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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Auditory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Auditory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Auditory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Olfactory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Olfactory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Olfactory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Olfactory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electric" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electric"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Electric</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electric-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Touch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Touch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Touch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Touch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seismic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seismic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Seismic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seismic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Thermal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autocommunication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autocommunication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Autocommunication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autocommunication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Functions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interpretation_of_animal_behaviour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interpretation_of_animal_behaviour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Interpretation of animal behaviour</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interpretation_of_animal_behaviour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interspecific_communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interspecific_communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Interspecific communication</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Interspecific_communication-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Interspecific communication subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Interspecific_communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prey_to_predator" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prey_to_predator"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Prey to predator</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prey_to_predator-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Predator_to_prey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predator_to_prey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Predator to prey</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predator_to_prey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human/animal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human/animal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Human/animal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human/animal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_aspects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_aspects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Other aspects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_aspects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other aspects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_aspects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognitive_aspects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_aspects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Cognitive aspects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_aspects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Signature_whistles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signature_whistles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Signature whistles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Signature_whistles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_behaviour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_behaviour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Human behaviour</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_behaviour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linguistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Linguistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Errors_in_communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Errors_in_communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Errors in communication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Errors_in_communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal communication</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dierekommunikasie" title="Dierekommunikasie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Dierekommunikasie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="لغة تواصل الحيوانات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغة تواصل الحيوانات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comunicaci%C3%B3_animal" title="Comunicació animal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Comunicació animal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komunikace_zv%C3%AD%C5%99at" title="Komunikace zvířat – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Komunikace zvířat" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comunicaci%C3%B3n_animal" title="Comunicación animal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Comunicación animal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animala_komunikado" title="Animala komunikado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Animala komunikado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalien_komunikazioa" title="Animalien komunikazioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Animalien komunikazioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B7_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ارتباط جانوران – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ارتباط جانوران" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_animale" title="Communication animale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Communication animale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%99%EB%AC%BC_%EC%9D%98%EC%82%AC%EC%86%8C%ED%86%B5" title="동물 의사소통 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="동물 의사소통" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Կենդանիների հաղորդակցում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կենդանիների հաղորդակցում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komunikasi_hewan" title="Komunikasi hewan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Komunikasi hewan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%BDrat%C3%A1knfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Dýratáknfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Dýratáknfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comunicazione_animale" title="Comunicazione animale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Comunicazione animale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%99_%D7%97%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="תקשורת בעלי חיים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תקשורת בעלי חיים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81llati_kommunik%C3%A1ci%C3%B3" title="Állati kommunikáció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Állati kommunikáció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diercommunicatie" title="Diercommunicatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Diercommunicatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9%E3%81%AE%E3%82%B3%E3%83%9F%E3%83%A5%E3%83%8B%E3%82%B1%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A7%E3%83%B3" title="動物のコミュニケーション – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="動物のコミュニケーション" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyrekommunikasjon" title="Dyrekommunikasjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Dyrekommunikasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%88_%D9%85%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%85%D9%87" title="د څارویو مفاهمه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د څارویو مفاهمه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comunica%C3%A7%C3%A3o_animal" title="Comunicação animal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Comunicação animal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%80_%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="සත්ත්ව සන්නිවේදනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සත්ත්ව සන්නිවේදනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komunikacija_%C5%BEivali" title="Komunikacija živali – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Komunikacija živali" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komunikacija_%C5%BEivotinja" title="Komunikacija životinja – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Komunikacija životinja" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komunikasi_sato" title="Komunikasi sato – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Komunikasi sato" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%C3%A4inten_viestint%C3%A4" title="Eläinten viestintä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Eläinten viestintä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djurs_kommunikation" title="Djurs kommunikation – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Djurs kommunikation" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Transfer of information from animal to animal</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Overly_detailed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-overly_detailed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience</b>. <b>Specifically, Too many examples given in most sections, and too many tangents into evolution and the theory of communication. Cleanup needed.