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id="toc-As_an_enchanted_world_view-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_higher_knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_higher_knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>As higher knowledge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_higher_knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_rejected_knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_rejected_knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>As rejected knowledge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_rejected_knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Late_Antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Late Antiquity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renaissance_and_Early_Modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renaissance_and_Early_Modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Renaissance and Early Modern period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renaissance_and_Early_Modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-18th,_19th_and_early_20th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#18th,_19th_and_early_20th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>18th, 19th and early 20th centuries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-18th,_19th_and_early_20th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Later 20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Academic study</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Academic_study-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Academic study subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Academic_study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emic_and_etic_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emic_and_etic_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Emic and etic divisions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emic_and_etic_divisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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Available in 17 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-17" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">17 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="باطنية غربية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="باطنية غربية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%A2%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="পাশ্চাত্য গূঢ়বাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পাশ্চাত্য গূঢ়বাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestlig_esoterik" title="Vestlig esoterik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vestlig esoterik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%83%CF%89%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Εσωτερισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εσωτερισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esoterismo_occidental" title="Esoterismo occidental – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Esoterismo occidental" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="باطن‌گرایی غربی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="باطن‌گرایی غربی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%9C%EC%96%91_%EB%B0%80%EA%B5%90" title="서양 밀교 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="서양 밀교" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esoterisme_Barat" title="Esoterisme Barat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Esoterisme Barat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esoterismo_occidentale" title="Esoterismo occidentale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Esoterismo occidentale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westerse_esoterie" title="Westerse esoterie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Westerse esoterie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esoterismo_ocidental" title="Esoterismo ocidental – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Esoterismo ocidental" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Западни езотеризам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Западни езотеризам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4nsimainen_esoteerisuus" title="Länsimainen esoteerisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Länsimainen esoteerisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat%C4%B1_ezoterizmi" title="Batı ezoterizmi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Batı ezoterizmi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Західна езотерика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Західна езотерика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thuy%E1%BA%BFt_b%C3%AD_truy%E1%BB%81n" title="Thuyết bí truyền – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thuyết bí truyền" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E7%A7%98%E5%A5%91%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="西方秘契主義 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="西方秘契主義" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7988482#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Western_esotericism" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Range of related ideas and movements that have developed in the Western world</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Esoteric" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Esoteric_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Esoteric (disambiguation)">Esoteric (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the academic field, see <a href="/wiki/Academic_study_of_Western_esotericism" title="Academic study of Western esotericism">Academic study of Western esotericism</a>. For Eastern forms, see <a href="/wiki/Eastern_esotericism" title="Eastern esotericism">Eastern esotericism</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Tree_of_life.png/220px-Tree_of_life.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Tree_of_life.png/330px-Tree_of_life.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Tree_of_life.png/440px-Tree_of_life.png 2x" data-file-width="1027" data-file-height="1360" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Tree_of_life_(Kabbalah)" title="Tree of life (Kabbalah)">tree of life as represented in the Kabbalah</a>, containing the <a href="/wiki/Sefirot" title="Sefirot">sefirot</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Esotericism" title="Category:Esotericism"><i>a series</i></a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle">Esotericism</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:10px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flower_of_Life_19-circles.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Esoteric symbolism"><img alt="Esoteric symbolism" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Flower_of_Life_19-circles.svg/90px-Flower_of_Life_19-circles.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Flower_of_Life_19-circles.svg/135px-Flower_of_Life_19-circles.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Flower_of_Life_19-circles.svg/180px-Flower_of_Life_19-circles.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Key concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Western esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_esotericism" title="Eastern esotericism">Eastern esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosis" title="Gnosis">Gnosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystical_theology" title="Mystical theology">Mystical theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occult" title="Occult">Occult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelema" title="Thelema">Thelema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalism_(perennialism)" title="Traditionalism (perennialism)">Traditionalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Rites</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astral_projection" title="Astral projection">Astral projection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_light" title="Body of light">Body of light</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">Divination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Esoteric transmission">Esoteric transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evocation" title="Evocation">Evocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exorcism" title="Exorcism">Exorcism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initiation" title="Initiation">Initiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invocation" title="Invocation">Invocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propitiation" title="Propitiation">Propitiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rite_of_passage" title="Rite of passage">Rite of passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_purification" title="Ritual purification">Ritual purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">Sacrifice</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Societies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A%E2%88%B4A%E2%88%B4" title="A∴A∴">A∴A∴</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89lus_Co%C3%ABns" class="mw-redirect" title="Élus Coëns">Élus Coëns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn" title="Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn">Golden Dawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martinism" title="Martinism">Martinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosicrucianism" title="Rosicrucianism">Rosicrucianism</a><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariqa" title="Tariqa">Tariqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typhonian_Order" title="Typhonian Order">Typhonian Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_organization" title="Magical organization">List of magical organizations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Notable figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madame_Blavatsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Madame Blavatsky">Blavatsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_B%C3%B6hme" title="Jakob Böhme">Böhme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titus_Burckhardt" title="Titus Burckhardt">Burckhardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleister_Crowley" title="Aleister Crowley">Crowley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dee" title="John Dee">Dee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Dionysius the Areopagite">Dionysius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Faivre" title="Antoine Faivre">Faivre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Gurdjieff" title="George Gurdjieff">Gurdjieff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manly_P._Hall" title="Manly P. Hall">Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermes_Trismegistus" title="Hermes Trismegistus">Hermes Trismegistus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Jung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Lavey" class="mw-redirect" title="Anton Lavey">Lavey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89liphas_L%C3%A9vi" title="Éliphas Lévi">Lévi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Liddell_Mathers" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Liddell Mathers">Mathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Oldmeadow" title="Harry Oldmeadow">Oldmeadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracelsus" title="Paracelsus">Paracelsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Edward_Waite" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Edward Waite">Waite</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophy" title="Anthroposophy">Anthroposophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_Neo-Nazism" title="Esoteric Neo-Nazism">Esoteric Hitlerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Esotericism" title="Template:Esotericism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Esotericism" title="Template talk:Esotericism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Esotericism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Esotericism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Western esotericism</b>, also known as <b>esotericism</b>, <b>esoterism</b>, and sometimes the <b>Western mystery tradition</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a term scholars use to classify a wide range of loosely related ideas and movements that developed within <a href="/wiki/Western_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Western society">Western society</a>. These ideas and currents are united since they are largely distinct both from orthodox <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian" title="Judeo-Christian">Judeo-Christian religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-z948_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-z948-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has influenced, or contributed to, various forms of <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_art_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Western art history">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">literature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture#Music" title="Western culture">music</a>. </p><p>The idea of grouping a wide range of Western traditions and philosophies together under the term <i>esotericism</i> developed in 17th-century Europe. Various academics have debated numerous definitions of Western esotericism. One view adopts a definition from certain esotericist schools of thought themselves, treating "esotericism" as a <a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">perennial</a> hidden inner <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">tradition</a>. A second perspective sees esotericism as a category of movements that embrace an "enchanted" worldview in the face of increasing disenchantment. A third views Western esotericism as encompassing all of Western culture's "rejected knowledge" that is accepted neither by the scientific establishment nor orthodox religious authorities. </p><p>The earliest traditions of Western esotericism emerged in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> during <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a> developed as schools of thought distinct from what became mainstream Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-GLENYS_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GLENYS-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> Europe saw increasing interest in many of these older ideas, with various intellectuals combining <a href="/wiki/Pagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan">pagan</a> philosophies with the <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> and Christian philosophy, resulting in the emergence of esoteric movements like <a href="/wiki/Christian_Kabbalah" title="Christian Kabbalah">Christian Kabbalah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_theosophy" title="Christian theosophy">Christian theosophy</a>. The 17th century saw the development of initiatory societies professing esoteric knowledge such as <a href="/wiki/Rosicrucianism" title="Rosicrucianism">Rosicrucianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasonry</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> of the 18th century led to the development of new forms of esoteric thought. The 19th century saw the emergence of new trends of esoteric thought now known as <a href="/wiki/Occultism" class="mw-redirect" title="Occultism">occultism</a>. Significant groups in this century included the <a href="/wiki/Societas_Rosicruciana_in_Anglia" title="Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia">Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Theosophical_Society" title="Theosophical Society">Theosophical Society</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn" title="Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn">Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn</a>. Also important in this connection is <a href="/wiki/Martinus_Thomsen" title="Martinus Thomsen">Martinus Thomsen</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Spiritual_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual science">spiritual science</a>". <a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Modern paganism</a> developed within occultism and includes religious movements such as <a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a>. Esoteric ideas permeated the <a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">counterculture of the 1960s</a> and later cultural tendencies, which led to the <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> phenomenon in the 1970s. </p><p>The idea that these disparate movements could be classified as "Western esotericism" developed in the late 18th century, but these esoteric currents were largely ignored as a subject of academic enquiry. The <a href="/wiki/Academic_study_of_Western_esotericism" title="Academic study of Western esotericism">academic study of Western esotericism</a> only emerged in the late 20th century, pioneered by scholars like <a href="/wiki/Frances_Yates" title="Frances Yates">Frances Yates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Faivre" title="Antoine Faivre">Antoine Faivre</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of the "esoteric" originated in the 2nd century<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the coining of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjective</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">esôterikós</i></span> ("belonging to an inner circle"); the earliest known example of the word appeared in a satire authored by <a href="/wiki/Lucian_of_Samosata" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucian of Samosata">Lucian of Samosata</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b80Hanegraaff2013a3_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b80Hanegraaff2013a3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 125</span> – after 180). </p><p>In the 15th and 16th centuries, differentiations in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> between <i>exotericus</i> and <i>esotericus</i> (along with <i>internus</i> and <i>externus</i>) were common in the scholar discourse on ancient philosophy. The categories of <i>doctrina vulgaris</i> and <i>doctrina arcana</i> are found among <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Platonists" title="Cambridge Platonists">Cambridge Platonists</a>. Perhaps for the first time in English, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Stanley_(author)" title="Thomas Stanley (author)">Thomas Stanley</a>, between 1655 and 1660, would refer to the Pythagorean <i>exoterick</i> and <i>esoterick</i>. <a href="/wiki/John_Toland" title="John Toland">John Toland</a> in 1720 would state that the so-called nowadays "esoteric distinction" was a universal phenomenon, present in both the West and the East. As for the noun "esotericism", probably the first mention in German of <i>Esoterismus</i> appeared in a 1779 work by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Hamann" title="Johann Georg Hamann">Johann Georg Hamann</a>, and the use of <i>Esoterik</i> in 1790 by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Eichhorn" title="Johann Gottfried Eichhorn">Johann Gottfried Eichhorn</a>. But the word <i>esoterisch</i> had already existed at least since 1731–1736, as found in the works of <a href="/wiki/Johann_Jakob_Brucker" title="Johann Jakob Brucker">Johann Jakob Brucker</a>; this author rejected everything that is characterized today as an "esoteric corpus". In this 18th century context, these terms referred to <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a> or Neoplatonic <a href="/wiki/Theurgy" title="Theurgy">theurgy</a>, but the concept was particularly sedimentated by two streams of discourses: speculations about the influences of the Egyptians on ancient philosophy and religion, and their associations with <a href="/wiki/Masonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Masonic">Masonic</a> discourses and other secret societies, who claimed to keep such ancient secrets until the Enlightenment; and the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Oriental_studies" title="Oriental studies">orientalist academic studies</a>, which since the 17th century identified the presence of mysteries, secrets or esoteric "ancient wisdom" in Persian, Arab, Indian and Far Eastern texts and practices (see also <a href="/wiki/Eastern_esotericism#Early_Western_reception" title="Eastern esotericism">Early Western reception of Eastern esotericism</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a> "esotericism", in its French form "ésotérisme", first appeared in 1828<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a2_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the work by Protestant historian of gnosticism<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaurant1998194_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaurant1998194-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Matter" title="Jacques Matter">Jacques Matter</a> (1791–1864), <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Histoire critique du gnosticisme</i></span> (3 vols.).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996384_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996384-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "esotericism" thus came into use in the wake of the Age of Enlightenment and of its critique of <a href="/wiki/Institutionalisation" title="Institutionalisation">institutionalised</a> religion, during which alternative religious groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Rosicrucianism" title="Rosicrucianism">Rosicrucians</a> began to disassociate themselves from the dominant Christianity in Western Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b80_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b80-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 19th and 20th centuries, scholars increasingly saw the term "esotericism" as meaning something distinct from Christianity—as a subculture at odds with the Christian mainstream from at least the time of the Renaissance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b80_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b80-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After being introduced by Jacques Matter in French, the occultist and ceremonial magician <a href="/wiki/Eliphas_L%C3%A9vi" class="mw-redirect" title="Eliphas Lévi">Eliphas Lévi</a> (1810–1875) popularized the term in the 1850s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996384_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996384-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lévi also introduced the term <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">l'occultisme</i></span>, a notion that he developed against the background of contemporary <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholic</a> discourses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrube2016aStrube2016b_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrube2016aStrube2016b-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Esotericism" and "occultism" were often employed as synonyms until later scholars distinguished the concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996385_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996385-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophical_usage">Philosophical usage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Philosophical usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the context of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a>, the terms "esoteric" and "exoteric" were sometimes used by scholars not to denote that there was secrecy, but to distinguish two procedures of research and education: the first reserved for teachings that were developed "within the walls" of the philosophical school, among a circle of thinkers ("eso-" indicating what is unseen, as in the classes internal to the institution), and the second referring to those whose works were disseminated to the public in speeches and published ("exo-": outside). The initial meaning of this last word is implied when <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> coined the term "exoteric speeches" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἐξωτερικοὶ λόγοι</span></span>), perhaps to refer to the speeches he gave outside his school.<sup id="cite_ref-Nikulin-2012_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nikulin-2012-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, Aristotle never employed the term "esoteric" and there is no evidence that he dealt with specialized secrets; there is a dubious report by <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Aulus Gellius</a>, according to which Aristotle disclosed the exoteric subjects of politics, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> and ethics to the general public in the afternoon, while he reserved the morning for "akroatika" (acroamatics), referring to <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, taught during a walk with his students.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the term "exoteric" for Aristotle could have another meaning, hypothetically referring to an extracosmic reality, <i>ta exo</i>, superior to and beyond Heaven, requiring abstraction and logic. This reality stood in contrast to what he called <i>enkyklioi logoi,</i> knowledge "from within the circle", involving the intracosmic physics that surrounds everyday life.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a report by <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, however, which states that the Lyceum's school texts were circulated internally, their publication was more controlled than the exoteric ones, and that these "esoteric" texts were rediscovered and compiled only with the efforts of <a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Rhodes" title="Andronicus of Rhodes">Andronicus of Rhodes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plato would have orally transmitted intramural teachings to his disciples, the supposed "esoteric" content of which regarding the First Principles is particularly highlighted by the <a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_unwritten_doctrines" title="Plato's unwritten doctrines">Tübingen School</a> as distinct from the apparent written teachings conveyed in his books or public lectures.<sup id="cite_ref-Nikulin-2012_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nikulin-2012-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a> commented on the analysis of this distinction in the modern <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a> of Plato and Aristotle: </p> <blockquote><p>To express an external object not much is required, but to communicate an idea a capacity must be present, and this always remains something esoteric, so that there has never been anything purely exoteric about what philosophers say.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>In any case, drawing from the tradition of discourses that supposedly revealed a vision of the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">Absolute</a> and truth present in <a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">mythology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Initiation" title="Initiation">initiatory rites</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mystery_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystery religions">mystery religions</a>, Plato and his philosophy began the Western perception of esotericism, to the point that <a href="/wiki/Kocku_von_Stuckrad" title="Kocku von Stuckrad">Kocku von Stuckrad</a> stated "esoteric ontology and anthropology would hardly exist without Platonic philosophy."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his dialogues, he uses expressions that refer to cultic secrecy<sup id="cite_ref-Lamberton-2018_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lamberton-2018-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (for example, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἀπορρήτων</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">aporrhéton</i></span>, one of the Ancient Greek expressions referring to the prohibition of revealing a secret, in the context of mysteries<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). In <i><a href="/wiki/Theaetetus_(dialogue)" title="Theaetetus (dialogue)">Theaetetus</a></i> 152c, there is an example of this concealment strategy: </p> <blockquote><p>Can it be, then, that <a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a> was a very ingenious person who threw out this obscure utterance for the unwashed like us but reserved the truth as a secret doctrine (ἐν ἀπορρήτῳ τὴν ἀλήθειαν) to be revealed to his disciples?<sup id="cite_ref-Lamberton-2018_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lamberton-2018-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonists" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplatonists">Neoplatonists</a> intensified the search for a "hidden truth" under the surface of teachings, myths and texts, developing the hermeneutics and <a href="/wiki/Allegorical_interpretations_of_Plato" title="Allegorical interpretations of Plato">allegorical exegesis of Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orpheus" title="Orpheus">Orpheus</a> and others.