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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Establishment_of_the_Congo_Free_State" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment_of_the_Congo_Free_State"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Establishment of the Congo Free State</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment_of_the_Congo_Free_State-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_and_administrative_situation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_and_administrative_situation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Economic and administrative situation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_and_administrative_situation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atrocities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atrocities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Atrocities</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Atrocities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Atrocities subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Atrocities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Red_rubber_system_and_forced_labour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Red_rubber_system_and_forced_labour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Red rubber system and forced labour</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Red_rubber_system_and_forced_labour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mutilation_and_brutality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mutilation_and_brutality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Mutilation and brutality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mutilation_and_brutality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prisons_and_hostage_taking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prisons_and_hostage_taking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Prisons and hostage taking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prisons_and_hostage_taking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wars_and_rebellions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wars_and_rebellions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Wars and rebellions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wars_and_rebellions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Famine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Famine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Famine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Famine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Child_colonies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Child_colonies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Child colonies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Child_colonies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labour_of_non-Congolese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labour_of_non-Congolese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Labour of non-Congolese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labour_of_non-Congolese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cannibalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cannibalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Cannibalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cannibalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Population decline</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Population_decline-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Population decline subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Population_decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Causes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Estimates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estimates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Estimates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estimates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Investigation_and_international_awareness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Investigation_and_international_awareness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Investigation and international awareness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Investigation_and_international_awareness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography_and_the_term_"genocide"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_and_the_term_"genocide""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Historiography and the term "genocide"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography_and_the_term_"genocide"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Explanatory_footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Explanatory footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>General and cited references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " 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Available in 14 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-14" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">14 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B8%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86%D8%BA%D9%88_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="الفظائع في دولة الكونغو الحرة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الفظائع في دولة الكونغو الحرة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongogr%C3%A4uel" title="Kongogräuel – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kongogräuel" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocidio_congole%C3%B1o_(1885-1908)" title="Genocidio congoleño (1885-1908) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Genocidio congoleño (1885-1908)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA_%D8%A2%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%88" title="جنایت‌ها در دولت آزاد کنگو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنایت‌ها در دولت آزاد کنگو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exactions_commises_dans_l%27%C3%89tat_ind%C3%A9pendant_du_Congo" title="Exactions commises dans l'État indépendant du Congo – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Exactions commises dans l'État indépendant du Congo" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%AC%B4_%ED%85%8C%EB%9F%AC" title="고무 테러 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고무 테러" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orrori_del_Congo" title="Orrori del Congo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Orrori del Congo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%95" title="זוועות קונגו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="זוועות קונגו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wandaden_in_Congo-Vrijstaat" title="Wandaden in Congo-Vrijstaat – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wandaden in Congo-Vrijstaat" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrocidades_no_Estado_Livre_do_Congo" title="Atrocidades no Estado Livre do Congo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Atrocidades no Estado Livre do Congo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE" title="Зверства в Свободном государстве Конго – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Зверства в Свободном государстве Конго" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96vergreppen_i_Kongostaten" title="Övergreppen i Kongostaten – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Övergreppen i Kongostaten" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bel%C3%A7ika_s%C3%B6m%C3%BCrgecili%C4%9Fi_alt%C4%B1nda_Kongo_katliamlar%C4%B1" title="Belçika sömürgeciliği altında Kongo katliamları – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Belçika sömürgeciliği altında Kongo katliamları" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%83_%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE" title="Звірства у Вільній Державі Конго – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Звірства у Вільній Державі Конго" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-spoken-icon" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:En-AtrocitiesInTheCongoFreeState-article.ogg" title="Listen to this article"><img alt="Listen to this article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/20px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/30px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/40px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg/220px-MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg/330px-MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg/440px-MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="646" data-file-height="969" /></a><figcaption>Civilian victims of mutilation by Free State authorities</figcaption></figure> <p>From 1885 to 1908, many atrocities were committed in the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a> (today the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>) under the absolute rule of <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II_of_Belgium" title="Leopold II of Belgium">King Leopold II of Belgium</a>. These atrocities were particularly associated with the labour policies, enforced by colonial administrators, used to collect <a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">natural rubber</a> for export. Combined with epidemic disease, <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a>, and falling <a href="/wiki/Birth_rate" title="Birth rate">birth rates</a> caused by these disruptions, the atrocities contributed to a sharp decline in the Congolese population. The magnitude of the population fall over the period is disputed, with modern estimates ranging from 1.5 million to 13 million. The atrocities have been variously referred to as the <b>Rubber Terror</b> and by some as the <b>Congolese Genocide</b>, though the latter characterization is disputed. </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a> of 1884–1885, the European powers recognized the claims of a supposedly philanthropic organisation run by Leopold II, to most of the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Basin" title="Congo Basin">Congo Basin</a> region. Leopold had long held ambitions for colonial expansion. The territory under Leopold's control exceeded 2,600,000 km<sup>2</sup> (1,000,000 sq mi), more than 85 times the territory of Belgium; amid financial problems, it was directed by a tiny cadre of administrators drawn from across Europe. Initially the quasi-colony proved unprofitable and insufficient, with the state always close to bankruptcy. The boom in demand for natural rubber, which was abundant in the territory, created a radical shift in the 1890s—to facilitate the extraction and export of rubber, all vacant land in the Congo was nationalised, with the majority distributed to private companies as <a href="/wiki/Concession_(contract)" title="Concession (contract)">concessions</a>. Some was kept by the state. Between 1891 and 1906, the companies were allowed free rein to exploit the concessions, with the result being that <a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">forced labour</a> and violent coercion were used to collect the rubber cheaply and maximise profit. The Free State's military force, the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Force_Publique" title="Force Publique">Force Publique</a></i></span>, enforced the labour policies. Individual workers who refused to participate in rubber collection could be killed and entire villages razed. </p><p>The main direct cause of the population decline was disease, which was exacerbated by the social disruption caused by the atrocities of the Free State. A number of epidemics, notably <a href="/wiki/African_sleeping_sickness" class="mw-redirect" title="African sleeping sickness">African sleeping sickness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swine_influenza" title="Swine influenza">swine influenza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amoebic_dysentery" class="mw-redirect" title="Amoebic dysentery">amoebic dysentery</a>, ravaged indigenous populations. In 1901 alone it was estimated that 500,000 Congolese had died from sleeping sickness. Disease, famine and violence combined to reduce the birth-rate while <a href="/wiki/Excess_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Excess death">excess deaths</a> rose. </p><p>The severing of workers' hands achieved particular international notoriety. These were sometimes cut off by <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Force Publique</i></span> soldiers who were made to account for every shot they fired by bringing back the hands of their victims.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (September 2023)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> These details were recorded by <a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Christian missionaries</a> working in the Congo and caused public outrage when they were made known in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a>, Belgium, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, and elsewhere. An international campaign against the Congo Free State began in 1890 and reached its apogee after 1900 under the leadership of the British activist <a href="/wiki/E._D._Morel" title="E. D. Morel">E. D. Morel</a>. On 15 November 1908,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> under international pressure, the Government of Belgium annexed the Congo Free State to form the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a>. It ended many of the systems responsible for the abuses. The size of the population decline during the period is the subject of extensive <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiographical</a> debate; there is an open debate as to whether the atrocities constitute <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>. In 2020 <a href="/wiki/Philippe_of_Belgium" title="Philippe of Belgium">King Philippe</a> of Belgium expressed his regret to the Government of Congo for "acts of violence and cruelty" inflicted during the rule of the Congo Free State, but did not explicitly mention Leopold's role. Some activists accused him of not making a full apology. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishment_of_the_Congo_Free_State">Establishment of the Congo Free State</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Establishment of the Congo Free State"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leopold_II,_King_of_the_Belgians.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Leopold_II%2C_King_of_the_Belgians.jpg/220px-Leopold_II%2C_King_of_the_Belgians.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Leopold_II%2C_King_of_the_Belgians.jpg/330px-Leopold_II%2C_King_of_the_Belgians.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Leopold_II%2C_King_of_the_Belgians.jpg/440px-Leopold_II%2C_King_of_the_Belgians.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1456" data-file-height="2078" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leopold_II_of_Belgium" title="Leopold II of Belgium">King Leopold II</a>, whose rule of the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a> was marked by severe atrocities, violence and major <a href="/wiki/Population_decline" title="Population decline">population decline</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Even before his accession to the throne of <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> in 1865, the future king <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II_of_Belgium" title="Leopold II of Belgium">Leopold II</a> began lobbying leading Belgian politicians to create a colonial empire in the Far East or in Africa, which would expand and enhance Belgian prestige.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPakenham199212–15_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPakenham199212–15-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Politically, however, colonisation was unpopular in Belgium as it was perceived as a risky and expensive gamble with no obvious benefit to the country and his many attempts to persuade politicians met with little success.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPakenham199212–15_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPakenham199212–15-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kongovrijstaat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Kongovrijstaat.jpg/220px-Kongovrijstaat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Kongovrijstaat.jpg/330px-Kongovrijstaat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Kongovrijstaat.jpg/440px-Kongovrijstaat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="499" data-file-height="511" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Congo Free State in 1892</figcaption></figure> <p>Determined to look for a colony for himself and inspired by recent reports from central Africa, Leopold began patronising a number of leading explorers, including <a href="/wiki/Henry_Morton_Stanley" title="Henry Morton Stanley">Henry Morton Stanley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPakenham199212–15_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPakenham199212–15-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leopold established the <a href="/wiki/International_African_Association" title="International African Association">International African Association</a> (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Association internationale africaine</i></span>), a "charitable" organisation to oversee the exploration and surveying of a territory based around the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo River</a>, with the stated goal of bringing humanitarian assistance and "civilisation" to the natives. In the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a> of 1884–85, European leaders officially recognised Leopold's control over the 2,350,000 km<sup>2</sup> (910,000 sq mi) of the notionally-independent <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a> on the grounds that it would be a <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> area and <a href="/wiki/Buffer_state" title="Buffer state">buffer state</a> between British and French spheres of influence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPakenham1992253–255_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPakenham1992253–255-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Free State, Leopold exercised total personal control without much delegation to subordinates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlade1962171_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlade1962171-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> African chiefs played an important role in the administration by implementing government orders within their communities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlade1962172_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlade1962172-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout much of its existence, however, Free State presence in the territory that it claimed was patchy, with its few officials concentrated in a number of small and widely dispersed "stations" which controlled only small amounts of hinterland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStengers1969275_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStengers1969275-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1900, there were just 3,000 white people in the Congo, of whom only half were Belgian.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201463_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201463-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Free State was perpetually short of administrative staff and officials, who numbered between 700 and 1,500 during the period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlade1962173_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlade1962173-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early years of the Free State, much of the administration's attention was focused on consolidating its control by fighting the African peoples on the Free State's periphery who resisted the Free State's rule. These included the tribes around the <a href="/wiki/Kwango_River" title="Kwango River">Kwango</a>, in the south-west, and the <a href="/wiki/Uele_River" title="Uele River">Uele</a> in the north-east.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201460_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201460-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the violence of the period can be attributed to African groups using colonial support to settle scores or white administrators acting without state approval.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201491_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201491-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_and_administrative_situation">Economic and administrative situation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Economic and administrative situation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>Ultimately the state's policy towards its African subjects became dominated by the demands which were made—both by the state itself and by the concessionary companies—for labour for the collection of wild produce of the territory. The system itself engendered abuses<span class="nowrap"> </span>... </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Ruth Slade (1962)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlade1962178_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlade1962178-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>The Free State was intended, above all, to be profitable for its investors and Leopold in particular.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStengers1969274_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStengers1969274-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its finances were frequently precarious. Early reliance on <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a> exports did not make as much money as hoped and the colonial administration was frequently in debt, nearly defaulting on a number of occasions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStengers1969272_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStengers1969272-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A boom in demand for <a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">natural rubber</a> in the 1890s, however, ended these problems as the Free State compelled Congolese males to work as forced labour collecting wild rubber which could then be exported to Europe and North America.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStengers1969272_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStengers1969272-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rubber boom transformed what had been an unexceptional colonial system before 1890 and led to significant profits.