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:80%;"><span title="Kituba (Democratic Republic of Congo)-language text"><i lang="ktu">Repubilika ya Zaïre</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Kituba_language" title="Kituba language">Kituba</a>)</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:80%;"><span title="Lingala-language text"><i lang="ln">Republíki ya Zaïre</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Lingala_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingala language">Lingala</a>)</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:80%;"><span title="Swahili (macrolanguage)-language text"><i lang="sw">Jamhuri ya Zaïre</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a>)</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:80%;"><span title="Luba-Lulua-language text"><i lang="lua">Ditunga dia Zaïre</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Luba-Lulua_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Luba-Lulua language">Luba-Lulua</a>)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1971–1997</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Zaire_(1971%E2%80%931997).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Zaire"><img alt="Flag of Zaire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/125px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/188px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Flag</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Zaire_(1971%E2%80%931997).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Emblem of Zaire"><img alt="Emblem of Zaire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Coat_of_arms_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/85px-Coat_of_arms_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Coat_of_arms_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/128px-Coat_of_arms_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Coat_of_arms_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/170px-Coat_of_arms_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="736" data-file-height="684" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Emblem_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Emblem of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Emblem</a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><b>Motto: </b><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Paix — Justice — Travail</i></span><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="nowrap">  </span><br />"Peace — Justice — Work"</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem"><b>Anthem:</b> <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/La_Za%C3%AFroise" title="La Zaïroise">La Zaïroise</a></i></span><br />"The Song of Zaire"<br /><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="83" data-mwtitle="Zaire_National_Anthem.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Zaire_National_Anthem.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/52/Zaire_National_Anthem.ogg/Zaire_National_Anthem.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AZaire_National_Anthem.ogg&lang=en-gb&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en-GB" label="British English ‪(en-gb)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AZaire_National_Anthem.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AZaire_National_Anthem.ogg&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AZaire_National_Anthem.ogg&lang=kg&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="kg" label="Kongo ‪(kg)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AZaire_National_Anthem.ogg&lang=ln&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ln" label="lingála ‪(ln)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AZaire_National_Anthem.ogg&lang=sw&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="sw" label="Kiswahili ‪(sw)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Republic_of_Zaire_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Location of Zaire"><img alt="Location of Zaire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Republic_of_Zaire_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/250px-Republic_of_Zaire_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Republic_of_Zaire_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/375px-Republic_of_Zaire_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Republic_of_Zaire_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/500px-Republic_of_Zaire_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital<div class="ib-country-largest">and largest city</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Kinshasa</a><br /><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Zaire&params=4_19_S_15_19_E_type:city"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">4°19′S</span> <span class="longitude">15°19′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">4.317°S 15.317°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">-4.317; 15.317</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="ib-country-lang">Recognised national languages</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Lingala" title="Lingala">Lingala</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Kituba_language" title="Kituba language">Kikongo ya leta</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Luba-Kasai_language" title="Luba-Kasai language">Tshiluba</a> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">Ethnic groups</a> <div class="ib-country-ethnic"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>See <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Demographics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Ethnic groups</a> section below</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"> (1986)<sup id="cite_ref-CIA_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CIA-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="white-space:nowrap;">50% <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Catholic Church in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Roman Catholic</a></li><li style="white-space:nowrap;">20% <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Christianity in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Protestant</a></li><li style="white-space:nowrap;">10% <a href="/wiki/Kimbanguism" title="Kimbanguism">Kimbanguism</a></li><li style="white-space:nowrap;">10% <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Islam in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Islam</a></li><li style="white-space:nowrap;">10% Others (<a href="/wiki/Baluba_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Baluba mythology">Baluba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bantu_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu mythology">Bantu</a>)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Zairian</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Zaire" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of Zaire">Government</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Unitary_state" title="Unitary state">Unitary</a> <a href="/wiki/Mobutism" title="Mobutism">Mobutist</a> <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">presidential</a> <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republic</a> under a <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a> <a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship" title="Military dictatorship">military dictatorship</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">President</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1965–1997 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Mobutu Sese Seko</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo#Republic_of_Zaire_(1971–1997)" title="List of prime ministers of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Prime Minister</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1977–1979 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mpinga_Kasenda" title="Mpinga Kasenda">Mpinga Kasenda</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1997 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Likulia_Bolongo" title="Likulia Bolongo">Likulia Bolongo</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legislative_Council_(Zaire)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Legislative Council (Zaire) (page does not exist)">Legislative Council</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Second_Mobutu_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Second Mobutu coup d'état">Coup d'état</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">24 November 1965</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">27 October 1971</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Zaire" title="Constitution of Zaire">Constitution promulgated</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">15 August 1974</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">Mobutu overthrown</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">18 May 1997</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Death of Mobutu </div></th><td class="infobox-data">7 September 1997</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">2,345,409 km<sup>2</sup> (905,567 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Water (%)</div></th><td class="infobox-data">3.32</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Zaire" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics of Zaire">Population</a></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1971 </div></th><td class="infobox-data">18,400,000<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1997 </div></th><td class="infobox-data">46,498,539</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold">(nominal)</span></th><td class="infobox-data">1983 estimate</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Increase"><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> $4.5 billion<sup id="cite_ref-CIA_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CIA-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Index" title="Human Development Index">HDI</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold">(1990 formula)</span></th><td class="infobox-data">0.294<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><span class="nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><span class="tmp-color" style="color:red">low</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zairean_zaire" class="mw-redirect" title="Zairean zaire">Zaïre</a> (<a href="/wiki/ISO_4217" title="ISO 4217">ZRN</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Time zone</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time" title="Coordinated Universal Time">UTC</a><span class="nowrap">+1 to +2</span></span> (<a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Time" title="West Africa Time">WAT</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa_Time" title="Central Africa Time">CAT</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Left-_and_right-hand_traffic" title="Left- and right-hand traffic">Drives on</a></th><td class="infobox-data">right</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Calling code</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/%2B243" class="mw-redirect" title="+243">+243</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166" title="ISO 3166">ISO 3166 code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/w/index.php?title=ISO_3166-2:ZR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISO 3166-2:ZR (page does not exist)">ZR</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Country_code_top-level_domain" title="Country code top-level domain">Internet TLD</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/.zr" class="mw-redirect" title=".zr">.zr</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%281997%E2%80%932003%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%281997%E2%80%932003%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%281997%E2%80%932003%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%281997%E2%80%932003%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%281997%E2%80%932003%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%281997%E2%80%932003%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)" title="Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)">Léopoldville Congo</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%281966%E2%80%931971%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%281966%E2%80%931971%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%281966%E2%80%931971%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%281966%E2%80%931971%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%281966%E2%80%931971%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%281966%E2%80%931971%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Conflicts_in_DR_Congo" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Conflicts_in_Congo" title="Template:Campaignbox Conflicts in Congo"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Conflicts_in_Congo" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Conflicts in Congo"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Conflicts_in_Congo" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Conflicts in Congo"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Conflicts_in_DR_Congo" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Conflicts in <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">DR Congo</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Background</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_the_Congo_Basin" title="Colonization of the Congo Basin">Colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State" title="Atrocities in the Congo Free State">Atrocities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo_in_World_War_II" title="Belgian Congo in World War II">during WWII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Kivu_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="1944 Kivu