</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Content_forking#Article_spinoffs:_.22Summary_style.22_meta-articles_and_summary_sections" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Content forking">spinning off</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Handling_trivia#Recommendations_for_handling_trivia" title="Wikipedia:Handling trivia">relocating</a> any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">Wikipedia's inclusion policy</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Animal communication</b> is the transfer of information from one or a group of animals (sender or senders) to one or more other animals (receiver or receivers) that affects the current or future behavior of the receivers.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20230920_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20230920-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Information may be sent intentionally, as in a <a href="/wiki/Courtship_display" title="Courtship display">courtship display</a>, or unintentionally, as in the transfer of scent from the predator to prey with <a href="/wiki/Kairomone" title="Kairomone">kairomones</a>. Information may be transferred to an "audience" of several receivers.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Animal communication is a rapidly growing area of study in disciplines including <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">animal behavior</a>, sociology, neurology, and <a href="/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">animal cognition</a>. Many aspects of animal behavior, such as symbolic name use, emotional expression, learning, and <a href="/wiki/Animal_sexual_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal sexual behavior">sexual behavior</a>, are being understood in new ways.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When the information from the sender changes the behavior of a receiver, the information is referred to as a "signal". <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a> predicts that for a signal to be maintained in the population, both the sender and receiver should usually receive some benefit from the interaction. Signal production by senders and the perception and subsequent response of receivers are thought to <a href="/wiki/Coevolve" class="mw-redirect" title="Coevolve">coevolve</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Maynard-Smith_and_Harper,_2003_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maynard-Smith_and_Harper,_2003-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Signals often involve multiple mechanisms, e.g., both visual and auditory, and for a signal to be understood, the coordinated behavior of both sender and receiver requires careful study. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Animal_languages">Animal languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Animal languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The sounds animals make are important because they communicate the animals' state.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some animals species have been taught simple versions of human languages.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Animals can use, for example, <a href="/wiki/Electroreception_and_electrogenesis" title="Electroreception and electrogenesis">electrolocation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animal_echolocation" title="Animal echolocation">echolocation</a> to communicate about <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">prey</a> and location.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modes">Modes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Modes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual">Visual</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Visual"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For information on the perception of visual signals, see <a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a>.</div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Gesture" title="Gesture">Gestures</a></dt> <dd>Most animals understand communication through a visual <a href="/wiki/Display_(zoology)" title="Display (zoology)">display</a> of distinctive body parts or bodily movements. Animals will reveal or accentuate a body part to relay certain information. The parent <a href="/wiki/Herring_gull" title="Herring gull">herring gull</a> displays its bright yellow bill on the ground next over its chick when it has returned to the nest with food. The chicks exhibit a <a href="/wiki/Begging_behavior_in_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Begging behavior in animals">begging response</a> by tapping the red spot on the lower mandible of the parent herring gull's bill. This signal stimulates the parent to regurgitate food and completes the feeding signal. The distinctive morphological feature accentuated in this communication is the parent's red-spotted bill, while the tapping towards the ground makes the red spot visible to the chick, demonstrating a distinctive movement.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Frans_de_Waal" title="Frans de Waal">Frans de Waal</a> studied <a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">bonobos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimps</a> to understand if language was somehow evolved by gestures. He found that both apes and humans only use intentional gestures to communicate.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></dt> <dd>Another important signal of <a href="/wiki/Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">emotion</a> in animal communication are facial gestures. Blue and Yellow Macaws were studied to understand how they reacted to interactions with a familiar animal caretaker. Studies show that Blue and Yellow Macaws demonstrated a significant amount of blushing frequently during mutual interactions with a caretaker.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In another experiment, <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Mogil" title="Jeffrey Mogil">Jeffrey Mogil</a> studied facial expression in mice in response to increments of increasing pain. He found that mice exhibited five recognizable facial expressions: orbital tightening, nose and cheek bulge, and changes in ear and whisker carriage.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">Gaze</a>-following</dt> <dd>Social animals use gaze-following as a form of communication through monitoring head and eye orientation in other mammals.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies have been conducted on apes, monkeys, dogs, birds, wolves, and tortoises, and have focused on two different tasks: "follow[ing] another's gaze into distant space" and "follow[ing] another's gaze geometrically around a visual barrier, e.g., by repositioning themselves to follow a gaze cue when faced with a barrier blocking their view".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A broad range of animals have been proven to exhibit the latter, however, only apes, dogs, wolves, and corvids (ravens) have been able to follow another's gaze into distant space. <a href="/wiki/Marmoset" title="Marmoset">Marmosets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibis" title="Ibis">ibis</a> were unable to demonstrate "geometric gaze following". Researchers do not yet have a clear picture of the cognitive basis of gaze following, but developmental evidence indicates that "simple" gaze following and "geometric" gaze following probably rely on different cognitive mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Colour change</dt> <dd>Colour change can be separated into changes that occur during growth and development, and those triggered by mood, social context, or abiotic factors such as temperature. The latter are seen in many taxa. Some <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">cephalopods</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Octopus" title="Octopus">octopus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cuttlefish" title="Cuttlefish">cuttlefish</a>, have specialized skin cells (<a href="/wiki/Chromatophores" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromatophores">chromatophores</a>) that can change the apparent colour, opacity, and reflectiveness of their skin.<sup id="cite_ref-cephalopod1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cephalopod1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to their use for <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflage</a>, rapid changes in skin colour are used while hunting and in courtship rituals.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cuttlefish may display two entirely different signals simultaneously from opposite sides of their body. When a male cuttlefish courts a female in the presence of other males, he displays a male pattern facing the female and a female pattern facing away, to deceive other males.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some colour signals occur in cycles. For example, when a female olive baboon begins to ovulate, her anogenital area swells and turns a bright red/pink. This signals to males that she is ready to mate.<sup id="cite_ref-Motluk_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Motluk-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_squid" title="Humboldt squid">Humboldt squid</a> are <a href="/wiki/Bioluminescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioluminescent">bioluminescent</a> and thus capable of communicating visually in dark ocean environments.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescent communication</a></dt> <dd>Communication by the production of light occurs commonly in vertebrates and invertebrates in the oceans, particularly at depths (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Angler_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Angler fish">angler fish</a>). Two well-known forms of land bioluminescence occur in <a href="/wiki/Firefly" title="Firefly">fireflies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phengodidae" title="Phengodidae">glow worms</a>. Other insects, insect <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larvae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">annelids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arachnid" title="Arachnid">arachnids</a>, and even species of <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a> possess bioluminescent abilities. Some bioluminescent animals produce the light themselves, whereas others have a <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiotic</a> relationship with bioluminescent bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Animals exhibit bioluminescent light to lure in prey, attract a mate, or protect themselves from potential predators.