<sup id="cite_ref-Lamberton-2018_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lamberton-2018-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plutarch, for example, developed the justification of a theological esotericism, and <a href="/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius</a> wrote "On the Secrets of Plato" (<i>Peri tôn para Platoni aporrhèta</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Probably based on the "exôtikos/esôtikos" dichotomy, the Hellenic world developed the classical distinction between exoteric/esoteric, stimulated by criticism from various currents such as the <a href="/wiki/Patristics" title="Patristics">Patristics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to examples in Lucian, <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a>, at that time it was a common practice among philosophers to keep secret writings and teachings. A parallel secrecy and reserved elite was also found in the contemporary environment of <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, <a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a> would present his definition (close to the modern one), as he classified the ancient <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreans" class="mw-redirect" title="Pythagoreans">Pythagoreans</a> as either "exoteric" mathematicians or "esoteric" acousmatics, the latter being those who disseminated enigmatic teachings and hidden allegorical meanings.<sup id="cite_ref-Nikulin-2012_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nikulin-2012-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conceptual_development">Conceptual development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Conceptual development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>'Western esotericism' is not a natural term but an artificial category, applied retrospectively to a range of currents and ideas that were known by other names at least prior to the end of the eighteenth century. [This] means that, originally, not all those currents and ideas were necessarily seen as belonging together:... it is only as recently as the later seventeenth century that we find the first attempts at presenting them as one single, coherent field or domain, and at explaining what they have in common. In short, 'Western esotericism' is a modern scholarly construct, not an autonomous tradition that already existed out there and merely needed to be discovered by historians. </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">— The scholar of esotericism Wouter Hanegraaff, 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a3_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>The concept of "Western esotericism" represents a modern scholarly construct rather than a pre-existing, self-defined tradition of thought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b88Bogdan20076Hanegraaff2013a3_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b88Bogdan20076Hanegraaff2013a3-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 17th century, several European Christian thinkers presented the argument that one could categorise certain traditions of Western philosophy and thought together, thus establishing the category now labelled "Western esotericism".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff201278_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff201278-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first to do so, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ehregott_Daniel_Colberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ehregott Daniel Colberg (page does not exist)">Ehregott Daniel Colberg</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehregott_Daniel_Colberg" class="extiw" title="de:Ehregott Daniel Colberg">de</a>]</span> (1659–1698), a German <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a> theologian, wrote <i>Platonisch-Hermetisches Christianity</i> (1690–91). A hostile critic of various currents of Western thought that had emerged since the Renaissance—among them <a href="/wiki/Paracelsianism" title="Paracelsianism">Paracelsianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weigelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Weigelianism">Weigelianism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christian_theosophy" title="Christian theosophy">Christian theosophy</a>—in his book he labelled all of these traditions under the category of "Platonic–Hermetic Christianity", portraying them as <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretical</a> to what he saw as "true" Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012107_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012107-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite his hostile attitude toward these traditions of thought, Colberg became the first to connect these disparate philosophies and to study them under one rubric, also recognising that these ideas linked back to earlier philosophies from <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012107–108_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012107–108-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 18th-century Europe, during the Age of Enlightenment, these esoteric traditions came to be regularly categorised under the labels of "<a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">superstition</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">magic</a>", and "<a href="/wiki/Occult" title="Occult">the occult</a>"—terms often used interchangeably.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012230_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012230-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">The modern academy</a>, then in the process of developing, consistently rejected and ignored topics coming under "the occult", thus leaving research into them largely to enthusiasts outside of academia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012221_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012221-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, according to historian of esotericism <a href="/wiki/Wouter_J._Hanegraaff" class="mw-redirect" title="Wouter J. Hanegraaff">Wouter J. Hanegraaff</a> (born 1961), rejection of "occult" topics was seen as a "crucial identity marker" for any intellectuals seeking to affiliate themselves with the academy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012221_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012221-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars established this category in the late 18th century after identifying "structural similarities" between "the ideas and world views of a wide variety of thinkers and movements" that, previously, had not been in the same analytical grouping.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a3_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the scholar of esotericism Wouter J. Hanegraaff, the term provided a "useful generic label" for "a large and complicated group of historical phenomena that had long been perceived as sharing an <a href="/wiki/Family_resemblance" title="Family resemblance"><i>air de famille</i></a>."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various academics have emphasised that esotericism is a phenomenon unique to the Western world. As Faivre stated, an "empirical perspective" would hold that "esotericism is a Western notion."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199417_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199417-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As scholars such as Faivre and Hanegraaff have pointed out, there is no comparable category of "Eastern" or "Oriental" esotericism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre19946Hanegraaff2013a14–15_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre19946Hanegraaff2013a14–15-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emphasis on <i>Western</i> esotericism was nevertheless primarily devised to distinguish the field from a <i>universal</i> esotericism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsprem20148_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsprem20148-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hanegraaff has characterised these as "recognisable world views and approaches to knowledge that have played an important though always controversial role in the history of Western culture".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a13_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a13-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian of religion Henrik Bogdan asserted that Western esotericism constituted "a third pillar of Western culture" alongside "doctrinal faith and rationality", being deemed heretical by the former and irrational by the latter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBogdan20077_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBogdan20077-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars nevertheless recognise that various non-Western traditions have exerted "a profound influence" over Western esotericism, citing the example of the <a href="/wiki/Theosophical_Society" title="Theosophical Society">Theosophical Society</a>'s incorporation of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hindu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> concepts like <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">reincarnation</a> into its doctrines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBogdan2013177_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBogdan2013177-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given these influences and the imprecise nature of the term "Western", the scholar of esotericism Kennet Granholm has argued that academics should cease referring to "<i>Western</i> esotericism" altogether, instead simply favouring "esotericism" as a descriptor of this phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGranholm2013a31–32_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGranholm2013a31–32-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Egil Asprem has endorsed this approach.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The historian of esotericism <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Faivre" title="Antoine Faivre">Antoine Faivre</a> noted that "never a precise term, [esotericism] has begun to overflow its boundaries on all sides",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre19943_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre19943-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with both Faivre and Karen-Claire Voss stating that Western esotericism consists of "a vast spectrum of authors, trends, works of philosophy, religion, art, literature, and music".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivreVoss199548–49_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivreVoss199548–49-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars broadly agree on which currents of thought fall within a category of <i>esotericism</i>—ranging from ancient Gnosticism and Hermeticism through to <a href="/wiki/Rosicrucianism" title="Rosicrucianism">Rosicrucianism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> and on to more recent phenomenon such as the <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> movement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b79_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b79-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, <i>esotericism</i> itself remains a controversial term, with scholars specialising in the subject disagreeing as to how best to define it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b79_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b79-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_a_universal_secret_inner_tradition">As a universal secret inner tradition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: As a universal secret inner tradition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Universum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Universum.jpg/220px-Universum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Universum.jpg/330px-Universum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Universum.jpg/440px-Universum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="770" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A colored version of the 1888 <a href="/wiki/Flammarion_engraving" title="Flammarion engraving">Flammarion engraving</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Some scholars have used <i>Western esotericism</i> to refer to "inner traditions" concerned with a "universal spiritual dimension of reality, as opposed to the merely external ('exoteric') religious institutions and dogmatic systems of established religions."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a10–12_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a10–12-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach views Western esotericism as just one variant of a worldwide esotericism at the heart of all world religions and cultures, reflecting a hidden esoteric reality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This use is closest to the original meaning of the word in late antiquity, where it applied to secret spiritual teachings that were reserved for a specific elite and hidden from the masses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a10_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a10-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This definition was popularised in the published work of 19th-century esotericists like <a href="/wiki/A.E._Waite" class="mw-redirect" title="A.E. Waite">A.E. Waite</a>, who sought to combine their own mystical beliefs with a historical interpretation of esotericism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012251_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012251-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It subsequently became a popular approach within several esoteric movements, most notably <a href="/wiki/Martinism" title="Martinism">Martinism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School">Traditionalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013b178_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013b178-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This definition, originally developed by esotericists themselves, became popular among French academics during the 1980s, exerting a strong influence over the scholars <a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Corbin" title="Henry Corbin">Henry Corbin</a>, and the early work of Faivre.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013b178_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013b178-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the academic field of <a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">religious studies</a>, those who study different religions in search of an inner universal dimension to them all are termed "religionists".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such religionist ideas also exerted an influence on more recent scholars like <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Goodrick-Clarke" title="Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke">Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Versluis" title="Arthur Versluis">Arthur Versluis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Versluis for instance defined "Western esotericism" as "inner or hidden spiritual knowledge transmitted through Western European historical currents that in turn feed into North American and other non-European settings".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersluis20071_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersluis20071-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He added that these Western esoteric currents all shared a core characteristic, "a claim to <a href="/wiki/Gnosis" title="Gnosis">gnosis</a>, or direct spiritual insight into cosmology or spiritual insight",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersluis20071_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersluis20071-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and accordingly he suggested that these currents could be referred to as "Western gnostic" just as much as "Western esoteric".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersluis20072_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersluis20072-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are various problems with this model for understanding Western esotericism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11_48-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most significant is that it rests upon the conviction that there really is a "universal, hidden, esoteric dimension of reality" that objectively exists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11_48-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The existence of this universal inner tradition has not been discovered through scientific or scholarly enquiry; this had led some<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (November 2018)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> to claim that it does not exist, though Hanegraaff thought it better to adopt a view based in methodological agnosticism by stating that "we simply do not know—and cannot know" if it exists or not. He noted that, even if such a true and absolute nature of reality really existed, it would only be accessible through "esoteric" spiritual practices, and could not be discovered or measured by the "exoteric" tools of scientific and scholarly enquiry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11–12_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11–12-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hanegraaff pointed out that an approach that seeks a common inner hidden core of all esoteric currents masks that such groups often differ greatly, being rooted in their own historical and social contexts and expressing mutually exclusive ideas and agendas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a12_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a12-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A third issue was that many of those currents widely recognised as esoteric never concealed their teachings, and in the 20th century came to permeate popular culture, thus problematizing the claim that esotericism could be defined by its hidden and secretive nature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996385Von_Stuckrad2005b81_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996385Von_Stuckrad2005b81-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He noted that when scholars adopt this definition, it shows that they subscribe to the religious doctrines espoused by the very groups they are studying.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996385_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996385-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_an_enchanted_world_view">As an enchanted world view</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: As an enchanted world view"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RWS_Tarot_01_Magician.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/RWS_Tarot_01_Magician.jpg/170px-RWS_Tarot_01_Magician.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/RWS_Tarot_01_Magician.jpg/255px-RWS_Tarot_01_Magician.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/RWS_Tarot_01_Magician.jpg/340px-RWS_Tarot_01_Magician.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1108" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Magician_(Tarot)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Magician (Tarot)">The Magician</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Tarot" title="Tarot">tarot</a> card displaying the Hermetic concept of "as above, so below". Faivre connected this concept to 'correspondences', his first defining characteristic of esotericism.</figcaption></figure> <p>Another approach to Western esotericism treats it as a world view that embraces "enchantment" in contrast to world views influenced by post-<a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Cartesian</a>, post-<a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newtonian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivist science</a> that sought to "<a href="/wiki/Disenchantment" title="Disenchantment">dis-enchant</a>" the world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a5_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a5-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That approach understands esotericism as comprising those world views that eschew a belief in instrumental <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a> and instead adopt a belief that all parts of the universe are interrelated without a need for causal chains.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a5_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a5-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It stands as a radical alternative to the disenchanted world views that have dominated Western culture since the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">scientific revolution</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a5_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a5-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and must therefore always be at odds with <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secular</a> culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a7_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a7-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An early exponent of this definition was the historian of Renaissance thought <a href="/wiki/Frances_Yates" title="Frances Yates">Frances Yates</a> in her discussions of a <i>Hermetic Tradition</i>, which she saw as an "enchanted" alternative to established religion and rationalistic science.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a6–7_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a6–7-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary exponent of this view was Faivre, who published a series of criteria for how to define "Western esotericism" in 1992.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a3Bogdan200710Hanegraaff2013a3–4_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a3Bogdan200710Hanegraaff2013a3–4-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Faivre claimed that esotericism was "identifiable by the presence of six fundamental characteristics or components", four of which were "intrinsic" and thus vital to defining something as being esoteric, while the other two were "secondary" and thus not necessarily present in every form of esotericism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199410Von_Stuckrad2005a4Bergunder201014Hanegraaff2013a3_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199410Von_Stuckrad2005a4Bergunder201014Hanegraaff2013a3-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He listed these characteristics as follows: </p> <ol><li>"Correspondences": This is the idea that there are both real and symbolic correspondences existing between all things within the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199410Hanegraaff1996398Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20077_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199410Hanegraaff1996398Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20077-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As examples for this, Faivre pointed to the esoteric concept of the <a href="/wiki/Macrocosm_and_microcosm" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrocosm and microcosm">macrocosm and microcosm</a>, often presented as the dictum of "as above, so below", as well as the astrological idea that the actions of the planets have a direct corresponding influence on the behaviour of human beings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199410–11_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199410–11-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Living Nature": Faivre argued that all esotericists envision the natural universe as being imbued with its own life force, and that as such they understand it as being "complex, plural, hierarchical".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199411Hanegraaff1996398Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20077_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199411Hanegraaff1996398Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20077-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Imagination and Mediations": Faivre believed that all esotericists place great emphasis on both the human <a href="/wiki/Imagination" title="Imagination">imagination</a>, and mediations—"such as rituals, symbolic images, mandalas, intermediary spirits"—and mantras as tools that provide access to worlds and levels of reality existing between the material world and the divine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199412Hanegraaff1996398–399Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20077_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199412Hanegraaff1996398–399Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20077-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Experience of Transmutation": Faivre's fourth intrinsic characteristic of esotericism was the emphasis that esotericists place on fundamentally transforming themselves through their practice, for instance through the spiritual transformation that is alleged to accompany the attainment of <a href="/wiki/Gnosis" title="Gnosis">gnosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199413Hanegraaff1996399–340Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20077_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199413Hanegraaff1996399–340Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20077-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Practice of Concordance": The first of Faivre's secondary characteristics of esotericism was the belief—held by many esotericists, such as those in the <a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School">Traditionalist School</a>—that there is a fundamental unifying principle or root from which all world religions and spiritual practices emerge. The common esoteric principle is that attaining this unifying principle can bring the world's different belief systems together in unity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199414Hanegraaff1996400Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20078_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199414Hanegraaff1996400Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20078-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Transmission": Faivre's second secondary characteristic was the emphasis on the transmission of esoteric teachings and secrets from a master to their disciple, through a process of <a href="/wiki/Initiation" title="Initiation">initiation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199414–15Hanegraaff1996400Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20078_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199414–15Hanegraaff1996400Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20078-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Faivre's form of categorisation has been endorsed by scholars like Goodrick-Clarke,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20087–10_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20087–10-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by 2007 Bogdan could note that Faivre's had become "the standard definition" of Western esotericism in use among scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBogdan200710_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBogdan200710-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2013 the scholar Kennet Granholm stated only that Faivre's definition had been "the dominating paradigm for a long while" and that it "still exerts influence among scholars outside the study of Western esotericism".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGranholm2013b8_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGranholm2013b8-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The advantage of Faivre's system is that it facilitates comparing varying esoteric traditions "with one another in a systematic fashion."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a4_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a4-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other scholars criticised his theory, pointing out various weaknesses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a5Hanegraaff2013a3_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a5Hanegraaff2013a3-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hanegraaff claimed that Faivre's approach entailed "reasoning by prototype" in that it relied upon already having a "best example" of what Western esotericism should look like, against which other phenomena then had to be compared.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a4–5_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a4–5-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scholar of esotericism <a href="/wiki/Kocku_von_Stuckrad" title="Kocku von Stuckrad">Kocku von Stuckrad</a> (born 1966) noted that Faivre's taxonomy was based on his own areas of specialism—Renaissance Hermeticism, Christian Kabbalah, and Protestant Theosophy—and that it was thus not based on a wider understanding of esotericism as it has existed throughout history, from the ancient world to the contemporary period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a5_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a5-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accordingly, Von Stuckrad suggested that it was a good typology for understanding "Christian esotericism in the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>" but lacked utility beyond that.