uprising">1944 Kivu uprising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9opoldville_riots" title="Léopoldville riots">Léopoldville riots</a></li></ul></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Congo_Crisis" title="Template:Campaignbox Congo Crisis"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Congo_Crisis" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Congo Crisis"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Congo_Crisis" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Congo Crisis"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Congo_Crisis" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Force_Publique_mutinies" title="1960 Force Publique mutinies">Force Publique mutinies</a></li> <li>Secession crisis <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Katanga" title="State of Katanga">Katanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Kasai" title="South Kasai">South Kasai</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_South_Kasai" title="Invasion of South Kasai">Invasion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Free Republic of the Congo">Congo-Stanleyville</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">UN intervention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Rum_Punch" title="Operation Rum Punch"><i>Rum Punch</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niemba_ambush" title="Niemba ambush">Niemba ambush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kabalo" title="Battle of Kabalo">Battle of Kabalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jadotville" title="Siege of Jadotville">Jadotville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unokat" title="Operation Unokat"><i>UNOKAT</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Camp_Massart" title="Attack on Camp Massart">Camp Massart</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Grandslam" title="Operation Grandslam"><i>Grandslam</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kindu_atrocity" title="Kindu atrocity">Kindu atrocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Francqui_incident" title="Port Francqui incident">Port Francqui incident</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanyarwanda_War" title="Kanyarwanda War">Kanyarwanda War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwilu_rebellion" title="Kwilu rebellion">Kwilu rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragon_Rouge" title="Operation Dragon Rouge"><i>Dragon Rouge</i></a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Dragon_Noir&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Dragon Noir (page does not exist)"><i>Dragon Noir</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_White_Giant" title="Operation White Giant"><i>White Giant</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Violettes_Imperiales" title="Operation Violettes Imperiales"><i>Violettes Imperiales</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_South" title="Operation South"><i>South</i></a></li></ul></li> <p><b>Other major events</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Lumumba_Government" title="Dissolution of the Lumumba Government">Dissolution of the Lumumba Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba#Final_days_and_assassination" title="Patrice Lumumba">Torture and killing of Lumumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Dag_Hammarskj%C3%B6ld" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Dag Hammarskjöld">Death of Dag Hammarskjöld</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Shaba_Invasions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War#Shaba_Invasions" title="Angolan Civil War"><span class="wrap">Shaba Invasions</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaba_I" title="Shaba I">Shaba I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaba_II" title="Shaba II">Shaba II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kolwezi" title="Battle of Kolwezi">Battle of Kolwezi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_pact_of_1979" title="Non-aggression pact of 1979">Non-aggression pact of 1979</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="First_Congo_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War"><span class="wrap">First Congo War</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Background</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaba_Invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaba Invasions">Shaba Invasions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sudanese_Civil_War" title="Second Sudanese Civil War">Second Sudanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Uganda_(1986%E2%80%931994)" title="War in Uganda (1986–1994)">War in Uganda (1986–1994)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Zaire_unrest" title="1991 Zaire unrest">1991 Zaire unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burundian_Civil_War" title="Burundian Civil War">Burundian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Civil_War" title="Rwandan Civil War">Rwandan Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Habyarimana" class="mw-redirect" title="Assassination of Habyarimana">Assassination of Habyarimana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis" title="Great Lakes refugee crisis">Great Lakes refugee crisis</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b>War</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AFDL" title="AFDL">Formation of the AFDL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Hutus_during_the_First_Congo_War" title="Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War">Massacres of Hutus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Thunderbolt_(1997)" title="Operation Thunderbolt (1997)"><i>Thunderbolt</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Lubumbashi" title="Capture of Lubumbashi">Lubumbashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kinsangani_(1997)" title="Battle of Kinsangani (1997)">Kinsangani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko#Overthrow" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Overthrow of Mobutu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurent-D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Kabila" title="Laurent-Désiré Kabila">Ascension of Laurent Kabila</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Second_Congo_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War"><span class="wrap">Second Congo War</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Kitona" title="Operation Kitona">Operation Kitona</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusaka_Ceasefire_Agreement" title="Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement">Lusaka Ceasefire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gbadolite_Agreement" title="Gbadolite Agreement">Gbadolite Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_City_Agreement" title="Sun City Agreement">Sun City Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War_(2000)" title="Six-Day War (2000)">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Laurent-D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Kabila" title="Assassination of Laurent-Désiré Kabila">Assassination of Laurent-Désiré Kabila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kisangani_massacre" title="Kisangani massacre">Kisangani massacre</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Effacer_le_tableau" title="Effacer le tableau">Effacer le tableau</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogoro_massacre" title="Bogoro massacre">Bogoro massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretoria_Accord" title="Pretoria Accord">Pretoria Accord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MONUSCO" title="MONUSCO">MONUSCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court_investigation_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="International Criminal Court investigation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">ICC investigation</a></li></ul></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Ituri_Conflict" title="Template:Campaignbox Ituri Conflict"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Ituri_Conflict" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Ituri Conflict"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Ituri_Conflict" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Ituri Conflict"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ituri_conflict" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Ituri_conflict" title="Ituri conflict">Ituri conflict</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogoro_massacre" title="Bogoro massacre">Bogoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Artemis" title="Operation Artemis">Artemis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_North_Night_Final" title="Operation North Night Final">North Night Final</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marabho_attack" title="Marabho attack">Marabho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndjala_massacre" title="Ndjala massacre">Ndjala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_2020_Ituri_offensive" title="October 2020 Ituri offensive">October 2020 offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boga_and_Tchabi_massacres" title="Boga and Tchabi massacres">Boga and Tchabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaine_Savo_massacre" title="Plaine Savo massacre">Plaine Savo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyamamba_and_Mbogi_mass_graves" title="Nyamamba and Mbogi mass graves">Nyamamba and Mbogi</a></li> <dl><dt>Response</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1484" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1484">UN 1484</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Kivu_Conflict" title="Template:Campaignbox Kivu Conflict"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Kivu_Conflict" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Kivu Conflict"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Kivu_Conflict" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Kivu Conflict"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kivu_conflict" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Kivu_conflict" title="Kivu conflict">Kivu conflict</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="font-size:98%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lemera_massacre" title="Lemera massacre">Lemera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasika_massacre" title="Kasika massacre">Kasika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makobola_massacre" title="Makobola massacre">Makobola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makombo_massacre" title="Makombo massacre">Makombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Nord-Kivu_campaign" title="2008 Nord-Kivu campaign">2008 Nord-Kivu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Eastern_Congo_offensive" title="2009 Eastern Congo offensive">2009 Eastern Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M23_rebellion" title="M23 rebellion">M23 rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_North_Kivu_offensive" title="2014 North Kivu offensive">2014 North Kivu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_CNPSC_offensive" title="2017 CNPSC offensive">2017 CNPSC offensive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2017_Uvira_clashes" title="2017 Uvira clashes">Uvira</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_2020_Oicha_massacres" title="January 2020 Oicha massacres">Oicha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_2020_Virunga_National_Park_massacre" title="April 2020 Virunga National Park massacre">Virunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kipupu_massacre" title="Kipupu massacre">Kipupu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Kangbayi_prison_break" title="2020 Kangbayi prison break">Kangbayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisasa_massacre" title="Lisasa massacre">Lisasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tingwe_massacre" title="Tingwe massacre">Tingwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932024_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_attacks" title="2021–2024 Democratic Republic of the Congo attacks">2021–2024 attacks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mwenda_massacre" title="Mwenda massacre">Mwenda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Bulongo_massacre" title="2021 Bulongo massacre">Bulongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimoya_highway_massacre" title="Maimoya highway massacre">Maimoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasanzi_attack" title="Kasanzi attack">Kasanzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kagogo_ambush" title="Kagogo ambush">Kagogo ambush</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M23_offensive_(2022%E2%80%93present)" title="M23 offensive (2022–present)">M23 offensive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-MONUSCO_protests" title="Anti-MONUSCO protests">Anti-MONUSCO protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kishishe_massacre" title="Kishishe massacre">Kishishe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Kitshanga" title="First Battle of Kitshanga">1st Kitshanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Kitshanga" title="Second Battle of Kitshanga">2nd Kitshanga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masambo_attack" title="Masambo attack">Masambo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otomabere_attack" title="Otomabere attack">Otomabere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_2022_North_Kivu_attacks" title="August 2022 North Kivu attacks">2022 North Kivu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasindi_church_bombing" title="Kasindi church bombing">Kasindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makugwe_massacre" title="Makugwe massacre">Makugwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukondi_massacre" title="Mukondi massacre">Mukondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirindera_massacre" title="Kirindera massacre">Kirindera</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Other" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Other</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katanga_insurgency" title="Katanga insurgency">Katanga insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_Democratic_Forces_insurgency" title="Allied Democratic Forces insurgency">Allied Democratic Forces insurgency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Shujaa" title="Operation Shujaa">Operation Shujaa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongo_conflict" title="Dongo conflict">Dongo conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="2011 Democratic Republic of the Congo coup d'état attempt">2011 coup d'etat attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batwa%E2%80%93Luba_clashes" title="Batwa–Luba clashes">Batwa–Luba clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/December_2013_Kinshasa_attacks" title="December 2013 Kinshasa attacks">2013 Kinshasa attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamwina_Nsapu_rebellion" title="Kamwina Nsapu rebellion">Kamwina Nsapu rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_DR_Congo_clashes" title="Western DR Congo clashes">Western DR Congo clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_soldiers_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Child soldiers in the Congo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">History of <span class="fn org label">the Democratic Republic of the Congo</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_(black_spear).