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_bioluminescent_organisms" title="List of bioluminescent organisms">List of bioluminescent organisms</a>)</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Signaling">Signaling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Signaling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Killer_Whales_Hunting_a_Seal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Orcas and a seal." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Killer_Whales_Hunting_a_Seal.jpg/220px-Killer_Whales_Hunting_a_Seal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Killer_Whales_Hunting_a_Seal.jpg/330px-Killer_Whales_Hunting_a_Seal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Killer_Whales_Hunting_a_Seal.jpg/440px-Killer_Whales_Hunting_a_Seal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6720" data-file-height="4411" /></a><figcaption>Two killer whales navigating around a seal (prey).</figcaption></figure> <p>There are many different types of signals that animals use to differentiate their position of direction, location, and distance. Practitioners study the issues of animal position by geometric viewings. Environmental and social influences are indicators of geometric viewings.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Animals rely on signals called electrolocating and echolocating; they use sensory senses in order to navigate and find prey.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Signals are used as a form of commutation through the environment. Active signals or other types of signals influence receivers behavior and signals move quicker in distance to reach receivers.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Auditory">Auditory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Auditory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Animal_language" title="Animal language">Animal language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Birdsinging03182006.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Birdsinging03182006.JPG/220px-Birdsinging03182006.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Birdsinging03182006.JPG/330px-Birdsinging03182006.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Birdsinging03182006.JPG/440px-Birdsinging03182006.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1988" data-file-height="1616" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bird_call" class="mw-redirect" title="Bird call">Bird calls</a> can serve as alarms or keep members of a <a href="/wiki/Flock_(birds)" title="Flock (birds)">flock</a> in contact, while the longer and more complex <a href="/wiki/Bird_song" class="mw-redirect" title="Bird song">bird songs</a> are associated with <a href="/wiki/Bird#Breeding" title="Bird">courtship and mating</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Corvus_brachyrhynchos_-_American_Crow_-_XC115429.ogg" title="File:Corvus brachyrhynchos - American Crow - XC115429.ogg">Crows flocking</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="35" data-mwtitle="Corvus_brachyrhynchos_-_American_Crow_-_XC115429.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Corvus_brachyrhynchos_-_American_Crow_-_XC115429.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/90/Corvus_brachyrhynchos_-_American_Crow_-_XC115429.ogg/Corvus_brachyrhynchos_-_American_Crow_-_XC115429.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description">A flock of <a href="/wiki/American_crow" title="American crow">American crows</a>.</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr /><i class="selfreference">Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</i></div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="169" data-mwtitle="Humpback-Whale-Song-on-the-Southern-Ocean-Feeding-Grounds-Implications-for-Cultural-Transmission-pone.0079422.s005.oga" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Humpback-Whale-Song-on-the-Southern-Ocean-Feeding-Grounds-Implications-for-Cultural-Transmission-pone.0079422.s005.oga"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Humpback-Whale-Song-on-the-Southern-Ocean-Feeding-Grounds-Implications-for-Cultural-Transmission-pone.0079422.s005.oga" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/56/Humpback-Whale-Song-on-the-Southern-Ocean-Feeding-Grounds-Implications-for-Cultural-Transmission-pone.0079422.s005.oga/Humpback-Whale-Song-on-the-Southern-Ocean-Feeding-Grounds-Implications-for-Cultural-Transmission-pone.0079422.s005.oga.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span><figcaption>Humpback whale singing at Southern Ocean feeding grounds.</figcaption></figure> <p>Many animals communicate through vocalization. Vocal communication serves many purposes, including mating rituals, warning calls, conveying location of food sources, and social learning. In a number of species, males perform calls during mating rituals as a form of competition against other males and to signal to females. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Frogs" class="mw-redirect" title="Frogs">frogs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hammer-headed_bat" title="Hammer-headed bat">hammer-headed bats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_deer" title="Red deer">red deer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humpback_whale" title="Humpback whale">humpback whales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elephant_seal" title="Elephant seal">elephant seals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Songbird" title="Songbird">songbirds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mikula_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mikula-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other instances of vocal communication include the <a href="/wiki/Alarm_call" class="mw-redirect" title="Alarm call">alarm calls</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Campbell_monkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Campbell monkey">Campbell monkey</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Territory_(animal)" title="Territory (animal)">territorial</a> calls of <a href="/wiki/Gibbon" title="Gibbon">gibbons</a>, and the use of frequency in <a href="/wiki/Greater_spear-nosed_bat" title="Greater spear-nosed bat">greater spear-nosed bats</a> to distinguish between groups.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Vervet_monkey" title="Vervet monkey">vervet monkey</a> gives a distinct alarm call for each of its four different predators, and the reactions of other monkeys vary appropriately according to the call. For example, if an alarm call signals a python, the monkeys climb into the trees, whereas the "eagle" alarm causes monkeys to seek a hiding place on the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Prairie_dogs" class="mw-redirect" title="Prairie dogs">Prairie dogs</a> also use complex calls that signal predator differences. According to <a href="/wiki/Con_Slobodchikoff" title="Con Slobodchikoff">Con Slobodchikoff</a> and others, prairie dog calls communicate the type, size, and speed of an approaching predator.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>  <a href="/wiki/Whale_vocalization" title="Whale vocalization">Whale vocalizations</a> have been found to have different <a href="/wiki/Animal_culture#Cetacean_culture" title="Animal culture">dialects</a> based on social learning.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mammalian acoustic culture was first discovered in <a href="/wiki/Southern_resident_orcas#Sounds" title="Southern resident orcas">southern resident orcas</a> in 1978.<sup id="cite_ref-Ford,_1984_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ford,_1984-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Souhaut_&_Shields,_2021_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Souhaut_&_Shields,_2021-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Not all animals use vocalization as a means of auditory communication. Many <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a> rub specialized body parts together to produce sound. This is known as <a href="/wiki/Stridulation" title="Stridulation">stridulation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Crickets" class="mw-redirect" title="Crickets">Crickets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grasshopper" title="Grasshopper">grasshoppers</a> are well known for this, but many others use stridulation as well, including <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spider" title="Spider">spiders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scorpion" title="Scorpion">scorpions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wasp" title="Wasp">wasps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beetle" title="Beetle">beetles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Butterfly" title="Butterfly">butterflies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moth" title="Moth">moths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Millipede" title="Millipede">millipedes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Centipede" title="Centipede">centipedes</a>. Another means of auditory communication is the vibration of <a href="/wiki/Swim_bladder" title="Swim bladder">swim bladders</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bony_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Bony fish">bony fish</a>. The structure of swim bladders and the attached sonic muscles varies greatly across bony fish families, resulting in a wide variety of sounds.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Striking body parts together can also produce auditory signals. A well-known example of this is the tail tip vibration of <a href="/wiki/Rattlesnake" title="Rattlesnake">rattlesnakes</a> as a warning signal. Other examples include bill clacking in birds, wing clapping in <a href="/wiki/Manakin" title="Manakin">manakin</a> courtship displays, and chest beating in <a href="/wiki/Gorillas" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorillas">gorillas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Groundhog-Standing2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Groundhog-Standing2.jpg/220px-Groundhog-Standing2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Groundhog-Standing2.jpg/330px-Groundhog-Standing2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Groundhog-Standing2.jpg/440px-Groundhog-Standing2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1504" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>An alert motionless <a href="/wiki/Groundhog" title="Groundhog">groundhog</a> whistles when alarmed to warn other groundhogs.