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201478–79_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201478–79-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exports rose from 580 to 3,740 tons between 1895 and 1900.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200737_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200737-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:StoryoftheCongoFreeState_280.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/StoryoftheCongoFreeState_280.jpg/170px-StoryoftheCongoFreeState_280.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/StoryoftheCongoFreeState_280.jpg/255px-StoryoftheCongoFreeState_280.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/StoryoftheCongoFreeState_280.jpg/340px-StoryoftheCongoFreeState_280.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1601" data-file-height="2329" /></a><figcaption>Congolese labourers tapping rubber near <a href="/wiki/Lusambo" title="Lusambo">Lusambo</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kasai_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasai region">Kasai</a></figcaption></figure> <p>To facilitate economic extraction from the Free State, land was divided up under the so-called "domain system" (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">régime domanial</i></span>) in 1891.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStengers1969265_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStengers1969265-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlade1962177_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlade1962177-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All vacant land, including forests and areas not under cultivation, was decreed to be "<a href="/wiki/Terra_nullius" title="Terra nullius">uninhabited</a>" and thus in the possession of the state, leaving many of the Congo's resources (especially rubber and ivory) under direct colonial ownership.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStengers1969265_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStengers1969265-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201479_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201479-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Concession_(territory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Concession (territory)">Concessions</a> were allocated to private companies. In the north, the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_Anversoise" class="mw-redirect" title="Société Anversoise">Société Anversoise</a></i></span> was given 160,000 km<sup>2</sup> (62,000 sq mi), while the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Belgian_India_Rubber_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Belgian India Rubber Company">Anglo-Belgian India Rubber Company</a> (ABIR) was given a comparable territory in the south.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201487_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201487-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Compagnie_du_Katanga" title="Compagnie du Katanga">Compagnie du Katanga</a></i></span> and <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Compagnie_des_Grands_Lacs" title="Compagnie des Grands Lacs">Compagnie des Grands Lacs</a></i></span> were given smaller concessions in the south and east respectively. Leopold kept 250,000 km<sup>2</sup> (97,000 sq mi) of territory known as the "crown domain" (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Domaine de la Couronne</i></span>) under personal rule, which was added to the territory he already controlled under the Private Domain (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Domaine privé</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201487_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201487-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200737_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200737-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus most economic exploitation of the Congolese interior was undertaken by Leopold and the major concessionaires.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201487_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201487-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system was extremely profitable and ABIR made a turnover of over 100 per cent on its initial stake in a single year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200738_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200738-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The King made 70 million <a href="/wiki/Belgian_franc" title="Belgian franc">Belgian francs</a>' profit from the system between 1896 and 1905.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlade1962177_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlade1962177-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Free State's concession system was soon copied by other colonial regimes, notably those in the neighbouring <a href="/wiki/French_Congo" title="French Congo">French Congo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVangroenweghe2006323–326_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVangroenweghe2006323–326-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Atrocities">Atrocities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Atrocities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Red_rubber_system_and_forced_labour">Red rubber system and forced labour</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Red rubber system and forced labour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the majority of the Free State's revenues derived from the export of rubber, a labour policy—known by critics as the "red rubber system"—was created to maximise its extraction. Labour was demanded by the administration as taxation.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This created a "slave society" as companies became increasingly dependent on forcibly mobilising Congolese labour for their collection of rubber.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200728_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200728-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The state recruited a number of black officials, known as <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">capitas</i></span>, to organise local labour.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200728_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200728-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the desire to maximise rubber collection, and hence the state's profits, meant that the centrally enforced demands were often set arbitrarily without considering the number of workers or their welfare.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStengers1969267–268_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStengers1969267–268-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the concessionary territories, the private companies which had purchased a concession from the Free State administration were able to use virtually any measures they wished to increase production and profits without state interference.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStengers1969272_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStengers1969272-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The lack of a developed bureaucracy to oversee any commercial methods produced an atmosphere of "informality" throughout the state in regard to the operation of enterprises, which in turn facilitated abuses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibbs199151_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbs199151-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatment of labourers (especially the duration of service) was not regulated by law and instead was left to the discretion of officials on the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStengers1969267–268_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStengers1969267–268-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Abir_Congo_Company" title="Abir Congo Company">ABIR</a> and the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_Anversoise_du_Commerce_au_Congo" title="Société Anversoise du Commerce au Congo">Anversoise</a></i></span> were particularly noted for the harshness with which their officials treated Congolese workers. The historian <a href="/wiki/Jean_Stengers" title="Jean Stengers">Jean Stengers</a> described regions controlled by these two companies as "veritable hells-on-earth".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStengers1969270_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStengers1969270-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rubber harvesters were usually compensated for their labour with cheap items, such as a cloth, beads, a portion of salt, or a knife. On one occasion, a customary chief who ordered his subjects to gather rubber was rewarded with slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999164_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999164-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vauthier_Rene_Le_Congo_Belge_159_Les_sentinelles_de_la_Princesse_Clementine.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Vauthier_Rene_Le_Congo_Belge_159_Les_sentinelles_de_la_Princesse_Clementine.JPG/220px-Vauthier_Rene_Le_Congo_Belge_159_Les_sentinelles_de_la_Princesse_Clementine.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Vauthier_Rene_Le_Congo_Belge_159_Les_sentinelles_de_la_Princesse_Clementine.JPG/330px-Vauthier_Rene_Le_Congo_Belge_159_Les_sentinelles_de_la_Princesse_Clementine.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Vauthier_Rene_Le_Congo_Belge_159_Les_sentinelles_de_la_Princesse_Clementine.JPG/440px-Vauthier_Rene_Le_Congo_Belge_159_Les_sentinelles_de_la_Princesse_Clementine.JPG 2x" data-file-width="474" data-file-height="331" /></a><figcaption><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Force_Publique" title="Force Publique">Force Publique</a></i></span> soldiers photographed in 1900</figcaption></figure> <p>Workers who refused to supply their labour were coerced with "constraint and repression". Dissenters were beaten or whipped with the <i><a href="/wiki/Chicotte" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicotte">chicotte</a></i>, hostages were taken to ensure prompt collection, and punitive expeditions were sent to destroy villages which refused.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStengers1969267–268_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStengers1969267–268-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The policy led to a collapse of Congolese economic and cultural life, as well as farming in some areas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201494_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201494-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of the enforcement of rubber production was the responsibility of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Force_Publique" title="Force Publique">Force Publique</a></i></span>, the colonial military. The "force" had originally been established in 1885, with white <a href="/wiki/Officer_(armed_forces)" title="Officer (armed forces)">officers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-commissioned_officer" title="Non-commissioned officer">non-commissioned officers</a>, and black <a href="/wiki/Private_(rank)" title="Private (rank)">privates</a>, recruited from as far afield as <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201476–77_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201476–77-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Congo, it recruited from specific ethnic and social demographics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlade1962173_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlade1962173-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These included the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ngala_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ngala people (page does not exist)">Bangala</a>, and this contributed to the spread of the <a href="/wiki/Lingala" title="Lingala">Lingala</a> language across the country, and freed slaves from the eastern Congo.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201476–77_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201476–77-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The so-called <a href="/wiki/Zappo_Zap" title="Zappo Zap">Zappo Zaps</a> (from the <a href="/wiki/Songye_people" title="Songye people">Songye ethnic group</a>) were the most feared. Reportedly cannibals, the Zappo-Zaps frequently abused their official positions to raid the countryside for slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlade1962181_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlade1962181-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1900, the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Force Publique</i></span> numbered 19,000 men.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999123_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999123-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to the army, rubber companies employed their own militias, which often worked in tandem with the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Force Publique</i></span> to enforce their rule.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999163_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999163-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The red rubber system emerged with the creation of the concession regime in 1891<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja200722_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja200722-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and lasted until 1906 when the concession system was restricted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStengers1969270_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStengers1969270-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At its height, it was heavily localised in the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89quateur_(former_province)" title="Équateur (former province)">Équateur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bandundu_Province" title="Bandundu Province">Bandundu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kasai_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasai region">Kasai</a> regions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201496_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201496-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mutilation_and_brutality">Mutilation and brutality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mutilation and brutality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Esclave_fouett%C3%A9_avec_une_chicotte,_%C3%89tat_ind%C3%A9pendant_du_Congo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Esclave_fouett%C3%A9_avec_une_chicotte%2C_%C3%89tat_ind%C3%A9pendant_du_Congo.jpg/220px-Esclave_fouett%C3%A9_avec_une_chicotte%2C_%C3%89tat_ind%C3%A9pendant_du_Congo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Esclave_fouett%C3%A9_avec_une_chicotte%2C_%C3%89tat_ind%C3%A9pendant_du_Congo.jpg/330px-Esclave_fouett%C3%A9_avec_une_chicotte%2C_%C3%89tat_ind%C3%A9pendant_du_Congo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Esclave_fouett%C3%A9_avec_une_chicotte%2C_%C3%89tat_ind%C3%A9pendant_du_Congo.jpg/440px-Esclave_fouett%C3%A9_avec_une_chicotte%2C_%C3%89tat_ind%C3%A9pendant_du_Congo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="623" /></a><figcaption>Congolese slave whipped with a <a href="/wiki/Sjambok" title="Sjambok">sjambok</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Failure to meet the rubber collection quotas was <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">punishable by death</a>. Meanwhile, the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Force Publique</i></span> were required to provide the hand of their victims as proof when they had shot and killed someone, as it was believed that they would otherwise use the munitions (imported from Europe at considerable cost) for hunting or to stockpile them for mutiny. A Catholic priest quotes a man, Tswambe, speaking of the hated state official <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Fi%C3%A9vez" title="Léon Fiévez">Léon Fiévez</a>, who ran a district along the river 500 kilometres (300 mi) north of <a href="/wiki/Pool_Malebo" title="Pool Malebo">Stanley Pool</a>: </p> <blockquote><p>All blacks saw this man as the devil of the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">Equator</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>... From all the bodies killed in the field, you had to cut off the hands. He wanted to see the number of hands cut off by each soldier, who had to bring them in baskets<span class="nowrap"> </span>... A village which refused to provide rubber would be completely swept clean. As a young man, I saw [Fiévez's] soldier Molili, then guarding the village of Boyeka, take a net, put ten arrested natives in it, attach big stones to the net, and make it tumble into the river<span class="nowrap"> </span>... Rubber causes these torments; that's why we no longer want to hear its name spoken. Soldiers made young men kill or <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</a> their own mothers and sisters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999166_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999166-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>One junior officer described a raid to punish a village that had protested. The officer in command "ordered us to cut off the heads of the men and hang them on the village palisades<span class="nowrap"> </span>... and to hang the women and the children on the palisade in the form of a cross".<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After seeing a Congolese person killed for the first time, a Danish missionary wrote, "The soldier said 'Don't take this to heart so much. They kill us if we don't bring the rubber. The Commissioner has promised us if we have plenty of hands he will shorten our service.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>" As a consequence, Peter Forbath claims, the rubber quotas were in part paid off in cut-off hands.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Forbath's words: </p> <blockquote><p>The baskets of severed hands, set down at the feet of the European post commanders, became the symbol of the Congo Free State.<span class="nowrap"> </span>... The collection of hands became an end in itself. <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Force Publique</i></span> soldiers brought them to the stations in place of rubber; they even went out to harvest them instead of rubber<span class="nowrap"> </span>... They became a sort of currency. They came to be used to make up for shortfalls in rubber quotas, to replace<span class="nowrap"> </span>... the people who were demanded for the forced labour gangs; and the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Force Publique</i></span> soldiers were paid their bonuses on the basis of how many hands they collected.</p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Victim_of_Congo_atrocities,_Congo,_ca._1890-1910_(IMP-CSCNWW33-OS10-19).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Victim_of_Congo_atrocities%2C_Congo%2C_ca._1890-1910_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS10-19%29.jpg/220px-Victim_of_Congo_atrocities%2C_Congo%2C_ca._1890-1910_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS10-19%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Victim_of_Congo_atrocities%2C_Congo%2C_ca._1890-1910_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS10-19%29.jpg/330px-Victim_of_Congo_atrocities%2C_Congo%2C_ca._1890-1910_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS10-19%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Victim_of_Congo_atrocities%2C_Congo%2C_ca._1890-1910_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS10-19%29.jpg/440px-Victim_of_Congo_atrocities%2C_Congo%2C_ca._1890-1910_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS10-19%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3582" data-file-height="3595" /></a><figcaption>A missionary holds up a Congolese man's arm at the elbow, and points to his missing hand</figcaption></figure> <p>In theory, each right hand proved a killing. In practice, to save ammunition soldiers sometimes "cheated" by simply cutting off the hand and leaving the victim to live or die. Several survivors later said that they had lived through a massacre by acting dead, not moving even when their hands were severed, and waiting till the soldiers left before seeking help. In some instances a soldier could shorten his service term by bringing more hands than the other soldiers, which led to widespread mutilations and dismemberment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200731_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200731-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/David_Van_Reybrouck" title="David Van Reybrouck">David Van Reybrouck</a> stated that the photographs of mutilated people have created a misconception that dismemberment of the living was a widespread practice. He wrote that while dismemberment of the living did occasionally happen, the practice was not as systemic as often presented.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck2014105_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck2014105-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jean Stengers and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dani%C3%ABl_Vangroenweghe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniël Vangroenweghe (page does not exist)">Daniël Vangroenweghe</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dani%C3%ABl_Vangroenweghe" class="extiw" title="nl:Daniël Vangroenweghe">nl</a>]</span> have also stated there was no systemic practice of dismembering living people as a punishment for not producing enough rubber. Most cases of dismemberment of the living were caused by soldiers who had shot people and had cut off their hands thinking they were dead while they were in fact still alive.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leopold II reportedly disapproved of dismemberment because it harmed his economic interests. He was quoted as saying "Cut off hands—that's idiotic. I'd cut off all the rest of them, but not hands. That's the one thing I need in the Congo."<sup id="cite_ref-bates1_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bates1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prisons_and_hostage_taking">Prisons and hostage taking</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Prisons and hostage taking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_line_of_men_are_standing_against_a_wall_joined_by_chains_a_Wellcome_V0041206.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/A_line_of_men_are_standing_against_a_wall_joined_by_chains_a_Wellcome_V0041206.jpg/220px-A_line_of_men_are_standing_against_a_wall_joined_by_chains_a_Wellcome_V0041206.