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of the Democratic Republic of the Congo"><img alt="Coat of arms of the Democratic Republic of the Congo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28black_spear%29.svg/100px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28black_spear%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28black_spear%29.svg/150px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28black_spear%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28black_spear%29.svg/200px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28black_spear%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="622" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <b><a href="/wiki/Pre-colonial_history_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Early history</a></b></td><td style="text-align:right;"> <b>pre–1876</b></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kingdom of Kongo</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1390–1914</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Luba" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Luba">Kingdom of Luba</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1585–1889</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Lunda">Kingdom of Lunda</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1600–1887</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Kuba_Kingdom" title="Kuba Kingdom">Kuba Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1625–1884</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Chokwe_people#History" title="Chokwe people">Kingdom of Chokwe</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1800–1891</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Yeke_Kingdom" title="Yeke Kingdom">Yeke Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1856–1891</td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <b><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_the_Congo_Basin" title="Colonization of the Congo Basin">Colonization</a></b></td><td style="text-align:right;"> <b>1876–1960</b></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/International_African_Association" title="International African Association">Intl. African Association</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1876–1879</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_the_Congo" title="International Association of the Congo">Intl. Congo Society</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1879–1885</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a> (<a href="/wiki/Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State" title="Atrocities in the Congo Free State">Atrocities</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1885–1908</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1908–1960</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo_in_World_War_II" title="Belgian Congo in World War II">World War II</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1940–1945</td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <b><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Independence</a></b></td><td style="text-align:right;"> <b>post–1960</b></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1960–1965</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)" title="Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)">Congo–Léopoldville</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1960–1971</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Zaire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shaba_I" title="Shaba I">Shaba I</a> / <a href="/wiki/Shaba_II" title="Shaba II">II</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1971–1997</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1996–1997</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1998–2003</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kabila" title="Joseph Kabila">Joseph Kabila presidency</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2001–2019</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Tshisekedi" title="Félix Tshisekedi">Félix Tshisekedi presidency</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2019–present</td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Years_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:Years in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Years</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Portal:Democratic Republic of the Congo">DRC Portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Template:History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Template talk:History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Zaire</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> officially the <b>Republic of Zaire</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the name of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> from 1971 to 18 May 1997. Located in <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a>, it was, by area, the third-largest country in Africa after <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area" title="List of countries and dependencies by area">11th-largest country in the world</a> from 1965 to 1997. With a population of over 23 million, Zaire was the <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_territories_where_French_is_an_official_language" title="List of countries and territories where French is an official language">most populous Francophone country</a> in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>. Zaire played a central role during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. </p><p>The country was a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party</a> <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a> <a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship" title="Military dictatorship">military dictatorship</a>, run by <a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Mobutu Sese Seko</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Popular_Movement_of_the_Revolution" title="Popular Movement of the Revolution">Popular Movement of the Revolution</a>. Zaire was established following Mobutu's seizure of power in a military coup in 1965, after five years of political upheaval following independence from <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a>. Zaire had a strongly <a href="/wiki/Centralized_government" title="Centralized government">centralist</a> <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Zaire" title="Constitution of Zaire">constitution</a>, and foreign assets were <a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">nationalized</a>. The period is sometimes referred to as the <b>Second Congolese Republic</b>. </p><p>A wider campaign of <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Authenticit%C3%A9_(Zaire)" title="Authenticité (Zaire)">Authenticité</a></i></span>, ridding the country of the influences from the colonial era of the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a>, was also launched under Mobutu's direction. Weakened by the termination of American support after the end of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, Mobutu was forced to declare a new republic in 1990 to cope with demands for change. By the time of its downfall, Zaire was characterised by widespread <a href="/wiki/Cronyism" title="Cronyism">cronyism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Zaire" class="mw-redirect" title="Corruption in Zaire">corruption</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Zaire" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Zaire">economic mismanagement</a>. </p><p>Zaire collapsed in the late 1990s, amid the destabilization of the eastern parts of the country in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a> and growing ethnic violence. In 1996, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Laurent-D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Kabila" title="Laurent-Désiré Kabila">Laurent-Désiré Kabila</a></span></span>, the head of the <a href="/wiki/AFDL" title="AFDL">AFDL</a> militia, led a <a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">popular rebellion</a> against Mobutu. With rebel forces making gains westward, Mobutu fled the country, leaving Kabila's forces in charge. The country's name was restored to the Democratic Republic of the Congo the following year. Mobutu died less than four months later, on September 7, 1997, while in exile in <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The country's name, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Zaïre</i></span>, was derived from the name of the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo River</a>, sometimes called <span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt">Zaire</i></span> in <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, which in turn was derived from the <a href="/wiki/Kongo_language" title="Kongo language">Kikongo</a> word <span title="Kongo-language text"><i lang="kg">nzere</i></span> or <span title="Kongo-language text"><i lang="kg">nzadi</i></span> ('river that swallows all rivers').<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of <i>Congo</i> seems to have replaced <i>Zaire</i> gradually in English usage during the 18th century and <i>Congo</i> was the preferred English name in 19th-century literature, although references to <i>Zahir</i> or <i>Zaire</i> as the name used by the local population (i.e. derived from Portuguese usage) remained common.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mobutu">Mobutu</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mobutu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1965, <a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">as in 1960</a>, the division of power in <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)" title="Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)">Congo-Léopoldville</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">former Belgian colony</a>) between President and Parliament led to a stalemate and threatened the country's stability.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Joseph-Désiré Mobutu</a> again seized power.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the <a href="/wiki/1960_Republic_of_the_Congo_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="1960 Republic of the Congo coup d'état">first time</a>, however, Mobutu assumed the presidency, rather than remaining behind the scenes.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1965, Mobutu dominated the political life of the country, restructuring the state on more than one occasion, and claiming the title of "Father of the Nation".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He announced the renaming of the country as the Republic of Zaire on 27 October 1971.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When, under the <a href="/wiki/Authenticit%C3%A9_(Zaire)" title="Authenticité (Zaire)">authenticité</a> policy of the early 1970s, Zairians were obliged to adopt "authentic" names, Mobutu dropped Joseph-Désiré and officially changed his name to <i>Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga</i>, or, more commonly, Mobutu Sésé Seko, roughly meaning "the all-conquering warrior, who goes from triumph to triumph".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In retrospective justification of his <a href="/wiki/Second_Mobutu_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Second Mobutu coup d'état">1965 seizure of power</a>, Mobutu later summed up the record of the First Republic as one of "chaos, disorder, negligence, and incompetence".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rejection of the legacy of the First Republic went far beyond rhetoric.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the first two years of its existence, the new regime turned to the urgent tasks of political reconstruction and consolidation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Creating a new basis of legitimacy for the state, in the form of a single party, came next in Mobutu's order of priority.