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b83_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b83-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_higher_knowledge">As higher knowledge</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: As higher knowledge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>Somewhat crudely, esotericism can be described as a Western form of spirituality that stresses the importance of the individual effort to gain spiritual knowledge, or <i>gnosis</i>, whereby man is confronted with the divine aspect of existence. </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">— Historian of religion Henrik Bogdan, 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBogdan20075_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBogdan20075-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>As an alternative to Faivre's framework, Kocku von Stuckrad developed his own variant, though he argued that this did not represent a "definition" but rather "a framework of analysis" for scholarly usage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b93_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b93-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He stated that "on the most general level of analysis", esotericism represented "the claim of higher knowledge", a claim to possessing "wisdom that is superior to other interpretations of cosmos and history" that serves as a "master key for answering all questions of humankind."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b88_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b88-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accordingly, he believed that esoteric groups placed a great emphasis on secrecy, not because they were inherently rooted in elite groups but because the idea of concealed secrets that can be revealed was central to their discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b89_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b89-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examining the means of accessing higher knowledge, he highlighted two themes that he believed could be found within esotericism, that of mediation through contact with non-human entities, and individual experience.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b91–92_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b91–92-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accordingly, for Von Stuckrad, esotericism could be best understood as "a structural element of Western culture" rather than as a selection of different schools of thought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b80_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b80-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_rejected_knowledge">As rejected knowledge</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: As rejected knowledge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hanegraaff proposed an additional definition that "Western esotericism" is a category that represents "the academy's dustbin of rejected knowledge."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a13_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a13-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this respect, it contains all of the theories and world views rejected by the mainstream intellectual community because they do not accord with "normative conceptions of religion, rationality and science."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a13_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a13-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His approach is rooted within the field of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_ideas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of ideas">history of ideas</a>, and stresses the role of change and transformation over time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergunder201018_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergunder201018-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Goodrick-Clarke was critical of this approach, believing that it relegated Western esotericism to the position of "a casualty of positivist and materialist perspectives in the nineteenth-century" and thus reinforces the idea that Western esoteric traditions were of little historical importance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20084_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20084-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bogdan similarly expressed concern regarding Hanegraaff's definition, believing that it made the category of Western esotericism "all inclusive" and thus analytically useless.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBogdan200715_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBogdan200715-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Antiquity">Late Antiquity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Late Antiquity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HermesTrismegistusCauc.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/HermesTrismegistusCauc.jpg/170px-HermesTrismegistusCauc.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/HermesTrismegistusCauc.jpg/255px-HermesTrismegistusCauc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/HermesTrismegistusCauc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="407" /></a><figcaption>A later illustration of Hermes Trismegistus</figcaption></figure> <p>The origins of Western esotericism are in the Hellenistic Eastern Mediterranean, then part of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, during <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20083,_15Hanegraaff2013a18_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20083,_15Hanegraaff2013a18-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was a milieu that mixed religious and intellectual traditions from Greece, Egypt, the Levant, Babylon, and Persia—in which <a href="/wiki/Globalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Globalisation">globalisation</a>, urbanisation, and <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multiculturalism</a> were bringing about socio-cultural change.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke200813Hanegraaff2013a18_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke200813Hanegraaff2013a18-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One component of this was Hermeticism, an Egyptian Hellenistic school of thought that takes its name from the legendary Egyptian wise man, <a href="/wiki/Hermes_Trismegistus" title="Hermes Trismegistus">Hermes Trismegistus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersluis200724Goodrick-Clarke200816–20Hanegraaff2013a19_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersluis200724Goodrick-Clarke200816–20Hanegraaff2013a19-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 2nd and 3rd centuries, a number of texts attributed to Hermes Trismegistus appeared, including the <i><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Hermeticum" title="Corpus Hermeticum">Corpus Hermeticum</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Asclepius" title="Asclepius">Asclepius</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Discourse_on_the_Eighth_and_Ninth" title="The Discourse on the Eighth and Ninth">The Discourse on the Eighth and Ninth</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke200816–20Hanegraaff2013a19_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke200816–20Hanegraaff2013a19-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some still debate whether Hermeticism was a purely literary phenomenon or had communities of practitioners who acted on these ideas, but it has been established that these texts discuss the true nature of God, emphasising that humans must transcend rational thought and worldly desires to find <a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">salvation</a> and be reborn into a spiritual body of immaterial light, thereby achieving spiritual unity with divinity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke200816–20Hanegraaff2013a19_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke200816–20Hanegraaff2013a19-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another tradition of esoteric thought in Late Antiquity was Gnosticism. Various Gnostic sects existed, and they broadly believed that the divine light had been imprisoned within the material world by a malevolent entity known as the <a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a>, who was served by demonic helpers, the <a href="/wiki/Archon_(Gnosticism)" title="Archon (Gnosticism)">Archons</a>. It was the Gnostic belief that people, who were imbued with the divine light, should seek to attain gnosis and thus escape from the world of matter and rejoin the divine source.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199453Goodrick-Clarke200827–29Hanegraaff2013a19–20_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199453Goodrick-Clarke200827–29Hanegraaff2013a19–20-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A third form of esotericism in Late Antiquity was <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>, a school of thought influenced by the ideas of the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>. Advocated by such figures as <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a>, Neoplatonism held that the human soul had fallen from its divine origins into the material world, but that it could progress, through a number of hierarchical spheres of being, to return to its divine origins once more.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199452Goodrick-Clarke200820–27_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199452Goodrick-Clarke200820–27-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The later Neoplatonists performed <a href="/wiki/Theurgy" title="Theurgy">theurgy</a>, a ritual practice attested in such sources as the <i><a href="/wiki/Chaldean_Oracles" title="Chaldean Oracles">Chaldean Oracles</a></i>. Scholars are still unsure of precisely what theurgy involved, but know it involved a practice designed to make gods appear, who could then raise the theurgist's mind to the reality of the divine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke200825Hanegraaff2013a20–21_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke200825Hanegraaff2013a20–21-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of Rome">fall of Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and philosophy and other aspects of the tradition were largely preserved in the Arab and Near Eastern world and reintroduced into Western Europe by Jews<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by the cultural contact between Christians and <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> and southern Italy. The 12th century saw the development of the Kabbalah in southern Italy and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Spain">medieval Spain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Medieval_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval period">medieval period</a> also saw the publication of <a href="/wiki/Grimoire" title="Grimoire">grimoires</a>, which offered often elaborate formulas for <a href="/wiki/Theurgy" title="Theurgy">theurgy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thaumaturgy" title="Thaumaturgy">thaumaturgy</a>. Many of the grimoires seem to have kabbalistic influence. Figures in alchemy from this period seem to also have authored or used grimoires. Medieval sects deemed heretical such as the <a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a> were thought to have utilized esoteric concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-Spence_2003_p._425_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spence_2003_p._425-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ceadel_1980_p._96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ceadel_1980_p.-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance_and_Early_Modern_period">Renaissance and Early Modern period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Renaissance and Early Modern period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, a number of European thinkers began to synthesize "<a href="/wiki/Pagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan">pagan</a>" (that is, not Christian) philosophies, which were then being made available through Arabic translations, with Christian thought and the Jewish kabbalah.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a25_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a25-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest of these individuals was the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks" title="Byzantine Greeks">Byzantine</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Plethon" class="mw-redirect" title="Plethon">Plethon</a> (1355/60–1452?), who argued that the <i>Chaldean Oracles</i> represented an example of a superior religion of ancient humanity that had been passed down by the <a href="/wiki/Platonists" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonists">Platonists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a26_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a26-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plethon's ideas interested the ruler of Florence, <a href="/wiki/Cosimo_de%27_Medici" title="Cosimo de' Medici">Cosimo de' Medici</a>, who employed Florentine thinker <a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Marsilio Ficino</a> (1433–1499) to translate Plato's works into Latin. Ficino went on to translate and publish the works of various Platonic figures, arguing that their philosophies were compatible with Christianity, and allowing for the emergence of a wider movement in Renaissance Platonism, or Platonic Orientalism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199458Hanegraaff2013a26–27_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199458Hanegraaff2013a26–27-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ficino also translated part of the <i><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Hermeticum" title="Corpus Hermeticum">Corpus Hermeticum</a></i>, though the rest was translated by his contemporary, <a href="/wiki/Lodovico_Lazzarelli" title="Lodovico Lazzarelli">Lodovico Lazzarelli</a> (1447–1500).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a27_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a27-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another core figure in this intellectual milieu was <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Giovanni Pico della Mirandola</a> (1463–1494), who achieved notability in 1486 by inviting scholars from across Europe to come and debate with him 900 theses that he had written. Pico della Mirandola argued that all of these philosophies reflected a grand universal wisdom. <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_VIII" title="Pope Innocent VIII">Pope Innocent VIII</a> condemned these ideas, criticising him for attempting to mix pagan and Jewish ideas with Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a27–28_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a27–28-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pico della Mirandola's increased interest in Jewish kabbalah led to his development of a distinct form of <a href="/wiki/Christian_Kabbalah" title="Christian Kabbalah">Christian Kabbalah</a>. His work was built on by the German <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Reuchlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Johannes Reuchlin">Johannes Reuchlin</a> (1455–1522) who authored an influential text on the subject, <i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Cabalistica" title="De Arte Cabalistica">De Arte Cabalistica</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a28–29_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a28–29-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Christian Kabbalah was expanded in the work of the German <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Cornelius_Agrippa" title="Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa">Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa</a> (1486–1535/36), who used it as a framework to explore the philosophical and scientific traditions of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Antiquity">Antiquity</a> in his work <i><a href="/wiki/De_occulta_philosophia_libri_tres" class="mw-redirect" title="De occulta philosophia libri tres">De occulta philosophia libri tres</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a29_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a29-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work of Agrippa and other esoteric philosophers had been based in a pre-Copernican worldview, but following the arguments of <a href="/wiki/Copernicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernicus">Copernicus</a>, a more accurate understanding of the cosmos was established. Copernicus' theories were adopted into esoteric strains of thought by <a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a> (1548–1600), whose ideas were deemed <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>, which eventually publicly executed him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a30_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a30-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Square_compasses.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Square_compasses.svg/170px-Square_compasses.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Square_compasses.svg/255px-Square_compasses.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Square_compasses.svg/340px-Square_compasses.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="808" data-file-height="852" /></a><figcaption>The Masonic <a href="/wiki/Square_and_Compasses" title="Square and Compasses">Square and Compasses</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A distinct strain of esoteric thought developed in Germany, where it became known as <i><a href="/wiki/Naturphilosophie" title="Naturphilosophie">Naturphilosophie</a></i>. Though influenced by traditions from <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a> and medieval Kabbalah, it only acknowledged two main sources of authority: <a href="/wiki/Biblical_scripture" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical scripture">Biblical scripture</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">natural world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a31_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a31-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary exponent of this approach was <a href="/wiki/Paracelsus" title="Paracelsus">Paracelsus</a> (1493/94–1541), who took inspiration from alchemy and folk magic to argue against the mainstream medical establishment of his time—which, as in Antiquity, still based its approach on the ideas of the second-century physician and philosopher, <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>, a Greek in the Roman Empire. Instead, Paracelsus urged doctors to learn medicine through an observation of the natural world, though in later work he also began to focus on overtly religious questions. His work gained significant support in both areas over the following centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199461–63Hanegraaff2013a30–31_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199461–63Hanegraaff2013a30–31-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of those influenced by Paracelsus was the German cobbler <a href="/wiki/Jakob_B%C3%B6hme" title="Jakob Böhme">Jakob Böhme</a> (1575–1624), who sparked the <a href="/wiki/Christian_theosophy" title="Christian theosophy">Christian theosophy</a> movement through his attempts to solve the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">problem of evil</a>. Böhme argued that God had been created out of an unfathomable mystery, the <i>Ungrund</i>, and that God himself was composed of a wrathful core, surrounded by the forces of light and love.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199463–64Hanegraaff2013a32_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199463–64Hanegraaff2013a32-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though condemned by Germany's <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a> authorities, Böhme's ideas spread and formed the basis for a number of small religious communities, such as <a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Gichtel" title="Johann Georg Gichtel">Johann Georg Gichtel</a>'s Angelic Brethren in <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Pordage" title="John Pordage">John Pordage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jane_Leade" class="mw-redirect" title="Jane Leade">Jane Leade</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Philadelphian_Society" title="Philadelphian Society">Philadelphian Society</a> in England.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a32–33_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a32–33-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1614 to 1616, the three <i><a href="/wiki/Rosicrucian_Manifestos" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosicrucian Manifestos">Rosicrucian Manifestos</a></i> were published in Germany. These texts purported to represent a secret, initiatory brotherhood founded centuries before by a German adept named <a href="/wiki/Christian_Rosenkreutz" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Rosenkreutz">Christian Rosenkreutz</a>. There is no evidence that Rosenkreutz was a genuine historical figure, nor that a <a href="/wiki/Rosicrucian_Order" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosicrucian Order">Rosicrucian Order</a> had ever existed before then. Instead, the <a href="/wiki/Manifestos" class="mw-redirect" title="Manifestos">manifestos</a> are likely literary creations of Lutheran theologian <a href="/wiki/Johann_Valentin_Andreae" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Valentin Andreae">Johann Valentin Andreae</a> (1586–1654). They interested the public, so several people described themselves as "Rosicrucian", claiming access to secret esoteric knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199464–66Hanegraaff2013a33–34_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199464–66Hanegraaff2013a33–34-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A real initiatory brotherhood was established in late 16th-century Scotland through the transformation of Medieval stonemason guilds to include non-craftsmen: <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasonry</a>. Soon spreading into other parts of Europe, in England it largely rejected its esoteric character and embraced humanism and rationalism, while in France it embraced new esoteric concepts, particularly those from Christian theosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a35–36_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a35–36-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="18th,_19th_and_early_20th_centuries"><span id="18th.2C_19th_and_early_20th_centuries"></span>18th, 19th and early 20th centuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Esotericism_in_Germany_and_Austria" title="Esotericism in Germany and Austria">Esotericism in Germany and Austria</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expert_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs attention from an expert in Religion</b>. The specific problem is: <b>the section should possibly be split by century, and is lacking focus.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Religion" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Religion">WikiProject Religion</a> may be able to help recruit an expert.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hypnotic_S%C3%A9ance_(Richard_Bergh)_-_Nationalmuseum_-_18855.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Hypnotic_S%C3%A9ance_%28Richard_Bergh%29_-_Nationalmuseum_-_18855.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Hypnotic_S%C3%A9ance_%28Richard_Bergh%29_-_Nationalmuseum_-_18855.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Hypnotic_S%C3%A9ance_%28Richard_Bergh%29_-_Nationalmuseum_-_18855.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Hypnotic_S%C3%A9ance_%28Richard_Bergh%29_-_Nationalmuseum_-_18855.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Hypnotic_S%C3%A9ance_%28Richard_Bergh%29_-_Nationalmuseum_-_18855.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Hypnotic_S%C3%A9ance_%28Richard_Bergh%29_-_Nationalmuseum_-_18855.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3537" data-file-height="2793" /></a><figcaption><i>Hypnotic séance</i>. Painting by Swedish artist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Bergh" title="Richard Bergh">Richard Bergh</a>, 1887</figcaption></figure> <p>The Age of Enlightenment witnessed a process of increasing secularisation of European governments and an embrace of modern science and rationality within intellectual circles. In turn, a "modernist occult" emerged that reflected varied ways esoteric thinkers came to terms with these developments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a36_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a36-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the esotericists of this period was the Swedish naturalist <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a> (1688–1772), who attempted to reconcile science and religion after experiencing a vision of <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus Christ</a>. His writings focused on his visionary travels to heaven and hell and his communications with angels, claiming that the visible, materialist world parallels an invisible spiritual world, with correspondences between the two that do not reflect causal relations. Following his death, followers founded the Swedenborgian <a href="/wiki/The_New_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="The New Church">New Church</a>—though his writings influenced a wider array of esoteric philosophies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199472Hanegraaff2013a37_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199472Hanegraaff2013a37-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another major figure within the esoteric movement of this period was the German physician <a href="/wiki/Franz_Anton_Mesmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Franz Anton Mesmer">Franz Anton Mesmer</a> (1734–1814), who developed the theory of <i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Magnetism" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal Magnetism">Animal Magnetism</a></i>, which later became known more commonly as <i>Mesmerism</i>. Mesmer claimed that a universal life force permeated everything, including the human body, and that illnesses were caused by a disturbance or block in this force's flow; he developed techniques he claimed cleansed such blockages and restored the patient to full health.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199476–77Hanegraaff2013a37–38_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199476–77Hanegraaff2013a37–38-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of Mesmer's followers, the <a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Puys%C3%A9gur" class="mw-redirect" title="Marquis de Puységur">Marquis de Puységur</a>, discovered that mesmeric treatment could induce a state of <a href="/wiki/Somnambulism" class="mw-redirect" title="Somnambulism">somnumbulic</a> trance in which they claimed to enter visionary states and communicate with spirit beings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a38_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a38-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These somnambulic trance-states heavily influenced the esoteric religion of <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a>, which emerged in the United States in the 1840s and spread throughout North America and Europe. Spiritualism was based on the concept that individuals could communicate with spirits of the deceased during <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ances" class="mw-redirect" title="Séances">séances</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199487Hanegraaff2013a38_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199487Hanegraaff2013a38-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most forms of Spiritualism had little theoretical depth, being largely practical affairs—but full theological worldviews based on the movement were articulated by <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_Davis" title="Andrew Jackson Davis">Andrew Jackson Davis</a> (1826–1910) and <a href="/wiki/Allan_Kardec" title="Allan Kardec">Allan Kardec</a> (1804–1869).