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/A_line_of_men_are_standing_against_a_wall_joined_by_chains_a_Wellcome_V0041206.jpg/330px-A_line_of_men_are_standing_against_a_wall_joined_by_chains_a_Wellcome_V0041206.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/A_line_of_men_are_standing_against_a_wall_joined_by_chains_a_Wellcome_V0041206.jpg/440px-A_line_of_men_are_standing_against_a_wall_joined_by_chains_a_Wellcome_V0041206.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3304" data-file-height="2292" /></a><figcaption>A line of Congolese prisoners in Basoko joined by large neck chains</figcaption></figure> <p>One practice used to force workers to collect rubber included taking wives and family members hostage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200731_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200731-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leopold never proclaimed it an official policy, and Free State authorities in Brussels emphatically denied that it was employed. Nevertheless, the administration supplied a manual to each station in the Congo which included a guide on how to take hostages to coerce local chiefs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999162_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999162-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hostages could be men, women, children, elders, or even the chiefs themselves. Every state or company station maintained a stockade for imprisoning hostages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999161_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999161-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ABIR agents would imprison the chief of any village which fell behind its quota; in July 1902 one post recorded that it held 44 chiefs in prison. These prisons were in poor condition and the posts at Bongandanga and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mompono&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mompono (page does not exist)">Mompono</a> each recorded death rates of three to ten prisoners per day in 1899.<sup id="cite_ref-harms135_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harms135-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Persons with records of resisting ABIR were deported to forced <a href="/wiki/Labour_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour camp">labour camps</a>. There were at least three such camps: one at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lireko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lireko (page does not exist)">Lireko</a>, one on the Upper Maringa River and one on the Upper Lopori River.<sup id="cite_ref-harms135_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harms135-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wars_and_rebellions">Wars and rebellions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Wars and rebellions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aside from rubber collection, violence in the Free State chiefly occurred in connection with wars and rebellions. Native states, notably <a href="/wiki/Msiri" title="Msiri">Msiri</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Yeke_Kingdom" title="Yeke Kingdom">Yeke Kingdom</a>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zande_Federation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zande Federation (page does not exist)">Zande Federation</a>, and Swahili-speaking territory in the eastern Congo under slave trader <a href="/wiki/Tippu_Tip" title="Tippu Tip">Tippu Tip</a>, refused to recognise colonial authority and were defeated by the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Force Publique</i></span> with great brutality, during the <a href="/wiki/Congo%E2%80%93Arab_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Congo–Arab War">Congo–Arab War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200733_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200733-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1895, <a href="/wiki/Batetela_rebellion" title="Batetela rebellion">a military mutiny</a> broke out among the Batetela in Kasai, leading to a four-year insurgency. The conflict was particularly brutal and caused a great number of casualties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201482_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201482-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Famine">Famine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Famine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The presence of rubber companies such as ABIR exacerbated the effect of natural disasters such as famine and disease. ABIR's tax collection system forced men out from the villages to collect rubber which meant that there was no labour available to clear new fields for planting. This in turn meant that the women had to continue to plant worn-out fields resulting in lower yields, a problem aggravated by company sentries stealing crops and farm animals.<sup id="cite_ref-harms135_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harms135-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The post at Bonginda experienced a famine in 1899 and in 1900 missionaries recorded a "terrible famine" across ABIR's concession.<sup id="cite_ref-harms135_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harms135-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Child_colonies">Child colonies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Child colonies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leopold sanctioned the creation of "child colonies" in which orphaned Congolese would be kidnapped and sent to schools operated by Catholic missionaries in which they would learn to work or be soldiers; these were the only schools funded by the state. More than 50% of the children sent to the schools died of disease, and thousands more died in the forced marches into the colonies. In one such march 108 boys were sent over to a mission school and only 62 survived, eight of whom died a week later.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999135_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999135-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labour_of_non-Congolese">Labour of non-Congolese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Labour of non-Congolese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Indigenous Congolese were not the only ones put to work by the free state. 540 Chinese labourers were imported to work on railways in the Congo; however, 300 of them would die or leave their posts. Caribbean peoples and people from other African countries were also imported to work on the railway in which 3,600 would die in the first two years of construction from railroad accidents, lack of shelter, flogging, hunger, and disease.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999171_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999171-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cannibalism">Cannibalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cannibalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State#Cannibalism" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State § Cannibalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cannibalism_in_Africa#Congo_Basin" title="Cannibalism in Africa">Cannibalism in Africa § Congo Basin</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nsala_of_Wala_in_the_Nsongo_District.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Nsala_of_Wala_in_the_Nsongo_District.jpg/250px-Nsala_of_Wala_in_the_Nsongo_District.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Nsala_of_Wala_in_the_Nsongo_District.jpg/375px-Nsala_of_Wala_in_the_Nsongo_District.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Nsala_of_Wala_in_the_Nsongo_District.jpg/500px-Nsala_of_Wala_in_the_Nsongo_District.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2666" data-file-height="1513" /></a><figcaption>A Congolese man, <a href="/wiki/Nsala_of_Wala_in_the_Nsongo_District" title="Nsala of Wala in the Nsongo District">Nsala</a>, looking at the severed hand and foot of his five-year-old daughter who was killed, cooked, and cannibalised by members of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Force_Publique" title="Force Publique">Force Publique</a></i></span> in 1904. The photo was taken by <a href="/wiki/Alice_Seely_Harris" class="mw-redirect" title="Alice Seely Harris">Alice Seely Harris</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lotdc_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lotdc-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">Cannibalism</a> was well-established in parts of the Free State area when the State was founded,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the colonial administration seems to have done little to suppress it, sometimes rather tolerating it among its own auxiliary troops and allies. During the <a href="/wiki/Congo%E2%80%93Arab_war" title="Congo–Arab war">Congo–Arab war</a> in 1892–1894, there were reports of widespread cannibalisation of the bodies of defeated combatants by the <a href="/wiki/Batetela" class="mw-redirect" title="Batetela">Batetela</a> allies of the Belgian commander <a href="/wiki/Francis_Dhanis" title="Francis Dhanis">Francis Dhanis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPakenham1992439–449_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPakenham1992439–449-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After a brutally suppressed rebellion that followed the completion of the war, a young Belgian officer described the subsequent consumption of the victims' bodies as "horrible but exceedingly useful and hygienic".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlade1962115_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlade1962115-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Officially cannibalism was outlawed in the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Force Publique</i></span> and punishable by death.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When sending out "punitive expeditions" against villages unwilling or unable to fulfil the government's exorbitant rubber quota, Free State officials nevertheless repeatedly turned a blind eye both to arbitrary killings of those considered guilty as well as to the "cannibal feast[s]" celebrated by native soldiers that sometimes followed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201490–91_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201490–91-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In various cases they even handed captives, including infants and old women, over to their soldiers or local allies, implicitly or even explicitly allowing them to kill and eat them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurrowsCanisius1903xx–xxi,_xxiii,_91,_127,_172–173,_249–252,_264–269_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrowsCanisius1903xx–xxi,_xxiii,_91,_127,_172–173,_249–252,_264–269-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasement190473–74_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasement190473–74-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiefkes202280–85_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiefkes202280–85-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Population_decline">Population decline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Population decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causes">Causes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>I suggest that it is impossible to separate deaths caused by massacre and starvation from those due to the pandemic of sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis) which decimated central Africa at the time. </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style=""><a href="/wiki/Neal_Ascherson" title="Neal Ascherson">Neal Ascherson</a> (1999)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAscherson19999_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAscherson19999-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>Historians generally agree that a dramatic reduction in the overall size of the Congolese population occurred during the two decades of Free State rule in the Congo.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibbs199146_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbs199146-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is argued that the reduction in the Congo was atypical and can be attributed to the direct and indirect effects of colonial rule, including disease and falling birthrate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200737_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200737-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The historian <a href="/wiki/Adam_Hochschild" title="Adam Hochschild">Adam Hochschild</a> argued that the dramatic fall in the Free State population was the result of a combination of "murder", "starvation, exhaustion and exposure", "disease" and "a plummeting birth rate".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999226_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999226-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">Sleeping sickness</a> was also a major cause of fatality at the time. Opponents of Leopold's rule stated, however, that the administration itself was to be considered responsible for the spreading of the epidemic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999230–231_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999230–231-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Violence and murder were likely not the primary causes of deaths, though detailed statistics are unavailable due to a lack of records. In a local study of the <a href="/wiki/Kuba_Kingdom" title="Kuba Kingdom">Kuba</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kete_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kete people (page does not exist)">Kete peoples</a>, the historian <a href="/wiki/Jan_Vansina" title="Jan Vansina">Jan Vansina</a> estimated that violence accounted for the deaths of less than five per cent of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVansina2010136_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVansina2010136-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>The sentries introduced gross and wholesale immorality, broke up family life, and spread disease throughout the land. Formerly native conditions put restrictions on the spread of disease and localized it to small areas, but the black Congo soldiers, moving higher and thither to districts far from their wives and homes, took the women they wanted and ignored native institutions, rights, and customs. </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style=""><a href="/wiki/Raphael_Lemkin" title="Raphael Lemkin">Raphael Lemkin</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaller2005535_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaller2005535-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>Diseases imported by Arab traders, European colonists and African porters ravaged the Congolese population and "greatly exceeded" the numbers killed by violence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVansina2010137_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVansina2010137-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">Smallpox</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">sleeping sickness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amoebic_dysentery" class="mw-redirect" title="Amoebic dysentery">amoebic dysentery</a>, venereal diseases (especially <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gonorrhea" title="Gonorrhea">gonorrhea</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Swine_influenza" title="Swine influenza">swine influenza</a> were particularly severe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVansina2010138_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVansina2010138-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lawyer <a href="/wiki/Raphael_Lemkin" title="Raphael Lemkin">Raphael Lemkin</a> attributed the quick spread of disease in Congo to the indigenous soldiers employed by the state, who moved across the country and had sex with women in many different places, thus spreading localised outbreaks across a larger area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaller2005535_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaller2005535-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sleeping sickness, in particular, was "epidemic in large areas" of the Congo and had a high mortality rate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons19927_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons19927-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1901 alone, it is estimated that as many as 500,000 Congolese died from sleeping sickness.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999231_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999231-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vansina estimated that five per cent of the Congolese population perished from swine influenza.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVansina2010143–144_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVansina2010143–144-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In areas in which dysentery became endemic, between 30 and 60 per cent of the population could die.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVansina2010143_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVansina2010143-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vansina also pointed to the effects of malnutrition and food shortages in reducing immunity to the new diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVansina2010136_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVansina2010136-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The disruption of African rural populations may have helped to spread diseases further.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAscherson19999_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAscherson19999-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, historian Roger Anstey wrote that "a strong strand of local, oral tradition holds the rubber policy to have been a greater cause of death and depopulation than either the scourge of sleeping sickness or the periodic ravages of smallpox."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibbs199146_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbs199146-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is also widely believed that birth rates fell during the period too, meaning that the growth rate of the population fell relative to the <a href="/wiki/Natural_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural death">natural death</a> rate. Vansina, however, notes that precolonial societies had high birth and death rates, leading to a great deal of natural population fluctuation over time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVansina2010146_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVansina2010146-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the Kuba, the period 1880 to 1900 was actually one of population expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVansina2010137_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVansina2010137-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Estimates">Estimates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Estimates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A reduction of the population of the Congo is noted by several researchers who have compared the country at the beginning of Leopold's control with the beginning of Belgian state rule in 1908, but estimates of the death toll vary considerably, mainly due to the absence of reliable demographic sources about the region, as well as the sometimes unsubstantiated numbers mentioned by contemporaries in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVerbeeck2020297_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVerbeeck2020297-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates of some contemporary observers suggest that the population decreased by half during this period. According to <a href="/wiki/E._D._Morel" title="E. D. Morel">Edmund D. Morel</a>, the Congo Free State counted "20 million souls".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorel1905105_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorel1905105-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other estimates of the size of the overall population decline (or <a href="/wiki/Mortality_displacement" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortality displacement">mortality displacement</a>) range between two and 13 million.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ascherson cites an estimate by <a href="/wiki/Roger_Casement" title="Roger Casement">Roger Casement</a> of a population fall of three million, although he notes that it is "almost certainly an underestimate".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAscherson19999,_251_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAscherson19999,_251-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peter Forbath gave a figure of at least five million deaths;<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> John Gunther similarly estimates that Leopold's regime caused five to eight million deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lemkin posited that 75% of the population was killed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaller2005535_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaller2005535-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since no <a href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">census</a> records the population of the region at the inception of the Congo Free State (the first was taken in 1924),<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the precise population change in the period is not known.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanthemsche201224_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanthemsche201224-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this, Forbath more recently claimed the loss was at least five million.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Demographer J.P. Sanderson estimates the population in 1885 at around 10–15 million people,<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 2020 proposed three possible scenarios of population decline under Leopold II, suggesting that the most likely scenario is a population decline of 1.5 million people, from 11.5 million people to around 10–10.3 million people during the Congo Free State period.