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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Interventions by particular nations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interventions_by_particular_nations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Militarization_of_refugee_camps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Militarization_of_refugee_camps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Militarization of refugee camps</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Militarization_of_refugee_camps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" 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.ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis" title="Special:EditPage/Great Lakes refugee crisis">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22">"Great Lakes refugee crisis"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rwandan_refugee_camp_in_east_Zaire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Rwandan_refugee_camp_in_east_Zaire.jpg/250px-Rwandan_refugee_camp_in_east_Zaire.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Rwandan_refugee_camp_in_east_Zaire.jpg/375px-Rwandan_refugee_camp_in_east_Zaire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Rwandan_refugee_camp_in_east_Zaire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="335" /></a><figcaption>Refugee camp in Zaire, 1994</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Great Lakes refugee crisis</b> is the common name for the situation beginning with the exodus in April 1994 of over two million Rwandans to neighboring countries of the <a href="/wiki/African_Great_Lakes" title="African Great Lakes">Great Lakes region of Africa</a> in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a>. Many of the refugees were <a href="/wiki/Hutu" title="Hutu">Hutu</a> fleeing the predominantly <a href="/wiki/Tutsi" title="Tutsi">Tutsi</a> <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Patriotic_Front" title="Rwandan Patriotic Front">Rwandan Patriotic Front</a> (RPF), which had gained control of the country at the end of the genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the humanitarian relief effort was vastly compromised by the presence among the refugees of many of the <a href="/wiki/Interahamwe" title="Interahamwe">Interahamwe</a> and government officials who carried out the genocide, who used the refugee camps as bases to launch attacks against the new government led by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kagame" title="Paul Kagame">Paul Kagame</a>. The camps in <a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a> became particularly politicized and militarized. The knowledge that humanitarian aid was being diverted to further the aims of the genocidaires led many humanitarian organizations to withdraw their assistance.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conflict escalated until the start of the <a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a> in 1996, when RPF-supported rebels invaded Zaire and sought to repatriate the refugees.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="width:auto;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg/180px-Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg/270px-Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg/360px-Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-top-caption">Human skulls at the <br /><a href="/wiki/Nyamata_Genocide_Memorial_Centre" title="Nyamata Genocide Memorial Centre">Nyamata Genocide Memorial Centre</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Rwandan_genocide" title="Category:Rwandan genocide">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#efefef"><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rwanda" title="History of Rwanda">History of Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa" title="Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa">Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rwanda" title="Kingdom of Rwanda">Kingdom of Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Revolution" title="Rwandan Revolution">Rwandan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Civil_War" title="Rwandan Civil War">Rwandan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutu_Power" title="Hutu Power">Hutu Power</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana_and_Cyprien_Ntaryamira" title="Assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira">Assassination of<br />Habyarimana and Ntaryamira</a></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Events</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Initial_events_of_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Initial events of the Rwandan genocide">Initial events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Timeline of the Rwandan genocide">Chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gikondo_massacre" title="Gikondo massacre">Gikondo massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musha_Church_massacre" title="Musha Church massacre">Musha Church massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyarubuye_massacre" title="Nyarubuye massacre">Nyarubuye massacre</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Parties responsible</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_indicted_in_the_International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="List of people indicted in the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">People indicted</a> by the<br /><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocidaires" class="mw-redirect" title="Genocidaires">Genocidaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akazu" title="Akazu">Akazu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impuzamugambi" title="Impuzamugambi">Impuzamugambi militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interahamwe" title="Interahamwe">Interahamwe militia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kangura" title="Kangura">Kangura</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_T%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision_Libre_des_Mille_Collines" title="Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines">RTLM radio</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Response</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Patriotic_Front" title="Rwandan Patriotic Front">Rwandan Patriotic Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_the_international_community_in_the_Rwandan_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Role of the international community in the Rwandan genocide">International community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Assistance_Mission_for_Rwanda" title="United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda">United Nations Mission</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_935" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 935">UN Security Council<br />Resolution 935</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9ration_Turquoise" title="Opération Turquoise">Opération "Turquoise"</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Aftermath</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Great Lakes refugee crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gacaca_court" title="Gacaca court">Gacaca court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Hutus_during_the_First_Congo_War" title="Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War">Massacres of Hutus</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Resources</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Bibliography of the Rwandan genocide">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_about_the_Rwandan_Genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="List of films about the Rwandan Genocide">Filmography</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rwandan_genocide_sidebar" title="Template:Rwandan genocide sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rwandan_genocide_sidebar" title="Template talk:Rwandan genocide sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rwandan_genocide_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rwandan genocide sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The categories <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Tutsi_and_Hutu" class="mw-redirect" title="Origins of Tutsi and Hutu">Hutu and Tutsi have an origin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rwanda" title="Kingdom of Rwanda">pre-colonial Rwanda</a>. However, with the arrival of the Germans in about 1900, and particularly after the arrival of the Belgians in 1920, the categories began to "rigidify" and become thought of as ethnic.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern history of Rwanda has in many ways been one of tension between the majority Hutu and minority Tutsi "<a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">ethnic</a>" groups. While there has been much scholarship about the emergence of these separate ethnic identities, particularly through the <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonial</a> governance structures, before and after independence in 1961, people within Rwanda acted within the parameters of the Tutsi-Hutu division. Regardless of the historical validity of the division, Rwandans in the late 20th century acted as if they were real. </p><p>Belgium began to withdraw from Rwanda in 1959, and in 1961 a Hutu-dominated government was established. This replaced the colonial government of Belgium, which had ruled through a favored Tutsi royal family.