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a38_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a38-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientific interest in the claims of Spiritualism resulted in the development of the field of <a href="/wiki/Psychical_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychical research">psychical research</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a38_114-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a38-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Somnambulism also exerted a strong influence on the early disciplines of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatry</a>; esoteric ideas pervade the work of many early figures in this field, most notably <a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Jung" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Gustav Jung">Carl Gustav Jung</a>—though with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Behaviourism" class="mw-redirect" title="Behaviourism">behaviourism</a> in the 20th century, these disciplines distanced themselves from esotericism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a38–39_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a38–39-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also influenced by artificial somnambulism was the religion of <a href="/wiki/New_Thought" title="New Thought">New Thought</a>, founded by the American mesmerist <a href="/wiki/Phineas_P._Quimby" class="mw-redirect" title="Phineas P. Quimby">Phineas P. Quimby</a> (1802–1866). It revolved around the concept of "<a href="/wiki/Mind_over_matter" title="Mind over matter">mind over matter</a>"—believing that illness and other negative conditions could be cured through the power of belief.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a39_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a39-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pentagram_(Levi).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Pentagram_%28Levi%29.jpg/170px-Pentagram_%28Levi%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Pentagram_%28Levi%29.jpg/255px-Pentagram_%28Levi%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Pentagram_%28Levi%29.jpg/340px-Pentagram_%28Levi%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="612" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pentagram" title="Pentagram">Pentagram</a> of Éliphas Lévi</figcaption></figure> <p>In Europe, a movement usually termed <i><a href="/wiki/Occultism" class="mw-redirect" title="Occultism">occultism</a></i> emerged as various figures attempted to find a "third way" between Christianity and positivist science while building on the ancient, medieval, and Renaissance traditions of esoteric thought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a39_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a39-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In France, following the social upheaval of the <a href="/wiki/1789_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1789 Revolution">1789 Revolution</a>, various figures emerged in this occultist milieu who were heavily influenced by traditional Catholicism, the most notable of whom were <a href="/wiki/%C3%89liphas_L%C3%A9vi" title="Éliphas Lévi">Éliphas Lévi</a> (1810–1875) and <a href="/wiki/Papus" class="mw-redirect" title="Papus">Papus</a> (1865–1916).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrube2016aHanegraaff2013a_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrube2016aHanegraaff2013a-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also significant was <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a> (1886–1951), whose concern with tradition led him to develop an occult viewpoint termed <a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School">Traditionalism</a>; it espoused the idea of an original, universal tradition, and thus a rejection of <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a40_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a40-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His Traditionalist ideas strongly influenced later esotericists like <a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Julius Evola</a> (1898–1974), founder of the <a href="/wiki/UR_Group" title="UR Group">UR Group</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a> (1907–1998).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a40_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a40-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Anglophone world, the burgeoning occult movement owed more to <a href="/wiki/Libertine" title="Libertine">Enlightenment libertines</a>, and thus was more often of an anti-Christian bent that saw wisdom as emanating from the pre-Christian pagan religions of Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a40_119-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a40-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various Spiritualist mediums came to be disillusioned with the esoteric thought available, and sought inspiration in pre-Swedenborgian currents, including <a href="/wiki/Emma_Hardinge_Britten" title="Emma Hardinge Britten">Emma Hardinge Britten</a> (1823–1899) and <a href="/wiki/Helena_Blavatsky" title="Helena Blavatsky">Helena Blavatsky</a> (1831–1891), the latter of whom called for the revival of the "occult science" of the ancients, which could be found in both the East and West. Authoring the influential <i><a href="/wiki/Isis_Unveiled" title="Isis Unveiled">Isis Unveiled</a></i> (1877) and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Secret_Doctrine" title="The Secret Doctrine">The Secret Doctrine</a></i> (1888),<sup id="cite_ref-Blavatsky_Secret_Doctrine_plagiarism_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blavatsky_Secret_Doctrine_plagiarism-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> she co-founded the <a href="/wiki/Theosophical_Society" title="Theosophical Society">Theosophical Society</a> in 1875.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199493–94Hanegraaff2013a40–41_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199493–94Hanegraaff2013a40–41-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequent leaders of the Society, namely <a href="/wiki/Annie_Besant" title="Annie Besant">Annie Besant</a> (1847–1933) and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Webster_Leadbeater" title="Charles Webster Leadbeater">Charles Webster Leadbeater</a> (1854–1934) interpreted modern theosophy as a form of ecumenical esoteric Christianity, resulting in their proclamation of Indian <a href="/wiki/Jiddu_Krishnamurti" title="Jiddu Krishnamurti">Jiddu Krishnamurti</a> (1895–1986) as world messiah.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a41_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a41-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In rejection of this was the breakaway <a href="/wiki/Anthroposophical_Society" title="Anthroposophical Society">Anthroposophical Society</a> founded by <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a> (1861–1925).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a41_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a41-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Maria Carlson, ""Both turned out to be 'positivistic religions,' offering a seemingly logical theology based on pseudoscience."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarlson2015136_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarlson2015136-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rudolf_Steiner_occult_science_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rudolf_Steiner_occult_science-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another form of esoteric Christianity is the <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual science">spiritual science</a> of the Danish mystic <a href="/wiki/Martinus_Thomsen" title="Martinus Thomsen">Martinus</a> (1890-1981) who is popular in Scandinavia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETherkelsen20167_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETherkelsen20167-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>New esoteric understandings of magic also developed in the latter part of the 19th century. One of the pioneers of this was American <a href="/wiki/Paschal_Beverly_Randolph" title="Paschal Beverly Randolph">Paschal Beverly Randolph</a> (1825–1875), who argued that sexual energy and psychoactive drugs could be used for magical purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a41_123-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a41-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In England,<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn" title="Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn">Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn</a>—an initiatory order devoted to magic based on kabbalah—was founded in the latter years of the century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199491Hanegraaff2013a41_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199491Hanegraaff2013a41-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the members of that order was <a href="/wiki/Aleister_Crowley" title="Aleister Crowley">Aleister Crowley</a> (1875–1947), who went on to proclaim the religion of <a href="/wiki/Thelema" title="Thelema">Thelema</a> and become a member of <a href="/wiki/Ordo_Templi_Orientis" title="Ordo Templi Orientis">Ordo Templi Orientis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a41–42_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a41–42-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of their contemporaries developed esoteric schools of thought that did not entail magic, namely the Greco-Armenian teacher <a href="/wiki/George_Gurdjieff" title="George Gurdjieff">George Gurdjieff</a> (1866–1949) and his Russian pupil <a href="/wiki/P.D._Ouspensky" class="mw-redirect" title="P.D. Ouspensky">P.D. Ouspensky</a> (1878–1947).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a42_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a42-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Emergent occult and esoteric systems found increasing popularity in the early 20th century, especially in Western Europe. Occult lodges and secret societies flowered among European intellectuals of this era who had largely abandoned traditional forms of Christianity. The spreading of secret teachings and magical practices found enthusiastic adherents in the chaos of Germany during the interwar years. Notable writers such as <a href="/wiki/Guido_von_List" title="Guido von List">Guido von List</a> spread neo-pagan, nationalist ideas, based on <a href="/wiki/Wotan" class="mw-redirect" title="Wotan">Wotanism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a>. Many influential and wealthy Germans were drawn to secret societies such as the <a href="/wiki/Thule_Society" title="Thule Society">Thule Society</a>. Thule Society activist <a href="/wiki/Karl_Harrer" title="Karl Harrer">Karl Harrer</a> was one of the founders of the <a href="/wiki/German_Workers%27_Party" title="German Workers' Party">German Workers' Party</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-gilbhard_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gilbhard-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which later became the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a>; some Nazi Party members like <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Alfred Rosenberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess">Rudolf Hess</a> were listed as "guests" of the Thule Society, as was <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>'s mentor <a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Eckart" title="Dietrich Eckart">Dietrich Eckart</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After their rise to power, the Nazis persecuted occultists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreitel2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidVG7e-LnLhEcCpgPA220_220]_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreitel2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidVG7e-LnLhEcCpgPA220_220]-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While many Nazi Party leaders like Hitler and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Joseph Goebbels</a> were hostile to occultism, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a> used <a href="/wiki/Karl_Maria_Wiligut" title="Karl Maria Wiligut">Karl Maria Wiligut</a> as a clairvoyant "and was regularly consulting for help in setting up the symbolic and ceremonial aspects of the SS" but not for important political decisions. By 1939, Wiligut was "forcibly retired from the SS" due to being institutionalised for insanity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreitel2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidVG7e-LnLhEcCpgPA215_215ff]_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreitel2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidVG7e-LnLhEcCpgPA215_215ff]-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, the German hermetic magic order <a href="/wiki/Fraternitas_Saturni" title="Fraternitas Saturni">Fraternitas Saturni</a> was founded on Easter 1928 and it is one of the oldest continuously running magical groups in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1936, the Fraternitas Saturni was prohibited by the <a href="/wiki/Nazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> regime. The leaders of the lodge emigrated to avoid imprisonment, but in the course of the war <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Grosche" title="Eugen Grosche">Eugen Grosche</a>, one of their main leaders, was arrested for a year by the Nazi government. After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> they reformed the Fraternitas Saturni.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_20th_century">Later 20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Later 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Horned_God.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Horned_God.JPG/170px-Horned_God.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Horned_God.JPG/255px-Horned_God.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Horned_God.JPG/340px-Horned_God.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>Sculpture of the <a href="/wiki/Horned_God" title="Horned God">Horned God</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a> found in the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Witchcraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of Witchcraft">Museum of Witchcraft</a> in <a href="/wiki/Boscastle" title="Boscastle">Boscastle</a>, Cornwall</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 1960s and 1970s, esotericism came to be increasingly associated with the <a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">growing counter-culture in the West</a>, whose adherents understood themselves in participating in a spiritual revolution that marked the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Aquarius" title="Age of Aquarius">Age of Aquarius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a43_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a43-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 1980s, these millenarian currents had come to be widely known as the <a href="/wiki/New_Age_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="New Age movement">New Age movement</a>, and it became increasingly commercialised as business entrepreneurs exploited a growth in the spiritual market.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a43_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a43-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, other forms of esoteric thought retained the anti-commercial and counter-cultural sentiment of the 1960s and 1970s, namely the <a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">techno-shamanic movement</a> promoted by figures such as <a href="/wiki/Terence_McKenna" title="Terence McKenna">Terence McKenna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Pinchbeck" title="Daniel Pinchbeck">Daniel Pinchbeck</a>, which built on the work of anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Castaneda" title="Carlos Castaneda">Carlos Castaneda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a43_137-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a43-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This trend was accompanied by the increased growth of <a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">modern paganism</a>, a movement initially dominated by <a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a>, the religion propagated by <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Gardner" title="Gerald Gardner">Gerald Gardner</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a44_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a44-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wicca was adopted by members of the second-wave feminist movement, most notably <a href="/wiki/Starhawk" title="Starhawk">Starhawk</a>, and developing into the <a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Goddess movement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a44_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a44-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wicca also greatly influenced the development of Pagan <a href="/wiki/Neo-druidry" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-druidry">neo-druidry</a> and other forms of Celtic revivalism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a44_138-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a44-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to Wicca there has also appeared literature and groups who label themselves followers of <a href="/wiki/Neopagan_witchcraft" title="Neopagan witchcraft">traditional witchcraft</a> in opposition to the growing visibility of Wicca and these claim older roots than the system proposed by Gardner.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other trends that emerged in western occultism in the later 20th century included <a href="/wiki/Satanism" title="Satanism">satanism</a>, as exposed by groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Satan" title="Church of Satan">Church of Satan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Set" title="Temple of Set">Temple of Set</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as <a href="/wiki/Chaos_magic" title="Chaos magic">chaos magick</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Illuminates_of_Thanateros" title="Illuminates of Thanateros">Illuminates of Thanateros</a> group.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrury2011251_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrury2011251-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, since the start of the 1990s, countries inside of the former <a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a> have undergone a radiative and varied religious revival, with a large number of occult and new religious movements gaining popularity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurti2001_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurti2001-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Gnostic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Gnostic">Gnostic revivalists</a>, New Age organizations, and <a href="/wiki/Free_Zone_(Scientology)" title="Free Zone (Scientology)">Scientology splinter groups</a><sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have found their way into much of the former <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Soviet bloc</a> since the cultural and political shift resulting from the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the USSR</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Hungary, a significant number of citizens (relative to the size of the country's <a href="/wiki/Population_of_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Population of Hungary">population</a> and compared to its neighbors) practice or adhere to new currents of Western Esotericism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurti2001_143-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurti2001-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In April 1997, the Fifth Esoteric Spiritual Forum was held for two days in the country and was attended <a href="/wiki/Seating_capacity" title="Seating capacity">at-capacity</a>; In August of the same year, the International Shaman Expo began, being broadcast on live TV and ultimately taking place for two months wherein various <a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">neo-Shamanist</a>, Millenarian, <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mystic</a>, neo-Pagan, and even <a href="/wiki/UFO_religion" title="UFO religion">UFO religion</a> congregations and figures were among the attendees.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurti2001_143-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurti2001-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_study">Academic study</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Academic study"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Academic_study_of_Western_esotericism" title="Academic study of Western esotericism">Academic study of Western esotericism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Warburg_Institute_from_Woburn_Square.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Warburg_Institute_from_Woburn_Square.jpg/220px-Warburg_Institute_from_Woburn_Square.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Warburg_Institute_from_Woburn_Square.jpg/330px-Warburg_Institute_from_Woburn_Square.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Warburg_Institute_from_Woburn_Square.jpg/440px-Warburg_Institute_from_Woburn_Square.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1264" data-file-height="752" /></a><figcaption>London's Warburg Institute was one of the first centres to encourage the academic study of Western esotericism.</figcaption></figure> <p>The academic study of Western esotericism was pioneered in the early 20th century by historians of the ancient world and the European Renaissance, who came to recognise that—even though previous scholarship had ignored it—the effect of pre-Christian and non-rational schools of thought on European society and culture was worthy of academic attention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20084_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20084-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the key centres for this was the <a href="/wiki/Warburg_Institute" title="Warburg Institute">Warburg Institute</a> in London, where scholars like <a href="/wiki/Frances_Yates" title="Frances Yates">Frances Yates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Wind" title="Edgar Wind">Edgar Wind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/D._P._Walker" title="D. P. Walker">D. P. Walker</a> began arguing that esoteric thought had had a greater effect on Renaissance culture than had been previously accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20084–5_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20084–5-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work of Yates in particular, most notably her 1964 book <i><a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno_and_the_Hermetic_Tradition" title="Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition">Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition</a></i>, has been cited as "an important starting-point for modern scholarship on esotericism", succeeding "at one fell swoop in bringing scholarship onto a new track" by bringing wider awareness of the effect that esoteric ideas had on modern science.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a3_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a3-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1965, at the instigation of the scholar <a href="/wiki/Henry_Corbin" title="Henry Corbin">Henry Corbin</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_pratique_des_hautes_%C3%A9tudes" title="École pratique des hautes études">École pratique des hautes études</a> in the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">Sorbonne</a> established the world's first academic post in the study of esotericism, with a chair in the History of Christian Esotericism. Its first holder was François Secret, a specialist in the Christian Kabbalah, though he had little interest in developing the wider study of esotericism as a field of research.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994ixVon_Stuckrad2005a3Von_Stuckrad2005b81Bergunder201011_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994ixVon_Stuckrad2005a3Von_Stuckrad2005b81Bergunder201011-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1979 Faivre assumed Secret's chair at the Sorbonne, which was renamed the "History of Esoteric and Mystical Currents in Modern and Contemporary Europe".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994xVon_Stuckrad2005a3Von_Stuckrad2005b81Bergunder201012_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994xVon_Stuckrad2005a3Von_Stuckrad2005b81Bergunder201012-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Faivre has since been cited as being responsible for developing the study of Western esotericism into a formalised field,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersluis20076Goodrick-Clarke20085_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersluis20076Goodrick-Clarke20085-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with his 1992 work <i>L'ésotérisme</i> having been cited as marking "the beginning of the study of Western esotericism as an academic field of research".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013b179_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013b179-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He remained in the chair until 2002, when he was succeeded by Jean-Pierre Brach.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a3_147-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a3-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Faivre noted two significant obstacles to establishing the field. One was an ingrained prejudice toward esotericism within academia, resulting in the widespread perception that the history of esotericism was not worthy of academic research.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994ix_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994ix-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The other was esotericism's status as a trans-disciplinary field, the study of which did not fit clearly within any particular discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994ixVersluis20076_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994ixVersluis20076-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Hanegraaff noted, Western esotericism had to be studied as a separate field to religion, philosophy, science, and the arts, because while it "participates in all these fields" it does not squarely fit into any of them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a1–2_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a1–2-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elsewhere, he noted that there was "probably no other domain in the humanities that has been so seriously neglected" as Western esotericism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013b198_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013b198-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1980, the U.S.-based Hermetic Academy was founded by <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._McDermott" title="Robert A. McDermott">Robert A. McDermott</a> as an outlet for American scholars interested in Western esotericism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994xFaivreVoss199559_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994xFaivreVoss199559-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1986 to 1990 members of the Hermetic Academy participated in panels at the annual meeting of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Religion" title="American Academy of Religion">American Academy of Religion</a> under the rubric of the "Esotericism and Perennialism Group".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994xFaivreVoss199559_156-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994xFaivreVoss199559-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1994, Faivre could comment that the academic study of Western esotericism had taken off in France, Italy, England, and the United States, but he lamented that it had not done so in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994ix_152-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994ix-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1999, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Amsterdam" title="University of Amsterdam">University of Amsterdam</a> established a chair in the <i>History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents</i>, which was occupied by Hanegraaff,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a3Von_Stuckrad2005b81Bergunder201012–13_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a3Von_Stuckrad2005b81Bergunder201012–13-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while in 2005 the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Exeter" title="University of Exeter">University of Exeter</a> created a chair in <i>Western Esotericism</i>, which was taken by Goodrick-Clarke, who headed the Exeter Center for the Study of Esotericism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a3Versluis20077_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a3Versluis20077-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, by 2008 there were three dedicated university chairs in the subject, with Amsterdam and Exeter also offering master's degree programs in it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20083_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20083-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several conferences on the subject were held at the quintennial meetings of the International Association for the History of Religions,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b81_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b81-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while a peer-reviewed journal, <i><a href="/wiki/Aries_(journal)" title="Aries (journal)">Aries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism</a></i> began publication in 2001.