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Burrowing_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Burrowing animals">Burrowing animal</a> species are known to whistle to communicate threats, and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">mood</a>. Species such as the <a href="/wiki/Marmot" title="Marmot">marmot</a> species, including the <a href="/wiki/Groundhog" title="Groundhog">groundhog</a> (woodchuck), and the <a href="/wiki/Alpine_marmot" title="Alpine marmot">alpine marmot</a> show this trait. <a href="/wiki/Whistling" title="Whistling">Whistling</a> is used by animals such as <a href="/wiki/Prairie_dogs" class="mw-redirect" title="Prairie dogs">prairie dogs</a> to communicate <a href="/wiki/Threats" class="mw-redirect" title="Threats">threats</a>, with prairie dogs having one of the most complex communication systems in the <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal kingdom</a>. Prairie dogs are able to communicate an animal's speed, shape, size, species, and for humans specific <a href="/wiki/Attire" class="mw-redirect" title="Attire">attire</a> and if the human is carrying a <a href="/wiki/Gun" title="Gun">gun</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This method of communication is usually done by having a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sentry" class="extiw" title="wikt:sentry">sentry</a> stand on two feet and <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveying</a> for potential <a href="/wiki/Threats" class="mw-redirect" title="Threats">threats</a> while the rest of the pack finds food. Once a threat has been identified the sentry sounds a whistle <a href="/wiki/Alarm" class="mw-redirect" title="Alarm">alarm</a>, (sometimes describing the threat) at which point the pack retreats to their burrows. The intensity of the threat is usually determined by how long the sentry whistles. The sentry continues to whistle the alarm until the entirety of the pack has gone to safety, at which point the sentry returns to the burrow.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Olfactory">Olfactory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Olfactory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Olfactic_communication" title="Olfactic communication">Olfactic communication</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panthera_tigris_altaica_Flehmen_Zoo_Leipzig_2013.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Panthera_tigris_altaica_Flehmen_Zoo_Leipzig_2013.jpg/220px-Panthera_tigris_altaica_Flehmen_Zoo_Leipzig_2013.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Panthera_tigris_altaica_Flehmen_Zoo_Leipzig_2013.jpg/330px-Panthera_tigris_altaica_Flehmen_Zoo_Leipzig_2013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Panthera_tigris_altaica_Flehmen_Zoo_Leipzig_2013.jpg/440px-Panthera_tigris_altaica_Flehmen_Zoo_Leipzig_2013.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2929" data-file-height="2193" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Flehmen_response" title="Flehmen response">Flehmen response</a> in a tiger</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sniffing_fur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Sniffing_fur.jpg/220px-Sniffing_fur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Sniffing_fur.jpg/330px-Sniffing_fur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Sniffing_fur.jpg/440px-Sniffing_fur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>A lamb investigates a <a href="/wiki/Rabbit" title="Rabbit">rabbit</a>, an example of interspecific communication using body posture and olfaction.</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite being the oldest method of communication, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical communication">chemical communication</a> is one of the least understood forms due in part to the sheer abundance of chemicals in our environment and the difficulty of detecting and measuring all the chemicals in a sample.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ability to detect chemicals in the environment serves many functions, a crucial one being the detection of food, a function that first arose in single-celled organisms (<a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>) living in the oceans during the early days of life on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As this function evolved, organisms began to differentiate between chemical compounds emanating from resources, conspecifics (same species; i.e., mates and kin), and heterospecifics (different species; i.e., competitors and predators).<sup id="cite_ref-:12_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For instance, a small <a href="/wiki/Minnow" title="Minnow">minnow</a> species may do well to avoid habitat with a detectable concentration of chemical cues associated with a predator species such as a northern pike.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Minnows with the ability to perceive the presence of predators before they are close enough to be seen and then respond with adaptive behavior (such as hiding) are more likely to survive and reproduce.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_salmon" title="Atlantic salmon">Atlantic salmon</a> go a step further than detecting a predator's cue: when an individual is damaged by a predator, it releases a chemical cue to its conspecifics.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As has also been observed in other species, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a> and changes in <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> physically disrupt these chemical cues, which has various implications for <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">animal behavior</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Scent_marking" class="mw-redirect" title="Scent marking">Scent marking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scent_rubbing" title="Scent rubbing">scent rubbing</a> are common forms of olfactory communication in mammals.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of scent rubbing by an animal can be seen from bears, bears do this as a way to mark territory or let others know they are there and to stay away.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wolf" title="Wolf">Wolves</a> scent-mark frequently during the <a href="/wiki/Breeding_season" class="mw-redirect" title="Breeding season">breeding season</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electric">Electric</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Electric"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electrocommunication" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrocommunication">Electrocommunication</a></div> <p>Electrocommunication is a rare form of communication in animals. It is seen primarily in aquatic animals, though some land mammals, notably the <a href="/wiki/Platypus" title="Platypus">platypus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Echidna" title="Echidna">echidnas</a>, sense electric fields that might be used for communication.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Electric_fish" title="Electric fish">Weakly electric fishes</a> provide an example of electrocommunication, together with <a href="/wiki/Electrolocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrolocation">electrolocation</a>. These fish use an electric organ to generate an electric field, which is detected by <a href="/wiki/Electroreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroreception">electroreceptors</a>. Differences in the waveform and frequency of changes in the field convey information on species, sex, and identity. These electric signals can be generated in response to hormones, circadian rhythms, and interactions with other fish. They can also serve to mediate social hierarchy amongst species that have a social order.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some predators, such as sharks and rays, are able to eavesdrop on these electrogenic fish through passive electroreception.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Touch">Touch</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Touch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd><i>For more on the mechanism for touch, see <a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">Somatosensory system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mechanoreceptor" title="Mechanoreceptor">Mechanoreceptors</a></i></dd></dl> <p>Touch is a key factor in many social interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples include: </p> <dl><dt>Fighting</dt> <dd>In a fight, touch may be used to challenge an opponent and to coordinate movements during the fight. It may also be used by the loser to indicate submission.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Mating</dt> <dd>Mammals often initiate mating by grooming, stroking or rubbing against each other. This provides the opportunity to apply chemical signals and to assess those excreted by the potential mate. Touch may also announce the intention of the male to mount the female, as when a male kangaroo grabs the tail of a female. During mating, touch stimuli are important for pair positioning, coordination and genital stimulation.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Social integration</dt> <dd>Touch is widely used for social integration, a use that is typified by the social grooming of one animal by another. Social grooming has several functions; it removes parasites and debris from the groomed animal, it reaffirms the social bond or hierarchical relationship between the animals, and it gives the groomer an opportunity to examine <a href="/wiki/Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">olfactory</a> cues on the groomed individual, perhaps adding additional ones. This behaviour has been observed in social insects, birds and mammals.