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other investigators put the number of deaths significantly higher. <a href="/wiki/Adam_Hochschild" title="Adam Hochschild">Adam Hochschild</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jan_Vansina" title="Jan Vansina">Jan Vansina</a> used an approximate number of 10 million. Hochschild cites several recent independent lines of investigation, by anthropologist Jan Vansina and others, that examine local sources (police records, religious records, oral traditions, genealogies, personal diaries), which generally agree with the assessment of the 1919 Belgian government commission: roughly half the population perished during the Free State period, based on numbers from the rubber provinces. Since the first official census by the Belgian authorities in 1924 put the population at about 10 million, these various approaches suggest a rough estimate of a population decline by 10 million.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jan Vansina returned to the issue of quantifying the total population decline, and discarded his earlier claim of 10 million, he concluded that the Kuba population (one of the many Congolese populations) was rising during the first two decades of Leopold II's rule, and declined by 25 per cent from 1900 to 1919, mainly due to sickness and that numbers from the rubber provinces could not be readily extrapolated to the entire Congo area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVansina2010127–149_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVansina2010127–149-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanthemsche201225_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanthemsche201225-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Others argued a decrease of 20 per cent over the first forty years of colonial rule (up to the census of 1924).<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Isidore_Ndaywel_%C3%A8_Nziem" title="Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem">Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem</a> 13 million died, although he later revised this number downwards to 10 million due to the research by Adam Hochschild.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Louis and Stengers state that population figures at the start of Leopold's control are only "wild guesses", while calling E. D. Morel's attempt and others at coming to a figure for population losses "but figments of the imagination".<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally, works based on the highest numbers have often been discredited as "wild" and "unsubstantiated", whereas authors who point out the lack of reliable demographic data are questioned by others, calling them "minimalists", "agnosticists" and "revisionists" who allegedly "seek to downplay or minimize the atrocities".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVerbeeck2020297_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVerbeeck2020297-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Investigation_and_international_awareness">Investigation and international awareness</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Investigation and international awareness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State_propaganda_war" title="Congo Free State propaganda war">Congo Free State propaganda war</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg/170px-Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg/255px-Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg/340px-Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="864" data-file-height="1152" /></a><figcaption>1906 cartoon by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Linley_Sambourne" title="Edward Linley Sambourne">Edward Linley Sambourne</a> published in the British satirical magazine <i><a href="/wiki/Punch_(magazine)" title="Punch (magazine)">Punch</a></i> showing a Congolese worker, entangled by a rubber snake with the head of Leopold II.</figcaption></figure> <p>Eventually, growing scrutiny of Leopold's regime led to a popular campaign movement, centred in the United Kingdom and the United States, to force Leopold to renounce his ownership of the Congo. In many cases, the campaigns based their information on reports from British and Swedish missionaries working in the Congo.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlade1962179_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlade1962179-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first international protest occurred in 1890 when <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Williams" title="George Washington Williams">George Washington Williams</a>, an American, published an open letter to Leopold about abuses he had witnessed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200736_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200736-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a letter to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">United States Secretary of State</a>, he described conditions in the Congo as "<a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999111–112_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999111–112-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thus coining the phrase, which would later become key language in <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProvostAkhavan201033_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProvostAkhavan201033-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public interest in the abuses in the Congo Free State grew sharply from 1895, when the <a href="/wiki/Stokes_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Stokes Affair">Stokes Affair</a> and reports of mutilations reached the European and American public which began to discuss the "Congo Question".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlade1962178–179_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlade1962178–179-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To appease public opinion, Leopold instigated a Commission for the Protection of Natives (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Commission pour la Protection des Indigènes</i></span>), composed of foreign missionaries, but made few serious efforts at substantive reform.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlade1962180_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlade1962180-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United Kingdom, the campaign was led by the activist and pamphleteer <a href="/wiki/E._D._Morel" title="E. D. Morel">E. D. Morel</a> after 1900, whose book <i><a href="/wiki/Red_Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Rubber">Red Rubber</a></i> (1906) reached a mass audience. Notable members of the campaign included the novelists <a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Conrad" title="Joseph Conrad">Joseph Conrad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Conan_Doyle" title="Arthur Conan Doyle">Arthur Conan Doyle</a> as well as Belgian socialists such as <a href="/wiki/Emile_Vandervelde" title="Emile Vandervelde">Emile Vandervelde</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200739_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERentonSeddonZeilig200739-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May 1903 a debate in the <a href="/wiki/British_House_of_Commons" class="mw-redirect" title="British House of Commons">British House of Commons</a> led to the passing of a resolution in condemnation of the Congo Free State. Soon after, the British consul in the town of <a href="/wiki/Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Boma, Democratic Republic of the Congo">Boma</a>, Roger Casement, began touring the Congo to investigate the true extent of the abuses. He delivered <a href="/wiki/Casement_Report" title="Casement Report">his report</a> in December, and a revised version was forwarded to the Free State authorities in February 1904.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons199274_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons199274-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In an attempt to preserve the Congo's labour force and stifle British criticism, Leopold promoted attempts to combat disease to give the impression that he cared about the welfare of the Congolese and invited experts from the <a href="/wiki/Liverpool_School_of_Tropical_Medicine" title="Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine">Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine</a> to assist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons199274–75_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons199274–75-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Free State officials also defended themselves against allegations that exploitative policies were causing severe population decline in the Congo by attributing the losses to smallpox and sleeping sickness.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnstey197170_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnstey197170-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Campaigning groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Reform_Association" title="Congo Reform Association">Congo Reform Association</a> did not oppose colonialism and instead sought to end the excesses of the Free State by encouraging Belgium to annex the colony officially. This would avoid damaging the delicate balance of power between France and Britain on the continent. While supporters of the Free State regime attempted to argue against claims of atrocities, a Commission of Enquiry, appointed by the regime in 1904, confirmed the stories of atrocities and pressure on the Belgian government increased.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanthemsche201226_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanthemsche201226-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1908, as a direct result of this campaign, Belgium formally annexed the territory, creating the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPakenham1992657,_663_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPakenham1992657,_663-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conditions for the indigenous population improved dramatically with the partial suppression of forced labour, although many officials who had formerly worked for the Free State were retained in their posts long after annexation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStengers1969271_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStengers1969271-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead of mandating labour for colonial enterprises directly, the Belgian administration used a coercive tax that deliberately pressured Congolese to find work with European employers to procure the necessary funds to make the payments. For some time after the end of the Free State the Congolese were also required to provide a certain number of days of service per year for infrastructure projects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibbs199152_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbs199152-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography_and_the_term_"genocide""><span id="Historiography_and_the_term_.22genocide.22"></span>Historiography and the term "genocide"</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Historiography and the term "genocide""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>...<span class="nowrap"> </span>It was indeed a holocaust before Hitler's Holocaust.<span class="nowrap"> </span>... What happened in the heart of Africa was genocidal in scope long before that now familiar term, genocide, was ever coined. </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Historian <a href="/wiki/Robert_Weisbord" title="Robert Weisbord">Robert Weisbord</a> (2003)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeisbord2003_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeisbord2003-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>The significant number of deaths under the Free State regime has led some scholars to relate the atrocities to later <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocides</a>, though understanding of the losses under the colonial administration's rule as the result of harsh economic exploitation rather than a policy of deliberate extermination has led others to dispute the comparison;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStapleton201787_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStapleton201787-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there is an open debate as to whether the atrocities constitute genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>' <a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention#Definition_of_genocide" title="Genocide Convention">1948 definition of the term "genocide"</a>, a genocide must be "acts committed with <a href="/wiki/Genocidal_intent" title="Genocidal intent">intent to destroy</a>, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999255_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999255-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Georgi Verbeeck, this conventional definition of genocide has prevented most historians from using the term to describe atrocities in the Free State; in the strict sense of the term, most historians have rejected allegations of genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVerbeeck2020297_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVerbeeck2020297-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sociologist <a href="/wiki/Rhoda_Howard-Hassmann" title="Rhoda Howard-Hassmann">Rhoda Howard-Hassmann</a> stated that because the Congolese were not killed in a systematic fashion according to this criterion, "technically speaking, this was not genocide even in a legally retroactive sense."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStapleton201788_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStapleton201788-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Adam_Hochschild" title="Adam Hochschild">Adam Hochschild</a> and political scientist <a href="/wiki/Georges_Nzongola-Ntalaja" title="Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja">Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja</a> rejected allegations of genocide in the Free State because there was no evidence of a policy of deliberate extermination or the desire to eliminate any specific population groups,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999225_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999225-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja200722_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENzongola-Ntalaja200722-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though the latter added that nevertheless there was "a death toll of <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a> proportions,"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStapleton201788_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStapleton201788-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which led him to call it "the Congo holocaust."<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>...<span class="nowrap"> </span>no reputable historian of the Congo has made charges of genocide; a forced labor system, although it may be equally deadly, is different. </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Historian <a href="/wiki/Adam_Hochschild" title="Adam Hochschild">Adam Hochschild</a> (2005)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochschild2005_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochschild2005-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>It is generally agreed by historians that extermination was never the policy of the Free State. According to <a href="/wiki/David_Van_Reybrouck" title="David Van Reybrouck">David Van Reybrouck</a>, "It would be absurd<span class="nowrap"> </span>... to speak of an act of 'genocide' or a 'holocaust'; genocide implies the conscious, planned annihilation of a specific population, and that was never the intention here, or the result<span class="nowrap"> </span>... But it was definitely a <a href="/wiki/Hecatomb" title="Hecatomb">hecatomb</a>, a slaughter on a staggering scale that was not intentional, but could have been recognised much earlier as the collateral damage of a perfidious, rapacious policy of exploitation".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201495_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201495-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Emerson" title="Barbara Emerson">Barbara Emerson</a> stated, "Leopold did not start genocide. He was greedy for money and chose not to interest himself when things got out of control."<sup id="cite_ref-bates1_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bates1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Hochschild, "while not a case of genocide, in the strict sense", the atrocities in the Congo were "one of the most appalling slaughters known to have been brought about by human agency".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAscherson19998–9_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAscherson19998–9-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hands_of_Lingomo_and_Bolengo.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Hands_of_Lingomo_and_Bolengo.tif/lossless-page1-220px-Hands_of_Lingomo_and_Bolengo.tif.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Hands_of_Lingomo_and_Bolengo.tif/lossless-page1-330px-Hands_of_Lingomo_and_Bolengo.tif.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Hands_of_Lingomo_and_Bolengo.tif/lossless-page1-440px-Hands_of_Lingomo_and_Bolengo.tif.png 2x" data-file-width="1125" data-file-height="875" /></a><figcaption>Picture of "Congolese men holding cut off hands" captured by <a href="/wiki/Alice_Seeley_Harris" title="Alice Seeley Harris">Alice Seeley Harris</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baringa,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Baringa, Democratic Republic of the Congo">Baringa</a>, May 1904</figcaption></figure> <p>Historians have argued that comparisons drawn in the press by some between the death toll of the Free State atrocities and the Holocaust during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> have been responsible for creating undue confusion over the issue of terminology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVellut2006_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVellut2006-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanthemsche201224_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanthemsche201224-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In one incident, the Japanese newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/Yomiuri_Shimbun" title="Yomiuri Shimbun">Yomiuri Shimbun</a></i> used the word "genocide" in the title of a 2005 article by Hochschild. Hochschild himself criticised the title as "misleading" and stated that it had been chosen "without my knowledge". Similar criticism was echoed by historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Luc_Vellut&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Luc Vellut (page does not exist)">Jean-Luc Vellut</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVellut2006_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVellut2006-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201495_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Reybrouck201495-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Allegations of genocide in the Free State have become common over time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStapleton201788–89_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStapleton201788–89-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ewans" title="Martin Ewans">Martin Ewans</a> wrote, "Leopold's African regime became a byword for exploitation and genocide."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEwans2017Introduction_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEwans2017Introduction-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Timothy_J._Stapleton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Timothy J. Stapleton (page does not exist)">Timothy J. Stapleton</a>, "Those who easily apply the term genocide to Leopold's regime seem to do so purely on the basis of its obvious horror and the massive numbers of people who may have perished."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStapleton201788–89_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStapleton201788–89-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Weisbord" title="Robert Weisbord">Robert Weisbord</a> argued that there does not have to be intent to exterminate all members of a population in a genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanthemsche201224_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanthemsche201224-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He posited that "an endeavor to eliminate a portion of a people would qualify as genocide" according to the UN standards and asserted that the Free State did as much.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStapleton201788_112-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStapleton201788-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jeanne Haskin, Yaa-Lengi Meema Ngemi, and <a href="/wiki/David_Olusoga" title="David Olusoga">David Olusoga</a> also referred to the atrocities as a genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStapleton201788_112-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStapleton201788-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In an unpublished manuscript from the 1950s, Lemkin, who had first coined the term "genocide" in 1944, asserted the occurrence of "an unambiguous genocide" in the Free State, though he blamed the violence on what he saw as "the savagery of African colonial troops".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStapleton201787_109-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStapleton201787-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lemkin emphasised that the atrocities were usually committed by Africans themselves who were in the pay of the Belgians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaller2005535_65-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaller2005535-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These "native militia" were described by Lemkin as "an unorganized and disorderly rabble of savages whose only recompense was what they obtained from looting, and when they were cannibals, as was usually the case, in eating the foes against whom they were sent".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaller2005535_65-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaller2005535-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genocide scholar <a href="/wiki/Adam_Jones_(Canadian_scholar)" title="Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)">Adam Jones</a> claimed that the underrepresentation of males in Congolese population figures after Leopold's rule is evidence that "outright genocide" was the cause of a large portion of deaths in the Free State.