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the consequences of the Hutu victory was sporadic attacks against Tutsis that led to over 300,000 Tutsis fleeing the country over the next several years. Anti-Hutu attacks in neighboring <a href="/wiki/Burundi" title="Burundi">Burundi</a> by the Tutsi-led government there led a renewal in attacks against Tutsis in Rwanda in 1973, resulting in even more refugees, many seeking asylum in <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The land formerly owned by these thousands of refugees was subsequently claimed by others, creating another politically charged situation. By the 1980s, the Rwandan government of <a href="/wiki/Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana" title="Juvénal Habyarimana">Juvénal Habyarimana</a> claimed that the country could not accommodate the return of all refugees without the help of international community because Rwanda was said to be among <a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_population_density" title="List of African countries by population density">most densely populated countries on the African continent</a>. </p><p>Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Rwandan exiles formed political and military alliances, particularly in Uganda. The leader of one of these was <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kagame" title="Paul Kagame">Paul Kagame</a>, whose family had fled to Uganda during the violence of 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1985, Kagame helped form the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Patriotic_Front" title="Rwandan Patriotic Front">Rwandan Patriotic Front</a> (RPF), an armed group aligned with the <a href="/wiki/National_Resistance_Army" title="National Resistance Army">National Resistance Army</a> (NRA), a Ugandan rebel group led by <a href="/wiki/Yoweri_Museveni" title="Yoweri Museveni">Yoweri Museveni</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kagame became the head of NRA <a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">military intelligence</a> and a close ally of Museveni. In 1986, the NRA rebellion succeeded and Museveni became <a href="/wiki/President_of_Uganda" title="President of Uganda">President of Uganda</a>. Museveni then supported a failed RPF invasion of Rwanda in 1990, as both a reward to an ally and in the hopes that the large Rwandan refugee population in Uganda would return home.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The invasion, and the subsequent occupation of parts of the northern prefectures of <a href="/wiki/Byumba" title="Byumba">Byumba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umutara" class="mw-redirect" title="Umutara">Umutara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ruhengeri" title="Ruhengeri">Ruhengeri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internally_displaced_person" title="Internally displaced person">internally displaced</a> many Hutus and heightened ethnic tensions. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rwandan_Genocide_Murambi_skulls.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Rwandan_Genocide_Murambi_skulls.jpg/220px-Rwandan_Genocide_Murambi_skulls.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Rwandan_Genocide_Murambi_skulls.jpg/330px-Rwandan_Genocide_Murambi_skulls.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Rwandan_Genocide_Murambi_skulls.jpg/440px-Rwandan_Genocide_Murambi_skulls.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="298" /></a><figcaption>The skulls of victims of the genocide</figcaption></figure> <p>The 1993 <a href="/wiki/Arusha_Accords_(Rwanda)" title="Arusha Accords (Rwanda)">Arusha Accords</a> attempted to offer a diplomatic solution to both the RPA threat and the internal tensions, but it was not implemented.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ethnic tensions became even greater following the murder of <a href="/wiki/Rulers_and_Heads_of_State_of_Burundi" class="mw-redirect" title="Rulers and Heads of State of Burundi">Burundian President</a> <a href="/wiki/Melchior_Ndadaye" title="Melchior Ndadaye">Melchior Ndadaye</a>, a Hutu, in October 1993, an event that sparked the <a href="/wiki/Burundian_Civil_War" title="Burundian Civil War">Burundian Civil War</a> in which large numbers of both Hutus and Tutsis were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hutu militants, known as <a href="/wiki/Interahamwe" title="Interahamwe">Interahamwe</a>, and elements in the government in Rwanda began to plan a <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> to rid the country of the Tutsis. The <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Habyarimana_and_Ntaryamira" class="mw-redirect" title="Assassination of Habyarimana and Ntaryamira">assassinations of Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira</a> on 6 April 1994 became the pretext for the start of the Rwandan genocide, which resulted in the deaths of several hundred thousand people, mostly Tutsi, over the next three months.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most murders were carried out by, with the cooperation of, or in the absence of protest by Hutus who lived in the same communities as their victims. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_RPF_advance_and_Hutu_exodus">The RPF advance and Hutu exodus</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The RPF advance and Hutu exodus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rwandan_refugees_who_have_come_to_Goma_after_a_civil_war_erupted_in_their_country_-_DPLA_-_baa56bdcdacfe4348dead50de5066188.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Rwandan_refugees_who_have_come_to_Goma_after_a_civil_war_erupted_in_their_country_-_DPLA_-_baa56bdcdacfe4348dead50de5066188.jpeg/220px-Rwandan_refugees_who_have_come_to_Goma_after_a_civil_war_erupted_in_their_country_-_DPLA_-_baa56bdcdacfe4348dead50de5066188.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Rwandan_refugees_who_have_come_to_Goma_after_a_civil_war_erupted_in_their_country_-_DPLA_-_baa56bdcdacfe4348dead50de5066188.jpeg/330px-Rwandan_refugees_who_have_come_to_Goma_after_a_civil_war_erupted_in_their_country_-_DPLA_-_baa56bdcdacfe4348dead50de5066188.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Rwandan_refugees_who_have_come_to_Goma_after_a_civil_war_erupted_in_their_country_-_DPLA_-_baa56bdcdacfe4348dead50de5066188.jpeg/440px-Rwandan_refugees_who_have_come_to_Goma_after_a_civil_war_erupted_in_their_country_-_DPLA_-_baa56bdcdacfe4348dead50de5066188.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2003" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Rwandan refugees who fled to <a href="/wiki/Goma" title="Goma">Goma</a> in August 1994</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RusumoFalls2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/RusumoFalls2.jpg/220px-RusumoFalls2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/RusumoFalls2.jpg/330px-RusumoFalls2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/RusumoFalls2.jpg/440px-RusumoFalls2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>The border crossing at <a href="/wiki/Rusumo_Falls" title="Rusumo Falls">Rusumo Falls</a> was the site of the largest, quickest refugee exodus ever seen. Tanzania is on the left, Rwanda on the right.</figcaption></figure> <p>At the beginning of the genocide in April 1994, the Rwandan Patriotic Front began an offensive from territory in northern Rwanda that it had captured in previous fighting and made rapid progress. Hutus fled the advancing RPF forces, with French historian <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Prunier" title="Gérard Prunier">Gérard Prunier</a> asserting, "Most of the Hutu who had stayed in the country were there because they had not managed to run away in time."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the midst of the chaos of post-genocide Rwanda, over 700,000 Tutsi refugees, some of whom had been in Uganda since 1959, began their return.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contrary to refugee flows in other wars, the Rwandan exodus was not large numbers of individuals seeking safety, but a large-scale, centrally directed initiative. The refugees settled in massive camps almost directly on the Rwandan border, organized by their former leaders in Rwanda. Joël Boutroue, a senior UNHCR staff member in the refugee camps, wrote, "Discussions with refugee leaders...showed that exile was the continuation of war by other means."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The result was dramatic. An estimated 500,000 Rwandans fled east into Tanzania in the month of April. On 28—29 April, 250,000 people crossed the <a href="/wiki/Rusumo_Bridge" title="Rusumo Bridge">bridge</a> at <a href="/wiki/Rusumo_Falls" title="Rusumo Falls">Rusumo Falls</a> into <a href="/wiki/Ngara" title="Ngara">Ngara</a>, Tanzania in 24 hours in what the UNHCR agency called "the largest and fastest refugee exodus in modern times".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The apparent organization of this Rusumo evacuation is seen as evidence that the collapsing government was behind the large refugee outflows. By May 1994, a further 200,000 people from the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Butare" title="Butare">Butare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kibungo" title="Kibungo">Kibungo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kigali-Rural" class="mw-redirect" title="Kigali-Rural">Kigali-Rural</a> had fled south into Burundi. </p><p>As the RPF captured the capital of <a href="/wiki/Kigali" title="Kigali">Kigali</a>, the military of <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> set up a safe zone in southwest Rwanda in June 1994 in what was dubbed "<a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9ration_Turquoise" title="Opération Turquoise">Opération Turquoise</a>". It was ostensibly done to stop the genocide, but the French/European forces prohibited the entry of RPF forces that were already stopping the genocide and the Hutus who fled there included militants and members of the ousted government, as well as Hutu civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French soon ended their intervention, leading to the flight of 300,000 people from the Zone Turquoise west towards the Zairean town of <a href="/wiki/Bukavu" title="Bukavu">Bukavu</a> in July and August, while a further 300,000 remained in <a href="/wiki/Internally_displaced_person" title="Internally displaced person">internally displaced person</a> camps.