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Foraging</dt> <dd>Some ant species recruit fellow workers to new food finds by first tapping them with their antennae and forelegs, then leading them to the food source while keeping physical contact. "Patrollers" leave the nest to check for danger nearby and return to recruit "foragers" by making physical contact.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example of this is the <a href="/wiki/Waggle_dance" title="Waggle dance">waggle dance of honey bees</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_40-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Huddling</dt> <dd>Prolonged physical contact or <a href="/wiki/Huddle" title="Huddle">huddling</a> also serves social integration. Huddling promotes heat exchange, together with the transfer of olfactory or tactile information.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some organisms live in constant contact in a colony, for example colonial corals. When individuals are linked tightly in this way an entire colony can react on the aversive or alarm movements made by only a few individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In several herbivorous insect nymphs and larvae, aggregations where there is prolonged contact play a major role in group coordination. These aggregations may take the form of a procession or a rosette.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seismic">Seismic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Seismic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seismic_communication" title="Seismic communication">Seismic communication</a></div> <p>Seismic communication is the exchange of information using self-generated vibrational signals transmitted via a substrate such as the soil, water, spider webs, plant stems, or a blade of grass. This form of communication has several advantages, for example it can be sent regardless of light and noise levels, and it usually has a short range and short persistence, which may reduce the danger of detection by predators. The use of seismic communication is found in many taxa, including frogs, kangaroo rats, mole rats, bees, nematode worms, and others. Tetrapods usually make seismic waves by drumming on the ground with a body part, a signal that is sensed by the <a href="/wiki/Saccule" title="Saccule">sacculus</a> of the receiver.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sacculus is an organ in the inner ear containing a membranous sac that is used for balance, but can also detect seismic waves in animals that use this form of communication. Vibrations may be combined with other sorts of communication.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermal">Thermal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Thermal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thermoreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoreception">Thermoreception</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Pit_Organs_of_Two_Different_Snakes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/The_Pit_Organs_of_Two_Different_Snakes.jpg/220px-The_Pit_Organs_of_Two_Different_Snakes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/The_Pit_Organs_of_Two_Different_Snakes.jpg/330px-The_Pit_Organs_of_Two_Different_Snakes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/The_Pit_Organs_of_Two_Different_Snakes.jpg/440px-The_Pit_Organs_of_Two_Different_Snakes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="661" /></a><figcaption>A python (top) and rattlesnake illustrating the positions of the pit organs. Red arrows indicate the pit organs whereas black arrows indicate the nostril.</figcaption></figure><p> A number of different snakes have the ability to sense <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> (IR) thermal radiation, which allows these <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> to derive thermal images from the radiant heat emitted by predators or prey at <a href="/wiki/Wavelengths" class="mw-redirect" title="Wavelengths">wavelengths</a> between 5 and 30 <a href="/wiki/%CE%9Cm" class="mw-redirect" title="Μm">μm</a>. The accuracy of this sense is such that a blind <a href="/wiki/Rattlesnake" title="Rattlesnake">rattlesnake</a> can target its strike to the vulnerable body parts of a prey animal.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was previously thought that the pit organs evolved primarily as prey detectors, but it is now believed that they may also be used to control body temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The facial pits enabling thermoregulation underwent <a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">parallel evolution</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pitvipers" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitvipers">pitvipers</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Boidae" title="Boidae">boas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pythons" class="mw-redirect" title="Pythons">pythons</a>, having evolved once in pitvipers and multiple times in boas and pythons.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">electrophysiology</a> of the structure is similar between lineages, but it differs in gross structure <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a>. Most superficially, pitvipers possess one large pit organ on either side of the head, between the eye and the nostril (<a href="/wiki/Loreal_pit" title="Loreal pit">loreal pit</a>), while boas and pythons have three or more comparatively smaller pits lining the upper and sometimes the lower lip, in or between the scales. Those of the pitvipers are the more advanced, having a suspended sensory membrane as opposed to a simple pit structure. Within the family <a href="/wiki/Viperidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Viperidae">Viperidae</a>, the pit organ is seen only in the subfamily <a href="/wiki/Crotalinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Crotalinae">Crotalinae</a>: the pitvipers. Despite the detection of IR radiation, the pits' IR mechanism is dissimilar to photoreceptors; while photoreceptors detect light via photochemical reactions, the protein in the facial pits of snakes is a temperature sensitive ion channel. It senses infrared signals through a mechanism involving warming of the pit organ, rather than chemical reaction to light.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is consistent with the thin pit membrane, which allows incoming IR radiation to quickly and precisely warm a given ion channel and trigger a nerve impulse, as well as vascularize the pit membrane to rapidly cool the ion channel back to its original "resting" or "inactive" temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Common_vampire_bat" title="Common vampire bat">Common vampire bats</a> (<i>Desmodus rotundus</i>) have specialized IR sensors in their nose-leaf.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vampire bats are the only mammals that feed exclusively on blood. The IR sense enables Desmodus to localize <a href="/wiki/Homeothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Homeothermic">homeothermic</a> animals such as cattle and horses within a range of about 10 to 15 cm. This <a href="/wiki/Infrared_sensing_in_vampire_bats" title="Infrared sensing in vampire bats">infrared perception</a> may be used in detecting regions of maximal blood flow on targeted prey. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Autocommunication">Autocommunication</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Autocommunication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Autocommunication" class="mw-redirect" title="Autocommunication">Autocommunication</a> is a type of communication in which the sender and receiver are the same individual. The sender emits a signal that is altered by the environment and eventually is received by the same individual. The altered signal provides information that can indicate food, predators or conspecifics. Because the sender and receiver are the same animal, <a href="/wiki/Selection_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Selection pressure">selection pressure</a> maximizes signal efficacy, i.e. the degree to which an emitted signal is correctly identified by a receiver despite propagation distortion and noise. There are some species, such as the pacific herring, which have evolved to intercept these messages from their predators. They are able to use it as an early warning sign and respond defensively.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are two types of autocommunication. The first is active <a href="/wiki/Electrolocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrolocation">electrolocation</a>, where the organism emits an electrical pulse through its electric organ and senses the projected geometrical property of the object. This is found in the <a href="/wiki/Electric_fish" title="Electric fish">electric fish</a> <a href="/wiki/Gymnotiformes" title="Gymnotiformes">Gymnotiformes</a> (knifefishes) and <a href="/wiki/Mormyridae" title="Mormyridae">Mormyridae</a>(elephantfish).<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second type of autocommunication is <a href="/wiki/Animal_echolocation" title="Animal echolocation">echolocation</a>, found in <a href="/wiki/Bats" class="mw-redirect" title="Bats">bats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Odontoceti" class="mw-redirect" title="Odontoceti">toothed whales</a>. Echolocation involves emitting sounds and interpreting the vibrations that return from objects.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In bats, echolocation also serves the purpose of mapping their environment. They are capable of recognizing a space they have been in before without any visible light because they can memorize patterns in the feedback they get from echolocation.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Functions">Functions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Functions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are many functions of animal communication. However, some have been studied in more detail than others. This includes: </p> <dl><dt>Communication during contests</dt> <dd>Animal communication plays a vital role in determining the winner of contest over a resource. Many species have distinct signals that signal aggression or willingness to attack or signals to convey retreat during competitions over food, territories, or mates.