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1999 Hochschild published <i><a href="/wiki/King_Leopold%27s_Ghost" title="King Leopold's Ghost">King Leopold's Ghost</a></i>, a book detailing the atrocities committed during the Free State's existence. The book became a bestseller in Belgium, but aroused criticism from former Belgian colonialists and some academics as exaggerating the extent of the atrocities and population decline.<sup id="cite_ref-bates1_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bates1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around the 50th anniversary of the Congo's independence from Belgium in 2010, numerous Belgian writers published content about the Congo. Historian Idesbald Goddeeris criticised these works—including Van Reybrouk's <i>Congo: A History</i>—for taking a softened stance on the atrocities committed in the Congolese Free State, saying "They acknowledge the dark period of the Congo Free State, but<span class="nowrap"> </span>... they emphasize that the number of victims was unknown and that the terror was concentrated in particular regions."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoddeeris2015437_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoddeeris2015437-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "Congolese genocide" is also used to refer to the mass murder and rape committed in the eastern Congo in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a> (and the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a>) between 1998 and 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrumond2011_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrumond2011-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWorld_Without_Genocide2012_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorld_Without_Genocide2012-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Hutus_during_the_First_Congo_War" title="Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War">Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Effacer_le_tableau" title="Effacer le tableau">Effacer le tableau</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Belgian_apologies_to_the_Congo" title="Belgian apologies to the Congo">Belgian apologies to the Congo</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monument_%C3%A0_L%C3%A9opold_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Monument_%C3%A0_L%C3%A9opold_II.jpg/260px-Monument_%C3%A0_L%C3%A9opold_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Monument_%C3%A0_L%C3%A9opold_II.jpg/390px-Monument_%C3%A0_L%C3%A9opold_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Monument_%C3%A0_L%C3%A9opold_II.jpg/520px-Monument_%C3%A0_L%C3%A9opold_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Monument of colonial propaganda to Leopold II in <a href="/wiki/Arlon" title="Arlon">Arlon</a>, southern Belgium, erected in 1951: "I undertook the work of the Congo in the interest of civilisation and for the good of Belgium."<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The legacy of the population decline of Leopold's reign left the subsequent colonial government with a severe labour shortage and it often had to resort to mass migrations to provide workers to emerging businesses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibbs199152_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbs199152-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The atrocities of the era generated public debate about Leopold, his specific role in them, and his legacy. Belgian crowds booed at his funeral in 1909 to express their dissatisfaction with his rule of the Congo. Attention to the atrocities subsided in the following years and statues of him were erected in the 1930s at the initiative of <a href="/wiki/Albert_I_of_Belgium" title="Albert I of Belgium">Albert I</a>, while the Belgian government celebrated his accomplishments in Belgium. The release of Hochschild's <i>King Leopold’s Ghost</i> in 1999 briefly reignited debate in Belgium, which resurfaced periodically over the following 20 years.<sup id="cite_ref-keating_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-keating-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2005, an <a href="/wiki/Early_day_motion" title="Early day motion">early day motion</a> before the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">British House of Commons</a>, introduced by <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Dismore" title="Andrew Dismore">Andrew Dismore</a>, called for the recognition of the Congo Free State's atrocities as a "colonial genocide" and called on the Belgian government to issue a formal apology. It was supported by 48 MPs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEarly_day_motion_2251_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEarly_day_motion_2251-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Statues of Leopold in the Congo, which became independent in 1960, were relocated to the national museum. One was, however, briefly reinstated in <a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Kinshasa</a> in 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-rannard_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rannard-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2020, following the <a href="/wiki/Murder_of_George_Floyd" title="Murder of George Floyd">murder of George Floyd</a> in the United States and <a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">the subsequent protests</a>, numerous statues of Leopold II in Belgium were vandalised as a criticism of the atrocities of his rule in the Congo.<sup id="cite_ref-rannard_132-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rannard-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several petitions called for the removal of the statues in Belgium and had tens of thousands of signees.<sup id="cite_ref-NPR_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NPR-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HLN_3-6-20_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HLN_3-6-20-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HLN_6-6-20_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HLN_6-6-20-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other petitions, also signed by tens of thousands of Belgians, called for the statues to remain.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 30 June 2020, the 60th anniversary of Congolese independence, <a href="/wiki/King_Philippe_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="King Philippe of Belgium">King Philippe</a> sent a letter to Congolese President <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Tshisekedi" title="Félix Tshisekedi">Félix Tshisekedi</a>, expressing his "deepest regret" for "acts of violence and cruelty" committed during the existence of the Free State and other transgressions that occurred during the colonial period, but did not explicitly mention Leopold's role in the atrocities. Some activists accused him of not making a full apology.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/32px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/48px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/64px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="780" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Belgium" title="Portal:Belgium">Belgium portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Portal:Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Conference_Act_of_1890" title="Brussels Conference Act of 1890">Brussels Conference Act of 1890</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casement_Report" title="Casement Report">Casement Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples" title="Genocide of indigenous peoples">Genocide of indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Genocides in history (before World War I)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_King_Incorporated" title="The King Incorporated">The King Incorporated</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Marchal" title="Jules Marchal">Jules Marchal</a> (1924–2003) (aka A. M. Delathuy), Belgian ambassador and CFS historian.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Amazon_Company" title="Peruvian Amazon Company">Peruvian Amazon Company</a> – a company whose rubber-related atrocities in <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> were widely compared to those in the Congo Free State</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putumayo_genocide" title="Putumayo genocide">Putumayo genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Museum_for_Central_Africa" title="Royal Museum for Central Africa">Royal Museum for Central Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Famine_in_India" title="Famine in India">Famine in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effacer_le_tableau" title="Effacer le tableau">Effacer le tableau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nsala_of_Wala_in_the_Nsongo_District" title="Nsala of Wala in the Nsongo District">Nsala of Wala in the Nsongo District</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Explanatory_footnotes">Explanatory footnotes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Explanatory footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Demanding taxation in the form of forced labour was common across colonial Africa at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStengers1969267–268_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStengers1969267–268-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The first census taken in the Congo was in 1924, so it is impossible to be sure of the size of the population at either the beginning or the end of the Free State period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999233_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999233-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVansina2010128_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVansina2010128-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As a comparison, Hochschild labelled the <a href="/wiki/Herero_and_Namaqua_Genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Herero and Namaqua Genocide">German extermination of the Herero in South-West Africa</a> (1904–1907) a genocide because of its defined, systematic and intentional nature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999281–282_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochschild1999281–282-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon200776_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon200776-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Brussels+Times&rft.atitle=%27Assassin%27%3A+another+Leopold+II+statue+vandalised&rft.date=2020-06-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brusselstimes.com%2Fbrussels-2%2F116172%2Fassassin-another-leopold-ii-statue-vandalised%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NPR-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NPR_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchultz2020" class="citation news cs1">Schultz, Teri (5 June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/live-updates-protests-for-racial-justice/2020/06/05/871278150/belgians-target-some-royal-monuments-in-black-lives-matter-protest">"Belgians Target Some Royal Monuments In Black Lives Matter Protest"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200701015051/https://www.npr.org/sections/live-updates-protests-for-racial-justice/2020/06/05/871278150/belgians-target-some-royal-monuments-in-black-lives-matter-protest">Archived</a> from the original on 1 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Belgians+Target+Some+Royal+Monuments+In+Black+Lives+Matter+Protest&rft.date=2020-06-05&rft.aulast=Schultz&rft.aufirst=Teri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Flive-updates-protests-for-racial-justice%2F2020%2F06%2F05%2F871278150%2Fbelgians-target-some-royal-monuments-in-black-lives-matter-protest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HLN_3-6-20-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HLN_3-6-20_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hln.be/nieuws/binnenland/al-meer-dan-16-000-handtekeningen-voor-petitie-om-standbeelden-leopold-ii-uit-brussel-weg-te-nemen-tommelein-wil-beeld-in-oostende-niet-verwijderen~a2e5beac/">"Al meer dan 16.000 handtekeningen voor petitie om standbeelden Leopold II uit Brussel weg te nemen, Tommelein wil beeld in Oostende niet verwijderen"</a> [More than 16,000 signatures for petition to remove statues of Leopold II from Brussels, Tommelein does not want to remove statue in Ostend]. <i><a href="/wiki/Het_Laatste_Nieuws" title="Het Laatste Nieuws">Het Laatste Nieuws</a></i> (in Dutch). 3 June 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200708201107/https://www.hln.be/nieuws/binnenland/al-meer-dan-16-000-handtekeningen-voor-petitie-om-standbeelden-leopold-ii-uit-brussel-weg-te-nemen-tommelein-wil-beeld-in-oostende-niet-verwijderen~a2e5beac/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Het+Laatste+Nieuws&rft.atitle=Al+meer+dan+16.000+handtekeningen+voor+petitie+om+standbeelden+Leopold+II+uit+Brussel+weg+te+nemen%2C+Tommelein+wil+beeld+in+Oostende+niet+verwijderen&rft.date=2020-06-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hln.be%2Fnieuws%2Fbinnenland%2Fal-meer-dan-16-000-handtekeningen-voor-petitie-om-standbeelden-leopold-ii-uit-brussel-weg-te-nemen-tommelein-wil-beeld-in-oostende-niet-verwijderen~a2e5beac%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HLN_6-6-20-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HLN_6-6-20_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hln.be/nieuws/binnenland/het-debat-moeten-standbeelden-van-leopold-ii-en-andere-bedenkelijke-historische-figuren-verdwijnen-uit-het-straatbeeld~acf39b09/">"Het Debat. Moeten standbeelden van Leopold II en andere bedenkelijke historische figuren verdwijnen uit het straatbeeld?"</a> [The debate. Should statues of Leopold II and other questionable historical figures disappear from the streets?]. <i><a href="/wiki/Het_Laatste_Nieuws" title="Het Laatste Nieuws">Het Laatste Nieuws</a></i> (in Dutch). 6 June 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200619195850/https://www.hln.be/nieuws/binnenland/het-debat-moeten-standbeelden-van-leopold-ii-en-andere-bedenkelijke-historische-figuren-verdwijnen-uit-het-straatbeeld~acf39b09/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Het+Laatste+Nieuws&rft.atitle=Het+Debat.+Moeten+standbeelden+van+Leopold+II+en+andere+bedenkelijke+historische+figuren+verdwijnen+uit+het+straatbeeld%3F&rft.date=2020-06-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hln.be%2Fnieuws%2Fbinnenland%2Fhet-debat-moeten-standbeelden-van-leopold-ii-en-andere-bedenkelijke-historische-figuren-verdwijnen-uit-het-straatbeeld~acf39b09%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStruys2020" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Struys, Burno (6 June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.demorgen.be/nieuws/dit-zijn-de-organisatoren-van-de-belgische-black-lives-matter-betogingen~bdcf687b/">"Dit zijn de organisatoren van de Belgische Black Lives Matter-betogingen"</a> [These are the organizers of the Belgian Black Lives Matter demonstrations]. <i><a href="/wiki/De_Morgen" title="De Morgen">De Morgen</a></i> (in Dutch). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200620130019/https://www.demorgen.be/nieuws/dit-zijn-de-organisatoren-van-de-belgische-black-lives-matter-betogingen~bdcf687b/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=De+Morgen&rft.atitle=Dit+zijn+de+organisatoren+van+de+Belgische+Black+Lives+Matter-betogingen&rft.date=2020-06-06&rft.aulast=Struys&rft.aufirst=Burno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.demorgen.be%2Fnieuws%2Fdit-zijn-de-organisatoren-van-de-belgische-black-lives-matter-betogingen~bdcf687b%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rtbf.be/info/societe/detail_pourquoi-les-opposants-a-leopold-ii-continuent-de-vandaliser-de-l-ancien-roi?id=10516786">"Pourquoi les opposants à Léopold II continuent-ils à vandaliser les statues de l'ancien Roi?"</a> [Why do opponents of Leopold II continue to vandalize statues of the former King?]. <i><a href="/wiki/RTBF" title="RTBF">RTBF</a></i> (in French). 6 June 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200619165355/https://www.rtbf.be/info/societe/detail_pourquoi-les-opposants-a-leopold-ii-continuent-de-vandaliser-de-l-ancien-roi?id=10516786">Archived</a> from the original on 19 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=RTBF&rft.atitle=Pourquoi+les+opposants+%C3%A0+L%C3%A9opold+II+continuent-ils+%C3%A0+vandaliser+les+statues+de+l%27ancien+Roi%3F&rft.date=2020-06-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rtbf.be%2Finfo%2Fsociete%2Fdetail_pourquoi-les-opposants-a-leopold-ii-continuent-de-vandaliser-de-l-ancien-roi%3Fid%3D10516786&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodeux2020" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bodeux, Jean-Luc (18 June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lesoir.be/308085/article/2020-06-18/arlon-petition-et-contre-petition-autour-de-leopold-ii">"Arlon: pétition et contre-pétition autour de Léopold II"</a> [Arlon: petition and counter-petition around Leopold II]. <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Soir" title="Le Soir">Le Soir</a></i> (in French). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211122084732/https://www.lesoir.be/308085/article/2020-06-18/arlon-petition-et-contre-petition-autour-de-leopold-ii">Archived</a> from the original on 22 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Soir&rft.atitle=Arlon%3A+p%C3%A9tition+et+contre-p%C3%A9tition+autour+de+L%C3%A9opold+II&rft.date=2020-06-18&rft.aulast=Bodeux&rft.aufirst=Jean-Luc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lesoir.be%2F308085%2Farticle%2F2020-06-18%2Farlon-petition-et-contre-petition-autour-de-leopold-ii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPicheta2020" class="citation news cs1">Picheta, Rob (1 July 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/30/europe/belgium-drc-leopold-ii-regrets-scli-intl/index.html">"Belgium's King sends 'regrets' to Congo for Leopold II atrocities—but doesn't apologize"</a>. <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200630232911/https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/30/europe/belgium-drc-leopold-ii-regrets-scli-intl/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Belgium%27s+King+sends+%27regrets%27+to+Congo+for+Leopold+II+atrocities%E2%80%94but+doesn%27t+apologize&rft.date=2020-07-01&rft.aulast=Picheta&rft.aufirst=Rob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2020%2F06%2F30%2Feurope%2Fbelgium-drc-leopold-ii-regrets-scli-intl%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_and_cited_references">General and cited references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: General and cited references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnstey1971" class="citation journal cs1">Anstey, Roger (1971). "The Congo Rubber Atrocities – A Case Study". <i><a href="/wiki/African_Historical_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="African Historical Studies">African Historical Studies</a></i>. <b>4</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">59–</span>76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F216268">10.2307/216268</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/216268">216268</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Congo+Rubber+Atrocities+%E2%80%93+A+Case+Study&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E59-%3C%2Fspan%3E76&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F216268&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F216268%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Anstey&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAscherson1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Neal_Ascherson" title="Neal Ascherson">Ascherson, Neal</a> (1999). <i>The King Incorporated: Leopold the Second and the Congo</i> (New ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/Granta" title="Granta">Granta</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86207-290-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-86207-290-6"><bdi>1-86207-290-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+King+Incorporated%3A+Leopold+the+Second+and+the+Congo&rft.place=London&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Granta&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-86207-290-6&rft.aulast=Ascherson&rft.aufirst=Neal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurrowsCanisius1903" class="citation book cs1">Burrows, Guy; Canisius, Edgar (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cursecentralafr01canigoog"><i>The Curse of Central Africa</i></a>. London: R. A. Everett.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Curse+of+Central+Africa&rft.place=London&rft.pub=R.+A.+Everett&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Burrows&rft.aufirst=Guy&rft.au=Canisius%2C+Edgar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcursecentralafr01canigoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasement1904" class="citation book cs1">Casement, Roger (1904). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/CasementReport"><i>Casement Report</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Casement+Report&rft.date=1904&rft.aulast=Casement&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FCasementReport&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorld_Without_Genocide2012" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldwithoutgenocide.org/genocides-and-conflicts/congo">"Democratic Republic of the Congo"</a>. <a href="/wiki/William_Mitchell_College_of_Law" title="William Mitchell College of Law">World Without Genocide</a>. 