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 18 July 1994, RPF forces captured the northwestern town of <a href="/wiki/Gisenyi" title="Gisenyi">Gisenyi</a> and declared a new government with Pasteur Bizimungu as president and Kagame in the newly created position of vice-president.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gisenyi was the center of the provisional government and its fall caused over 800,000 Rwandans to cross into <a href="/wiki/Goma" title="Goma">Goma</a>, Zaire, over four days in late July. This outflow was also highly organized, with administrative structures simply transferred across the border.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of August, UNHCR estimated that there were 2.1 million Rwandan refugees in neighboring countries located in 35 camps. Around <a href="/wiki/Goma" title="Goma">Goma</a>, the capital of <a href="/wiki/North_Kivu" title="North Kivu">North Kivu</a> in <a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a>, five huge camps—<a href="/w/index.php?title=Katale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Katale (page does not exist)">Katale</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kahindo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kahindo (page does not exist)">Kahindo</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mugunga&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mugunga (page does not exist)">Mugunga</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lac_Vert,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lac Vert, Democratic Republic of the Congo (page does not exist)">Lac Vert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sake,_DRC" class="mw-redirect" title="Sake, DRC">Sake</a>—held at least 850,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-Prunier24-25_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prunier24-25-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To the south, around <a href="/wiki/Bukavu" title="Bukavu">Bukavu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uvira" title="Uvira">Uvira</a>, thirty camps held about 650,000 people. A further 270,000 refugees were located in nine camps in Burundi, and another 570,000 in eight camps in Tanzania.<sup id="cite_ref-Prunier24-25_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prunier24-25-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new population around Goma included 30,000 to 40,000 soldiers of the former <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Rwanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed Forces of Rwanda">Armed Forces of Rwanda</a> (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">Forces Armées Rwandaises, ex-FAR</i>), fully armed with an intact officer corps and transport unit, as well as almost all of the politicians. The only other camp complex to host significant numbers of leaders of the former government was the large Benaco camp in Tanzania, which held a small number of the exiled military and political leadership. The exiles chose to base themselves mainly in Zaire because of the support given by President <a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Mobutu Sese Seko</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The five camps around Goma, among others, would eventually take on a certain permanence, eventually containing 2,323 bars, 450 restaurants, 589 shops, 62 hairdressers, 51 pharmacies, 30 tailors, 25 butchers, five ironsmiths and mechanics, four photo studios, three movie theaters, two hotels and one slaughterhouse.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>About 140,000 refugees returned, mostly on their own, in the first three months after the original exodus. The UNHCR was forced to halt its efforts to repatriate refugees after both their staff and the refugees were threatened by <a href="/wiki/Interahamwe" title="Interahamwe">Interahamwe</a> under the orders of the exiled leadership. However, by September 1994 rumors of violence by the RPF within Rwanda, combined with tightened control by the Hutu leadership of the camps, has drastically reduced the rate of return and eventually stopped it altogether by early 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emergency_relief">Emergency relief</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Emergency relief"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bodies_of_Rwandan_refugees_DF-ST-02-03035.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Bodies_of_Rwandan_refugees_DF-ST-02-03035.jpg/220px-Bodies_of_Rwandan_refugees_DF-ST-02-03035.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Bodies_of_Rwandan_refugees_DF-ST-02-03035.jpg/330px-Bodies_of_Rwandan_refugees_DF-ST-02-03035.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Bodies_of_Rwandan_refugees_DF-ST-02-03035.jpg/440px-Bodies_of_Rwandan_refugees_DF-ST-02-03035.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1840" data-file-height="2820" /></a><figcaption>Bodies of Rwandan refugees wrapped in blankets and straw mats along a road, October 1994</figcaption></figure> <p>In the first week of July, deaths among the refugee community were occurring at a rate of 600 per week, and two weeks later had reached 2000 per week as the refugee population increased and the health situation worsened. Mortality rates reached a height during a 24-hour period in late July when the death toll near Goma from <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a> and other diseases was 7000.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over 50,000 people died, mainly from a cholera epidemic that swept through the camps. The refugees near Goma were located at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mugunga&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mugunga (page does not exist)">Mugunga</a> on a plain of volcanic rock, which was so hard that the French troops and aid workers were unable to dig graves for the bodies that began to line roads.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The situation led the UN Representative to Rwanda <a href="/wiki/Shahryar_Khan" title="Shahryar Khan">Shahryar Khan</a> to call the camps a "revision of hell".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The international media coverage of the plight of the refugees eventually led <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">U.S. President</a> <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> to call it the "world’s worst humanitarian crisis in a generation" and large amounts of relief was mobilized.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attention quickly focused on the refugees around Goma. Over 200 aid organizations rushed into Goma to start an emergency relief operation comparable to that seen in the <a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Yugoslav wars">Yugoslav wars</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Until December, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">UN High Commissioner for Refugees</a> (UNHCR) received over $1 million monthly. The resources dedicated to the refugees led to a rapid drop in the mortality rate in late 1994. The American military formed an emergency logistical operation, based out of <a href="/wiki/Entebbe_International_Airport" title="Entebbe International Airport">Entebbe International Airport</a> in Uganda, to ferry supplies and relief personnel to the crisis regions.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While several humanitarian organizations expressed concern about mixing the military in humanitarian operations, it quickly became clear that only the military could create large centralized logistical support with the speed and scale needed to alleviate a massive humanitarian emergency. </p><p>The humanitarian situation was not as acute in the other nations bordering Rwanda, though still very challenging. Tanzania had a number of refugee camps that had been created for the civilians fleeing the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Burundian_Civil_War" title="Burundian Civil War">Burundian Civil War</a>. Most of these Burundians had returned to their home country by 1994 so Tanzania had the infrastructure to handle the initial influx of Rwandan refugees. However, facilities there were also eventually overwhelmed by the sheer number of people fleeing across the border, requiring emergency humanitarian intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interventions_by_particular_nations">Interventions by particular nations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Interventions by particular nations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SETAF_HISTORY_0004.JPEG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/SETAF_HISTORY_0004.JPEG/220px-SETAF_HISTORY_0004.JPEG" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/SETAF_HISTORY_0004.JPEG/330px-SETAF_HISTORY_0004.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/SETAF_HISTORY_0004.JPEG/440px-SETAF_HISTORY_0004.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="2840" data-file-height="1850" /></a><figcaption>Convoy of American military vehicles bring fresh water from Goma to Rwandan refugees located at Camp Kimbumba, Zaire in August 1994</figcaption></figure> <p>The UN, in the absence of any serious military aid from the US, was forced to open its communication pathways wider than before and urge other countries to join the efforts. The US agreed to support these efforts with finance and some equipment. Early in the relief process, US relief planes began to drop large food packages from the air in hopes of alleviating the suffering in the camps below.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, the opposite occurred, as people were slaughtered by mobs trying to reach the precious food. Due to the perils of such chaos in the refugee camps, the US refused to bring its aid closer to the ground, and, as time went by, dysentery and cholera began to spread rapidly through the crowded refugee camps, ultimately killing tens of thousands.