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="48" data-mwtitle="Red_Deer_(Cervus_elaphus)_(W1CDR0001424_BD3).ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Red_Deer_(Cervus_elaphus)_(W1CDR0001424_BD3).ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9b/Red_Deer_%28Cervus_elaphus%29_%28W1CDR0001424_BD3%29.ogg/Red_Deer_%28Cervus_elaphus%29_%28W1CDR0001424_BD3%29.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Red_Deer_%28Cervus_elaphus%29_%28W1CDR0001424_BD3%29.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span><figcaption>Two 'Red Deer roaring, most likely to establish dominance during a rut. However, males also use loud roaring to keep track of harems of females.</figcaption></figure> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Mating" title="Mating">Mating</a> rituals</dt> <dd>Animals produce signals to attract the attention of a possible mate or to solidify pair bonds. These signals frequently involve the display of body parts or postures. For example, a gazelle will assume characteristic poses to initiate mating. Mating signals can also include the use of <a href="/wiki/Olfactory" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory">olfactory</a> signals or <a href="/wiki/Mating_call" title="Mating call">mating calls</a> unique to a species. Animals that form lasting <a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">pair bonds</a> often have symmetrical displays that they make to each other. Famous examples are the mutual presentation of reeds by great crested grebes studied by <a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Julian Huxley</a>, the triumph displays shown by many species of <a href="/wiki/Geese" class="mw-redirect" title="Geese">geese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penguins" class="mw-redirect" title="Penguins">penguins</a> on their nest sites, and the spectacular courtship displays by <a href="/wiki/Birds_of_paradise" class="mw-redirect" title="Birds of paradise">birds of paradise</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Female_copulatory_vocalizations" title="Female copulatory vocalizations">"Copulation calls"</a> in mammals can indicate a female's breeding status or attract other mates.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Ownership/territorial</dt> <dd>Signals used to claim or defend a territory, food, or a mate. Polygynous <a href="/wiki/Lizard" title="Lizard">lizards</a> (<i>Anolis carolinensis</i>) will show greater signs of aggression from farther distances between males than between females when defending a territory or mate. It is believed that males have evolved to remain distant from each other due to higher reproductive consequences as opposed to females.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Redirected_aggression" class="mw-redirect" title="Redirected aggression">Redirected aggression</a></dt> <dd>Some animals who are fearful of stimuli will attack anyone near them.<sup id="cite_ref-Bowen_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowen-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Food-related signals</dt> <dd>Many animals make "food calls" to attract a mate, offspring, or other members of a social group to a food source. Perhaps the most elaborate food-related signal is the <a href="/wiki/Waggle_dance" title="Waggle dance">Waggle dance</a> of <a href="/wiki/Honeybees" class="mw-redirect" title="Honeybees">honeybees</a> studied by <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a>. One well-known example of begging of offspring in a clutch or litter is <a href="/wiki/Altricial" class="mw-redirect" title="Altricial">altricial</a> songbirds. Young ravens will signal to older ravens when they encounter new or untested food.  <a href="/wiki/Rhesus_macaques" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhesus macaques">Rhesus macaques</a> will send food calls to inform other monkeys of a food source to avoid punishment.  <a href="/wiki/Pheromones" class="mw-redirect" title="Pheromones">Pheromones</a> are released by many social insects to lead the other members of the society to the food source. For example, <a href="/wiki/Ants" class="mw-redirect" title="Ants">ants</a> leave a pheromone trail on the ground that can be followed by other ants to lead them to the food source.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Alarm_calls" class="mw-redirect" title="Alarm calls">Alarm calls</a></dt> <dd>Alarm calls communicate the threat of a predator. This allows all members of a social group (and sometimes other species) to respond accordingly. This may include running for cover, becoming immobile, or gathering into a group to reduce the risk of attack.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alarm signals are not always vocalizations. Crushed ants will release an alarm pheromone to attract more ants and send them into an attack state.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Meta-communication" title="Meta-communication">Meta-communication</a></dt> <dd>Signals that will modify the meaning of subsequent signals. One example is the 'play face' in <a href="/wiki/Dogs" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogs">dogs</a> which signals that a subsequent aggressive signal is part of a play fight rather than a serious aggressive episode.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interpretation_of_animal_behaviour">Interpretation of animal behaviour</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Interpretation of animal behaviour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As described above, many animal gestures, postures, and sounds, convey meaning to nearby animals. These signals are often easier to describe than to interpret. It is tempting, especially with domesticated animals and apes, to <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">anthropomorphize</a>, that is, to interpret animal actions in human terms, but this can be quite misleading; for example, an ape's "smile" is often a sign of aggression. Also, the same gesture may have different meanings depending on context within which it occurs. For example, a domestic <a href="/wiki/Dog" title="Dog">dog</a>'s tail wag and posture may be used in different ways to convey many meanings as illustrated in <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals" title="The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals">The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals</a> published in 1872. Some of Darwin's illustrations are reproduced here. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerycaption">Examples of tail position indicating different emotions in dogs</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 179.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 177.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_4.png" class="mw-file-description" title=""Small dog watching a cat on a table""><img alt=""Small dog watching a cat on a table"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_4.png/266px-Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_4.png" decoding="async" width="178" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_4.png/399px-Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_4.png/531px-Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_4.png 2x" data-file-width="1011" data-file-height="743" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">"Small dog watching a cat on a table"</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 214px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 212px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_5.png" class="mw-file-description" title=""Dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions""><img alt=""Dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_5.png/318px-Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_5.png" decoding="async" width="212" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_5.png/478px-Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_5.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_5.png/636px-Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_5.png 2x" data-file-width="3312" data-file-height="2031" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">"Dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions"</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 212px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_6.png" class="mw-file-description" title=""Dog in a humble and affectionate frame of mind""><img alt=""Dog in a humble and affectionate frame of mind"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_6.png/315px-Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_6.png" decoding="async" width="210" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_6.png/473px-Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_6.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_6.png/629px-Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_6.png 2x" data-file-width="3321" data-file-height="2060" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">"Dog in a humble and affectionate frame of mind"</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_7.png" class="mw-file-description" title=""Half-bred shepherd dog""><img alt=""Half-bred shepherd dog"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_7.png/240px-Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_7.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_7.png/361px-Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_7.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_7.png/480px-Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_7.png 2x" data-file-width="2671" data-file-height="2170" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">"Half-bred shepherd dog"</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 92.666666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 90.666666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_8.png" class="mw-file-description" title=""Dog caressing his master""><img alt=""Dog caressing his master"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_8.png/136px-Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_8.png" decoding="async" width="91" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_8.png/204px-Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_8.