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A third imperative was to expand the reach of the state in the social and political realms, a process that began in 1970 and culminated in the adoption of a <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Zaire" title="Constitution of Zaire">new constitution</a> in 1974.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1976, however, this effort had begun to generate its own inner contradictions, thus paving the way for the resurrection of a Bula Matari ("the breaker of rocks") system of repression and brutality.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_changes">Constitutional changes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Constitutional changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By 1967, Mobutu had consolidated his rule and proceeded to give the country a new constitution and a single party.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new constitution was submitted to popular referendum in June 1967 and approved by 98 per cent of those voting.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It provided that executive powers be centralised in the president, who was to be head of state, head of government, commander in chief of the armed forces and the police, and in charge of foreign policy.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>But the most far-reaching change was the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Movement_of_the_Revolution" title="Popular Movement of the Revolution">Popular Movement of the Revolution</a> (Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution—MPR) on 17 April 1967, marking the emergence of "the nation politically organised".<sup id="cite_ref-:3_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather than government institutions being the <a href="/wiki/Emanation_of_the_state" title="Emanation of the state">emanation of the state</a>, the state was henceforth defined as the emanation of the party.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, in October 1967, party and administrative responsibilities were merged into a single framework, thereby automatically extending the role of the party to all administrative organs at the central and provincial levels, as well as to the <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Youth_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Youth movement">youth movements</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Student_society" title="Student society">student organisations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three years after changing the country's name to Zaire, Mobutu promulgated a <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Zaire" title="Constitution of Zaire">new constitution</a> that consolidated his hold on the country. Every five years (seven years after 1978), the MPR elected a president who was simultaneously nominated as the only candidate for president of the republic; he was confirmed in office via a referendum. Under this system, Mobutu was reelected in 1977 and 1984 by implausibly high margins, claiming a unanimous or near-unanimous "yes" vote. The MPR was defined as the country's "single institution," and its president was vested with "plentitude of power exercise." Every five years, a single list of MPR candidates was returned to the National Assembly, with official figures showing near-unanimous support. All citizens of Zaire automatically became members of the MPR at birth. For all intents and purposes, this gave the president of the MPR—Mobutu—complete political control over the country.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Totalitarian_expansion">Totalitarian expansion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Totalitarian expansion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mobutu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mobutu.jpg/220px-Mobutu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mobutu.jpg/330px-Mobutu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mobutu.jpg/440px-Mobutu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1130" data-file-height="1695" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Mobutu Sese Seko</a>, the president of Zaire from 1965 to 1997</figcaption></figure> <p>Translating the concept of "the nation politically organised" into reality implied a major expansion of state control of <a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">civil society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It meant, to begin with, the incorporation of youth groups and worker organisations into the matrix of the MPR.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 1967, the Political Bureau announced the creation of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Youth_of_the_Popular_Revolutionary_Movement&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Youth of the Popular Revolutionary Movement (page does not exist)">Youth of the Popular Revolutionary Movement</a> (Jeunesse du Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution—JMPR), following the launching a month earlier of the <a href="/wiki/National_Union_of_Congolese_Workers" title="National Union of Congolese Workers">National Union of Zairian Workers</a> (Union Nationale des Travailleurs Zaïrois—UNTZA), which brought together into a single organisational framework three preexisting trade unions.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ostensibly, the aim of the merger, in the terms of the Manifesto of N'Sele, was to transform the role of trade unions from "being merely a force of confrontation" into "an organ of support for government policy", thus providing "a communication link between the working class and the state".<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the JMPR was to act as a major link between the student population and the state.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In reality, the government was attempting to bring under its control those sectors where opposition to the regime might be centred.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By appointing key labour and youth leaders to the MPR Political Bureau, the regime hoped to harness syndical and student forces to the machinery of the state.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, as has been pointed out by numerous observers, there is little evidence that <a href="/wiki/Co-optation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-optation">co-optation</a> succeeded in mobilising support for the regime beyond the most superficial level.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The trend toward co-optation of key social sectors continued in subsequent years.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women's associations were eventually brought under the control of the party, as was the <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">press</a>, and in December 1971 Mobutu proceeded to emasculate the power of the churches.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From then on, only three churches were recognised: the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Church_of_Christ_in_Zaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Church of Christ in Zaire (page does not exist)">Church of Christ in Zaire</a> (L'Église du Christ au Zaïre), the <a href="/wiki/Kimbanguism" title="Kimbanguism">Kimbanguist Church</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nationalisation of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Kinshasa" title="University of Kinshasa">universities of Kinshasa</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Kisangani" title="University of Kisangani">Kisangani</a>, coupled with Mobutu's insistence on banning all Christian names and establishing JMPR sections in all seminaries, soon brought the Roman Catholic Church and the state into conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not until 1975, and after considerable pressure from the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Vatican</a>, did the regime agree to tone down its attacks on the Roman Catholic Church and return some of its control of the school system to the church.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, in line with a December 1971 law, which allowed the state to dissolve "any church or sect that compromises or threatens to compromise public order", scores of unrecognised <a href="/wiki/Religious_sect" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious sect">religious sects</a> were dissolved and their leaders jailed.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mobutu was careful also to suppress all institutions that could mobilise ethnic loyalties.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Avowedly opposed to ethnicity as a basis for political alignment, he outlawed such ethnic associations as the Association of Lulua Brothers (Association des Lulua Frères), which had been organised in <a href="/wiki/Kasai_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasai region">Kasai</a> in 1953 in reaction to the growing political and economic influence in Kasai of the rival <a href="/wiki/Luba_people" title="Luba people">Luba people</a>, and Liboke lya Bangala (literally, "a bundle of Bangala"), an association formed in the 1950s to represent the interests of <a href="/wiki/Lingala" title="Lingala">Lingala</a> speakers in large cities.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It helped Mobutu that his ethnic affiliation was blurred in the public mind.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, as dissatisfaction arose, ethnic tensions surfaced again.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Centralisation_of_power">Centralisation of power</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Centralisation of power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Running parallel to the efforts of the state to control all autonomous sources of power, important administrative reforms were introduced in 1967 and 1973 to strengthen the hand of the central authorities in the provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The central objective of the 1967 reform was to abolish provincial governments and replace them with state functionaries appointed by <a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Kinshasa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The principle of centralisation was further extended to districts and territories, each headed by administrators appointed by the central government.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The only units of government that still retained a fair measure of autonomy—but not for long—were the so-called local collectivities, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Chiefdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Chiefdoms">chiefdoms</a> and sectors (the latter incorporating several chiefdoms).<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The unitary, centralised state system thus legislated into existence bore a striking resemblance to its colonial antecedent, except that from July 1972 provinces were called regions.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the January 1973 reform, another major step was taken in the direction of further centralisation.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The aim, in essence, was to operate a complete fusion of political and administrative hierarchies by making the head of each administrative unit the president of the local party committee.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, another consequence of the reform was to severely curtail the power of traditional authorities at the local level.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hereditary claims to authority would no longer be recognised; instead, all chiefs were to be appointed and controlled by the state via the administrative hierarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By then, the process of centralisation had theoretically eliminated all preexisting centres of local autonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The analogy with the colonial state becomes even more compelling when coupled with the introduction in 1973 of "obligatory civic work" (locally known as <i>Salongo</i> after the Lingala term for work), in the form of one afternoon a week of compulsory labor on agricultural and development projects.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Officially described as a revolutionary attempt to return to the values of <a href="/wiki/African_communalism" title="African communalism">communalism</a> and solidarity inherent in the traditional society, Salongo was intended to mobilise the population into the performance of collective work "with enthusiasm and without constraint".<sup id="cite_ref-:6_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In reality, the conspicuous lack of popular enthusiasm for Salongo led to widespread resistance and foot dragging (causing many local administrators to look the other way).<sup id="cite_ref-:6_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although failure to comply carried penalties of one month to six months in jail, by the late 1970s most Zairians shirked their Salongo obligations.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By resuscitating one of the most bitterly resented features of the colonial state, obligatory civic work contributed in no small way to the erosion of legitimacy suffered by the Mobutist state.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growing_conflict">Growing conflict</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Growing conflict"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Idi_Amin_and_Mobutu.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Idi_Amin_and_Mobutu.jpeg/220px-Idi_Amin_and_Mobutu.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Idi_Amin_and_Mobutu.jpeg/330px-Idi_Amin_and_Mobutu.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Idi_Amin_and_Mobutu.jpeg/440px-Idi_Amin_and_Mobutu.