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon, the problem was exacerbated as rain began to fall and many people contracted septic <a href="/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By then, France had established a field hospital at the area of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Kivu" title="Lake Kivu">Lake Kivu</a> in an attempt to help the large numbers of refugees.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Some of these refugees were Interahamwe leaders and members of the government who fled the country fearing retaliation from the RPF. To aid the ground forces, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> conducted the largest medical mission in its history, and, although their supplies were not as abundant as those of the other forces, their all-volunteer force of military <a href="/wiki/Surgeon" title="Surgeon">surgeons</a> was composed both of specialists and sub-specialists, including well-known surgeons.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two units established a unique and constructive method of operation which relied on France's abundant medical supplies and Israel's medical expertise. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> was the third largest donor to the intervention:<sup id="cite_ref-Seybolt1997_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seybolt1997-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Japan also deployed the <a href="/wiki/Japan_Self-Defense_Forces" title="Japan Self-Defense Forces">Japan Self-Defense Forces</a> assets, including the <a href="/wiki/Japan_Ground_Self-Defense_Force" title="Japan Ground Self-Defense Force">Japan Ground Self-Defense Force</a> units for medical and water supply activities, and the <a href="/wiki/Japan_Air_Self-Defense_Force" title="Japan Air Self-Defense Force">Japan Air Self-Defense Force</a> aircraft to transport personnel and supplies, including NGOs'.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> had sent a small contingent of mostly <a href="/wiki/Medic" title="Medic">medics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Nurse">nurses</a>, which was beneficial for rehabilitation efforts and ambulatory care after patients left the French-Israeli medical quarters. <a href="/wiki/CARE_(relief)" class="mw-redirect" title="CARE (relief)">CARE</a> Deutschland supplied ambulances, and <a href="/wiki/Merlin_(charity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Merlin (charity)">Merlin</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> supplied trucks and heavy equipment to distribute food and supplies to the refugee camps. The country of Germany was the sixth largest donor to the intervention, Ireland was 16th. <sup id="cite_ref-Seybolt1997_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seybolt1997-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Militarization_of_refugee_camps">Militarization of refugee camps</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Militarization of refugee camps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-One_source plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-one_source" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>relies largely or entirely on a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_with_a_single_source" title="Wikipedia:Articles with a single source">single source</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis##" title="Talk:Great Lakes refugee crisis">talk page</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">introducing citations to additional sources</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22">"Great Lakes refugee crisis"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2010</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zaire_97_kivus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Zaire_97_kivus.jpg/220px-Zaire_97_kivus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Zaire_97_kivus.jpg/330px-Zaire_97_kivus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Zaire_97_kivus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="430" data-file-height="325" /></a><figcaption>The Zaire-Rwanda border region</figcaption></figure><p> The first goal of the political leadership was to gain control of the food supply. This was accomplished by a system of "elected popular leaders", who acted as a front for the real leaders and were able to secure control of the humanitarian aid. The leadership could punish their enemies by withholding aid, reward their supporters by giving it and even make money either by reporting more refugees than actually existed and selling the surplus or by forcing the refugees to pay a food tax. The political elite and ex-FAR soldiers were given preferential treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-Prunier25_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prunier25-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led, for example, to the otherwise curious finding of one humanitarian aid study that 40% of refugees in Kibumba camp ate less than 2,000 kcal per person, while 13% received over 10,000 kcal per person.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Refugees who disagreed with the structure, who tried to return to Rwanda or were too frank with aid workers in discussing the situation were subject to intimidation and murder.<sup id="cite_ref-Prunier25-26_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prunier25-26-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sake,_Zaire_refugees_1996.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Sake%2C_Zaire_refugees_1996.jpg/220px-Sake%2C_Zaire_refugees_1996.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Sake%2C_Zaire_refugees_1996.jpg/330px-Sake%2C_Zaire_refugees_1996.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Sake%2C_Zaire_refugees_1996.jpg/440px-Sake%2C_Zaire_refugees_1996.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2625" data-file-height="1597" /></a><figcaption>Refugee camp near <a href="/wiki/Sake,_DRC" class="mw-redirect" title="Sake, DRC">Sake, DRC</a>, November 1996</figcaption></figure><p>As the initial acute humanitarian crisis was stabilized, aid workers and others began to raise concerns about the presence of armed elements in the camps. Soldiers of the former and the Interahamwe militia created armed outposts on the outskirts of the refugee camps, while the camps themselves came under the control of officials of the former government. Humanitarian workers reported that former government officials, especially near Goma, were passing out large amount of money to the militia to control the refugees on their behalf. Those refugees who tried to protest were either beaten into submission or killed. </p><p>The relief operation began to be accused of "feeding the killers", causing a crisis of conscience among the agencies, who began to leave what some have called "the messiest humanitarian quagmire ever". The first to leave was <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9decins_Sans_Fronti%C3%A8res" title="Médecins Sans Frontières">Médecins Sans Frontières</a>, who stated that "this humanitarian operation was a total ethical disaster" as it rewarded those responsible for the genocide rather than punishing them. The <a href="/wiki/International_Rescue_Committee" title="International Rescue Committee">International Rescue Committee</a>, a long-standing implementing partner of the UNHCR, then left stating that "humanitarianism has become a resource and people are manipulating it as never before. Sometimes we just shouldn’t show up for a disaster." These two organizations were joined by <a href="/wiki/Oxfam" title="Oxfam">Oxfam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Save_the_Children" title="Save the Children">Save the Children</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cooperative_for_Assistance_and_Relief_Everywhere" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere">CARE</a>, completing the departure of the largest and most professional humanitarian aid organizations upon which UNHCR relied heavily. A secondary reason given by some of these organizations is that they hoped that this dramatic action would prompt the international community to disarm the camps. </p><p>Despite repeated calls by the UN for international intervention to separate the armed elements from the civilians in need of assistance, there was little response. Of over 40 countries that <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Secretary-General" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Secretary-General">UN Secretary-General</a> <a href="/wiki/Boutros_Boutros_Ghali" class="mw-redirect" title="Boutros Boutros Ghali">Boutros Boutros Ghali</a> approached to provide peacekeepers, only one replied affirmatively. The UN eventually resorted to hiring Zairean soldiers to provide a minimum level of security, a situation that everyone realized was far from ideal. In light of their abandonment by its trusted partners and the insecurity, High Commissioner <a href="/wiki/Sadako_Ogata" title="Sadako Ogata">Sadako Ogata</a> was asked why UNHCR did not simply leave as well. She replied: </p> <blockquote><p>There were also innocent refugees in the camps; more than half were women and children. Should we have said: you are related to murderers, so you are guilty, too? My mandate — unlike those of private aid agencies — obliges me to help.</p></blockquote> <p>Both for those organizations that left and that stayed, the post-Rwandan genocide refugee crisis became a watershed event that prompted an extensive reevaluation of their mandates and procedures, and the relative ethical cases for abandonment and continuing aid were hotly debated. At the same time, France and the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> withheld <a href="/wiki/Development_aid" title="Development aid">development aid</a> from the new government of Rwanda until the refugees were repatriated, prompting accusations that the donors were simply repeating the <a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_poverty" title="Cycle of poverty">cycle of poverty</a> that had led Rwanda into crisis originally. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-One_source plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-one_source" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>relies largely or entirely on a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_with_a_single_source" title="Wikipedia:Articles with a single source">single source</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis##" title="Talk:Great Lakes refugee crisis">talk page</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">introducing citations to additional sources</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22">"Great Lakes refugee crisis"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Great+Lakes+refugee+crisis%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2010</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The AFDL continued its offensive until it reached <a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Kinshasa</a> and overthrew Mobutu in 1997. Mobutu fled Zaire and soon died in exile four months later. Afterwards, Kabila named himself the new <a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of heads of state of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">president</a> and changed the name of the country to the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>. However, the relationship between Kabila and his Rwandan and Ugandan backers turned sour. An attempt by Rwanda and Uganda to overthrow Kabila in 1998 grew into the <a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a>, the world's deadliest conflict since <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. While peace was officially declared in 2003, ethnically inspired violence continues to afflict the <a href="/wiki/Kivu_conflict" title="Kivu conflict">Kivus</a>. </p><p>Rwanda continues to struggle with the aftermath of genocide and large-scale <a href="/wiki/Forced_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced migration">forced migration</a>. The <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a> (ICTR) and community <a href="/wiki/Gacaca_court" title="Gacaca court">gacaca courts</a> exist to punish those who planned and carried out the genocide, but the scale of violence forced the Rwandan people into an occasionally uneasy coexistence. The Rwandan government has been generally credited with encouraging economic development and national reconciliation, though it has also been criticized for oppression of its critics. The crisis had a massive impact on the ecology of the region. The forests of <a href="/wiki/Virunga_National_Park" title="Virunga National Park">Virunga National Park</a>, home to the endangered <a href="/wiki/Mountain_gorilla" title="Mountain gorilla">mountain gorilla</a>, were badly damaged by the demands for firewood and charcoal made by the refugees. Two years after the arrival of the refugees 105 km<sup>2</sup> of the park's forest had been affected, of which 63 km<sup>2</sup> had been razed.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The outside world, at the time focused on the wars of the <a href="/wiki/Former_Yugoslavia" class="mw-redirect" title="Former Yugoslavia">former Yugoslavia</a>, turned its attention away from the happenings of central Africa. The exception was the international humanitarian aid community and the United Nations, for whom the Great Lakes crisis was an agonizing dilemma that has been the topic of extensive analysis and ethical arguments. As a result, UNHCR reworked its procedures to try to ensure greater international commitment in its interventions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/topics/rwandan-genocide">"The Rwandan Genocide - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com"</a>. <i>HISTORY.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160325012529/http://www.history.com/topics/rwandan-genocide">Archived</a> from the original on 25 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HISTORY.com&rft.atitle=The+Rwandan+Genocide+-+Facts+%26+Summary+-+HISTORY.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Frwandan-genocide&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.stanford.edu/~sstedman/2001.readings/Zaire.htm">"THE USE AND ABUSE OF REFUGEES IN ZAIRE"</a>. <i>web.stanford.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160416142813/https://web.stanford.edu/~sstedman/2001.readings/Zaire.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=web.stanford.edu&rft.atitle=THE+USE+AND+ABUSE+OF+REFUGEES+IN+ZAIRE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.stanford.edu%2F~sstedman%2F2001.readings%2FZaire.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrench2009" class="citation journal cs1">French, Howard W. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=NEW+TIDE+OF+REFUGEES+HEADS+OUT+OF+RWANDA&rft.date=1995-08-20&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Richburg&rft.aufirst=Keith+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fpolitics%2F1994%2F08%2F20%2Fnew-tide-of-refugees-heads-out-of-rwanda%2F675991c4-6fb6-4592-886d-e31475b7df55%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3728807.stm">"From president to prison"</a>. <i>BBC</i>. 7 June 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305112002/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3728807.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=From+president+to+prison&rft.date=2004-06-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fafrica%2F3728807.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonner1994" class="citation news cs1">Bonner, Raymond (25 July 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/25/world/rwanda-disaster-refugees-some-who-fled-rwanda-return-zaire-opens-border.html">"THE RWANDA DISASTER: THE REFUGEES; Some Who Fled Rwanda Return As Zaire Opens Border Crossings"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160407125952/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/25/world/rwanda-disaster-refugees-some-who-fled-rwanda-return-zaire-opens-border.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=THE+RWANDA+DISASTER%3A+THE+REFUGEES%3B+Some+Who+Fled+Rwanda+Return+As+Zaire+Opens+Border+Crossings&rft.date=1994-07-25&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Bonner&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1994%2F07%2F25%2Fworld%2Frwanda-disaster-refugees-some-who-fled-rwanda-return-zaire-opens-border.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prunier24-25-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Prunier24-25_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Prunier24-25_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refPrunier2009">Prunier 2009</a>, pp. 24–25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a contemporary analysis of the situation, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/AFR02/001/1996"><i>Rwanda and Burundi: The return home: rumours and realities</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a>, 20 February 1996, p. 14-15 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090610063636/http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/AFR02/001/1996">Archived</a> 10 June 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-happened-during-the-great-lakes-refugee-crisis.html">"The Great Lakes Refugee Crisis"</a>. 25 April 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170511051947/http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-happened-during-the-great-lakes-refugee-crisis.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Great+Lakes+Refugee+Crisis&rft.date=2017-04-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldatlas.com%2Farticles%2Fwhat-happened-during-the-great-lakes-refugee-crisis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.baltimoresun.com/1994/07/24/rwanda-how-did-it-happen/">"Rwanda: How Did It Happen?"</a>. <i>tribunedigital-baltimoresun</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160409105848/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1994-07-24/news/1994205021_1_rwanda-refugees-relief-workers">Archived</a> from the original on 9 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=tribunedigital-baltimoresun&rft.atitle=Rwanda%3A+How+Did+It+Happen%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.baltimoresun.com%2F1994%2F07%2F24%2Frwanda-how-did-it-happen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wrongingrights.com/2008/10/how-to-become-an-expert-on-the-congo-in-just-five-minutes-a-day.html">"How to Become an Expert on the Congo in Just Five Minutes a Day"</a>. <i>Wronging Rights</i>. 21 October 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wronging+Rights&rft.atitle=How+to+Become+an+Expert+on+the+Congo+in+Just+Five+Minutes+a+Day&rft.date=2008-10-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wrongingrights.com%2F2008%2F10%2Fhow-to-become-an-expert-on-the-congo-in-just-five-minutes-a-day.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPower2001" class="citation web cs1">Power, Samantha (September 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2001/09/bystanders-to-genocide/304571/">"Bystanders to Genocide"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160326130110/http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2001/09/bystanders-to-genocide/304571/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=Bystanders+to+Genocide&rft.date=2001-09&rft.aulast=Power&rft.aufirst=Samantha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fmagazine%2Farchive%2F2001%2F09%2Fbystanders-to-genocide%2F304571%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/30/opinion/lifesaving-aid-for-rwanda.html">"Lifesaving Aid for Rwanda"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 30 July 1994. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160407130259/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/30/opinion/lifesaving-aid-for-rwanda.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Lifesaving+Aid+for+Rwanda&rft.date=1994-07-30&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1994%2F07%2F30%2Fopinion%2Flifesaving-aid-for-rwanda.