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b81_160-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b81-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 2001 also saw the foundation of the North American Association for the Study of Esotericism (ASE), with the <a href="/wiki/European_Society_for_the_Study_of_Western_Esotericism" title="European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism">European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism</a> (ESSWE) being established shortly after.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersluis20076_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersluis20076-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within a few years, Michael Bergunder expressed the view that it had become an established field within religious studies,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergunder20109_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergunder20109-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with Asprem and Granholm observing that scholars within other sub-disciplines of religious studies had begun to take an interest in the work of scholars of esotericism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAspremGranholm20131_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAspremGranholm20131-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Asprem and Granholm noted that the study of esotericism had been dominated by historians and thus lacked the perspective of <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social scientists</a> examining contemporary forms of esotericism, a situation that they were attempting to correct through building links with scholars operating in <a href="/wiki/Pagan_studies" title="Pagan studies">Pagan studies</a> and the study of new religious movements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAspremGranholm20133–4_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAspremGranholm20133–4-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the basis that "English culture and literature have been traditional strongholds of Western esotericism", in 2011 Pia Brînzeu and György Szönyi urged that <a href="/wiki/English_studies" title="English studies">English studies</a> also have a role in this interdisciplinary field.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrînzeuSzönyi2011184_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrînzeuSzönyi2011184-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In September 2024, the University of Exeter began offering a Masters of Arts degree in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/study/postgraduate/courses/arabislamic/magic-occult-science/#main-col">Magic and Occult Science</a> at the Centre for Magic and Esotericism that explores topics related to the history of magic, occult, and esoteric literatures. Research topics include witchcraft, Western Esotericism, Occult texts in Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, European folklore, magic in Greece and Rome, and the history of science and medicine. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emic_and_etic_divisions">Emic and etic divisions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Emic and etic divisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">Emic and etic</a> refer to two kinds of field research done and viewpoints obtained, emic, from within the social group (from the perspective of the subject) and etic, from outside (from the perspective of the observer). <a href="/wiki/Wouter_Hanegraaff" title="Wouter Hanegraaff">Wouter Hanegraaff</a> follows a distinction between an emic and an etic approach to religious studies. </p><p>The emic approach is that of the alchemist or theosopher. The etic approach is that of the scholar as an historian, a researcher, with a critical view. An empirical study of esotericism needs "emic material and etic interpretation": </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Emic denotes the believer's point of view. On the part of the researcher, the reconstruction of this emic perspective requires an attitude of empathy which excludes personal biases as far as possible. Scholarly discourse about religion, on the other hand, is not emic but etic. Scholars may introduce their own terminology and make theoretical distinctions which are different from those of the believers themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff19966_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff19966-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Versluis" title="Arthur Versluis">Arthur Versluis</a> proposes approaching esotericism through an "imaginative participation": </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Esotericism, given all its varied forms and its inherently multidimensional nature, cannot be conveyed without going beyond purely historical information: at minimum, the study of esotericism, and in particular mysticism, requires some degree of imaginative participation in what one is studying.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Many scholars of esotericism have come to be regarded as respected intellectual authorities by practitioners of various esoteric traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAspremGranholm2013b44_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAspremGranholm2013b44-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many esotericism scholars have sought to emphasise that esotericism is not a single object, but practitioners who read this scholarship have begun to regard it and think of it as a singular object, with which they affiliate themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAspremGranholm2013b43–44_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAspremGranholm2013b43–44-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, Asprem and Granholm noted that the use of the term "esotericism" among scholars "significantly contributes to the reification of the category for the general audience—<i>despite</i> the explicated contrary intentions of most scholars in the field."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAspremGranholm2013b45_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAspremGranholm2013b45-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2013, Asprem and Granholm highlighted that "contemporary esotericism is intimately, and increasingly, connected with popular culture and new media."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAspremGranholm20136_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAspremGranholm20136-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Granholm noted that esoteric ideas and images appear in many aspects of Western popular media, citing such examples as <i><a href="/wiki/Buffy_the_Vampire_Slayer" title="Buffy the Vampire Slayer">Buffy the Vampire Slayer</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Avatar_(2009_film)" title="Avatar (2009 film)">Avatar</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Hellblazer" title="Hellblazer">Hellblazer</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/His_Dark_Materials" title="His Dark Materials">His Dark Materials</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGranholm2013a31_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGranholm2013a31-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Granholm has argued that there are problems with the field in that it draws a distinction between esotericism and non-esoteric elements of culture that draw upon esotericism. He cites <a href="/wiki/Extreme_metal" title="Extreme metal">extreme metal</a> as an example, noting that it is extremely difficult to differentiate between artists who were "properly occult" and those who superficially referenced occult themes and aesthetics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGranholm2013b8–9_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGranholm2013b8–9-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Writers interested in occult themes have adopted three different strategies for dealing with the subject: those who are knowledgeable on the subject including attractive images of the occult and occultists in their work, those who disguise occultism within "a web of intertextuality", and those who oppose it and seek to deconstruct it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrînzeuSzönyi2011185_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrînzeuSzönyi2011185-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_magic" title="Black magic">Black magic</a> – Magic used for evil and selfish purposes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_magic" title="Ceremonial magic">Ceremonial magic</a> – Variety of rituals of magic</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_esotericism" title="Eastern esotericism">Eastern esotericism</a> – Esoteric beliefs in the Eastern world</li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Qaballa" title="English Qaballa">English Qaballa</a> – English Qaballa system of James Lees</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_organization" title="Magical organization">Magical organization</a> – Organization for the practice of occult magic</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_European_magic" title="Medieval European magic">Medieval European magic</a> – Magic as understood during the Middle Ages</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Inquisition" title="Medieval Inquisition">Medieval Inquisition</a> – System of tribunals enforcing Catholic orthodoxy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Western_esotericism" title="Outline of Western esotericism">Outline of Western esotericism</a> – Overview and topical guide to Western esotericism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_magic" title="Renaissance magic">Renaissance magic</a> – Magical science during the Renaissance</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_magic" title="White magic">White magic</a> – Magic used for selfless purposes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Witch trials in the early modern period">Witch trials in the early modern period</a> – Prosecutions for witchcraft in Europe</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Blavatsky_Secret_Doctrine_plagiarism-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blavatsky_Secret_Doctrine_plagiarism_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to critics, Blavatsky's <a href="/wiki/The_Secret_Doctrine" title="The Secret Doctrine">The Secret Doctrine</a> was a work full of plagiarism, based on religious, contemporary scientific, and pseudoscientific works: <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFSedgwick2004">Sedgwick 2004</a>, p. 44</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._Sprague_de_Camp" title="L. Sprague de Camp">L. Sprague de Camp</a>. (1970). <i><a href="/wiki/Lost_Continents" title="Lost Continents">Lost Continents</a></i>. Dover Publications. p. 57. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-22668-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-22668-9">0-486-22668-9</a>: "The Secret Doctrine, alas, is neither so ancient, so erudite, nor so authentic as it pretends to be. When it appeared, an elderly Californian scholar named William Emmette Coleman, outraged by Mme. Blavatsky's false pretensions to oriental learning, made an exegesis of her works. He showed that her main sources were H. H. Wilson's translation of the ancient Indian <i>Vishnu Purana</i>; Alexander Winchell's World Life; or, Comparative Geology; Donnelly's Atlantis; and other contemporary scientific, pseudo-scientific, and occult works, plagiarized without credit and used in a blundering manner that showed but skin-deep acquaintance with the subjects under discussion."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._Sprague_de_Camp" title="L. Sprague de Camp">L. Sprague de Camp</a>. (1983). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Fringe_of_the_Unknown" title="The Fringe of the Unknown">The Fringe of the Unknown</a></i>. Prometheus Books. p. 193. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87975-217-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-87975-217-3">0-87975-217-3</a>: "Three years later, she published her chef d'oeuvre, <i>The Secret Doctrine</i>, in which her credo took permanent, if wildly confused, shape. This work, in six volumes, is a mass of plagiarism and fakery, based upon contemporary scientific, pseudoscientific, mythological, and occult works, cribbed without credit and used in a blundering way that showed only skin-deep acquaintance with the subjects discussed."</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-Rudolf_Steiner_occult_science-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rudolf_Steiner_occult_science_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to critics, Steiner's work reveal his acquaintance with scholarly methodology and philosophy, but these are overtaken by unverifiable claims based on "direct spiritual perception" and "occult research": <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Oppenheimer, Todd (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WrTQtLgxZeQC&pg=PA384"><i>The Flickering Mind: Saving Education from the False Promise of Technology</i></a>. Random House Publishing Group. p. 384. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-43221-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-43221-6"><bdi>978-0-307-43221-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Flickering+Mind%3A+Saving+Education+from+the+False+Promise+of+Technology&rft.pages=384&rft.pub=Random+House+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-307-43221-6&rft.aulast=Oppenheimer&rft.aufirst=Todd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWrTQtLgxZeQC%26pg%3DPA384&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span>: "In Dugan's view, Steiner's theories are simply "cult pseudoscience"."</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Pattberg, Thorsten J. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nbh_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA125"><i>Shengren: Above Philosophy and Beyond Religion</i></a>. LoD Press, New York. p. 125<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shengren%3A+Above+Philosophy+and+Beyond+Religion&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=LoD+Press%2C+New+York&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Pattberg&rft.aufirst=Thorsten+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNbh_EAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span>: "Worse, he couldn't be a real <i>philosopher</i> either; his theosophy and anthroposophy and the Waldorf humanism in particular were considered pseudoscience or at best pedagogy, not a philosophical system. Steiner's credentials were not university-level professional work. [...] German mainstream scholarship called him an 'autodidact, with a poor teacher' and 'gypsy-intellectual.'"</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Staudenmaier, Peter (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nDJnAwAAQBAJ"><i>Between Occultism and Nazism: Anthroposophy and the Politics of Race in the Fascist Era</i></a>. Aries Book Series. Brill. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-27015-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-27015-2"><bdi>978-90-04-27015-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Occultism+and+Nazism%3A+Anthroposophy+and+the+Politics+of+Race+in+the+Fascist+Era&rft.series=Aries+Book+Series&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-90-04-27015-2&rft.aulast=Staudenmaier&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnDJnAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span>: "In Steiner's view, "ordinary history" was "limited to external evidence" and hence no match for "direct spiritual perception."<sup>22</sup> "Indeed for anthroposophists, "conventional history" constitutes "a positive hindrance to occult research."<sup>23</sup></li></ul> </span></li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morris, Brian. <i>Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 298.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-z948-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-z948_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaier2021" class="citation book cs1">Baier, Karl (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yo0kEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA237">"Esotericism"</a>. In Segal, Robert A.; Roubekas, Nickolas P. (eds.). <i>The Wiley Blackwell Companion to the Study of Religion</i>. Wiley Blackwell Companions to Religion. Wiley. p. 237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-09278-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-119-09278-0"><bdi>978-1-119-09278-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Esotericism&rft.btitle=The+Wiley+Blackwell+Companion+to+the+Study+of+Religion&rft.series=Wiley+Blackwell+Companions+to+Religion&rft.pages=237&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-119-09278-0&rft.aulast=Baier&rft.aufirst=Karl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dyo0kEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GLENYS-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GLENYS_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEddy2008" class="citation journal cs1">Eddy, Glenys (19 September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/29769920">"The Ritual Dimension of Western Esotericism: The Rebirth Motif and the Transformation of Human Consciousness"</a>. <i>Sydney Studies in Religion</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221025223037/https://www.academia.edu/29769920">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sydney+Studies+in+Religion&rft.atitle=The+Ritual+Dimension+of+Western+Esotericism%3A+The+Rebirth+Motif+and+the+Transformation+of+Human+Consciousness&rft.date=2008-09-19&rft.aulast=Eddy&rft.aufirst=Glenys&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F29769920&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 3, "What is Western esotericism?". "The adjective 'esoteric' first appeared in the second century CE [...]."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b80Hanegraaff2013a3-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b80Hanegraaff2013a3_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005b">Von Stuckrad 2005b</a>, p. 80; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrube2023" class="citation journal cs1">Strube, Julian (2023-07-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/105147754">"The Emergence of "Esoteric" as a Comparative Category"</a>. <i>Implicit Religion</i>. <b>24</b> (3–4): 353–383. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1558%2Fimre.23260">10.1558/imre.23260</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1743-1697">1743-1697</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:260026780">260026780</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Implicit+Religion&rft.atitle=The+Emergence+of+%22Esoteric%22+as+a+Comparative+Category&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=353-383&rft.date=2023-07-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A260026780%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1743-1697&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1558%2Fimre.23260&rft.aulast=Strube&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F105147754&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a2-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a2_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005a">Von Stuckrad 2005a</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaurant1998194-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaurant1998194_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaurant1998">Laurant 1998</a>, p. 194.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996384-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996384_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996384_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff1996">Hanegraaff 1996</a>, p. 384.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 3, "What is Western esotericism?". "The adjective 'esoteric' first appeared in the second century CE, but the substantive is of relatively recent date: it seems to have been coined in German (<i>Esoterik</i>) in 1792, migrated to French scholarship (<i>l'estoterisme</i>) by 1828 and appeared in English in 1883. [...] In short, 'Western esotericism' is a modern scholarly construct, not an autonomous tradition that already existed out there and merely needed to be discovered by historians."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b80-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b80_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b80_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b80_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005b">Von Stuckrad 2005b</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrube2016aStrube2016b-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrube2016aStrube2016b_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStrube2016a">Strube 2016a</a>; <a href="#CITEREFStrube2016b">Strube 2016b</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996385-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996385_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996385_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff1996">Hanegraaff 1996</a>, p. 385.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nikulin-2012-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nikulin-2012_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nikulin-2012_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nikulin-2012_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNikulin2012" class="citation book cs1">Nikulin, Dmitri (2012-12-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U40jHO9YlPcC&pg=PA10"><i>The Other Plato: The Tübingen Interpretation of Plato's Inner-Academic Teachings</i></a>. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438444116" title="Special:BookSources/9781438444116"><bdi>9781438444116</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Other+Plato%3A+The+T%C3%BCbingen+Interpretation+of+Plato%27s+Inner-Academic+Teachings&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2012-12-11&rft.isbn=9781438444116&rft.aulast=Nikulin&rft.aufirst=Dmitri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU40jHO9YlPcC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristóteles2010" class="citation book cs1">Aristóteles (2010-02-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mEwLXFyp0ccC&dq=%22esoteric%22&pg=PA10"><i>The Politics</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226026701" title="Special:BookSources/9780226026701"><bdi>9780226026701</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2010-02-15&rft.isbn=9780226026701&rft.au=Arist%C3%B3teles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmEwLXFyp0ccC%26dq%3D%2522esoteric%2522%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFacca2020" class="citation book cs1">Facca, Danilo (2020-05-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tZrYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT10"><i>Early Modern Aristotelianism and the Making of Philosophical Disciplines: Metaphysics, Ethics and Politics</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781350130234" title="Special:BookSources/9781350130234"><bdi>9781350130234</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Modern+Aristotelianism+and+the+Making+of+Philosophical+Disciplines%3A+Metaphysics%2C+Ethics+and+Politics&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2020-05-14&rft.isbn=9781350130234&rft.aulast=Facca&rft.aufirst=Danilo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtZrYDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBos1989" class="citation journal cs1">Bos, A. P. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2709731">"<i>Exoterikoi Logoi</i> and <i>Enkyklioi Logoi</i> in the Corpus Aristotelicum and the Origin of the Idea of the Enkyklios Paideia"</a>. <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i>. <b>50</b> (2): 179–198. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2709731">10.2307/2709731</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-5037">0022-5037</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2709731">2709731</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-07-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=Exoterikoi+Logoi+and+Enkyklioi+Logoi+in+the+Corpus+Aristotelicum+and+the+Origin+of+the+Idea+of+the+Enkyklios+Paideia&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=179-198&rft.date=1989&rft.issn=0022-5037&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2709731%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2709731&rft.aulast=Bos&rft.aufirst=A.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2709731&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontana2020" class="citation book cs1">Montana, Fausto (2020-06-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kCzvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA244">"Hellenistic Scholarship"</a>. In Montanari, Franco (ed.). <i>History of Ancient Greek Scholarship: From the Beginnings to the End of the Byzantine Age</i>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004430570" title="Special:BookSources/9789004430570"><bdi>9789004430570</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hellenistic+Scholarship&rft.btitle=History+of+Ancient+Greek+Scholarship%3A+From+the+Beginnings+to+the+End+of+the+Byzantine+Age&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2020-06-15&rft.isbn=9789004430570&rft.aulast=Montana&rft.aufirst=Fausto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkCzvDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNielsen2012" class="citation book cs1">Nielsen, Karen Margrethe (2012-12-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_QUgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16">"The <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> in Hellenistic philosophy: A hidden treasure?"</a>. In Miller, Jon (ed.). <i>The Reception of Aristotle's Ethics</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139851114" title="Special:BookSources/9781139851114"><bdi>9781139851114</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Nicomachean+Ethics+in+Hellenistic+philosophy%3A+A+hidden+treasure%3F&rft.btitle=The+Reception+of+Aristotle%27s+Ethics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012-12-13&rft.isbn=9781139851114&rft.aulast=Nielsen&rft.aufirst=Karen+Margrethe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_QUgAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaiser1980" class="citation journal cs1">Gaiser, Konrad (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4182081">"Plato's Enigmatic Lecture 'On the Good'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Phronesis</i>. <b>25</b> (1): 5–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156852880X00025">10.1163/156852880X00025</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-8868">0031-8868</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4182081">4182081</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phronesis&rft.atitle=Plato%27s+Enigmatic+Lecture+%27On+the+Good%27&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=5-37&rft.date=1980&rft.issn=0031-8868&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4182081%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156852880X00025&rft.aulast=Gaiser&rft.aufirst=Konrad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4182081&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReale1990" class="citation book cs1">Reale, Giovanni (8 November 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WYRFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA16"><i>History of Ancient Philosophy II, A: Plato and Aristotle</i></a>. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438416991" title="Special:BookSources/9781438416991"><bdi>9781438416991</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Ancient+Philosophy+II%2C+A%3A+Plato+and+Aristotle&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1990-11-08&rft.isbn=9781438416991&rft.aulast=Reale&rft.aufirst=Giovanni&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWYRFAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coniglione, Francesco (April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333566736_Some_Remarks_on_the_Meaning_of_Esotericism_and_Plato's_Unwritten_Doctrines">"Some Remarks on the Meaning of Esotericism and Plato's Unwritten Doctrines"</a>. <i>Mondi</i> <b>1</b> (1): 5–51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lamberton-2018-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lamberton-2018_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lamberton-2018_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lamberton-2018_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLamberton2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lamberton, Robert (2018-11-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vN-mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA139">"The ΑΠΟΡΡΗΤΟΣ ΘΕΩΡΙΑ and the Roles of Secrecy in the History of Platonism"</a>. In Kippenberg, Hans; Stroumsa, Guy (eds.). <i>Secrecy and Concealment: Studies in the History of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Religions</i> (in German). BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-37887-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-37887-2"><bdi>978-90-04-37887-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+%CE%91%CE%A0%CE%9F%CE%A1%CE%A1%CE%97%CE%A4%CE%9F%CE%A3+%CE%98%CE%95%CE%A9%CE%A1%CE%99%CE%91+and+the+Roles+of+Secrecy+in+the+History+of+Platonism&rft.btitle=Secrecy+and+Concealment%3A+Studies+in+the+History+of+Mediterranean+and+Near+Eastern+Religions&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2018-11-13&rft.isbn=978-90-04-37887-2&rft.aulast=Lamberton&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvN-mDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stein, Charles (2016). «Ancient Mysteries». In: Magee, Glenn Alexander. <i>The Cambridge Handbook of Western Mysticism and Esotericism</i>. [S.l.]: Cambridge University Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStroumsa2005" class="citation book cs1">Stroumsa, Guy G. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UC0eWGKHa9YC&dq=%22the+secrets+of+plato%22+numenius&pg=PA18">"Myth as Enigma: Cultural Hermeneutics in Late Antiquity"</a>. <i>Hidden Wisdom: Esoteric Traditions and the Roots of Christian Mysticism</i>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-13635-5" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-13635-5"><bdi>90-04-13635-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Myth+as+Enigma%3A+Cultural+Hermeneutics+in+Late+Antiquity&rft.btitle=Hidden+Wisdom%3A+Esoteric+Traditions+and+the+Roots+of+Christian+Mysticism&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=90-04-13635-5&rft.aulast=Stroumsa&rft.aufirst=Guy+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUC0eWGKHa9YC%26dq%3D%2522the%2Bsecrets%2Bof%2Bplato%2522%2Bnumenius%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trompf, Garry W. (19 September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openjournals.library.sydney.edu.au/index.php/SSR/article/view/271/250">«From the Esoteric to the Exoteric and Back Again: Themes from Antiquity to Post-Modernity»</a>. <i>Sydney Studies in Religion</i> (em inglês). <b>5</b>: 36, note 2. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> 1444-5158. In Crangle, Edward (2004). <i>Esotericism and the Control of Knowledge</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkschies2020" class="citation book cs1">Markschies, Christoph (2020-06-29). "Esoteric Knowledge in Platonism and in Christian Gnosis". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lAT1DwAAQBAJ"><i>Christian Teachers in Second-Century Rome: Schools and Students in the Ancient City</i></a>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-42801-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-42801-0"><bdi>978-90-04-42801-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Esoteric+Knowledge+in+Platonism+and+in+Christian+Gnosis&rft.btitle=Christian+Teachers+in+Second-Century+Rome%3A+Schools+and+Students+in+the+Ancient+City&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2020-06-29&rft.isbn=978-90-04-42801-0&rft.aulast=Markschies&rft.aufirst=Christoph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlAT1DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a3-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a3_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a3_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b88Bogdan20076Hanegraaff2013a3-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b88Bogdan20076Hanegraaff2013a3_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005b">Von Stuckrad 2005b</a>, p. 88; <a href="#CITEREFBogdan2007">Bogdan 2007</a>, p. 6; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff201278-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff201278_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2012">Hanegraaff 2012</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012107-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012107_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2012">Hanegraaff 2012</a>, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012107–108-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012107–108_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2012">Hanegraaff 2012</a>, pp. 107–108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012230-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012230_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2012">Hanegraaff 2012</a>, p. 230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012221-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012221_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012221_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2012">Hanegraaff 2012</a>, p. 221.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff1996">Hanegraaff 1996</a>, p. 385, "14.1.A – 'Esotericism' as Technical Terminology". "[...] in [the] usage [of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89liphas_L%C3%A9vi" title="Éliphas Lévi">Lévi</a> (1810–1875)], the two terms ['esotericism' (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">l'esotérisme</i>) and 'occultism' (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">l'occultisme</i>)] roughly covered the traditional 'occult sciences' and a wide range of religious phenomena connected or loosely associated with it [sic]. Thus, he provided useful generic labels for a large and complicated group of historical phenomena that had long been perceived as sharing an <i>air de famille</i> [...]."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199417-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199417_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre19946Hanegraaff2013a14–15-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre19946Hanegraaff2013a14–15_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, p. 6; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 14–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsprem20148-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsprem20148_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAsprem2014">Asprem 2014</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a13-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a13_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a13_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a13_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBogdan20077-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBogdan20077_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBogdan2007">Bogdan 2007</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBogdan2013177-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBogdan2013177_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBogdan2013">Bogdan 2013</a>, p. 177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGranholm2013a31–32-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGranholm2013a31–32_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGranholm2013a">Granholm 2013a</a>, pp. 31–32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAsprem2014">Asprem 2014</a>, p. 5. "Why can we not have a comparative study of esotericism on a truly global rather than a narrowly conceived 'Western' scale?"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre19943-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre19943_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivreVoss199548–49-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivreVoss199548–49_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivreVoss1995">Faivre & Voss 1995</a>, pp. 48–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b79-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b79_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b79_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005b">Von Stuckrad 2005b</a>, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a10–12-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a10–12_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 10–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11_48-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11_48-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a10-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a10_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012251-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2012251_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2012">Hanegraaff 2012</a>, p. 251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013b178-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013b178_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013b178_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013b">Hanegraaff 2013b</a>, p. 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersluis20071-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersluis20071_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersluis20071_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVersluis2007">Versluis 2007</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersluis20072-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersluis20072_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVersluis2007">Versluis 2007</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11–12-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a11–12_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 11–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a12-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a12_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996385Von_Stuckrad2005b81-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff1996385Von_Stuckrad2005b81_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff1996">Hanegraaff 1996</a>, p. 385; <a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005b">Von Stuckrad 2005b</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a5-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a5_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a5_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a5_57-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a7-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a7_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a6–7-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a6–7_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 6–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a3Bogdan200710Hanegraaff2013a3–4-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a3Bogdan200710Hanegraaff2013a3–4_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005a">Von Stuckrad 2005a</a>, p. 3; <a href="#CITEREFBogdan2007">Bogdan 2007</a>, p. 10; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 3–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199410Von_Stuckrad2005a4Bergunder201014Hanegraaff2013a3-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199410Von_Stuckrad2005a4Bergunder201014Hanegraaff2013a3_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, p. 10; <a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005a">Von Stuckrad 2005a</a>, p. 4; <a href="#CITEREFBergunder2010">Bergunder 2010</a>, p. 14; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199410Hanegraaff1996398Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20077-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199410Hanegraaff1996398Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20077_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, p. 10; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff1996">Hanegraaff 1996</a>, p. 398; <a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005a">Von Stuckrad 2005a</a>, p. 4; <a href="#CITEREFVersluis2007">Versluis 2007</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199410–11-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199410–11_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, pp. 10–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199411Hanegraaff1996398Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20077-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199411Hanegraaff1996398Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20077_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, p. 11; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff1996">Hanegraaff 1996</a>, p. 398; <a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005a">Von Stuckrad 2005a</a>, p. 4; <a href="#CITEREFVersluis2007">Versluis 2007</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199412Hanegraaff1996398–399Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20077-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199412Hanegraaff1996398–399Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20077_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, p. 12; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff1996">Hanegraaff 1996</a>, pp. 398–399; <a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005a">Von Stuckrad 2005a</a>, p. 4; <a href="#CITEREFVersluis2007">Versluis 2007</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199413Hanegraaff1996399–340Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20077-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199413Hanegraaff1996399–340Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20077_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, p. 13; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff1996">Hanegraaff 1996</a>, pp. 399–340; <a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005a">Von Stuckrad 2005a</a>, p. 4; <a href="#CITEREFVersluis2007">Versluis 2007</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199414Hanegraaff1996400Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20078-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199414Hanegraaff1996400Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20078_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, p. 14; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff1996">Hanegraaff 1996</a>, p. 400; <a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005a">Von Stuckrad 2005a</a>, p. 4; <a href="#CITEREFVersluis2007">Versluis 2007</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199414–15Hanegraaff1996400Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20078-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199414–15Hanegraaff1996400Von_Stuckrad2005a4Versluis20078_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, pp. 14–15; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff1996">Hanegraaff 1996</a>, p. 400; <a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005a">Von Stuckrad 2005a</a>, p. 4; <a href="#CITEREFVersluis2007">Versluis 2007</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20087–10-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20087–10_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrick-Clarke2008">Goodrick-Clarke 2008</a>, pp. 7–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBogdan200710-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBogdan200710_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBogdan2007">Bogdan 2007</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGranholm2013b8-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGranholm2013b8_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGranholm2013b">Granholm 2013b</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a4-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a4_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005a">Von Stuckrad 2005a</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a5Hanegraaff2013a3-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a5Hanegraaff2013a3_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005a">Von Stuckrad 2005a</a>, p. 5; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a4–5-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a4–5_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 4–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a5-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005a5_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005a">Von Stuckrad 2005a</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b83-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b83_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005b">Von Stuckrad 2005b</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBogdan20075-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBogdan20075_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBogdan2007">Bogdan 2007</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b93-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b93_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005b">Von Stuckrad 2005b</a>, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b88-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b88_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005b">Von Stuckrad 2005b</a>, p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b89-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b89_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005b">Von Stuckrad 2005b</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b91–92-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Stuckrad2005b91–92_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005b">Von Stuckrad 2005b</a>, pp. 91–92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergunder201018-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergunder201018_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBergunder2010">Bergunder 2010</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20084-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20084_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20084_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrick-Clarke2008">Goodrick-Clarke 2008</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBogdan200715-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBogdan200715_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBogdan2007">Bogdan 2007</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20083,_15Hanegraaff2013a18-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke20083,_15Hanegraaff2013a18_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodrick-Clarke2008">Goodrick-Clarke 2008</a>, pp. 3, 15; 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Encyclopaedia+of+Occultism&rft.series=Dover+Occult&rft.pages=425&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-486-42613-6&rft.aulast=Spence&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnOcoAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA425&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ceadel_1980_p.-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ceadel_1980_p._96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCeadel1980" class="citation book cs1">Ceadel, M. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V_KOAAAAMAAJ"><i>Pacifism in Britain, 1914–1945: The Defining of a Faith</i></a>. Oxford historical monographs. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-821882-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-821882-1"><bdi>978-0-19-821882-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230702181819/https://books.google.com/books?id=V_KOAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pacifism+in+Britain%2C+1914%E2%80%931945%3A+The+Defining+of+a+Faith&rft.series=Oxford+historical+monographs&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-19-821882-1&rft.aulast=Ceadel&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV_KOAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a25-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a25_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a26-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a26_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199458Hanegraaff2013a26–27-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199458Hanegraaff2013a26–27_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, p. 58; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 26–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a27-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a27_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a27–28-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a27–28_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 27–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a28–29-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a28–29_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 28–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a29-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a29_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a30-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a30_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a31-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a31_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199461–63Hanegraaff2013a30–31-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199461–63Hanegraaff2013a30–31_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, pp. 61–63; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 30–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199463–64Hanegraaff2013a32-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199463–64Hanegraaff2013a32_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, pp. 63–64; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a32–33-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a32–33_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 32–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199464–66Hanegraaff2013a33–34-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199464–66Hanegraaff2013a33–34_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, pp. 64–66; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 33–34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a35–36-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a35–36_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 35–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a36-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a36_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199472Hanegraaff2013a37-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199472Hanegraaff2013a37_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, p. 72; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199476–77Hanegraaff2013a37–38-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199476–77Hanegraaff2013a37–38_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, pp. 76–77; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 37–38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a38-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a38_114-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a38_114-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a38_114-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199487Hanegraaff2013a38-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199487Hanegraaff2013a38_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, p. 87; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a38–39-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a38–39_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 38–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a39-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a39_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a39_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrube2016aHanegraaff2013a-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrube2016aHanegraaff2013a_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStrube2016a">Strube 2016a</a>; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a40-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a40_119-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a40_119-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a40_119-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoscelyn_Godwin2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joscelyn_Godwin" title="Joscelyn Godwin">Joscelyn Godwin</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H14oDwAAQBAJ&q=%22traditionalist+studies+and+practical+magic%22+reghini+%22evola%22+%22Gruppo+di+Ur%22"><i>Atlantis and the Cycles of Time: Prophecies, Traditions, and Occult Revelations</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781594778575" title="Special:BookSources/9781594778575"><bdi>9781594778575</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlantis+and+the+Cycles+of+Time%3A+Prophecies%2C+Traditions%2C+and+Occult+Revelations&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781594778575&rft.au=Joscelyn+Godwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH14oDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522traditionalist%2Bstudies%2Band%2Bpractical%2Bmagic%2522%2Breghini%2B%2522evola%2522%2B%2522Gruppo%2Bdi%2BUr%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199493–94Hanegraaff2013a40–41-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199493–94Hanegraaff2013a40–41_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, pp. 93–94; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 40–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a41-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a41_123-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a41_123-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a41_123-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarlson2015136-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarlson2015136_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarlson2015">Carlson 2015</a>, p. 136.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFCarlson2015 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETherkelsen20167-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETherkelsen20167_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTherkelsen2016">Therkelsen 2016</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHroncek2017" class="citation journal cs1">Hroncek, Susan (2017). "From Egyptian Science to Victorian Magic: On the Origins of Chemistry in Victorian Histories of Science". <i>Victorian Review</i>. <b>43</b> (2): 213–228. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fvcr.2017.0032">10.1353/vcr.2017.0032</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1923-3280">1923-3280</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:166044943">166044943</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Victorian+Review&rft.atitle=From+Egyptian+Science+to+Victorian+Magic%3A+On+the+Origins+of+Chemistry+in+Victorian+Histories+of+Science&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=213-228&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A166044943%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1923-3280&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fvcr.2017.0032&rft.aulast=Hroncek&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre199491Hanegraaff2013a41-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre199491Hanegraaff2013a41_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, p. 91; <a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a41–42-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a41–42_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 41–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a42-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a42_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gilbhard-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gilbhard_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hermann Gilbhard: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/artikel/artikel_44318"><i>Thule-Gesellschaft</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150701083654/http://www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/artikel/artikel_44318">Archived</a> 2015-07-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9hMP5ZMu6bIC&pg=PA149"><i>The Occult Roots of Nazism</i></a>. London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks 2005, p. 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreitel2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidVG7e-LnLhEcCpgPA220_220]-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreitel2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidVG7e-LnLhEcCpgPA220_220]_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreitel2004">Treitel 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VG7e-LnLhEcC&pg=PA220">220</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreitel2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidVG7e-LnLhEcCpgPA215_215ff]-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreitel2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidVG7e-LnLhEcCpgPA215_215ff]_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreitel2004">Treitel 2004</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VG7e-LnLhEcC&pg=PA215">215ff</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wouter Hanegraaff: "The most important magical secret lodge of the 20th century in the German-speaking world." "Fraternitas Saturni" at Wouter Hanegraaff (ed). Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism. Brill. 2006. p. 379</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen E. Flowers. <i>Fire & Ice: The History, Structure and Rituals of Germany's Most Influential Modern Magical Order: The Brotherhood of Saturn.</i> St Paul, MN: Llewellyn, 1994 pp. 23–24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a43-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a43_137-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a43_137-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a43_137-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a44-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a44_138-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a44_138-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a44_138-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Cochrane and the Gardnerian Craft: Feuds, Secrets, and Mysteries in Contemporary British Witchcraft Ethan Doyle White. <i>The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies</i>. 