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="862" data-file-height="646" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Idi_Amin" title="Idi Amin">Idi Amin</a>, president of <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>, visiting Mobutu in Zaire during The <a href="/wiki/Shaba_I" title="Shaba I">Shaba I</a> Conflict in 1977</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1977 and 1978, Katangan rebels based in <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Angola" title="People's Republic of Angola">Angola</a> launched two invasions, <a href="/wiki/Shaba_I" title="Shaba I">Shaba I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaba_II" title="Shaba II">Shaba II</a>, into the <a href="/wiki/Katanga_Province" title="Katanga Province">Katanga Province</a> (renamed "Shaba" in 1972). The rebels were driven out with military assistance from the <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a>, particularly from the <a href="/wiki/Safari_Club" title="Safari Club">Safari Club</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kolwezi" title="Battle of Kolwezi">Battle of Kolwezi</a>, fought in May 1978, resulted in an <a href="/wiki/Airborne_operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Airborne operation">airborne operation</a> in an aim of rescuing Zairian, <a href="/wiki/Belgian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian people">Belgian</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a> miners held as hostages by pro-Communist <a href="/wiki/State_of_Katanga" title="State of Katanga">Katangan</a> guerrillas. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a> made a <a href="/wiki/List_of_pastoral_visits_of_Pope_John_Paul_II" title="List of pastoral visits of Pope John Paul II">papal trip</a> to Zaire on 2 May 1980, on the centenary of Catholic evangelization. During his tour, he greeted over a million people, making him the first pontiff to visit Africa as a "messenger of peace". He left Zaire four days later on 6 May shortly after 9 people were trampled to death trying to attend mass. </p><p>In 1981, despite slow progress, Zaire launched an economic reform to revive its economy in order to keep up its rescheduled payment on the country's tremendous debt of $4.4 billion, which had recorded a small rate of economic growth in the last three quarters of 1980. </p><p>During the 1980s, Zaire remained a one-party state. Although Mobutu maintained control during this period, opposition parties, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Union_for_Democracy_and_Social_Progress_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Union for Democracy and Social Progress (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">Union for Democracy and Social Progress</a> (Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social—UDPS), were active. Mobutu's attempts to quell these groups drew significant international criticism.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> came to a close, internal and external pressures on Mobutu increased. In late 1989 and early 1990, Mobutu was weakened by a series of domestic protests, by heightened international criticism of his regime's human rights practices, by a faltering economy, and by government corruption, most notably his massive <a href="/wiki/Embezzlement" title="Embezzlement">embezzlement</a> of government funds for personal use.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In June 1989, Mobutu visited <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, where he was the first African head of state to be invited for a state meeting with newly elected U.S. President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In May 1990, Mobutu agreed to the principle of a <a href="/wiki/Multi-party_system" title="Multi-party system">multi-party system</a> with elections and a constitution. As details of a reform package were delayed, soldiers began <a href="/wiki/1991_Zaire_unrest" title="1991 Zaire unrest">looting Kinshasa in September 1991</a> to protest their unpaid wages. Two thousand French and Belgian troops, some of whom were flown in on U.S. Air Force planes, arrived to evacuate the 20,000 endangered foreign nationals in Kinshasa.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1992, after previous similar attempts, the long-promised Sovereign National Conference was staged, encompassing over 2,000 representatives from various political parties. The conference gave itself a legislative mandate and elected Archbishop <a href="/wiki/Laurent_Monsengwo_Pasinya" title="Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya">Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya</a> as its chairman, along with <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Tshisekedi_wa_Mulumba" class="mw-redirect" title="Étienne Tshisekedi wa Mulumba">Étienne Tshisekedi wa Mulumba</a>, leader of the UDPS, as prime minister. By the end of the year Mobutu had created a rival government with its own prime minister. The ensuing stalemate produced a compromise merger of the two governments into the High Council of Republic–Parliament of Transition (HCR–PT) in 1994, with Mobutu as head of state and <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Kengo_wa_Dondo" title="Léon Kengo wa Dondo">Kengo wa Dondo</a> as prime minister. Although presidential and legislative elections were scheduled repeatedly over the next 2 years, they never took place.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Congo_War_and_demise_of_Zaire">First Congo War and demise of Zaire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: First Congo War and demise of Zaire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a></div> <p>By 1996, tensions from the neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Civil_War" title="Rwandan Civil War">Rwandan Civil War</a> and genocide had spilled over to Zaire (see <a href="/wiki/History_of_Rwanda#Post-civil_war_Rwanda" title="History of Rwanda">History of Rwanda</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott201433–35_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott201433–35-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rwandan <a href="/wiki/Hutu" title="Hutu">Hutu</a> militia forces (<a href="/wiki/Interahamwe" title="Interahamwe">Interahamwe</a>), who had fled Rwanda following the ascension of an <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Patriotic_Front" title="Rwandan Patriotic Front">RPF</a>-led government, had been using Hutu refugee camps in eastern Zaire as bases for incursion against Rwanda. These Hutu militia forces soon allied with the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Zairian armed forces</a> (FAZ) to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire, known as the <a href="/wiki/Banyamulenge" title="Banyamulenge">Banyamulenge</a>. In turn, these Zairian Tutsis formed a militia to defend themselves against attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott201433–35_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott201433–35-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Zairian government began to escalate its massacres in November 1996, the Tutsi militias erupted in rebellion against Mobutu, triggering the <a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott201434–35_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott201434–35-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Tutsi militia was soon joined by various opposition groups and supported by several countries, including Rwanda and Uganda. This coalition, led by <a href="/wiki/Laurent-D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Kabila" title="Laurent-Désiré Kabila">Laurent-Désiré Kabila</a>, became known as the Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre (<a href="/wiki/AFDL" title="AFDL">AFDL</a>). The AFDL, now seeking the broader goal of ousting Mobutu, made significant military gains in early 1997, and by the middle of 1997 had almost completely overrun the country. The only thing that seemed to slow the AFDL forces down was the country's ramshackle infrastructure; irregularly used dirt paths and river ports were all that connected some areas to the outside world. Following failed peace talks between Mobutu and Kabila, Mobutu fled into exile in Morocco on 17 May. Kabila named himself president, consolidated power around himself and the AFDL, and marched unopposed into Kinshasa three days later. On 21 May, Kabila officially reverted the name of the country to the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legacy">Legacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the collapse of Zaire, its legacy was claimed and partially continued by various factions which emerged from Mobutu's former supporter and loyalist network. These factions were headed by former "barons" of the regime as well as Mobutu's family members, and included political parties such as the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Mobutist_Democrats" title="Union of Mobutist Democrats">Union of Mobutist Democrats</a> and the MPR-<i>Fait privé</i>. Several of these groups continued to use Zaire's symbols and invoke its traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner2007170_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner2007170-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2024, opposition politician <a href="/wiki/Christian_Malanga" title="Christian Malanga">Christian Malanga</a> led a <a href="/wiki/2024_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_coup_attempt" title="2024 Democratic Republic of the Congo coup attempt">coup attempt</a> against the Congolese government in the name of his self-proclaimed "New Zaire", raising the old flag of Zaire in Kinshasa. The coup attempt was defeated, and Malanga was killed.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government_and_politics">Government and politics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Government and politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Presidential_Standard_of_Zaire.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Presidential_Standard_of_Zaire.svg/220px-Presidential_Standard_of_Zaire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Presidential_Standard_of_Zaire.svg/330px-Presidential_Standard_of_Zaire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Presidential_Standard_of_Zaire.svg/440px-Presidential_Standard_of_Zaire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="837" data-file-height="674" /></a><figcaption>Presidential standard of Zaire</figcaption></figure> <p>The country was governed by the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Movement_of_the_Revolution" title="Popular Movement of the Revolution">Popular Movement of the Revolution</a> as a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a> as the only legally permitted party in the country, though the Congo had effectively been a one-party state since the MPR's formation. Despite the constitution nominally allowing for the existence of two parties, the MPR was the only party that was allowed to nominate a candidate for the <a href="/wiki/1970_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_presidential_election" title="1970 Democratic Republic of the Congo presidential election">1 November 1970 presidential election</a>. Mobutu was confirmed in office by an implausible margin of over 10,131,000 votes against only 157 who voted "no." At <a href="/wiki/1970_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_parliamentary_election" title="1970 Democratic Republic of the Congo parliamentary election">parliamentary elections</a> held two weeks later, voters were presented with a single MPR list that was approved with over 99 per cent support.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The president served as the head of state of Zaïre whose role was to appoint and dismiss cabinet members and determine their areas of responsibility.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ministers, as heads of their respective departments, were to execute the programs and decisions of the president.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The president also was to have the power to appoint and dismiss the governors of the provinces and the judges of all courts, including those of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_court" title="Supreme court">Supreme Court</a> of Justice.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The bicameral parliament was replaced by a unicameral legislative body called the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Legislative_Council_(Zaire)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Legislative Council (Zaire) (page does not exist)">Legislative Council</a>. Governors of provinces were no longer elected by provincial assemblies but appointed by the central government.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_17-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The president had the power to issue autonomous regulations on matters other than those pertaining to the domain of law, without prejudice to other provisions of the constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_17-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under certain conditions, the president was empowered to govern by executive order, which carried the force of law.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mobutism">Mobutism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mobutism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mobutism" title="Mobutism">Mobutism</a></div> <p>The doctrinal foundation was disclosed shortly after its birth, in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_N%27sele" title="Manifesto of N'sele">Manifesto of N'sele</a>, which was issued from the president's rural residence at N'sele, 60 km further up the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo River</a> from <a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Kinshasa</a>. In May 1967, it was made public.