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_8.png/272px-Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_8.png 2x" data-file-width="2155" data-file-height="3089" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">"Dog caressing his master"</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interspecific_communication">Interspecific communication</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Interspecific communication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interspecies_communication" title="Interspecies communication">Interspecies communication</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Prairie_dog_Theodore_Roosevelt_NP_ND1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Prairie_dog_Theodore_Roosevelt_NP_ND1.jpg/200px-Prairie_dog_Theodore_Roosevelt_NP_ND1.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Prairie_dog_Theodore_Roosevelt_NP_ND1.jpg/300px-Prairie_dog_Theodore_Roosevelt_NP_ND1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Prairie_dog_Theodore_Roosevelt_NP_ND1.jpg/400px-Prairie_dog_Theodore_Roosevelt_NP_ND1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3312" data-file-height="2694" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Sentry <a href="/wiki/Prairie_dog" title="Prairie dog">prairie dog</a> surveying potential dangers and <a href="/wiki/Threats" class="mw-redirect" title="Threats">threats</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wichita_mts_prairie_dog_sound_the_alarm_squarehappyface_creative_commons.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Wichita_mts_prairie_dog_sound_the_alarm_squarehappyface_creative_commons.jpg/200px-Wichita_mts_prairie_dog_sound_the_alarm_squarehappyface_creative_commons.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Wichita_mts_prairie_dog_sound_the_alarm_squarehappyface_creative_commons.jpg/300px-Wichita_mts_prairie_dog_sound_the_alarm_squarehappyface_creative_commons.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Wichita_mts_prairie_dog_sound_the_alarm_squarehappyface_creative_commons.jpg/400px-Wichita_mts_prairie_dog_sound_the_alarm_squarehappyface_creative_commons.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="678" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Sentry prairie dog alerts other prairie dogs to a threat</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Much animal communication is intraspecific, that is, it occurs between members of the same species. As for interspecific communication, that between predator and prey is of particular interest. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prey_to_predator">Prey to predator</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Prey to predator"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If a prey animal moves, makes a noise or vibrations, or emits a smell in such a way that a predator can detect it, it is communicating with its predator.<sup id="cite_ref-Hasson_325–329_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hasson_325–329-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is consistent with the definition of "communication" given above. This type of communication is known as interceptive eavesdropping if a predator intercepts a message intended for conspecifics. </p><p>There are however, some actions of prey species are clearly directed to actual or potential predators. A good example is <a href="/wiki/Warning_coloration" class="mw-redirect" title="Warning coloration">warning coloration</a>: species such as <a href="/wiki/Wasp" title="Wasp">wasps</a> that are capable of harming potential predators are often brightly coloured, and this modifies the behavior of the predator, who either instinctively or as the result of experience will avoid attacking such an animal. Some forms of <a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">mimicry</a> fall in the same category: for example <a href="/wiki/Hoverfly" title="Hoverfly">hoverflies</a> are coloured in the same way as wasps, and although they are unable to sting, the strong avoidance of wasps by predators gives the hoverfly some protection. There are also behavioural changes that act in a similar way to warning colouration. For example, canines such as <a href="/wiki/Wolf" title="Wolf">wolves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coyote" title="Coyote">coyotes</a> may adopt an aggressive posture, such as growling with their teeth bared, to indicate they will fight if necessary, and <a href="/wiki/Rattlesnake" title="Rattlesnake">rattlesnakes</a> use their well-known rattle to warn potential predators of their venomous bite. Sometimes, a behavioural change and warning colouration will be combined, as in certain species of <a href="/wiki/Amphibia" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphibia">amphibians</a> which have most of their body coloured to blend with their surroundings, except for a brightly coloured belly. When confronted with a potential threat, they show their belly, indicating that they are poisonous in some way. </p><p>Another example of prey to predator communication is the pursuit-deterrent signal. Pursuit-deterrent signals occur when prey indicates to a predator that pursuit would be unprofitable because the signaler is prepared to escape. Pursuit-deterrent signals provide a benefit to both the signaler and receiver; they prevent the sender from wasting time and energy fleeing, and they prevent the receiver from investing in a costly pursuit that is unlikely to result in capture. Such signals can advertise prey's ability to escape, and reflect phenotypic condition (quality advertisement), or can advertise that the prey has detected the predator (perception advertisement).<sup id="cite_ref-Hasson_325–329_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hasson_325–329-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pursuit-deterrent signals have been reported for a wide variety of taxa, including fish (Godin and Davis, 1995), lizards (Cooper etc. al., 2004), ungulates (Caro, 1995), rabbits (Holley 1993), primates (Zuberbuhler et al. 1997), rodents (Shelley and Blumstein 2005, Clark, 2005), and birds (Alvarez, 1993, Murphy, 2006, 2007). A familiar example of quality advertisement pursuit-deterrent signal is <i><a href="/wiki/Stotting" title="Stotting">stotting</a></i> (sometimes called <i>pronking</i>), a pronounced combination of stiff-legged running while simultaneously jumping shown by some <a href="/wiki/Antelope" title="Antelope">antelopes</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Thomson%27s_gazelle" title="Thomson's gazelle">Thomson's gazelle</a> in the presence of a predator. At least 11 hypotheses for stotting have been proposed. A leading theory today is that it alerts predators that the element of surprise has been lost. Predators like cheetahs rely on surprise attacks, proven by the fact that chases are rarely successful when antelope stot. Predators do not waste energy on a chase that will likely be unsuccessful (optimal foraging behavior). Quality advertisement can be communicated by modes other than visual. The <a href="/wiki/Banner-tailed_kangaroo_rat" title="Banner-tailed kangaroo rat">banner-tailed kangaroo rat</a> produces several complex foot-drumming patterns in a number of different contexts, one of which is when it encounters a snake. The foot-drumming may alert nearby offspring but most likely conveys vibrations through the ground that the rat is too alert for a successful attack, thus preventing the snake's predatory pursuit.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predator_to_prey">Predator to prey</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Predator to prey"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Humpback_anglerfish.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Humpback_anglerfish.png/220px-Humpback_anglerfish.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Humpback_anglerfish.png/330px-Humpback_anglerfish.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Humpback_anglerfish.png/440px-Humpback_anglerfish.png 2x" data-file-width="505" data-file-height="473" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Humpback_anglerfish" title="Humpback anglerfish">humpback anglerfish</a> angles for small fish by deceptively dangling a bioluminescent <a href="/wiki/Fishing_lure" title="Fishing lure">lure</a> in front of its jaws.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Deception_in_animals" title="Deception in animals">Deception in animals</a></div> <p>Typically, predators attempt to reduce communication to prey as this will generally reduce the effectiveness of their hunting. However, some forms of predator to prey communication occur in ways that change the behavior of the prey and make their capture easier, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Deception_in_animals" title="Deception in animals">deception</a> by the predator. A well-known example is the <a href="/wiki/Angler_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Angler fish">angler fish</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Ambush_predator" title="Ambush predator">ambush predator</a> which waits for its prey to come to it. It has a fleshy <a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">bioluminescent</a> growth protruding from its forehead which it dangles in front of its jaws. Smaller fish attempt to take the lure, placing themselves in a better position for the angler fish to catch them. Another example of deceptive communication is observed in the genus of jumping spiders (<a href="/wiki/Myrmarachne" title="Myrmarachne">Myrmarachne</a>). These spiders are commonly referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Ant_mimicry" title="Ant mimicry">antmimicking</a> spiders" because of the way they wave their front legs in the air to simulate <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(biology)" title="Antenna (biology)">antennae</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human/animal"><span id="Human.2Fanimal"></span>Human/animal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Human/animal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></div> <p>Various ways in which humans interpret the behavior of animals, or give commands to them, are consistent with the definition of <a href="/wiki/Interspecies_communication" title="Interspecies communication">interspecies communication</a>. Skillful interpretation of animal communications may be critical to the welfare of animals that are being cared for or trained by humans.