2011. pp. 205–206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Satanism" at Wouter Hannegraaff (ed). <i>Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism</i>. Brill. 2006. p. 1035</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrury2011251-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrury2011251_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDrury2011">Drury 2011</a>, p. 251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Colin Duggan. "Perennialism and iconoclasm. Chaos magick and the legitimacy of innovation". Egil Asprem and Kennet Granholm (eds). <i>Contemporary esotericism</i>. Equinox Publishing. 2013</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurti2001-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurti2001_143-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurti2001_143-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurti2001_143-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKurti2001">Kurti 2001</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHellesøy2015" class="citation thesis cs1">Hellesøy, Kjersti (November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://munin.uit.no/bitstream/handle/10037/8353/thesis.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y"><i>Independent Scientology: How Ron's Org and Dror Center schismed out of the Church of Scientology</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (MA). 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href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013b">Hanegraaff 2013b</a>, p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994ix-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994ix_152-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994ix_152-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, p. ix.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994ixVersluis20076-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaivre1994ixVersluis20076_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaivre1994">Faivre 1994</a>, p. ix; <a href="#CITEREFVersluis2007">Versluis 2007</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a1–2-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff2013a1–2_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff2013a">Hanegraaff 2013a</a>, pp. 1–2.</span> </li> <li 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id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAspremGranholm20133–4-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAspremGranholm20133–4_164-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAspremGranholm2013">Asprem & Granholm 2013</a>, pp. 3–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrînzeuSzönyi2011184-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrînzeuSzönyi2011184_165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrînzeuSzönyi2011">Brînzeu & Szönyi 2011</a>, p. 184.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff19966-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanegraaff19966_166-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanegraaff1996">Hanegraaff 1996</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur Versluis, “Methods in the Study of Esotericism, Part II: Mysticism and 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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsprem2014" class="citation journal cs1">Asprem, Egil (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://correspondencesjournal.com/ojs/ojs/index.php/home/article/download/9/9">"Beyond the West: Towards a New Comparativism in the Study of Esotericism"</a>. <i>Correspondences: An Online Journal for the Academic Study of Western Esotericism</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 3–33. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2053-7158">2053-7158</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210227120518/http://correspondencesjournal.com/ojs/ojs/index.php/home/article/download/9/9">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Correspondences%3A+An+Online+Journal+for+the+Academic+Study+of+Western+Esotericism&rft.atitle=Beyond+the+West%3A+Towards+a+New+Comparativism+in+the+Study+of+Esotericism&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-33&rft.date=2014&rft.issn=2053-7158&rft.aulast=Asprem&rft.aufirst=Egil&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcorrespondencesjournal.com%2Fojs%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Fhome%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F9%2F9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAspremGranholm2013" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Asprem, Egil; Granholm, Kennet (2013). "Introduction". <i>Contemporary Esotericism</i>. Egil Asprem and Kennet Granholm (editors). Durham: Acumen. pp. 1–24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-54357-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-54357-2"><bdi>978-1-317-54357-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Esotericism&rft.place=Durham&rft.pages=1-24&rft.pub=Acumen&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-317-54357-2&rft.aulast=Asprem&rft.aufirst=Egil&rft.au=Granholm%2C+Kennet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAspremGranholm2013b" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Asprem, Egil; Granholm, Kennet (2013b). "Constructing Esotericisms: Sociological, Historical and Critical Approaches to the Invention of Tradition". <i>Contemporary Esotericism</i>. 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Kenneth Fleming (translator): 9–36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F094330510X12604383550882">10.1163/094330510X12604383550882</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Method+and+Theory+in+the+Study+of+Religion&rft.atitle=What+is+Esotericism%3F+Cultural+Studies+Approaches+and+the+Problems+of+Definition+in+Religious+Studies&rft.volume=22&rft.pages=9-36&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F094330510X12604383550882&rft.aulast=Bergunder&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBogdan2013" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bogdan, Henrik (2013). 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Durham: Acumen. pp. 177–201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84465-716-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84465-716-2"><bdi>978-1-84465-716-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reception+of+Occultism+in+India%3A+The+Case+of+the+Holy+Order+of+Krishna&rft.btitle=Occultism+in+a+Global+Perspective&rft.place=Durham&rft.pages=177-201&rft.pub=Acumen&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-84465-716-2&rft.aulast=Bogdan&rft.aufirst=Henrik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBogdan2007" class="citation book cs1">Bogdan, Henrik (2007). <i>Western Esotericism and Rituals of Initiation</i>. New York: SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7070-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7070-1"><bdi>978-0-7914-7070-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Esotericism+and+Rituals+of+Initiation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-7070-1&rft.aulast=Bogdan&rft.aufirst=Henrik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrînzeuSzönyi2011" class="citation journal cs1">Brînzeu, Pia; Szönyi, György (2011). "The Esoteric in Postmodernism". <i>European Journal of English Studies</i>. <b>15</b> (3): 183–188. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13825577.2011.626934">10.1080/13825577.2011.626934</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143913846">143913846</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+English+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Esoteric+in+Postmodernism&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=183-188&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13825577.2011.626934&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143913846%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Br%C3%AEnzeu&rft.aufirst=Pia&rft.au=Sz%C3%B6nyi%2C+Gy%C3%B6rgy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlson2018" class="citation book cs1">Carlson, Maria (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yS93DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58">"Petersburg and Modern Occultism"</a>. In Livak, Leonid (ed.). <i>A Reader's Guide to Andrei Bely's "petersburg</i>. University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-31930-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-31930-4"><bdi>978-0-299-31930-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Petersburg+and+Modern+Occultism&rft.btitle=A+Reader%27s+Guide+to+Andrei+Bely%27s+%22petersburg&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-299-31930-4&rft.aulast=Carlson&rft.aufirst=Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyS93DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaivre1994" class="citation book cs1">Faivre, Antoine (1994). <i>Access to Western Esotericism</i>. New York: SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-2178-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-2178-9"><bdi>978-0-7914-2178-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Access+to+Western+Esotericism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-2178-9&rft.aulast=Faivre&rft.aufirst=Antoine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrury2011" class="citation book cs1">Drury, Nevill (2011). <i>Stealing Fire from Heaven: The Rise of Modern Western Magic</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stealing+Fire+from+Heaven%3A+The+Rise+of+Modern+Western+Magic&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Drury&rft.aufirst=Nevill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaivreVoss1995" class="citation journal cs1">Faivre, Antoine; Voss, Karen-Claire (1995). "Western Esotericism and the Science of Religions". <i>Numen</i>. <b>42</b> (1): 48–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1568527952598756">10.1163/1568527952598756</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3270279">3270279</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Numen&rft.atitle=Western+Esotericism+and+the+Science+of+Religions&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=48-77&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1568527952598756&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3270279%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Faivre&rft.aufirst=Antoine&rft.au=Voss%2C+Karen-Claire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodrick-Clarke2008" class="citation book cs1">Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2008). <i>The Western Esoteric Traditions: A Historical Introduction</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532099-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532099-2"><bdi>978-0-19-532099-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Western+Esoteric+Traditions%3A+A+Historical+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-532099-2&rft.aulast=Goodrick-Clarke&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGranholm2013a" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Granholm, Kennet (2013a). "Locating the West: Problematizing the <i>Western</i> in Western Esotericism and Occultism". <i>Occultism in a Global Perspective</i>. Henrik Bogdan and Gordan Djurdjevic (editors). Durham: Acumen. pp. 17–36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84465-716-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84465-716-2"><bdi>978-1-84465-716-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Locating+the+West%3A+Problematizing+the+Western+in+Western+Esotericism+and+Occultism&rft.btitle=Occultism+in+a+Global+Perspective&rft.place=Durham&rft.pages=17-36&rft.pub=Acumen&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-84465-716-2&rft.aulast=Granholm&rft.aufirst=Kennet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGranholm2013b" class="citation journal cs1">Granholm, Kennet (2013b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140819085712/http://correspondencesjournal.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/11302_20537158_granholm.pdf">"Ritual Black Metal: Popular Music as Occult Mediation and Practice"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Correspondences: An Online Journal for the Academic Study of Western Esotericism</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 5–33. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://correspondencesjournal.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/11302_20537158_granholm.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2014-08-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Correspondences%3A+An+Online+Journal+for+the+Academic+Study+of+Western+Esotericism&rft.atitle=Ritual+Black+Metal%3A+Popular+Music+as+Occult+Mediation+and+Practice&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=5-33&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Granholm&rft.aufirst=Kennet&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcorrespondencesjournal.files.wordpress.com%2F2013%2F09%2F11302_20537158_granholm.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanegraaff1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wouter_J._Hanegraaff" class="mw-redirect" title="Wouter J. Hanegraaff">Hanegraaff, Wouter J.</a> (1996). <i>New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought</i>. Numen Book Series. Vol. 72. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10695-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10695-6"><bdi>978-90-04-10695-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Age+Religion+and+Western+Culture%3A+Esotericism+in+the+Mirror+of+Secular+Thought&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Numen+Book+Series&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10695-6&rft.aulast=Hanegraaff&rft.aufirst=Wouter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanegraaff2012" class="citation book cs1">Hanegraaff, Wouter (2012). <i>Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in Western Culture</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19621-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19621-5"><bdi>978-0-521-19621-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Esotericism+and+the+Academy%3A+Rejected+Knowledge+in+Western+Culture&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-521-19621-5&rft.aulast=Hanegraaff&rft.aufirst=Wouter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanegraaff2013a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wouter_Hanegraaff" title="Wouter Hanegraaff">Hanegraaff, Wouter</a> (2013a). <i>Western Esotericism: A Guide for the Perplexed</i>. Guides for the Perplexed. London: Bloomsbury Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-3646-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-3646-6"><bdi>978-1-4411-3646-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Esotericism%3A+A+Guide+for+the+Perplexed&rft.place=London&rft.series=Guides+for+the+Perplexed&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-3646-6&rft.aulast=Hanegraaff&rft.aufirst=Wouter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanegraaff2013b" class="citation journal cs1">Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (2013b). "Textbooks and Introductions to Western Esotericism". <i>Religion</i>. <b>43</b> (2): 178–200. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0048721x.2012.733245">10.1080/0048721x.2012.733245</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142996894">142996894</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religion&rft.atitle=Textbooks+and+Introductions+to+Western+Esotericism&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=178-200&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0048721x.2012.733245&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A142996894%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hanegraaff&rft.aufirst=Wouter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurti2001" class="citation journal cs1">Kurti, Laszlo (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4836750">"Psychic Phenomena, Neoshamanism, and the Cultic Milieu in Hungary"</a>. <i>Nova Religio</i>. <b>4</b> (2): 322–350. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fnr.2001.4.2.322">10.1525/nr.2001.4.2.322</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1092-6690">1092-6690</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230305215551/https://www.academia.edu/4836750">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-03-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nova+Religio&rft.atitle=Psychic+Phenomena%2C+Neoshamanism%2C+and+the+Cultic+Milieu+in+Hungary&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=322-350&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fnr.2001.4.2.322&rft.issn=1092-6690&rft.aulast=Kurti&rft.aufirst=Laszlo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4836750&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurant1998" class="citation book cs1">Laurant, Jean-Pierre (1998). "Esotericism in Freemasonry". In Faivre, Antoine (ed.). <i>Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion: Selected Papers Presented at the 17th Congress of the International Association for the History of Religions, Mexico City 1995</i>. Belgium: Isd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9042906303" title="Special:BookSources/978-9042906303"><bdi>978-9042906303</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Esotericism+in+Freemasonry&rft.btitle=Western+Esotericism+and+the+Science+of+Religion%3A+Selected+Papers+Presented+at+the+17th+Congress+of+the+International+Association+for+the+History+of+Religions%2C+Mexico+City+1995&rft.place=Belgium&rft.pub=Isd&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-9042906303&rft.aulast=Laurant&rft.aufirst=Jean-Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSedgwick2004" class="citation book cs1">Sedgwick, Mark (2004). <i>Against the Modern World: Traditionalism and the Secret Intellectual History of the Twentieth Century</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195152975" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195152975"><bdi>978-0195152975</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Against+the+Modern+World%3A+Traditionalism+and+the+Secret+Intellectual+History+of+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0195152975&rft.aulast=Sedgwick&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrube2016a" class="citation book cs1">Strube, Julian (2016a). <i>Sozialismus, Katholizismus und Okkultismus im Frankreich des 19. Jahrhunderts: Die Genealogie der Schriften von Eliphas Lévi</i>. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-047810-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-047810-5"><bdi>978-3-11-047810-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sozialismus%2C+Katholizismus+und+Okkultismus+im+Frankreich+des+19.+Jahrhunderts%3A+Die+Genealogie+der+Schriften+von+Eliphas+L%C3%A9vi&rft.place=Berlin%2FBoston&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-11-047810-5&rft.aulast=Strube&rft.aufirst=Julian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrube2016b" class="citation journal cs1">Strube, Julian (2016b). "Socialist Religion and the Emergence of Occultism: A Genealogical Approach to Socialism and Secularization in 19th-Century France". <i>Religion</i>. <b>46</b> (3): 359–388. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0048721X.2016.1146926">10.1080/0048721X.2016.1146926</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147626697">147626697</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religion&rft.atitle=Socialist+Religion+and+the+Emergence+of+Occultism%3A+A+Genealogical+Approach+to+Socialism+and+Secularization+in+19th-Century+France&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=359-388&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0048721X.2016.1146926&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147626697%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Strube&rft.aufirst=Julian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTherkelsen2016" class="citation book cs1">Therkelsen, Ole (2016). <i>Martinus, Darwin and intelligent design</i>. Scientia Intuitiva. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788793235014" title="Special:BookSources/9788793235014"><bdi>9788793235014</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Martinus%2C+Darwin+and+intelligent+design&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Scientia+Intuitiva&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9788793235014&rft.aulast=Therkelsen&rft.aufirst=Ole&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTreitel2004" class="citation book cs1">Treitel, Corinna (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VG7e-LnLhEcC"><i>A Science for the Soul: Occultism and the Genesis of the German Modern</i></a>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7812-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7812-1"><bdi>978-0-8018-7812-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Science+for+the+Soul%3A+Occultism+and+the+Genesis+of+the+German+Modern&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-7812-1&rft.aulast=Treitel&rft.aufirst=Corinna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVG7e-LnLhEcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVersluis2007" class="citation book cs1">Versluis, Arthur (2007). <i>Magic and Mysticism: An Introduction to Western Esotericism</i>. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5836-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5836-6"><bdi>978-0-7425-5836-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Magic+and+Mysticism%3A+An+Introduction+to+Western+Esotericism&rft.place=Lanham&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-5836-6&rft.aulast=Versluis&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005a" class="citation book cs1">Von Stuckrad, Kocku (2005a). <i>Western Esotericism: A Brief History of Secret Knowledge</i>. Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (translator). Durham: Acumen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84553-033-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84553-033-4"><bdi>978-1-84553-033-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Esotericism%3A+A+Brief+History+of+Secret+Knowledge&rft.place=Durham&rft.pub=Acumen&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-84553-033-4&rft.aulast=Von+Stuckrad&rft.aufirst=Kocku&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVon_Stuckrad2005b" class="citation journal cs1">Von Stuckrad, Kocku (2005b). "Western Esotericism: Towards an Integrative Model of Interpretation". <i>Religion</i>. <b>35</b> (2): 78–97. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.religion.2005.07.002">10.1016/j.religion.2005.07.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219595283">219595283</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religion&rft.atitle=Western+Esotericism%3A+Towards+an+Integrative+Model+of+Interpretation&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=78-97&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.religion.2005.07.002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219595283%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Von+Stuckrad&rft.aufirst=Kocku&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_esotericism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130103142028/http://brill.publisher.ingentaconnect.com/content/brill/arie">Aries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism</a></i>, Leiden: Brill, since 2001.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brill.nl/arbs">Aries Book Series: Texts and Studies in Western Esotericism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071011074434/http://brill.nl/arbs">Archived</a> 2007-10-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, Leiden: Brill, since 2006.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/Contents.html">Esoterica</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924002151/http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/Contents.html">Archived</a> 2015-09-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, East Lansing, Michigan State University (MSU). An online resource since 1999. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/Contents.html#Volume1">I (1999)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924002151/http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/Contents.html#Volume1">Archived</a> 2015-09-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/VolumeVIII/EsotericaVIII.pdf">VIII (2006)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924002228/http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/VolumeVIII/EsotericaVIII.pdf">Archived</a> 2015-09-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/VolumeIX/EsotericaIX.pdf">IX (2007)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924002211/http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/VolumeIX/EsotericaIX.pdf">Archived</a> 2015-09-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBogdan2014" class="citation book cs1">Bogdan, Henrik (2014). "Freemasonry and Western Esotericism". In Bodgan, Henrik; Snoek, Jan A. M. (eds.). <i>Handbook of Freemasonry</i>. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 8. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. pp. 277–305. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004273122_016">10.1163/9789004273122_016</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-21833-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-21833-8"><bdi>978-90-04-21833-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1874-6691">1874-6691</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Freemasonry+and+Western+Esotericism&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Freemasonry&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Brill+Handbooks+on+Contemporary+Religion&rft.pages=277-305&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2014&rft.issn=1874-6691&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004273122_016&rft.isbn=978-90-04-21833-8&rft.aulast=Bogdan&rft.aufirst=Henrik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaivre2010" class="citation book cs1">Faivre, Antoine (2010). <i>Western Esotericism: A Concise History</i>. Christine Rhone (translator). New York: SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-3377-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-3377-6"><bdi>978-1-4384-3377-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Esotericism%3A+A+Concise+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-3377-6&rft.aulast=Faivre&rft.aufirst=Antoine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiegerich2001" class="citation journal cs1">Giegerich, Eric (2001). "Antoine Faivre: Studies in Esotericism". <i>The San Francisco Jung Institute Library Journal</i>. <b>20</b> (2): 7–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fjung.1.2001.20.2.7">10.1525/jung.1.2001.20.2.7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+San+Francisco+Jung+Institute+Library+Journal&rft.atitle=Antoine+Faivre%3A+Studies+in+Esotericism&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=7-25&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fjung.1.2001.20.2.7&rft.aulast=Giegerich&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGranholm2013" class="citation journal cs1">Granholm, Kennet (2013). "Esoteric Currents as Discursive Complexes". <i>Religion</i>. <b>43</b> (1): 46–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0048721x.2013.742741">10.1080/0048721x.2013.742741</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143944044">143944044</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religion&rft.atitle=Esoteric+Currents+as+Discursive+Complexes&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=46-69&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0048721x.2013.742741&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143944044%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Granholm&rft.aufirst=Kennet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hanegraaff, Wouter J., “<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OYsk8ZtJaMIC&dq=%E2%80%9CThe+Study+of+Western+Esotericism%3A+New+Approaches+to+Christian+and+Secular+Culture&pg=PA489">The Study of Western Esotericism: New Approaches to Christian and Secular Culture</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230702182817/https://books.google.com/books?id=OYsk8ZtJaMIC&dq=%E2%80%9CThe+Study+of+Western+Esotericism%3A+New+Approaches+to+Christian+and+Secular+Culture&pg=PA489">Archived</a> 2023-07-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>”, in Peter Antes, Armin W. Geertz and Randi R. Warne, <i>New Approaches to the Study of Religion</i>, vol. I: <i>Regional, Critical, and Historical Approaches</i>, Berlin / New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2004.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanegraaff2005" class="citation book cs1">Hanegraaff, Wouter J., ed. (2005). <i>Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism I</i>. Leiden / Boston: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-14187-1" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-14187-1"><bdi>90-04-14187-1</bdi></a>, 2 vols.