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nationalism, revolution, and authenticity were identified as the major themes of what came to be known as "<a href="/wiki/Mobutism" title="Mobutism">Mobutism</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-:3_18-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a> implied the achievement of economic and political independence.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a>, described as a "truly national revolution, essentially pragmatic", meant "the repudiation of both <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-:7_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, "neither right nor left" became one of the legitimising slogans of the regime, along with "authenticity".<sup id="cite_ref-:7_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1970s and 1980s, Mobutu's government relied on a selected pool of technocrats, often referred to as the "nomenklatura", from which the Head of State drew, and periodically rotated, competent individuals. They comprised the Executive Council and led the full spectrum of Ministries, Departments or, as governmental terminology shifted, Commissariats. Among these individuals were internationally respected appointees such as Djamboleka Lona Okitongono who was named Secretary of Finance, under Citizen Namwisi (Minister of Finance), and later became President of OGEDEP, the National Debt Management Office.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Djamboleka became Governor of the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Zaire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank of Zaire">Bank of Zaire</a> in the final stage of Mobutu's government. His progress was fairly typical of the rotational pattern established by Mobutu, who retained the most sensitive ministerial portfolios (such as Defense) for himself.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_divisions">Administrative divisions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Administrative divisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative divisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Administrative divisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></div> <p>Zaire was divided into 8 regions with its capital <a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Kinshasa</a>. In 1988, the province of Kivu was split into three regions. They were renamed into provinces in 1997. </p> <table style="border-spacing: 20px 1px;"> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="11"><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DCongoNumbered.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/DCongoNumbered.png/280px-DCongoNumbered.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/DCongoNumbered.png 1.5x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td> <td>1. <a href="/wiki/Bandundu_Province" title="Bandundu Province">Bandundu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2. <a href="/wiki/Kongo_Central" title="Kongo Central">Bas-Congo</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3. <a href="/wiki/%C3%89quateur_(former_province)" title="Équateur (former province)">Équateur</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>4. <a href="/wiki/Kasa%C3%AF-Occidental" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasaï-Occidental">Kasaï-Occidental</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>5. <a href="/wiki/Kasa%C3%AF-Oriental_(former_province)" title="Kasaï-Oriental (former province)">Kasaï–Oriental</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>6. <a href="/wiki/Katanga_Province" title="Katanga Province">Shaba</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>7. <a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Kinshasa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>8. <a href="/wiki/Maniema" title="Maniema">Maniema</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>9. <a href="/wiki/North_Kivu" title="North Kivu">North Kivu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>10. <a href="/wiki/Orientale_Province" title="Orientale Province">Orientale</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>11. <a href="/wiki/South_Kivu" title="South Kivu">South Kivu</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zaire_5_Makuta_R.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Zaire_5_Makuta_R.jpg/220px-Zaire_5_Makuta_R.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Zaire_5_Makuta_R.jpg/330px-Zaire_5_Makuta_R.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Zaire_5_Makuta_R.jpg/440px-Zaire_5_Makuta_R.jpg 2x" data-file-width="591" data-file-height="591" /></a><figcaption>A 5 makuta coin from 1977, which portrays Mobutu Sese Seko, the president of Zaire during this time</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Zairean_zaire" class="mw-redirect" title="Zairean zaire">zaïre</a> was introduced to replace the franc as the new national currency. 100 makuta (singular likuta) equaled one zaïre. The likuta was also divided into 100 sengi. However this unit was worth very little, so the smallest coin was for 10 sengi.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The currency and the cities named above had actually already been renamed between 1966 and 1971.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>While the country began to stabilize after Mobutu took control, the economic situation began to decline, and by 1979, the purchasing power was only 4% of that in 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-dvr_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dvr-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting in 1976 the <a href="/wiki/IMF" class="mw-redirect" title="IMF">IMF</a> provided stabilizing loans to his regime. Much of this money was embezzled by Mobutu and his circle.<sup id="cite_ref-dvr_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dvr-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the 1982 report by the IMF's envoy <a href="/w/index.php?title=Erwin_Blumenthal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Erwin Blumenthal (page does not exist)">Erwin Blumenthal</a>, it was "alarmingly clear that the corruptive system in Zaire with all its wicked and ugly manifestations, its mismanagement and fraud will destroy all endeavors of international institutions, of friendly governments, and of the commercial banks towards recovery and rehabilitation of Zaire's economy".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blumenthal stated that there was "no chance" that creditors would ever recover their loans. Yet the IMF and the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> continued to lend money that was either embezzled, stolen, or "wasted on elephant projects".<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Structural adjustment programmes" implemented as a condition of IMF loans cut support for health care, education, and infrastructure.<sup id="cite_ref-dvr_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dvr-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Authenticit%C3%A9_(Zaire)" title="Authenticité (Zaire)">Authenticité (Zaire)</a></div> <p>The concept of authenticity was derived from the MPR's professed doctrine of "authentic Zairian nationalism and condemnation of regionalism and tribalism".<sup id="cite_ref-:7_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mobutu defined it as being conscious of one's own personality and one's own values and of being at home in one's culture.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In line with the dictates of authenticity, the name of the country was changed to the Republic of Zaire on 27 October 1971, and that of the armed forces to Zairian Armed Forces (Forces Armées Zaïroises—FAZ).<sup id="cite_ref-:7_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kisanganibobb_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kisanganibobb-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This decision was curious, given that the name <i>Congo</i>, which referred both to the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">river Congo</a> and to the mediaeval <a href="/wiki/Kongo_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Kongo Empire">Kongo Empire</a>, was fundamentally authentic to pre-colonial African roots, while <i>Zaire</i> is in fact a Portuguese corruption of another African word, <i>Nzadi</i> ("river", by Nzadi o Nzere, "the river that swallows all the other rivers", another name of the Congo river).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> General Mobutu became Mobutu Sésé Seko and forced all his citizens to adopt <a href="/wiki/African_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="African languages">African</a> names and many cities were also renamed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Some of the conversions are as follows: </p> <ul><li>Léopoldville became <a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Kinshasa</a></li> <li>Stanleyville became <a href="/wiki/Kisangani" title="Kisangani">Kisangani</a></li> <li>Élisabethville became <a href="/wiki/Lubumbashi" title="Lubumbashi">Lubumbashi</a></li> <li>Jadotville became <a href="/wiki/Likasi" title="Likasi">Likasi</a></li> <li>Albertville became <a href="/wiki/Kalemie" title="Kalemie">Kalemie</a></li></ul> <p>In addition, the adoption of Zairian, as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western</a> or <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a>, names in 1972 and the abandonment of Western dress in favour of the wearing of the <a href="/wiki/Abacost" title="Abacost">abacost</a> were subsequently promoted as expressions of authenticity.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_28-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mobutu used the concept of authenticity as a means of vindicating his own brand of leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_28-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As he himself stated, "in our African tradition there are never two chiefs ... That is why we Congolese, in the desire to conform to the traditions of our continent, have resolved to group all the energies of the citizens of our country under the banner of a single national party."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Critics of the regime were quick to point out the shortcomings of Mobutism as a legitimising formula, in particular its self-serving qualities and inherent vagueness; nonetheless, the MPR's ideological training centre, the Makanda Kabobi Institute, took seriously its assigned task of propagating through the land "the teachings of the Founder-President, which must be given and interpreted in the same fashion throughout the country".<sup id="cite_ref-:7_28-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Members of the MPR Political Bureau, meanwhile, were entrusted with the responsibility of serving as "the repositories and guarantors of Mobutism".<sup id="cite_ref-:7_28-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Quite aside from the merits or weaknesses of Mobutism, the MPR drew much of its legitimacy from the model of the overarching mass parties that had come into existence in Africa in the 1960s, a model which had also been a source of inspiration for the MNC-Lumumba.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_28-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was this Lumumbist heritage which the MPR tried to appropriate in its effort to mobilise the Zairian masses behind its founder-president.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_28-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Intimately tied up with the doctrine of Mobutism was the vision of an all-encompassing single party reaching out to all sectors of the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Standards_and_abbreviations">Standards and abbreviations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Standards and abbreviations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Zaire's <a href="/wiki/Top-level_domain" title="Top-level domain">top-level domain</a> was "<b><a href="/wiki/.zr" class="mw-redirect" title=".zr">.zr</a></b>". It has since changed to "<b><a href="/wiki/.cd" title=".cd">.cd</a></b>".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Zaire's <a href="/wiki/IOC_code" class="mw-redirect" title="IOC code">IOC code</a> was <b>ZAI</b>, which the nation's athletes used at the <a href="/wiki/Olympic_Games" title="Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a> and other international sporting events like the <a href="/wiki/African_Games" title="African Games">All-Africa Games</a>. It has since changed to <b>COD</b>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The term "Kikongo" in the Constitution was actually referring to the Kituba language – which is known as <i>Kikongo ya leta</i> by its speakers – not the <a href="/wiki/Kongo_language" title="Kongo language">Kongo language</a> proper. The confusion arose from the fact that the government of the Zaire officially recognized and referred to the language simply as "Kikongo".