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLorch1994" class="citation news cs1">Lorch, Donatella (1 May 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/01/world/refugees-flee-into-tanzania-from-rwanda.html">"Refugees Flee Into Tanzania From Rwanda"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160407120344/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/01/world/refugees-flee-into-tanzania-from-rwanda.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Refugees+Flee+Into+Tanzania+From+Rwanda&rft.date=1994-05-01&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Lorch&rft.aufirst=Donatella&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1994%2F05%2F01%2Fworld%2Frefugees-flee-into-tanzania-from-rwanda.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDROGIN1994" class="citation news cs1">DROGIN, BOB (25 July 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-07-25-mn-19642-story.html">"U.S. Airdrops Aid to Rwandans : Africa: First direct American assistance consists of eight pallets of food that crash-land in a hamlet. Border area is reopened and more than 1,000 refugees return home"</a>. <i>Los Angeles Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0458-3035">0458-3035</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160409053308/http://articles.latimes.com/1994-07-25/news/mn-19642_1_refugees-return-home">Archived</a> from the original on 9 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=U.S.+Airdrops+Aid+to+Rwandans+%3A+Africa%3A+First+direct+American+assistance+consists+of+eight+pallets+of+food+that+crash-land+in+a+hamlet.+Border+area+is+reopened+and+more+than+1%2C000+refugees+return+home.&rft.date=1994-07-25&rft.issn=0458-3035&rft.aulast=DROGIN&rft.aufirst=BOB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1994-07-25-mn-19642-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeymanGinosarNielAmir1998" class="citation journal cs1">Heyman, S. N.; Ginosar, Y.; Niel, L.; Amir, J.; Marx, N.; Shapiro, M.; Maayan, S. (1 March 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs1201-9712%2898%2990115-1">"Meningococcal meningitis among Rwandan refugees: diagnosis, management, and outcome in a field hospital"</a>. <i>International Journal of Infectious Diseases</i>. <b>2</b> (3): 137–142. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs1201-9712%2898%2990115-1">10.1016/s1201-9712(98)90115-1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1201-9712">1201-9712</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9531659">9531659</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Meningococcal+meningitis+among+Rwandan+refugees%3A+diagnosis%2C+management%2C+and+outcome+in+a+field+hospital&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=137-142&rft.date=1998-03-01&rft.issn=1201-9712&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9531659&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs1201-9712%2898%2990115-1&rft.aulast=Heyman&rft.aufirst=S.+N.&rft.au=Ginosar%2C+Y.&rft.au=Niel%2C+L.&rft.au=Amir%2C+J.&rft.au=Marx%2C+N.&rft.au=Shapiro%2C+M.&rft.au=Maayan%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fs1201-9712%252898%252990115-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/PressRoom/1994/Pages/ISRAELI%2520MEDICAL%2520AID%2520TO%2520RWANDAN%2520REFUGEES%2520-%2520UPDATE%2520-.aspx">"2BackToHomePage3"</a>. <i>mfa.gov.il</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160705005409/http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/PressRoom/1994/Pages/ISRAELI%20MEDICAL%20AID%20TO%20RWANDAN%20REFUGEES%20-%20UPDATE%20-.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 5 July 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mfa.gov.il&rft.atitle=2BackToHomePage3&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmfa.gov.il%2FMFA%2FPressRoom%2F1994%2FPages%2FISRAELI%252520MEDICAL%252520AID%252520TO%252520RWANDAN%252520REFUGEES%252520-%252520UPDATE%252520-.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Seybolt1997-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seybolt1997_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seybolt1997_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeybolt1997" class="citation journal cs1">Seybolt, Taylor B. (5 July 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19980419093422/http://www-jha.sps.cam.ac.uk/a/a027.htm">"Coordination in Rwanda: The Humanitarian Response to Genocide and Civil War"</a>. <i>Journal of Humanitarian Assistance</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-jha.sps.cam.ac.uk/a/a027.htm">the original</a> on 19 April 1998<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Humanitarian+Assistance&rft.atitle=Coordination+in+Rwanda%3A+The+Humanitarian+Response+to+Genocide+and+Civil+War&rft.date=1997-07-05&rft.aulast=Seybolt&rft.aufirst=Taylor+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-jha.sps.cam.ac.uk%2Fa%2Fa027.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCabinet_Office" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_Office_(Japan)" title="Cabinet Office (Japan)">Cabinet Office</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cao.go.jp/pko/pko_j/result/rwanda/rwanda02.html"><i>ルワンダ難民救援国際平和協力業務</i></a> [<i>International Peace Cooperation Operations for Rwandan Refugee Relief</i>] (in Japanese)<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 May</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E3%83%AB%E3%83%AF%E3%83%B3%E3%83%80%E9%9B%A3%E6%B0%91%E6%95%91%E6%8F%B4%E5%9B%BD%E9%9A%9B%E5%B9%B3%E5%92%8C%E5%8D%94%E5%8A%9B%E6%A5%AD%E5%8B%99&rft.au=Cabinet+Office&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cao.go.jp%2Fpko%2Fpko_j%2Fresult%2Frwanda%2Frwanda02.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prunier25-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Prunier25_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refPrunier2009">Prunier 2009</a>, p. 25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Footnote 97, in <a href="#refPrunier2009">Prunier 2009</a>, p. 375</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prunier25-26-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Prunier25-26_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refPrunier2009">Prunier 2009</a>, pp. 25–26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henquin and Blondel, 1997</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refPrunier2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Prunier" title="Gérard Prunier">Prunier, Gérard</a> (2009). <i>Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537420-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537420-9"><bdi>978-0-19-537420-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africa%27s+World+War%3A+Congo%2C+the+Rwandan+Genocide%2C+and+the+Making+of+a+Continental+Catastrophe&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-537420-9&rft.aulast=Prunier&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A9rard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alison_Des_Forges" title="Alison Des Forges">Des Forges, Alison</a> (1999). <i>Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda</i>. New York: Human Rights Watch.</li> <li>Pottier, Johan (2002). <i>Re-Imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Umutesi, Marie Béatrice. <i>Surviving the Slaughter: The Ordeal of a Rwandan Refugee in Zaire</i>. Translated by Julia Emerson. University of Wisconsin Press, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-299-20494-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-299-20494-4">0-299-20494-4</a>.</li> <li>Waters, Tony (2001). <i>Bureaucratizing the Good Samaritan</i>. Boulder: Westview.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasako_Yonekawa,_Akiko_Sugiki2020" class="citation book cs1">Masako Yonekawa, Akiko Sugiki, ed. (2020). <i>Repatriation, Insecurity, and Peace: A Case Study of Rwandan Refugees</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-15-2850-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-15-2850-7"><bdi>978-981-15-2850-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Repatriation%2C+Insecurity%2C+and+Peace%3A+A+Case+Study+of+Rwandan+Refugees&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-981-15-2850-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Lakes+refugee+crisis" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reliefweb.int/library/nordic/book3/pb022.html">"Study 3: Humanitarian Aid and Effects"</a> in Steering Committee of the Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061223025137/http://www.reliefweb.int/library/nordic/">"The International Response to Conflict and Genocide: Lessons from the Rwanda Experience"</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Humanitarian_Assistance&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of Humanitarian Assistance (page does not exist)">Journal of Humanitarian Assistance</a></i>, March 1996</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040417022633/http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9611/17/zaire/">"Refugee tide into Rwanda overwhelms aid workers"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a></i>, 17 November 1996</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110515142728/http://www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/publ/opendoc.htm?tbl=PUBL&page=home&id=3b6925384">"Heart of Darkness"</a>, <i>Refugees Magazine</i>, issue 110, 1997</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/3ebf9bb60.pdf"><i>State of the World's Refugees 2000</i>, Ch. 10 "The Rwandan genocide and its aftermath"</a> (PDF), <a href="/wiki/UNHCR" class="mw-redirect" title="UNHCR">UNHCR</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051025165804/http://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/PDFs/workingpaper4.pdf">"Sharing the Security Burden: Towards the Convergence of Refugee Protection and State Security"</a>, <i>Working Paper No. 4</i>, <a href="/wiki/Refugee_Studies_Centre" title="Refugee Studies Centre">Refugee Studies Centre</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>, May 2000<sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2013">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050802110138/http://www.jha.ac/articles/a086.htm">"UNHCR’s Relief, Rehabilitation and Repatriation of Rwandan Refugees in Zaire (1994–1997)"</a>, <i>Journal of Humanitarian Assistance</i>, 8 April 2002</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pambazuka.org/en/category/features/21170">"Mirroring Rwanda's Challenges: the refugee story"</a>, <i>Pambazuka News</i>, 2004</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050919112227/http://web.