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150715131752/http://worldwithoutgenocide.org/genocides-and-conflicts/congo">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Democratic+Republic+of+the+Congo&rft.pub=World+Without+Genocide&rft.date=2012&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldwithoutgenocide.org%2Fgenocides-and-conflicts%2Fcongo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrumond2011" class="citation book cs1">Drumond, Paula (2011). "Invisible Males: The Congolese Genocide". In Jones, Adam (ed.). <i>New Directions in Genocide Research</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">96–</span>112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-49597-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-49597-4"><bdi>978-0-415-49597-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Invisible+Males%3A+The+Congolese+Genocide&rft.btitle=New+Directions+in+Genocide+Research&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E96-%3C%2Fspan%3E112&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-415-49597-4&rft.aulast=Drumond&rft.aufirst=Paula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEarly_day_motion_2251" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parliament.uk/edm/2005-06/2251">"Early day motion 2251"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Houses of Parliament</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180824102013/https://www.parliament.uk/edm/2005-06/2251">Archived</a> from the original on 24 August 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 December</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Early+day+motion+2251&rft.pub=Houses+of+Parliament&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.parliament.uk%2Fedm%2F2005-06%2F2251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEwans2017" class="citation book cs1">Ewans, Martin (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZyEvDwAAQBAJ"><i>European Atrocity, African Catastrophe: Leopold II, the Congo Free State and its Aftermath</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317849070" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317849070"><bdi>978-1317849070</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Atrocity%2C+African+Catastrophe%3A+Leopold+II%2C+the+Congo+Free+State+and+its+Aftermath&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1317849070&rft.aulast=Ewans&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZyEvDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbs1991" class="citation book cs1">Gibbs, David N. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NgN64EXv8mgC"><i>The Political Economy of Third World Intervention: Mines, Money, and U.S. Policy in the Congo Crisis</i></a>. American Politics and Political Economy. Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226290713" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226290713"><bdi>978-0226290713</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230116105131/https://books.google.com/books?id=NgN64EXv8mgC">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+Economy+of+Third+World+Intervention%3A+Mines%2C+Money%2C+and+U.S.+Policy+in+the+Congo+Crisis&rft.place=Chicago&rft.series=American+Politics+and+Political+Economy&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0226290713&rft.aulast=Gibbs&rft.aufirst=David+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNgN64EXv8mgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoddeeris2015" class="citation journal cs1">Goddeeris, Idesbald (2015). "Postcolonial Belgium: The Memory of the Congo". <i>International Journal of Postcolonial Studies</i>. <b>17</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">434–</span>51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1369801X.2014.998253">10.1080/1369801X.2014.998253</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163672254">163672254</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Postcolonial+Studies&rft.atitle=Postcolonial+Belgium%3A+The+Memory+of+the+Congo&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E434-%3C%2Fspan%3E51&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F1369801X.2014.998253&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163672254%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Goddeeris&rft.aufirst=Idesbald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHochschild1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Hochschild" title="Adam Hochschild">Hochschild, Adam</a> (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kingleopoldsghos00hoch_1"><i>King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa</i></a></span> (1st ed.). Boston: <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin" class="mw-redirect" title="Houghton Mifflin">Houghton Mifflin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-00190-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-00190-3"><bdi>978-0-618-00190-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=King+Leopold%27s+Ghost%3A+A+Story+of+Greed%2C+Terror%2C+and+Heroism+in+Colonial+Africa&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-618-00190-3&rft.aulast=Hochschild&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkingleopoldsghos00hoch_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHochschild2005" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Hochschild" title="Adam Hochschild">Hochschild, Adam</a> (6 October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2005/oct/06/in-the-heart-of-darkness/">"In the Heart of Darkness"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Review_of_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Review of Books">New York Review of Books</a></i>. <b>52</b> (15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151114020605/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2005/oct/06/in-the-heart-of-darkness/?">Archived</a> from the original on 14 November 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Review+of+Books&rft.atitle=In+the+Heart+of+Darkness&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=15&rft.date=2005-10-06&rft.aulast=Hochschild&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nybooks.com%2Farticles%2Farchives%2F2005%2Foct%2F06%2Fin-the-heart-of-darkness%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyons1992" class="citation book cs1">Lyons, Maryinez (1992). <i>The Colonial Disease: A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-40350-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-40350-2"><bdi>0-521-40350-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Colonial+Disease%3A+A+Social+History+of+Sleeping+Sickness+in+Northern+Zaire%2C+1900%E2%80%931940&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-521-40350-2&rft.aulast=Lyons&rft.aufirst=Maryinez&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNzongola-Ntalaja2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Nzongola-Ntalaja" title="Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja">Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges</a> (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/congofromleopold00geor"><i>The Congo, From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History</i></a></span> (3rd ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84277-053-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84277-053-5"><bdi>978-1-84277-053-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Congo%2C+From+Leopold+to+Kabila%3A+A+People%27s+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84277-053-5&rft.aulast=Nzongola-Ntalaja&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcongofromleopold00geor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPakenham1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pakenham_(historian)" title="Thomas Pakenham (historian)">Pakenham, Thomas</a> (1992). <a href="/wiki/The_Scramble_for_Africa_(book)" title="The Scramble for Africa (book)"><i>The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Abacus_(imprint)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abacus (imprint)">Abacus</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-349-10449-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-349-10449-2"><bdi>978-0-349-10449-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scramble+for+Africa%3A+the+White+Man%27s+Conquest+of+the+Dark+Continent+from+1876+to+1912&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Abacus&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-349-10449-2&rft.aulast=Pakenham&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProvostAkhavan2010" class="citation book cs1">Provost, René; Akhavan, Payam, eds. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C0U74u6SyRwC"><i>Confronting Genocide</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Science & Business Media">Springer Science & Business Media</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9048198405" title="Special:BookSources/978-9048198405"><bdi>978-9048198405</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confronting+Genocide&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-9048198405&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC0U74u6SyRwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRentonSeddonZeilig2007" class="citation book cs1">Renton, David; Seddon, David; Zeilig, Leo (2007). <i>The Congo: Plunder and Resistance</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Zed_Books" title="Zed Books">Zed Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84277-485-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84277-485-4"><bdi>978-1-84277-485-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Congo%3A+Plunder+and+Resistance&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Zed+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84277-485-4&rft.aulast=Renton&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Seddon%2C+David&rft.au=Zeilig%2C+Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaller2005" class="citation journal cs1">Schaller, Dominik (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191212051520/http://inogs.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/INoGS-JGR-Schaller.pdf">"Raphael Lemkin's view of European colonial rule in Africa: between condemnation and admiration"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Genocide_Research" title="Journal of Genocide Research">Journal of Genocide Research</a></i>. <b>7</b> (4): 538. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14623520500349977">10.1080/14623520500349977</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-9494">1469-9494</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36915506">36915506</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://inogs.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/INoGS-JGR-Schaller.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 12 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Genocide+Research&rft.atitle=Raphael+Lemkin%27s+view+of+European+colonial+rule+in+Africa%3A+between+condemnation+and+admiration&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=538&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36915506%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1469-9494&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14623520500349977&rft.aulast=Schaller&rft.aufirst=Dominik&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finogs.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2013%2F05%2FINoGS-JGR-Schaller.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiefkes2022" class="citation book cs1">Siefkes, Christian (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible"><i>Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Berghahn_Books" title="Berghahn Books">Berghahn Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-80073-613-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-80073-613-9"><bdi>978-1-80073-613-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230712025843/https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/SiefkesEdible">Archived</a> from the original on 12 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edible+People%3A+The+Historical+Consumption+of+Slaves+and+Foreigners+and+the+Cannibalistic+Trade+in+Human+Flesh&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-80073-613-9&rft.aulast=Siefkes&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.berghahnbooks.com%2Ftitle%2FSiefkesEdible&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon2007" class="citation book cs1">Simon, Thomas W. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MtPD5QjGyPIC"><i>The Laws of Genocide: Prescriptions for a Just World</i></a>. PSI Reports. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Praeger</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0275979454" title="Special:BookSources/978-0275979454"><bdi>978-0275979454</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Laws+of+Genocide%3A+Prescriptions+for+a+Just+World&rft.series=PSI+Reports&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0275979454&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=Thomas+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMtPD5QjGyPIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlade1962" class="citation book cs1">Slade, Ruth M. (1962). <i>King Leopold's Congo: Aspects of the Development of Race Relations in the Congo Independent State</i>. Institute of Race Relations. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/655811695">655811695</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=King+Leopold%27s+Congo%3A+Aspects+of+the+Development+of+Race+Relations+in+the+Congo+Independent+State&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Institute+of+Race+Relations&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F655811695&rft.aulast=Slade&rft.aufirst=Ruth+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStapleton2017" class="citation book cs1">Stapleton, Timothy J. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wYuNDgAAQBAJ"><i>A History of Genocide in Africa</i></a>. Praeger (<a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1440830525" title="Special:BookSources/978-1440830525"><bdi>978-1440830525</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Genocide+in+Africa&rft.pub=Praeger+%28ABC-CLIO%29&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1440830525&rft.aulast=Stapleton&rft.aufirst=Timothy+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwYuNDgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStengers1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Stengers" title="Jean Stengers">Stengers, Jean</a> (1969). "The Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo before 1914". In Gann, L. H.; Duignan, Peter (eds.). <i>Colonialism in Africa, 1870–1914</i>. Vol. I. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">261–</span>292.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Congo+Free+State+and+the+Belgian+Congo+before+1914&rft.btitle=Colonialism+in+Africa%2C+1870%E2%80%931914&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E261-%3C%2Fspan%3E292&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Stengers&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVangroenweghe2006" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dani%C3%ABl_Vangroenweghe" class="extiw" title="nl:Daniël Vangroenweghe">Vangroenweghe, Daniël</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in Dutch]</span> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journalbelgianhistory.be/en/system/files/article_pdf/BTNG-RBHC,%2036,%202006,%203-4,%20pp%20323-372.pdf">"The 'Leopold II' concession system exported to French Congo with as example the Mpoko Company"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Belgian_History" title="Journal of Belgian History">Revue belge d'Histoire contemporaine-Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Nieuwste Geschiedenis</a></i>. <b>36</b> (<span class="nowrap">3–</span>4): <span class="nowrap">323–</span>372. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161011132643/https://www.journalbelgianhistory.be/en/system/files/article_pdf/BTNG-RBHC%2C%2036%2C%202006%2C%203-4%2C%20pp%20323-372.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 11 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+belge+d%27Histoire+contemporaine-Belgisch+Tijdschrift+voor+Nieuwste+Geschiedenis&rft.atitle=The+%27Leopold+II%27+concession+system+exported+to+French+Congo+with+as+example+the+Mpoko+Company&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E323-%3C%2Fspan%3E372&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Vangroenweghe&rft.aufirst=Dani%C3%ABl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.journalbelgianhistory.be%2Fen%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Farticle_pdf%2FBTNG-RBHC%2C%252036%2C%25202006%2C%25203-4%2C%2520pp%2520323-372.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Reybrouck2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Van_Reybrouck" title="David Van Reybrouck">Van Reybrouck, David</a> (2014). <a href="/wiki/Congo:_The_Epic_History_of_a_People" title="Congo: The Epic History of a People"><i>Congo: The Epic History of a People</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Estate_(imprint)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Estate (imprint)">Fourth Estate</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-756290-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-756290-9"><bdi>978-0-00-756290-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Congo%3A+The+Epic+History+of+a+People&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Fourth+Estate&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-00-756290-9&rft.aulast=Van+Reybrouck&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVansina2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Vansina" title="Jan Vansina">Vansina, Jan</a> (2010). <i>Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880–1960</i>. Madison: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin_Press" title="University of Wisconsin Press">University of Wisconsin Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-23644-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-23644-1"><bdi>978-0-299-23644-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Being+Colonized%3A+The+Kuba+Experience+in+Rural+Congo%2C+1880%E2%80%931960&rft.place=Madison&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-299-23644-1&rft.aulast=Vansina&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVanthemsche2012" class="citation book cs1">Vanthemsche, Guy (2012). <i>Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19421-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19421-1"><bdi>978-0-521-19421-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Belgium+and+the+Congo%2C+1885%E2%80%931980&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-521-19421-1&rft.aulast=Vanthemsche&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVellut2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Luc_Vellut&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Luc Vellut (page does not exist)">Vellut, Jean-Luc</a> (12 January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2006/jan/12/in-the-heart-of-darkness/">"Response to 'In the Heart of Darkness'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Review_of_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Review of Books">New York Review of Books</a></i>. <b>53</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Review+of+Books&rft.atitle=Response+to+%27In+the+Heart+of+Darkness%27&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2006-01-12&rft.aulast=Vellut&rft.aufirst=Jean-Luc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nybooks.com%2Farticles%2Farchives%2F2006%2Fjan%2F12%2Fin-the-heart-of-darkness%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerbeeck2020" class="citation journal cs1">Verbeeck, Georgi (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F23745118.2019.1645422">"Legacies of an imperial past in a small nation. Patterns of postcolonialism in Belgium"</a>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_Politics_and_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European Politics and Society (page does not exist)">European Politics and Society</a></i>. <b>21</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">292–</span>306. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F23745118.2019.1645422">10.1080/23745118.2019.1645422</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2374-5118">2374-5118</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201454642">201454642</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Politics+and+Society&rft.atitle=Legacies+of+an+imperial+past+in+a+small+nation.+Patterns+of+postcolonialism+in+Belgium&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E292-%3C%2Fspan%3E306&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201454642%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2374-5118&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F23745118.2019.1645422&rft.aulast=Verbeeck&rft.aufirst=Georgi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F23745118.2019.1645422&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeisbord2003" class="citation journal cs1">Weisbord, Robert (2003). "Response to 'The King, the Cardinal and the Pope: Leopold II's genocide in the Congo and the Vatican'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Genocide_Research" title="Journal of Genocide Research">Journal of Genocide Research</a></i>. <b>5</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">35–</span>45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14623520305651">10.1080/14623520305651</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73371517">73371517</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Genocide+Research&rft.atitle=Response+to+%27The+King%2C+the+Cardinal+and+the+Pope%3A+Leopold+II%27s+genocide+in+the+Congo+and+the+Vatican%27&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E35-%3C%2Fspan%3E45&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14623520305651&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A73371517%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Weisbord&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Mul2011" class="citation journal cs1">De Mul, Sarah (2011). "The Holocaust as a Paradigm for the Congo Atrocities: Adam Hochschild's 'King Leopold's Ghost'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Criticism</i>. <b>53</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">587–</span>606. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcrt.2011.0036">10.1353/crt.2011.0036</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23133898">23133898</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:258104015">258104015</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Criticism&rft.atitle=The+Holocaust+as+a+Paradigm+for+the+Congo+Atrocities%3A+Adam+Hochschild%27s+%27King+Leopold%27s+Ghost%27&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E587-%3C%2Fspan%3E606&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A258104015%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23133898%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcrt.2011.0036&rft.aulast=De+Mul&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDumoulin2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dumoulin, Michel (2005). <i>Léopold II, un roi génocidaire?</i> [<i>Leopold II, a genocidal king?</i>] (in French). Brussels: Académie Royale de Belgique. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-8031-0219-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-8031-0219-8"><bdi>978-2-8031-0219-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%C3%A9opold+II%2C+un+roi+g%C3%A9nocidaire%3F&rft.place=Brussels&rft.pub=Acad%C3%A9mie+Royale+de+Belgique&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-2-8031-0219-8&rft.aulast=Dumoulin&rft.aufirst=Michel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEwans2001" class="citation book cs1">Ewans, Martin (2001). <i>European atrocity, African catastrophe: Leopold II, the Congo Free State and its aftermath</i>. Richmond: Curzon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1589-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1589-3"><bdi>978-0-7007-1589-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+atrocity%2C+African+catastrophe%3A+Leopold+II%2C+the+Congo+Free+State+and+its+aftermath&rft.place=Richmond&rft.pub=Curzon&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1589-3&rft.aulast=Ewans&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2005" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Kevin (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/civilisedsavager0000gran"><i>A Civilised Savagery: Britain and the New Slaveries in Africa, 1884–1926</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-94900-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-94900-9"><bdi>0-415-94900-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Civilised+Savagery%3A+Britain+and+the+New+Slaveries+in+Africa%2C+1884%E2%80%931926&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-415-94900-9&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcivilisedsavager0000gran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt2008" class="citation journal cs1">Hunt, Nancy Rose (2008). "An Acoustic Register, Tenacious Images, and Congolese Scenes of Rape and Repetition". <i><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Anthropology_(journal)" title="Cultural Anthropology (journal)">Cultural Anthropology</a></i>. <b>23</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">220–</span>253. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1548-1360.2008.00008.x">10.1111/j.1548-1360.2008.00008.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cultural+Anthropology&rft.atitle=An+Acoustic+Register%2C+Tenacious+Images%2C+and+Congolese+Scenes+of+Rape+and+Repetition&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E220-%3C%2Fspan%3E253&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1548-1360.2008.00008.x&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Nancy+Rose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtrocities+in+the+Congo+Free+State" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVanthemsche2006" class="citation book cs1">Vanthemsche, Guy (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170215064339/http://www.cliohres.net/books/6/Vanthemsche.pdf">"The Historiography of Belgian Colonialism in the Congo"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Lévai, Csaba I. (ed.). <i>Europe and the world in European historiography</i>. Pisa: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pisa_University_Press&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pisa University Press (page does not exist)">Pisa University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">89–</span>119. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cliohres.net/books/6/Vanthemsche.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 15 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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in World War II">World War II</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)" title="Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)">Congo-Léopoldville (1960–65)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis (1960–65)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Katanga" title="State of Katanga">State of Katanga (1960–63)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire (1965–97)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War (1996–98)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War (1998–2003)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000s_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="2000s in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">2000s</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_Government_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Transitional Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Transitional Government (2003–06)</a></li></ul></li> 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Republic of the Congo">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nature_conservation_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:Nature conservation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of ecoregions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_ranges_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:Mountain ranges of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of rivers of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of volcanoes in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Wildlife of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_place_names_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Former place names in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Former place names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Subdivisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Constitution of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_Cassation_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="Court of Cassation (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">Court of Cassation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Elections in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Foreign relations of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Mobutu_Sese_Seko_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Mobutu Sese Seko administration">Foreign policy under Mobutu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Law enforcement in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Chief of Staff</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Parliament of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senate_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="Senate (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="National Assembly (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">National Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of political parties in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of presidents of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of prime ministers of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Agriculture in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_the_Congo" title="Central Bank of the Congo">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of companies of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Energy in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congolese_franc" title="Congolese franc">Franc (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_industry_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Tourism in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:Society of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage_in_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Child marriage in Democratic Republic of the Congo">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Corruption in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Crime in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Demographics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Education in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Health in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Human trafficking in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Languages of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Prostitution in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issues_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" title="Social issues in the Democratic Republic of Congo">Social issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Women in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Culture of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Cinema of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congolese_cuisine" title="Congolese cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Football_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Football in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Mass media in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Public holidays in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Public holidays</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Outline of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Democratic Republic of the Congo–related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Portal:Democratic Republic of the Congo">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Genocide153" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genocide_navbox" title="Template:Genocide navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genocide_navbox" title="Template talk:Genocide navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genocide_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genocide navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Genocide153" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">Genocides</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_genocides" title="List of genocides">list by death toll</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Before_1490105" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Before_1490" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Before 1490</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Third_Punic_War)#146_BC" title="Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)">Destruction of Carthage</a> (146 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic_Vespers" title="Asiatic Vespers">Asiatic Vespers</a> (88 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gauls</a> (50s BCE) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eburones#Genocide_(53–51_BC)" title="Eburones">Eburones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba</a> (132–136)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Ancestral_Puebloans" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Ancestral Puebloans</a> (800s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrying_of_the_North" title="Harrying of the North">Harrying of the North</a> (1069–1070)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_under_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Destruction under the Mongol Empire">Mongol conquests</a> (1200s–1360s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade" title="Albigensian Crusade">Cathars</a> (1209–1229)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1311_massacre_of_Mongols_in_the_Delhi_Sultanate" title="1311 massacre of Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate">Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate</a> (1311)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_conquests_and_invasions" title="Timurid conquests and invasions">Timur</a> (1393–1394)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Guanches</a> (1402–1496)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="1490_to_1912107" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#1490_to_1914" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">1490 to 1912</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_genocide" title="Taíno genocide">Taíno</a> (1493–1550) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jaragua_massacre" title="Jaragua massacre">Jaragua massacre</a> (1503)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Japanese_colonization_of_Hokkaido" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Ainu</a> (1500s–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples_in_Brazil" title="Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Brazil">Indigenous peoples in Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_at_the_11th_Parallel" title="Massacre at the 11th Parallel">11th Parallel massacre</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_of_the_Hole" title="Man of the Hole">Tanaru</a> (1970s–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmet_massacre" title="Helmet massacre">Helmet massacre</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akuntsu" title="Akuntsu">Akuntsu</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haximu_massacre" title="Haximu massacre">Haximu</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanomami_humanitarian_crisis" title="Yanomami humanitarian crisis">Yanomami</a> (2019–2023)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Aztecs</a> (1521)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Kashmiri_Shias" title="Persecution of Kashmiri Shias">Kashmiri Shias</a> (1548–1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Bartholomew%27s_Day_massacre" title="St. Bartholomew's Day massacre">Huguenots</a> (1572)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinago_genocide_of_1626" title="Kalinago genocide of 1626">Kalinago</a> (1626)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Indigenous peoples in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequots</a> (1636–1638)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a> (1609–1701) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Ontario" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Huron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sullivan_Expedition" title="Sullivan Expedition">Sullivan Expedition</a> (1779)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a> (1830–1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a> (1830–1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_genocide" title="California genocide">California</a> (1846–1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota</a> (1862)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_murders" title="Osage Indian murders">Osage Indian murders</a> (1918–1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Cultural genocide in the United States">Cultural genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples in Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a> (1609–1701)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beothuk#Genocide" title="Beothuk">Beothuk</a> (1700s–1800s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">Residential school system</a> (1874–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixties_Scoop" title="Sixties Scoop">Sixties Scoop</a> (1951–1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising" title="Khmelnytsky Uprising">Jews in the Cossack Hetmanate</a> (1648–1657)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1740_Batavia_massacre" title="1740 Batavia massacre">1740 Batavia massacre</a> (1740)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Gypsy_Round-up" title="Great Gypsy Round-up">Great Gypsy Round-up</a> (1749)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_genocide" title="Dzungar genocide">Dzungars</a> (1750s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II">Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II</a> (1780–1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_genocide" title="Chechen genocide">Chechens</a> (1785–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1804_Haitian_massacre" title="1804 Haitian massacre">French Hatians</a> (1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_Australians" title="Genocide of Indigenous Australians">Indigenous peoples in Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_War" title="Black War">Black War</a> (1825–1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">Stolen Generations</a> (1869–1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Algeria" title="Pacification of Algeria">Pacification of Algeria</a> (1830–1875) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_El_Ouffia" title="Massacre of El Ouffia">El Ouffia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Salsipuedes" title="Massacre of Salsipuedes">Charrúa</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moriori_genocide" title="Moriori genocide">Moriori</a> (1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Manchus</a> (1850–1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_genocide" title="Circassian genocide">Circassians</a> (1860s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Desert" title="Conquest of the Desert">Mapuche</a> (1870s–1884)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putumayo_genocide" title="Putumayo genocide">Indigenous peoples in Putumayo</a> (1879–1913)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Congolese</a> (1885–1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888%E2%80%931893_Hazara_uprisings" class="mw-redirect" title="1888–1893 Hazara uprisings">Hazaras</a> (1888–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_genocide" title="Selk'nam genocide">Selk'nam</a> (1890s–1900s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamidian_massacres" title="Hamidian massacres">Hamidian massacres</a> (1894–1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herero_and_Nama_genocide" title="Herero and Nama genocide">Herero and Nama</a> (1904–1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maji_Maji_Rebellion" title="Maji Maji Rebellion">Ukame</a> (1905–1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims_during_the_Ottoman_contraction" title="Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction">Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Albanians_in_the_Balkan_Wars" title="Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars">Albanians in the Balkan Wars</a> (1912–1913)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="1913_to_1945108" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(World_War_I_through_World_War_II)" title="Genocides in history (World War I through World War II)">1913 to 1945</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greeks</a> (1913–1923) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greek_genocide" title="Pontic Greek genocide">Pontic Greeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_the_Thracian_Bulgarians_in_1913" title="Destruction of the Thracian Bulgarians in 1913">Thracian Bulgarians</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrians</a> (1915–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenians</a> (1915–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1915_genocide_in_Diyarbekir" title="1915 genocide in Diyarbekir">Christians in Diyarbekir</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportations_of_Kurds_(1916%E2%80%931934)" title="Deportations of Kurds (1916–1934)">Kurds</a> (1916–1934)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples_in_Venezuela" title="Genocide of indigenous peoples in Venezuela">Indigenous peoples in Venezuela</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pemon_conflict" title="Pemon conflict">Pemon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916" title="Central Asian revolt of 1916">Kyrgyz</a> (1916–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogroms_during_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Pogroms during the Russian Civil War">Jews during the Russian Civil War</a> (1917–1920) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Russia)" title="White Terror (Russia)">Russian White Terror</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Cossackization" title="De-Cossackization">Cossacks</a> (1919–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_the_Ingrian_Finns" title="Genocide of the Ingrian Finns">Ingrian Finns</a> (1920s–1930s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1921%E2%80%931922_famine_in_Tatarstan" title="1921–1922 famine in Tatarstan">Volga Tatars and Germans</a> (1921–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kant%C5%8D_Massacre" title="Kantō Massacre">Kantō Massacre</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napalp%C3%AD_massacre" title="Napalpí massacre">Napalpí massacre</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinder_der_Landstrasse" title="Kinder der Landstrasse">Kinder der Landstrasse</a> (1926–1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes in the Pacific War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_Manchukuo" title="War crimes in Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a> (1931–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a> (1937–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Alls_policy" title="Three Alls policy">Three Alls policy</a> (1940–1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanshitou_massacre" title="Nanshitou massacre">Nanshitou massacre</a> (1942–1945)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_genocide_(1929%E2%80%931934)" title="Libyan genocide (1929–1934)">Libyan Arabs</a> (1929–1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Kazakh famine of 1930–1933">Kazakhs</a> (1930–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Matanza" title="La Matanza">La Matanza</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a> (1932–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simele_massacre" title="Simele massacre">Simele massacre</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_Holocaust" title="Romani Holocaust">Romani Holocaust</a> (1935–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Spain)" title="White Terror (Spain)">Spanish White Terror</a> (1936–1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Operation_of_the_NKVD" title="Polish Operation of the NKVD">Polish Operation</a> (1937–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dersim_massacre" title="Dersim massacre">Alevi Kurds</a> (1937–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsley_massacre" title="Parsley massacre">Parsley massacre</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">Generalplan Ost</a> (1939–1945) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_war_crimes_in_occupied_Poland_during_World_War_II" title="Nazi war crimes in occupied Poland during World War II">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ostland" title="Reichskommissariat Ostland">Baltic lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Final_Solution_of_the_Czech_Question" title="Final Solution of the Czech Question">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Ukraine" title="The Holocaust in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Serbs in Croatia</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chetnik_war_crimes_in_World_War_II" title="Chetnik war crimes in World War II">Muslims and Croats in Serbia</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">Volhynian and Eastern Galician Poles</a> (1943–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Chechens_and_Ingush" title="Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush">Chechens and Ingush</a> (1944–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Crimean_Tatars" title="Deportation of the Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a> (1944–1948)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="1946_to_199988" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(1946_to_1999)" title="Genocides in history (1946 to 1999)">1946 to 1999</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyderabad_massacres" title="Hyderabad massacres">Hyderabadi Muslims</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples_in_Paraguay" title="Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Paraguay">Indigenous peoples in Paraguay</a> (1956–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_genocide" title="Guatemalan genocide">Maya</a> (1962–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Arabs_during_the_Zanzibar_Revolution" title="Massacre