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zaire became a <i>de jure</i> one-party state on 23 December 1970,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but had been a <i>de facto</i> one-party state since 20 May 1967, the date on which the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Movement_of_the_Revolution" title="Popular Movement of the Revolution">MPR</a> (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Mouvement Populaire de la Revolution</i></span>) was established. Zaire formally adopted a multiparty system on 24 April 1990,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when Mobutu delivered a speech proclaiming the end of the one-party system. The country adopted a three-party system <i>de jure</i> with the enactment of Law No. 90-002 of 5 July 1990, which amended its constitution accordingly, but retained the one-party system of the MPR <i>de facto</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɪər/: 'ear' in 'near'">ɪər</span></span>/</a></span></span>, <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɪər/: 'ear' in 'near'">ɪər</span></span>/</a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">French: <i lang="fr">République du Zaïre</i>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[ʁepyblik<span class="wrap"> </span>dy<span class="wrap"> </span>zaiʁ]</a></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Constitution de la République du Zaïre</i>, article 5: "Sa devise est : Paix — Justice — Travail" Source: <i>Journal Officiel de la République du Zaïre</i> (N. 1 du 1<sup>er</sup> janvier 1983)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CIA-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CIA_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIA_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP08-00534R000100170001-4.pdf"><i>The World Factbook 1986</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Springfield, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. 1986. p. 271. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413095623/https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP08-00534R000100170001-4.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 13 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+Factbook+1986&rft.place=Springfield%2C+Virginia&rft.pages=271&rft.pub=Central+Intelligence+Agency&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Freadingroom%2Fdocs%2FCIA-RDP08-00534R000100170001-4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZaire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaplan, Irving (ed.) <i>Zaire: A Country Study</i> Third Edition, First Printing 1979</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sandra W. Meditz and Tim Merrill (eds.) <i>Zaire: A Country Study</i> Fourth Edition 1993</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFServices1975" class="citation book cs1">Services, United States Dept of State Office of Media (15 July 1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7DQtAAAAMAAJ&q=Zaire+"><i>Countries of the World and Their Leaders: The U.S. Department of State's Report on Status of the World's Nations, Combined with Its Series of Background Notes Portraying Contemporary Political and Economic Conditions, Governmental Policies and Personnel, Political Parties, Religion, History, Education, Press, Radio and TV, and Other Characteristics of Each Nation: Includes Central Intelligence Agency's List of Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments</i></a>. Gale Research Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810310469" title="Special:BookSources/9780810310469"><bdi>9780810310469</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Countries+of+the+World+and+Their+Leaders%3A+The+U.S.+Department+of+State%27s+Report+on+Status+of+the+World%27s+Nations%2C+Combined+with+Its+Series+of+Background+Notes+Portraying+Contemporary+Political+and+Economic+Conditions%2C+Governmental+Policies+and+Personnel%2C+Political+Parties%2C+Religion%2C+History%2C+Education%2C+Press%2C+Radio+and+TV%2C+and+Other+Characteristics+of+Each+Nation%3A+Includes+Central+Intelligence+Agency%27s+List+of+Chiefs+of+State+and+Cabinet+Members+of+Foreign+Governments&rft.pub=Gale+Research+Company&rft.date=1975-07-15&rft.isbn=9780810310469&rft.aulast=Services&rft.aufirst=United+States+Dept+of+State+Office+of+Media&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7DQtAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DZaire%2B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZaire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/219/hdr_1990_en_complete_nostats.pdf">"Human Development Report 1990"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. New York: Oxford University Press. 1990. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140202144055/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/219/hdr_1990_en_complete_nostats.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2 February 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Human+Development+Report+1990&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdr.undp.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Freports%2F219%2Fhdr_1990_en_complete_nostats.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZaire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Forbath, Peter. <i>The River Congo</i> (1977), p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Barbot, <i>An Abstract of a Voyage to Congo River, Or the Zair and to Cabinde in the Year 1700</i> (1746)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeditzMerrill1994">Meditz & Merrill 1994</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_14-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_14-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_14-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeditzMerrill1994">Meditz & Merrill 1994</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKisanganiBobb2009" class="citation book cs1">Kisangani, Emizet Francois; Bobb, Scott F. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FvAWPTaRvFYC"><i>Historical Dictionary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</i></a>. Historical Dictionaries of Africa. Vol. 112 (3, illustrated ed.). Scarecrow Press. pp. li, 102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810863255" title="Special:BookSources/9780810863255"><bdi>9780810863255</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Democratic+Republic+of+the+Congo&rft.series=Historical+Dictionaries+of+Africa&rft.pages=li%2C+102&rft.edition=3%2C+illustrated&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780810863255&rft.aulast=Kisangani&rft.aufirst=Emizet+Francois&rft.au=Bobb%2C+Scott+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFvAWPTaRvFYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZaire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeditzMerrill1994">Meditz & Merrill 1994</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_17-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_17-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_17-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_17-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeditzMerrill1994">Meditz & Merrill 1994</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_18-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_18-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeditzMerrill1994">Meditz & Merrill 1994</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeditzMerrill1994">Meditz & Merrill 1994</a>, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeditzMerrill1994">Meditz & Merrill 1994</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeditzMerrill1994">Meditz & Merrill 1994</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060721174238/http://www.heritage.org/Research/Africa/upload/91612_1.pdf">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Zaire's Mobutu Visits America", by Michael Johns, Heritage Foundation Executive Memorandum #239, June 29, 1989"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.heritage.org/research/africa/upload/91612_1.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 21 July 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Zaire%27s+Mobutu+Visits+America%22%2C+by+Michael+Johns%2C+Heritage+Foundation+Executive+Memorandum+%23239%2C+June+29%2C+1989.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.heritage.org%2Fresearch%2Fafrica%2Fupload%2F91612_1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZaire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott201433–35-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott201433–35_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott201433–35_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbbott2014">Abbott (2014)</a>, pp. 33–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott201434–35-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott201434–35_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbbott2014">Abbott (2014)</a>, pp. 34–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner2007170-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner2007170_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurner2007">Turner 2007</a>, p. 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchipani2024" class="citation web cs1">Schipani, Andres (19 May 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20240519202627/https://www.ft.com/content/9b928e98-3221-4db4-8ad2-56a83280e98a">"Congolese forces claim to have thwarted coup 'involving foreign nationals'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Financial_Times" title="Financial Times">Financial Times</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/content/9b928e98-3221-4db4-8ad2-56a83280e98a">the original</a> on 19 May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=Congolese+forces+claim+to+have+thwarted+coup+%27involving+foreign+nationals%27&rft.date=2024-05-19&rft.aulast=Schipani&rft.aufirst=Andres&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2F9b928e98-3221-4db4-8ad2-56a83280e98a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZaire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/foiled-coup-dr-congo-heres-what-know-2024-05-20/">"Explainer: The foiled coup in DR Congo: Here's what to know"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a></i>. 21 May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Explainer%3A+The+foiled+coup+in+DR+Congo%3A+Here%27s+what+to+know&rft.date=2024-05-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fworld%2Fafrica%2Ffoiled-coup-dr-congo-heres-what-know-2024-05-20%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZaire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_28-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_28-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_28-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_28-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_28-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_28-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_28-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_28-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_28-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeditzMerrill1994">Meditz & Merrill 1994</a>, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dvr-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dvr_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dvr_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dvr_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_van_Reybrouck2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_van_Reybrouck" class="mw-redirect" title="David van Reybrouck">David van Reybrouck</a> (25 March 2014). <i><a href="/wiki/Congo:_The_Epic_History_of_a_People" title="Congo: The Epic History of a People">Congo: The Epic History of a People</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>, 2012. p. 374ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-220011-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-220011-2"><bdi>978-0-06-220011-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Congo%3A+The+Epic+History+of+a+People&rft.pages=374ff&rft.pub=HarperCollins%2C+2012&rft.date=2014-03-25&rft.isbn=978-0-06-220011-2&rft.au=David+van+Reybrouck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZaire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorges_Nzongola-Ntalaja1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Nzongola-Ntalaja" title="Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja">Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ceGn_ScbcU8C&q=blumenthal+report+zaire&pg=PA226"><i>The Crisis in Zaire: Myths and Realities</i></a>. Africa World Press, 1986. p. 226. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86543-023-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-86543-023-3"><bdi>0-86543-023-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crisis+in+Zaire%3A+Myths+and+Realities&rft.pages=226&rft.pub=Africa+World+Press%2C+1986&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-86543-023-3&rft.au=Georges+Nzongola-Ntalaja&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DceGn_ScbcU8C%26q%3Dblumenthal%2Breport%2Bzaire%26pg%3DPA226&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZaire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAikins_Adusei2009" class="citation web cs1">Aikins Adusei (30 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.modernghana.com/news/219270/50/imf-and-world-bank-agents-of-povert.html">"IMF and World Bank: Agents of Poverty or Partners of Development?"</a>. Modern Ghana<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IMF+and+World+Bank%3A+Agents+of+Poverty+or+Partners+of+Development%3F&rft.pub=Modern+Ghana&rft.date=2009-05-30&rft.au=Aikins+Adusei&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.modernghana.com%2Fnews%2F219270%2F50%2Fimf-and-world-bank-agents-of-povert.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZaire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kisanganibobb-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kisanganibobb_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmizet_Francois_KisanganiScott_F._Bobb2010" class="citation book cs1">Emizet Francois Kisangani; Scott F. Bobb (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FvAWPTaRvFYC&q=27+october+1971+zaire&pg=PR51"><i>Historical Dictionary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</i></a>. Scarecrow Press. p. i. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810863255" title="Special:BookSources/9780810863255"><bdi>9780810863255</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Democratic+Republic+of+the+Congo&rft.pages=i&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780810863255&rft.au=Emizet+Francois+Kisangani&rft.au=Scott+F.