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v1/3/10.htm">"Conventional Wisdom and Rwanda's Genocide: An Opinion"</a>, <i>African Studies Quarterly</i> (1997 by Tony Waters)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tom_Casadevall&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tom Casadevall (page does not exist)">Tom Casadevall</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">United States Geological Survey</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100706212813/http://cgs.illinois.edu/resources/webvideo/the-1994-rwandan-refugee-crisis-cultural-awareness-managing-natural-disasters">"The 1994 Rwandan Refugee Crisis: Cultural Awareness in Managing Natural Disasters" (1h28m streaming video)</a>. Lecture given at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana%E2%80%93Champaign" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign">University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign</a> on vulcanology around Goma (25 September 2006)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101121170929/http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/ZR/DRC_MAPPING_REPORT_FINAL_EN.pdf">UN High Commission on Human Rights: "Report of the Mapping Exercise documenting the most serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law committed within the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo between March 1993 and June 2003", published August 2010</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rwandan_genocide" style="width:auto;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rwandan_genocide_footer" title="Template:Rwandan genocide footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rwandan_genocide_footer" title="Template talk:Rwandan genocide footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rwandan_genocide_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rwandan genocide footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rwandan_genocide" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rwanda" title="History of Rwanda">History of Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa" title="Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa">Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rwanda" title="Kingdom of Rwanda">Kingdom of Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian colonial empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Revolution" title="Rwandan Revolution">Rwandan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutu_Power" title="Hutu Power">Hutu Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Civil_War" title="Rwandan Civil War">Rwandan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arusha_Accords_(Rwanda)" title="Arusha Accords (Rwanda)">Arusha Accords</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana_and_Cyprien_Ntaryamira" title="Assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira">Assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Initial_events_of_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Initial events of the Rwandan genocide">Initial events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Timeline of the Rwandan genocide">Chronology</a></li> <li>Massacres <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gikondo_massacre" title="Gikondo massacre">Gikondo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musha_Church_massacre" title="Musha Church massacre">Musha Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyarubuye_massacre" title="Nyarubuye massacre">Nyarubuye</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Rape during the Rwandan genocide">Rape</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Perpetrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_indicted_in_the_International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="List of people indicted in the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">People indicted</a> by the <a href="/wiki/ICTR" class="mw-redirect" title="ICTR">ICTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocidaires" class="mw-redirect" title="Genocidaires">Genocidaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akazu" title="Akazu">Akazu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impuzamugambi" title="Impuzamugambi">Impuzamugambi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interahamwe" title="Interahamwe">Interahamwe</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kangura" title="Kangura">Kangura</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_T%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision_Libre_des_Mille_Collines" title="Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines">Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Response</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Patriotic_Front" title="Rwandan Patriotic Front">Rwandan Patriotic Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_response_to_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="International response to the Rwandan genocide">International response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_and_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="France and the Rwandan genocide">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9ration_Turquoise" title="Opération Turquoise">Opération Turquoise</a></li></ul></li> <li>United States <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Support_Hope" title="Operation Support Hope">Operation Support Hope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Assistance_Mission_for_Rwanda" title="United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda">UNAMIR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_935" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 935">UNSC Resolution 935</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aftermath</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Great Lakes refugee crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kibeho_massacre" title="Kibeho massacre">Kibeho massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Hutus_during_the_First_Congo_War" title="Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War">Massacres of Hutus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide_denial" title="Rwandan genocide denial">Rwandan genocide denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gacaca_court" title="Gacaca court">Gacaca court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Unity_and_Reconciliation_Commission_(Rwanda)" title="National Unity and Reconciliation Commission (Rwanda)">National Unity and Reconciliation Commission</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commemoration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Genocide memorials <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bisesero_Genocide_Memorial_Centre" title="Bisesero Genocide Memorial Centre">Bisesero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kigali_Genocide_Memorial" title="Kigali Genocide Memorial">Kigali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murambi_Genocide_Memorial_Centre" title="Murambi Genocide Memorial Centre">Murambi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ntarama_Genocide_Memorial_Centre" title="Ntarama Genocide Memorial Centre">Ntarama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyamata_Genocide_Memorial_Centre" title="Nyamata Genocide Memorial Centre">Nyamata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwibuka_T20_Tournament" title="Kwibuka T20 Tournament">Kwibuka T20 Tournament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivors_Fund" title="Survivors Fund">Survivors Fund</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historigraphy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_genocide_theory_(Rwanda)" title="Double genocide theory (Rwanda)">Double genocide theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Bibliography of the Rwandan genocide">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_about_the_Rwandan_Genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="List of films about the Rwandan Genocide">Filmography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo&#124;link=Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo–Rwanda_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Rwanda&#124;link=Rwanda" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo%E2%80%93Rwanda_relations" title="Template:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo%E2%80%93Rwanda_relations" title="Template talk:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo%E2%80%93Rwanda_relations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo&#124;link=Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo–Rwanda_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Rwanda&#124;link=Rwanda" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo"><img alt="Democratic Republic of the Congo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/31px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo%E2%80%93Rwanda_relations" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations">Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations</a> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda"><img alt="Rwanda" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Rwanda.svg/23px-Flag_of_Rwanda.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Rwanda.svg/35px-Flag_of_Rwanda.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Rwanda.svg/45px-Flag_of_Rwanda.