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Gnosis+and+Western+Esotericism+I&rft.place=Leiden+%2F+Boston&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=90-04-14187-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: postscript (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_postscript" title="Category:CS1 maint: postscript">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanegraaff2015" class="citation news cs1">Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://correspondencesjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/14303_20537158_hanegraaff.pdf">"The Globalization of Esotericism"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Correspondences: An Online Journal for the Academic Study of Western Esotericism</i>. Vol. 3. pp. 55–91. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160822171438/http://correspondencesjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/14303_20537158_hanegraaff.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2016-08-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-08-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Correspondences%3A+An+Online+Journal+for+the+Academic+Study+of+Western+Esotericism&rft.atitle=The+Globalization+of+Esotericism&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=55-91&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Hanegraaff&rft.aufirst=Wouter+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcorrespondencesjournal.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2015%2F11%2F14303_20537158_hanegraaff.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kelley, James L., <i>Anatomyzing Divinity: Studies in Science, Esotericism and Political Theology</i>, Trine Day, 2011, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1936296279" title="Special:BookSources/978-1936296279">978-1936296279</a>.</li> <li>Martin, Pierre, <i>Esoterische Symbolik heute – in Alltag. Sprache und Einweihung</i>. Basel: Edition Oriflamme, 2010, illustrated <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-9523616-1-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-9523616-1-0">978-3-9523616-1-0</a>.</li> <li>Martin, Pierre, <i>Le Symbolisme Esotérique Actuel – au Quotidien, dans le Langage et pour l'Auto-initiation</i>. Basel: Edition Oriflamme, 2011, illustrated <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-9523616-3-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-9523616-3-4">978-3-9523616-3-4</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedwood2013" class="citation book cs1">Redwood, William (2013). "F(r)iends in Low Places: Monstrous Identities in Contemporary Esotericism". In Stasiewicz-Bienkowska, Agnieszka; Graham, Karen (eds.). <i>Monstrous Manifestations: Realities and the Imaginings of the Monster</i>. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. pp. 77–83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9781848882027_009">10.1163/9781848882027_009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84888-202-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84888-202-7"><bdi>978-1-84888-202-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=F%28r%29iends+in+Low+Places%3A+Monstrous+Identities+in+Contemporary+Esotericism&rft.btitle=Monstrous+Manifestations%3A+Realities+and+the+Imaginings+of+the+Monster&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=77-83&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9781848882027_009&rft.isbn=978-1-84888-202-7&rft.aulast=Redwood&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTweed2005" class="citation cs2">Tweed, Thomas A. (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120522005213/http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/publications/jjrs/pdf/721.pdf">"American Occultism and Japanese Buddhism. Albert J. Edmunds, D. T. Suzuki, and Translocative History"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Japanese Journal of Religious Studies</i>, <b>32</b> (2): 249–281, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/publications/jjrs/pdf/721.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2012-05-22<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-09-05</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Japanese+Journal+of+Religious+Studies&rft.atitle=American+Occultism+and+Japanese+Buddhism.+Albert+J.+Edmunds%2C+D.+T.+Suzuki%2C+and+Translocative+History&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=249-281&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Tweed&rft.aufirst=Thomas+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp%2Fpublications%2Fjjrs%2Fpdf%2F721.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVersluis1993" class="citation cs2">Versluis, Arthur (1993), <i>American Transcendentalism and Asian Religions</i>, Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Transcendentalism+and+Asian+Religions&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Versluis&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+esotericism" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195076585" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195076585">978-0195076585</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span 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href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Western_esotericism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Western esotericism">Western esotericism</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sacred-texts.com/eso/index.htm">An Esoteric Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amsterdamhermetica.nl/">Center for History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents</a>, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aseweb.org/">Association for the Study of Esotericism (ASE)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.esswe.org/">European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.exeter.ac.uk/magic/">Centre for Magic and Esotericism</a>, University of Exeter, United Kingdom</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110912073919/http://www.brill.nl/aries">Aries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/"><i>Esoterica</i> academic journal</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shwep.net/">The Secret History of Western Esotericism Podcast (SHWEP)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YiLB_Mm6qic"><span class="plainlinks">13 questions to Wouter Hanegraaff</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em 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aria-labelledby="Pagan_studies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffd068;box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #FFFF00, inset -1px -1px 0 #FFFF00;;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pagan_studies" title="Template:Pagan studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pagan_studies" title="Template talk:Pagan studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pagan_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pagan studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pagan_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pagan_studies" title="Pagan studies">Pagan studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffd068;box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #FFFF00, inset -1px -1px 0 #FFFF00;;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Paganism_(contemporary)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paganism (contemporary)">Contemporary paganism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Nature_religion" title="Nature religion">Nature religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Western esotericism</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#ffd068;box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #FFFF00, inset -1px -1px 0 #FFFF00;;;width:1%">Anthropological and<br />folkloristic approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanya_Luhrmann" title="Tanya Luhrmann">Luhrmann's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Persuasions_of_the_Witch%27s_Craft" title="Persuasions of the Witch's Craft">Persuasions of the Witch's Craft</a></i> (1989)</li> <li>Orion's <i><a href="/wiki/Never_Again_the_Burning_Times" title="Never Again the Burning Times">Never Again the Burning Times</a></i> (1995)</li> <li>Hume's <i><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_and_Paganism_in_Australia" title="Witchcraft and Paganism in Australia">Witchcraft and Paganism in Australia</a></i> (1997)</li> <li>Greenwood's <i><a href="/wiki/Magic,_Witchcraft_and_the_Otherworld" title="Magic, Witchcraft and the Otherworld">Magic, Witchcraft and the Otherworld</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabina_Magliocco" title="Sabina Magliocco">Magliocco's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Witching_Culture" title="Witching Culture">Witching Culture</a></i> (2004)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#ffd068;box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #FFFF00, inset -1px -1px 0 #FFFF00;;;width:1%">Historical approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hutton" title="Ronald Hutton">Hutton's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Pagan_Religions_of_the_Ancient_British_Isles" title="The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles">The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hutton" title="Ronald Hutton">Hutton's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Triumph_of_the_Moon" title="The Triumph of the Moon">The Triumph of the Moon</a></i> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chas_S._Clifton" title="Chas S. Clifton">Clifton's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Her_Hidden_Children" title="Her Hidden Children">Her Hidden Children</a></i> (2005)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#ffd068;box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #FFFF00, inset -1px -1px 0 #FFFF00;;;width:1%">Religious studies<br /> and theological approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Salomonsen's <i><a href="/wiki/Enchanted_Feminism" title="Enchanted Feminism">Enchanted Feminism</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mattias_Gardell" title="Mattias Gardell">Gardell's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Gods_of_the_Blood" title="Gods of the Blood">Gods of the Blood</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_York_(religious_studies_scholar)" title="Michael York (religious studies scholar)">York's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Theology" title="Pagan Theology">Pagan Theology</a></i> (2003)</li> <li>Davy's <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Pagan_Studies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Introduction to Pagan Studies (page does not exist)">Introduction to Pagan Studies</a></i> (2007)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#ffd068;box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #FFFF00, inset -1px -1px 0 #FFFF00;;;width:1%">Sociological approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Margot_Adler" title="Margot Adler">Adler's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Drawing_Down_the_Moon_(book)" title="Drawing Down the Moon (book)">Drawing Down the Moon</a></i> (1979, 1986, 1996, 2006)</li> <li>Scarboro, Campbell and Stave's <i><a href="/wiki/Living_Witchcraft" title="Living Witchcraft">Living Witchcraft</a></i> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_A._Berger" title="Helen A. Berger">Berger's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/A_Community_of_Witches" title="A Community of Witches">A Community of Witches</a></i> (1999)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#ffd068;box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #FFFF00, inset -1px -1px 0 #FFFF00;;;width:1%">Interdisciplinary<br />edited volumes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Pearson, Roberts and Samuel's <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_Religion_Today" title="Nature Religion Today">Nature Religion Today</a></i> (1998)</li> <li>Strmiska's <i><a href="/wiki/Modern_Paganism_in_World_Cultures" title="Modern Paganism in World Cultures">Modern Paganism in World Cultures</a></i> (2005)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#ffd068;box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #FFFF00, inset -1px -1px 0 #FFFF00;;;width:1%">Academic, peer-reviewed<br /> journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aries_(journal)" title="Aries (journal)">Aries</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Pomegranate_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Pomegranate (journal)">The Pomegranate</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magic,_Ritual,_and_Witchcraft" title="Magic, Ritual, and Witchcraft">Magic, Ritual, and Witchcraft</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nova_Religio" title="Nova Religio">Nova Religio</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffd068;box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #FFFF00, inset -1px -1px 0 #FFFF00;;"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Pagan_studies_books" title="Category:Pagan studies books">Pagan studies books</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_topics" title="Template talk:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_topics" 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style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> 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role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Edit 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href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuning of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis and Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possibilianism" title="Possibilianism">Possibilianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">Language game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers<br />of religion</a></div><br />(by date active)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800<br />1850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880<br />1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920<br />postwar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970<br />1990<br />2010</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Thelema" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Thelema_series" title="Template:Thelema series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Thelema_series" title="Template talk:Thelema series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Thelema_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Thelema series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Thelema" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Thelema" title="Thelema">Thelema</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A%E2%88%B4A%E2%88%B4" title="A∴A∴">A∴A∴</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_Gnostica_Catholica" title="Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica">Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraternitas_Saturni" title="Fraternitas Saturni">Fraternitas Saturni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_magic#James_Lees" title="Ceremonial magic">O∴A∴A∴</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Source_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn" title="Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn">Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordo_Templi_Orientis" title="Ordo Templi Orientis">Ordo Templi Orientis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_Ordo_Templi_Orientis" class="mw-redirect" title="Society Ordo Templi Orientis">Society Ordo Templi Orientis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelemic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn" class="mw-redirect" title="Thelemic Order of the Golden Dawn">Thelemic Order of the Golden Dawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typhonian_Order" title="Typhonian Order">Typhonian Order</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personalities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Thelemites" title="List of Thelemites">List of Thelemites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu_i" title="Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu i">Ankh-af-na-khonsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleister_Crowley" title="Aleister Crowley">Aleister Crowley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Anger" title="Kenneth Anger">Kenneth Anger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Henry_Allan_Bennett" title="Charles Henry Allan Bennett">Allan Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Breeze" title="William Breeze">William Breeze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Butts" title="Mary Butts">Mary Butts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marjorie_Cameron" title="Marjorie Cameron">Marjorie Cameron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lon_Milo_DuQuette" title="Lon Milo DuQuette">Lon Milo DuQuette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_Robert_Foster" title="Jeanne Robert Foster">Jeanne Robert Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._F._C._Fuller" title="J. F. C. Fuller">J. F. C. Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Germer" title="Karl Germer">Karl Germer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Grant" title="Kenneth Grant">Kenneth Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lady_Frieda_Harris" title="Lady Frieda Harris">Lady Frieda Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leah_Hirsig" title="Leah Hirsig">Leah Hirsig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Hyatt" title="Christopher Hyatt">Christopher Hyatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Stansfeld_Jones" title="Charles Stansfeld Jones">Charles Stansfeld Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Cecil_Jones" title="George Cecil Jones">George Cecil Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Kaczynski" title="Richard Kaczynski">Richard Kaczynski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Edith_Kelly" title="Rose Edith Kelly">Rose Edith Kelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_magic#James_Lees" title="Ceremonial magic">James Lees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grady_Louis_McMurtry" title="Grady Louis McMurtry">Grady Louis McMurtry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogg_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mogg Morgan">Mogg Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcelo_Ramos_Motta" title="Marcelo Ramos Motta">Marcelo Ramos Motta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nema_Andahadna" title="Nema Andahadna">Nema Andahadna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Neuburg_(poet)" title="Victor Neuburg (poet)">Victor Neuburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Northrup_Hollister" title="Sara Northrup Hollister">Sara Northrup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Parsons" title="Jack Parsons">Jack Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Parsons_Smith" title="Helen Parsons Smith">Helen Parsons Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Reuss" title="Theodor Reuss">Theodor Reuss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._F._Russell" title="C. F. Russell">C. F. Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phyllis_Seckler" title="Phyllis Seckler">Phyllis Seckler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfred_Talbot_Smith" title="Wilfred Talbot Smith">Wilfred Talbot Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leila_Waddell" title="Leila Waddell">Leila Waddell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wasserman" title="James Wasserman">James Wasserman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Webster_(writer)" title="Sam Webster (writer)">Sam Webster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Wolfe" title="Jane Wolfe">Jane Wolfe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Thelemic_texts" title="Category:Thelemic texts">Thelemic texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleister_Crowley_bibliography" title="Aleister Crowley bibliography">Aleister Crowley bibliography</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Lies_(Crowley)" title="The Book of Lies (Crowley)">The Book of Lies</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_the_Law" title="The Book of the Law"><i>The Book of the Law</i> (<i>Liber AL vel Legis</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Thoth" title="The Book of Thoth">The Book of Thoth</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clouds_without_Water" title="Clouds without Water">Clouds without Water</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Collected_Works_of_Aleister_Crowley" title="Collected Works of Aleister Crowley">Collected Works</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Confessions_of_Aleister_Crowley" title="The Confessions of Aleister Crowley">Confessions</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Diary_of_a_Drug_Fiend" title="The Diary of a Drug Fiend">The Diary of a Drug Fiend</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eight_Lectures_on_Yoga" title="Eight Lectures on Yoga">Eight Lectures on Yoga</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Equinox" title="The Equinox">The Equinox</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Blue_Equinox" title="The Blue Equinox">The Blue Equinox</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Equinox_of_the_Gods" title="The Equinox of the Gods">The Equinox of the Gods</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Holy_Books_of_Thelema" title="The Holy Books of Thelema">The Holy Books of Thelema</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Konx_Om_Pax" title="Konx Om Pax">Konx Om Pax</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Law_is_for_All" title="The Law is for All">The Law is for All</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/777_and_Other_Qabalistic_Writings_of_Aleister_Crowley" title="777 and Other Qabalistic Writings of Aleister Crowley">Liber 777</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Liber_Aleph" class="mw-redirect" title="Liber Aleph">Liber Aleph</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Liber_OZ" title="Liber OZ">Liber OZ</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Liber_Resh" class="mw-redirect" title="Liber Resh">Liber Resh</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Liber_Trigrammaton" title="Liber Trigrammaton">Liber Trigrammaton</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Little_Essays_Toward_Truth" title="Little Essays Toward Truth">Little Essays Toward Truth</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magick_(Book_4)" title="Magick (Book 4)">Magick (Book 4)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magick_Without_Tears" title="Magick Without Tears">Magick Without Tears</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moonchild_(novel)" title="Moonchild (novel)">Moonchild</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One_Star_in_Sight" title="One Star in Sight">One Star in Sight</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Stratagem_and_other_Stories" title="The Stratagem and other Stories">The Stratagem and other Stories</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thoth_Tarot" title="Thoth Tarot">Thoth Tarot</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Vision_and_the_Voice" title="The Vision and the Voice">The Vision and the Voice</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/White_Stains" title="White Stains">White Stains</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts and ideas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thelema#93" title="Thelema">93</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyss_(Thelema)" title="Abyss (Thelema)">Abyss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeon_(Thelema)" title="Aeon (Thelema)">Aeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agape" title="Agape">Agape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astral_projection" title="Astral projection">Astral projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_light" title="Body of light">Body of light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Qaballa" title="English Qaballa">English Qaballa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Work_(Thelema)" title="Great Work (Thelema)">Great Work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermetic_Qabalah" title="Hermetic Qabalah">Hermetic Qabalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_angel#Thelema" title="Guardian angel">Holy Guardian Angel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_formula" title="Magical formula">Magical formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_of_Pan" title="Night of Pan">Night of Pan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stele_of_Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu" title="Stele of Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu">Stele of Revealing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worship_of_heavenly_bodies" title="Worship of heavenly bodies">Stellar wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/True_Will" title="True Will">True Will</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Magick</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahadabra" title="Abrahadabra">Abrahadabra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_magic" title="Ceremonial magic">Ceremonial magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enochian_magic" title="Enochian magic">Enochian magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eroto-comatose_lucidity" title="Eroto-comatose lucidity">Eroto-comatose lucidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorcery_(goetia)" title="Sorcery (goetia)">Goetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obeah_and_wanga" class="mw-redirect" title="Obeah and wanga">Obeah and wanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_magic" title="Sex magic">Sex magic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ceremony and ritual</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liber_Resh_vel_Helios" title="Liber Resh vel Helios">Liber Resh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentagram_ritual" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentagram ritual">Pentagram Ritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bornless_Ritual" title="Bornless Ritual">Bornless Ritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liber_XV,_The_Gnostic_Mass" title="Liber XV, The Gnostic Mass">Gnostic Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rites_of_Eleusis" title="Rites of Eleusis">Rites of Eleusis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Godforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuit" title="Nuit">Nuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadit" title="Hadit">Hadit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heru-ra-ha" title="Heru-ra-ha">Heru-ra-ha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aiwass" title="Aiwass">Aiwass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therion_(Thelema)" title="Therion (Thelema)">Therion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babalon" title="Babalon">Babalon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaos_(cosmogony)#Greco-Roman_tradition" title="Chaos (cosmogony)">Chaos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maat" title="Maat">Ma'at</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpocrates" title="Harpocrates">Harpocrates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbolism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Number_of_the_beast" title="Number of the beast">Number of the beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentagram" title="Pentagram">Pentagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Cross" title="Rose Cross">Rose Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_of_life_(Kabbalah)" title="Tree of life (Kabbalah)">Tree of Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unicursal_hexagram" title="Unicursal hexagram">Unicursal hexagram</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_Thelema" title="Abbey of Thelema">Abbey of Thelema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abramelin_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Abramelin oil">Abramelin oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agape_Lodge" title="Agape Lodge">Agape Lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boleskine_House" title="Boleskine House">Boleskine House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Abramelin" title="The Book of Abramelin">Book of Abramelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cake_of_Light" title="Cake of Light">Cake of Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choronzon" title="Choronzon">Choronzon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dianism" title="Dianism">Dianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn" title="Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn">Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPSOS" title="IPSOS">IPSOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_alphabet" title="Magical alphabet">Magical alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_organization" title="Magical organization">Magical organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_deity" title="Solar deity">Solar deity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Lodge" title="Solar Lodge">Solar Lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Beast_(Revelation)" title="The Beast (Revelation)">The Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whore_of_Babylon" title="Whore of Babylon">Whore of Babylon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br />integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> 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