+Bobb&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFvAWPTaRvFYC%26q%3D27%2Boctober%2B1971%2Bzaire%26pg%3DPR51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZaire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoungTurner1985" class="citation book cs1">Young, Crawford; Turner, Thomas Edwin (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aipzAAAAMAAJ&q=%22two%20chiefs%22"><i>The rise and decline of the Zairian state</i></a>. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 211. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780299101107" title="Special:BookSources/9780299101107"><bdi>9780299101107</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+rise+and+decline+of+the+Zairian+state&rft.pages=211&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=9780299101107&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Crawford&rft.au=Turner%2C+Thomas+Edwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaipzAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522two%2520chiefs%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZaire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iana.org/reports/zr-report-20jun01.htm">IANA Report on Deletion of the .zr Top-Level Domain</a>". <a href="/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority" title="Internet Assigned Numbers Authority">Internet Assigned Numbers Authority</a>. 20 June 2001. Retrieved on 11 June 2009.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbbott2014" class="citation book cs1">Abbott, Peter (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j6ajCwAAQBAJ"><i>Modern African Wars (4): The Congo 1960–2002</i></a>. Oxford; New York City: Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78200-076-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78200-076-1"><bdi>978-1-78200-076-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+African+Wars+%284%29%3A+The+Congo+1960%E2%80%932002&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York+City&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-78200-076-1&rft.aulast=Abbott&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj6ajCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZaire" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeditzMerrill1994" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Meditz, Sandra W.; Merrill, Tim, eds. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/94025092/"><i>Zaire: a country study</i></a> (4th ed.). Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Federal_Research_Division" title="Federal Research Division">Federal Research Division</a>, <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8444-0795-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8444-0795-X"><bdi>0-8444-0795-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/30666705">30666705</a>. <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zaire%3A+a+country+study&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Federal+Research+Division%2C+Library+of+Congress&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F30666705&rft.isbn=0-8444-0795-X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fitem%2F94025092%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZaire" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: postscript (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_postscript" title="Category:CS1 maint: postscript">link</a>)</span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading_and_external_links">Further reading and external links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaire&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading and external links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Zaire" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Zaire">Zaire</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Zaire" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Zaire">Zaire</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Za%C3%AFre" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Zaïre">Zaïre portal</a></span></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Macgaffey, J., 1991. <i>The Real Economy of Zaire: The Contribution of Smuggling and Other Unofficial Activities to National Wealth</i>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.</li> <li>Callaghy, T., <i>The State–Society Struggle: Zaire in Comparative Perspective</i>. New York: Columbia University Press, 1984, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-05720-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-05720-2">0-231-05720-2</a>.</li> <li>Young, C., and Turner, T., <i>The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State</i>. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1985, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-10110-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-10110-7">978-0-299-10110-7</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner2007" class="citation book cs1">Turner, Thomas (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=52xP2HJExjsC"><i>The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality</i></a>. London: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84277-689-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84277-689-6"><bdi>978-1-84277-689-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Congo+Wars%3A+Conflict%2C+Myth+and+Reality&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84277-689-6&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D52xP2HJExjsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZaire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_topics" title="Template:Democratic Republic of the Congo topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_topics" title="Template talk:Democratic Republic of the Congo topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a 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title="Colonization of the Congo Basin">Colonization (1867–85)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_the_Congo_Free_State_and_Belgian_Congo" title="List of colonial governors of the Congo Free State and Belgian Congo">Colonial governors (1885–1960)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State (1885–1908)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State" title="Atrocities in the Congo Free State">Atrocities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo (1908–60)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo_in_World_War_II" title="Belgian Congo in World War II">World War II</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)" title="Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)">Congo-Léopoldville (1960–65)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis (1960–65)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Katanga" title="State of Katanga">State of Katanga (1960–63)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Zaire (1965–97)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War (1996–98)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War (1998–2003)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000s_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="2000s in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">2000s</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_Government_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Transitional Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Transitional Government (2003–06)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kivu_conflict" title="Kivu conflict">Kivu conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M23_rebellion" title="M23 rebellion">M23 rebellion (2012–13)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M23_offensive_(2022%E2%80%93present)" title="M23 offensive (2022–present)">M23 offensive (2022–present)</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Geography of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="List of cities in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nature_conservation_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:Nature conservation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of ecoregions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_ranges_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:Mountain ranges of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of rivers of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of volcanoes in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Wildlife of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_place_names_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Former place names in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Former place names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Subdivisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Constitution of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_Cassation_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="Court of Cassation (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">Court of Cassation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Elections in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Foreign relations of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Mobutu_Sese_Seko_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Mobutu Sese Seko administration">Foreign policy under Mobutu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Law enforcement in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Chief of Staff</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Parliament of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senate_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="Senate (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="National Assembly (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">National Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of political parties in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of presidents of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of prime ministers of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Agriculture in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_the_Congo" title="Central Bank of the Congo">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of companies of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Energy in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congolese_franc" title="Congolese franc">Franc (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_industry_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Tourism in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:Society of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage_in_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Child marriage in Democratic Republic of the Congo">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Corruption in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Crime in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Demographics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Education in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Health in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Human trafficking in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Languages of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Prostitution in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issues_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" title="Social issues in the Democratic Republic of Congo">Social issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Women in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Culture of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Cinema of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congolese_cuisine" title="Congolese cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Football_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Football in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Mass media in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Public holidays in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Public holidays</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Outline of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Democratic Republic of the Congo–related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Portal:Democratic Republic of the Congo">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6500954#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6500954#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6500954#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000106741211">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/155858392">VIAF</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/1090526040">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80061025">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Zair"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge968091&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/309402">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007270250905171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/028082818">IdRef</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><span class="geo-inline-hidden noexcerpt"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Zaire&params=4_24_S_15_24_E_type:country"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">4°24′S</span> <span class="longitude">15°24′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">4.400°S 15.400°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">-4.400; 15.400</span></span></span></a></span></span> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zaire&oldid=1258848824">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zaire&oldid=1258848824</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Zaire" title="Category:Zaire">Zaire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_countries_in_Africa" title="Category:Former countries in Africa">Former countries in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_established_in_1971" title="Category:States and territories established in 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