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lusaka_Ceasefire_Agreement" title="Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement">Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretoria_Accord" title="Pretoria Accord">Pretoria Accord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_City_Agreement" title="Sun City Agreement">Sun City Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Market_for_Eastern_and_Southern_Africa" title="Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa">COMESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agreement_on_the_Conservation_of_Gorillas_and_Their_Habitats" title="Agreement on the Conservation of Gorillas and Their Habitats">Gorilla Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_Community" title="East African Community">East African Community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Community_of_the_Great_Lakes_Countries" title="Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries">Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Military relations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="East African campaign (World War I)">East African campaign (World War I)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Civil_War" title="Rwandan Civil War">Rwandan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AFDL" title="AFDL">AFDL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemera_massacre" title="Lemera massacre">Lemera massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Hutus_during_the_First_Congo_War" title="Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War">Massacres of Hutus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongo_conflict" title="Dongo conflict">Dongo conflict</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Kivu_conflict" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kivu_conflict" title="Kivu conflict">Kivu conflict</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Makobola_massacre" title="Makobola massacre">Makobola massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Nord-Kivu_campaign" title="2008 Nord-Kivu campaign">2008 Nord-Kivu campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Eastern_Congo_offensive" title="2009 Eastern Congo offensive">2009 Eastern Congo offensive</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="March_23Movement" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/March_23_Movement" title="March 23 Movement">March 23<br />Movement</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M23_rebellion" title="M23 rebellion">M23 rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M23_offensive_(2022%E2%80%93present)" title="M23 offensive (2022–present)">M23 offensive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kishishe_massacre" title="Kishishe massacre">Kishishe massacre</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2012_Congolese%E2%80%93Rwandan_border_clash" title="2012 Congolese–Rwandan border clash">2012 Congolese–Rwandan border clash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo%E2%80%93Rwanda_tensions_(2022%E2%80%93present)" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda tensions (2022–present)">Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda tensions (2022–present)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo%E2%80%93Rwanda_border" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda border">Border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banyamulenge" title="Banyamulenge">Banyamulenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bwito_Chiefdom" title="Bwito Chiefdom">Bwito Chiefdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaziba_Chiefdom" title="Kaziba Chiefdom">Kaziba Chiefdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngweshe_Chiefdom" title="Ngweshe Chiefdom">Ngweshe Chiefdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian colonial empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kivu_frontier_incident" title="Kivu frontier incident">Kivu frontier incident</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_industry_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercenaries_and_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Mercenaries and the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Mercenaries and the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Revolution" title="Rwandan Revolution">Rwandan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katanga_insurgency" title="Katanga insurgency">Katanga insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanyarwanda_War" title="Kanyarwanda War">Kanyarwanda War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Great Lakes refugee crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Forces_for_the_Liberation_of_Rwanda" title="Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda">FDLR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rally_for_Congolese_Democracy" title="Rally for Congolese Democracy">RCD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MONUSCO" title="MONUSCO">MONUSCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court_investigation_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="International Criminal Court investigation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">International Criminal Court investigation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Mutarule_attack" title="2014 Mutarule attack">2014 Mutarule attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kipupu_massacre" title="Kipupu massacre">Kipupu massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo%E2%80%93Rwanda_relations" title="Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations">Category</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_topics" title="Template:Democratic Republic of the Congo topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_topics" title="Template talk:Democratic Republic of the Congo topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Democratic Republic of the Congo topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-colonial_history_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Early history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_the_Congo_Basin" title="Colonization of the Congo Basin">Colonization (1867–85)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_the_Congo_Free_State_and_Belgian_Congo" title="List of colonial governors of the Congo Free State and Belgian Congo">Colonial governors (1885–1960)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State (1885–1908)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State" title="Atrocities in the Congo Free State">Atrocities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo (1908–60)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo_in_World_War_II" title="Belgian Congo in World War II">World War II</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)" title="Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)">Congo-Léopoldville (1960–65)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis (1960–65)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Katanga" title="State of Katanga">State of Katanga (1960–63)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire (1965–97)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War (1996–98)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War (1998–2003)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000s_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="2000s in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">2000s</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_Government_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Transitional Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Transitional Government (2003–06)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kivu_conflict" title="Kivu conflict">Kivu conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M23_rebellion" title="M23 rebellion">M23 rebellion (2012–13)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M23_offensive_(2022%E2%80%93present)" title="M23 offensive (2022–present)">M23 offensive (2022–present)</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Geography of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="List of cities in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nature_conservation_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:Nature conservation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of ecoregions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_ranges_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:Mountain ranges of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of rivers of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of volcanoes in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Wildlife of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_place_names_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Former place names in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Former place names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Subdivisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Constitution of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_Cassation_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="Court of Cassation (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">Court of Cassation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Elections in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Foreign relations of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Mobutu_Sese_Seko_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Mobutu Sese Seko administration">Foreign policy under Mobutu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Law enforcement in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Chief of Staff</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Parliament of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senate_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="Senate (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="National Assembly (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">National Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of political parties in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of presidents of the Democratic Republic of the 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