of Arabs during the Zanzibar Revolution">Arab and Indian Zanzibaris</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_anti-Igbo_pogrom" title="1966 anti-Igbo pogrom">1966 anti-Igbo pogrom</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(1946_to_1999)#Biafra_(1966–1970)" title="Genocides in history (1946 to 1999)">Biafra</a> (1966–1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Feyli_Kurds_under_Saddam_Hussein" title="Persecution of Feyli Kurds under Saddam Hussein">Feyli Kurds</a> (1970–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_genocide" title="Bangladesh genocide">Bangladesh</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(1946_to_1999)#Idi_Amin's_regime" title="Genocides in history (1946 to 1999)">Acholi and Lango</a> (1972–1979)</li> <li>Burundi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ikiza" title="Ikiza">1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_ethnic_violence_in_Burundi" title="1993 ethnic violence in Burundi">1993</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Timor_genocide" title="East Timor genocide">East Timor</a> (1974–1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian</a> (1975–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong_Hill_Tracts_conflict" title="Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict">Jummas</a> (1977–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atrocity_crimes_in_the_Soviet-Afghan_War" title="Atrocity crimes in the Soviet-Afghan War">Atrocity crimes in the Soviet-Afghan War</a> (1979–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(1946_to_1999)#Bush_War_(1981–1985)" title="Genocides in history (1946 to 1999)">Baganda</a> (1981–1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabra_and_Shatila_massacre" title="Sabra and Shatila massacre">Sabra and Shatila massacre</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_genocide" title="Tamil genocide">Sri Lankan Tamils</a> (1983–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gukurahundi" title="Gukurahundi">Gukurahundi</a> (1983–1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anfal_campaign" title="Anfal campaign">Anfal</a> (1986–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_genocide" title="Isaaq genocide">Isaaq</a> (1987–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Population_Program" title="National Population Program">National Population Program</a> (1987–2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amhara_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Amhara genocide">Amhara</a> (1990–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes">Ahwaris</a> (1991–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide" title="Bosnian genocide">Bosnian</a> (1992–1995) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Srebrenica_massacre" title="Srebrenica massacre">Srebrenica massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Hutus_during_the_First_Congo_War" title="Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War">Hutus during the First Congo War</a> (1996–1997)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="21st_century88" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(21st_century)" title="Genocides in history (21st century)">21st century</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effacer_le_tableau" title="Effacer le tableau">Effacer le tableau</a> (2002–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darfur_genocide" title="Darfur genocide">Darfur</a> (2003–) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Masalit_massacres_(2023%E2%80%93present)" title="Masalit massacres (2023–present)">Masalit massacres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_in_Tigray" title="Genocide in Tigray">Tigrayans, Kunamas, and Irobs</a> (2003–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Kaduna_genocide" title="Southern Kaduna genocide">Southern Kaduna</a> (2011–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen_genocide" title="Iraqi Turkmen genocide">Iraqi Turkmen</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidi_genocide" title="Yazidi genocide">Yazidis</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Shias_by_the_Islamic_State" title="Persecution of Shias by the Islamic State">Shias under ISIS</a> (2014–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Islamic_State" title="Persecution of Christians by the Islamic State">Christians under ISIS</a> (2014–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohingya_genocide" title="Rohingya genocide">Rohingyas, Kachins, and Burmese Muslims</a> (2017–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaza_genocide" title="Gaza genocide">Gazans</a> (2023–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autogenocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Autogenocide">Autogenocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide#Genocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Androcide" title="Androcide">Androcide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_genocide" title="Transgender genocide">Transgender genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples" title="Genocide of indigenous peoples">Genocide of indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memoricide" title="Memoricide">Memoricide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policide" title="Policide">Policide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_cleansing_of_population#Politicide" title="Political cleansing of population">Politicide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classicide" title="Classicide">Classicide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliticide" title="Eliticide">Eliticide</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarian_genocide" title="Utilitarian genocide">Utilitarian genocide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_march" title="Death march">Death marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_squad" title="Death squad">Death squades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Extermination camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_adoption" title="Forced adoption">Forced adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_assimilation" title="Forced assimilation">Forced assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incitement_to_genocide" title="Incitement to genocide">Incitement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocidal_massacre" title="Genocidal massacre">Massacres</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_Fields" title="Killing Fields">Killing Fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogroms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_killing" title="Mass killing">Mass killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocidal_rape" title="Genocidal rape">Rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">Settler colonialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Denial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">The Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trivialization" title="Holocaust trivialization">Trivialization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_denial" title="Armenian genocide denial">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_history_textbook_controversies" title="Japanese history textbook controversies">Japanese history textbook controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre_denial" title="Nanjing Massacre denial">Nanjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial_of_the_genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Denial of the genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide_denial" title="Bosnian genocide denial">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide_denial" title="Rwandan genocide denial">Rwandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_denial" title="Holodomor denial">Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide_denial" title="Cambodian genocide denial">Cambodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial_of_atrocities_against_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Denial of atrocities against Indigenous peoples">Indigenous</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_definitions" title="Genocide definitions">Definitions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Holocaust" title="Names of the Holocaust">Names of the Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_of_the_Armenian_genocide" title="Terminology of the Armenian genocide">Terminology of the Armenian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Holocaust_terminology" title="Category:Holocaust terminology">Holocaust terminology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_parties_to_the_Genocide_Convention#Municipal_laws" title="List of parties to the Genocide Convention">Genocide law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_prevention" title="Genocide prevention">Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_genocide_on_youth" title="Effects of genocide on youth">Effects on young survivors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_recognition_politics" title="Genocide recognition politics">Politics of recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_justification" title="Genocide justification">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_killings_under_communist_regimes" title="Mass killings under communist regimes">Mass killings under communist regimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_mass_killings" title="Anti-communist mass killings">Anti-communist mass killings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal proceedings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Holocaust_trials_(1943–2022)97" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Holocaust_trials" title="Category:Holocaust trials">Holocaust trials</a> (1943–2022)</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krasnodar_Trial" title="Krasnodar Trial">Krasnodar trial</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharkov_Trial" title="Kharkov Trial">Kharkov trial</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89puration_l%C3%A9gale" title="Épuration légale">Épuration légale</a> (1944–1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majdanek_trials" title="Majdanek trials">Majdanek trials</a> (1944–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_trials" title="Chełmno trials">Chełmno trials</a> (1945–2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dachau_trials" title="Dachau trials">Dachau trials</a> (1945–1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belsen_trials" title="Belsen trials">Belsen trials</a> (1945–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_trials" title="Euthanasia trials">Euthanasia trials</a> (1945–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trial</a> (1945–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minsk_Trial" title="Minsk Trial">Minsk trial</a> (1945–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riga_Trial" title="Riga Trial">Riga trial</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stutthof_trials" title="Stutthof trials">Stutthof trials</a> (1946–1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_Romanian_war_crime_trials" title="Post–World War II Romanian war crime trials">Post–World War II Romanian war crime trials</a> (1946–1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_National_Tribunal" title="Supreme National Tribunal">Supreme National Tribunal</a> (1946–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg_Ravensbr%C3%BCck_trials" title="Hamburg Ravensbrück trials">Hamburg Ravensbrück trials</a> (1946–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsequent_Nuremberg_trials" title="Subsequent Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg Military Tribunals</a> (1946–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Erich_von_Manstein" title="Trial of Erich von Manstein">Erich von Manstein</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulm_Einsatzkommando_trial" title="Ulm Einsatzkommando trial">Ulm Einsatzkommando trial</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_trials_in_Soviet_Estonia" title="War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia">War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia</a> (1961–1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eichmann_trial" title="Eichmann trial">Eichmann trial</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belzec_trial" title="Belzec trial">Belzec trial</a> (1963–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Auschwitz_trials" title="Frankfurt Auschwitz trials">Frankfurt Auschwitz trials</a> (1963–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treblinka_trials" title="Treblinka trials">Treblinka trials</a> (1964–1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobibor_trial" title="Sobibor trial">Sobibor trial</a> (1965–1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feodor_Fedorenko#Soviet_trial_and_execution" title="Feodor Fedorenko">Fedorenko trial</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Finta#War_crimes_prosecution" title="Imre Finta">Finta trial</a> (1994)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="20th_century48" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;">20th century</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Mile_Budak" title="Trial of Mile Budak">Budak trial</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a> (1946–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Mihailovi%C4%87_et_al." title="Trial of Mihailović et al.">Belgrade Process</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_War_Crimes_Tribunal" title="Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal">Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal</a> (1946–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide_case" title="Bosnian genocide case">Bosnian genocide case</a> (1993–2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_former_Yugoslavia" title="International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</a> (1993–2017) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87" title="Trial of Slobodan Milošević">Slobodan Milošević</a> (2002–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Radovan_Karad%C5%BEi%C4%87" title="Trial of Radovan Karadžić">Radovan Karadžić</a> (2008–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Ratko_Mladi%C4%87" title="Trial of Ratko Mladić">Ratko Mladić</a> (2011–2017)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trials_of_the_Derg_members" title="Trials of the Derg members">Trials of the Derg members</a> (1994–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a> (1994–2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge_Tribunal" title="Khmer Rouge Tribunal">Khmer Rouge Tribunal</a> (1997–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatia%E2%80%93Serbia_genocide_case" title="Croatia–Serbia genocide case">Croatia–Serbia genocide case</a> (1999–2015)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="21st_century48" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;">21st century</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court_investigation_in_Darfur" title="International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur">International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur</a> (2005–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_Peoples%27_Tribunal_on_Sri_Lanka" title="Permanent Peoples' Tribunal on Sri Lanka">Permanent Peoples' Tribunal on Sri Lanka</a> (2010–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Crimes_Tribunal_(Bangladesh)" title="International Crimes Tribunal (Bangladesh)">International Crimes Tribunal of Bangladesh</a> (2012–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohingya_genocide_case" title="Rohingya genocide case">Rohingya genocide case</a> (2019–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court_investigation_in_Bangladesh/Myanmar" title="International Criminal Court investigation in Bangladesh/Myanmar">International Criminal Court investigation in Bangladesh/Myanmar</a> (2019–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Tribunal" title="Uyghur Tribunal">Uyghur Tribunal</a> (2020–2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court_investigation_in_Ukraine" title="International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine">International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine</a> (2022–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine_v._Russian_Federation_(2022)" title="Ukraine v. Russian Federation (2022)">Ukraine v. Russian Federation</a> (2022–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa%27s_genocide_case_against_Israel" title="South Africa's genocide case against Israel">South Africa v. Israel</a> (2023–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_for_Children_International_%E2%80%93_Palestine_et_al_v._Biden_et_al" title="Defense for Children International – Palestine et al v. Biden et al">Defense for Children International – Palestine et al v. Biden et al</a> (2023–2024)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaragua_v._Germany" title="Nicaragua v. Germany">Nicaragua v. Germany</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&oldid=1268874353">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State&oldid=1268874353</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th-century_scandals" title="Category:19th-century scandals">19th-century scandals</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State" title="Category:Atrocities in the Congo Free State">Atrocities in the Congo Free State</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_rights_abuses_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:Human rights abuses in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Human rights abuses in the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples_in_Africa" title="Category:Genocide of indigenous peoples in Africa">Genocide of indigenous peoples in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Leopold_II_of_Belgium" title="Category:Leopold II of Belgium">Leopold II of Belgium</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_controversies_in_Belgium" title="Category:Political controversies in Belgium">Political controversies in Belgium</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-black_racism_in_Africa" title="Category:Anti-black racism in Africa">Anti-black racism in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Incidents_of_cannibalism" title="Category:Incidents of 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3,\n [\"CITEREFGerdziunas2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbs1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoddeeris2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGunther1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarms1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHochschild1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHochschild2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHochschild2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeating2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLauro2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLouisStengers1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLyons1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacleanPeltier2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorel1905\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNdaywel_è_Nziem\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNzongola-Ntalaja2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlusogaTailorCostaChulani2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOp_de_Beeck2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPakenham1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPicheta2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProvostAkhavan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRannard2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRentonSeddonZeilig2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoes2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRummel2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSabben-ClareBradleyKirkwood1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchaller2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchultz2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShelton2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSiefkes2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimon2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlade1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStapleton2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStengers1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStengers1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStruys2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Reybrouck2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVangroenweghe2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVangroenweghe2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVansina2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVanthemsche2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVanthemsche2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVellut2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVerbeeck2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeisbord2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorld_Without_Genocide2012\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"'\\\"\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 41,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 13,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 14,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 5,\n [\"Commons category-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 5,\n [\"Democratic Republic of the Congo topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 3,\n [\"Further\"] = 4,\n [\"Genocide topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 2,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 22,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 14,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 5,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 138,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Spoken Wikipedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Vague\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-gtx7d","timestamp":"20250216043752","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Atrocities in the Congo Free State","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1781531","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1781531","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2015-06-17T05:33:49Z","dateModified":"2025-01-11T23:57:58Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/52\/MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg","headline":"atrocities perpetrated in the Congo Free State (today the Democratic Republic of the Congo) which, at the time, was a colony under the personal rule of King Leopold II of Belgium"}</script> </body> </html>