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Non-human animal species may interpret the signals of humans differently than humans themselves. For instance, a pointing command refers to a location rather than an object in dogs.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ringing-doorbell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="dog with doorbell" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ringing-doorbell.jpg/220px-Ringing-doorbell.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ringing-doorbell.jpg/330px-Ringing-doorbell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ringing-doorbell.jpg/440px-Ringing-doorbell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1358" data-file-height="1060" /></a><figcaption>Dogs can be taught to communicate with humans by giving signals humans understand, like ringing a doorbell to come in.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_aspects">Other aspects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Other aspects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution">Evolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a></div> <p>The importance of communication is evident from the highly elaborate morphology, behaviour and physiology that some animals have evolved to facilitate this. These include some of the most striking structures in the animal kingdom, such as the <a href="/wiki/Peacock" class="mw-redirect" title="Peacock">peacock</a>'s tail, the antlers of a <a href="/wiki/Deer" title="Deer">stag</a> and the frill of the <a href="/wiki/Frill-necked_lizard" class="mw-redirect" title="Frill-necked lizard">frill-necked lizard</a>, but also include even the modest red spot on a <a href="/wiki/European_herring_gull" title="European herring gull">European herring gull</a>'s bill. Highly elaborate behaviours have evolved for communication such as the dancing of <a href="/wiki/Crane_(bird)" title="Crane (bird)">cranes</a>, the pattern changes of <a href="/wiki/Cuttlefish" title="Cuttlefish">cuttlefish</a>, and the gathering and arranging of materials by <a href="/wiki/Bowerbird" title="Bowerbird">bowerbirds</a>. Other evidence for the importance of communication in animals is the prioritisation of physiological features to this function. For example, <a href="/wiki/Bird_vocalization" title="Bird vocalization">birdsong</a> appears to have brain structures entirely devoted to its production. All these adaptations require evolutionary explanation. </p><p>There are two aspects to the required explanation: </p> <ul><li>identifying a route by which an animal that lacked the relevant feature or behaviour could acquire it;</li> <li>identifying the selective pressure that makes it adaptive for animals to develop structures that facilitate communication, emit communications, and respond to them.</li></ul> <p>Significant contributions to the first of these problems were made by <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> and other early <a href="/wiki/Ethologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethologist">ethologists</a>. By comparing related species within groups, they showed that movements and body parts that in the primitive forms had no communicative function could be "captured" in a context where communication would be functional for one or both partners, and could evolve into a more elaborate, specialised form. For example, <a href="/wiki/Desmond_Morris" title="Desmond Morris">Desmond Morris</a> showed in a study of grass <a href="/wiki/Finch" title="Finch">finches</a> that a beak-wiping response occurred in a range of species, serving a <a href="/wiki/Personal_grooming" title="Personal grooming">preening</a> function, but that in some species this had been elaborated into a <a href="/wiki/Courtship_(animals)" class="mw-redirect" title="Courtship (animals)">courtship</a> signal.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second problem has been more controversial. The early ethologists assumed that communication occurred for the good of the species as a whole, but this would require a process of <a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">group selection</a> which is believed to be mathematically impossible in the <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> of sexually reproducing animals. Altruism towards an unrelated group is not widely accepted in the scientific community, but rather can be seen as reciprocal altruism, expecting the same behaviour from others, a benefit of living in a group. <a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiologists</a> argued that behaviours that benefited a whole group of animals might emerge as a result of selection pressures acting solely on the individual. A <a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">gene-centered view of evolution</a> proposes that behaviours that enabled a <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> to become wider established within a population would become positively selected for, even if their effect on individuals or the species as a whole was detrimental;<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peacock_in_Toronto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Peacock_in_Toronto.jpg/220px-Peacock_in_Toronto.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Peacock_in_Toronto.jpg/330px-Peacock_in_Toronto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Peacock_in_Toronto.jpg/440px-Peacock_in_Toronto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2423" data-file-height="1615" /></a><figcaption>The apparently excessive eye-spot signalling by the male peacock tail may be <a href="/wiki/Runaway_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Runaway selection">runaway selection</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the case of communication, an important discussion by <a href="/wiki/John_Krebs" class="mw-redirect" title="John Krebs">John Krebs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a> established hypotheses for the evolution of such apparently <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruistic</a> or mutualistic communications as alarm calls and courtship signals to emerge under individual selection. This led to the realization that communication might not always be "honest" (indeed, there are some obvious examples where it is not, as in <a href="/wiki/Mimic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimic">mimicry</a>). The possibility of evolutionarily stable dishonest communication has been the subject of much controversy, with <a href="/wiki/Amotz_Zahavi" title="Amotz Zahavi">Amotz Zahavi</a> in particular arguing that it cannot exist in the long term. Sociobiologists have also been concerned with the evolution of apparently excessive signaling structures such as the peacock's tail; it is widely thought that these can only emerge as a result of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>, which can create a <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a> process that leads to the rapid exaggeration of a characteristic that confers an advantage in a competitive mate-selection situation. </p><p>One theory to explain the evolution of traits like a peacock's tail is 'runaway selection'. This requires two traits—a trait that exists, like the bright tail, and a preexisting bias in the female to select for that trait. Females prefer the more elaborate tails, and thus those males are able to mate successfully. Exploiting the psychology of the female, a positive feedback loop is enacted and the tail becomes bigger and brighter. Eventually, the evolution will level off because the survival costs to the male do not allow for the trait to be elaborated any further.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two theories exist to explain runaway selection. The first is the good genes hypothesis. This theory states that an elaborate display is an honest signal of fitness and truly is a better mate. The second is the handicap hypothesis. This explains that the peacock's tail is a handicap, requiring energy to keep and makes it more visible to predators. Thus, the signal is costly to maintain, and remains an honest indicator of the signaler's condition. Another assumption is that the signal is more costly for low quality males to produce than for higher quality males to produce. This is simply because the higher quality males have more energy reserves available to allocate to costly signaling.<sup id="cite_ref-Maynard-Smith_and_Harper,_2003_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maynard-Smith_and_Harper,_2003-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive_aspects">Cognitive aspects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Cognitive aspects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ethologists and sociobiologists have characteristically analysed animal communication in terms of more or less automatic responses to stimuli, without raising the question of whether the animals concerned understand the meaning of the signals they emit and receive. That is a key question in <a href="/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">animal cognition</a>. There are some signalling systems that seem to demand a more advanced understanding. A much discussed example is the use of alarm calls by <a href="/wiki/Vervet_monkey" title="Vervet monkey">vervet monkeys</a>. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Seyfarth_(scientist)" title="Robert Seyfarth (scientist)">Robert Seyfarth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cheney_(scientist)" title="Dorothy Cheney (scientist)">Dorothy Cheney</a> showed that these animals emit different alarm calls in the presence of different predators (<a href="/wiki/Leopard" title="Leopard">leopards</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eagle" title="Eagle">eagles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">snakes</a>), and the monkeys that hear the calls respond appropriately—but that this ability develops over time, and also takes into account the experience of the individual emitting the call. Metacommunication, discussed above, also seems to require a more sophisticated cognitive process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Signature_whistles">Signature whistles</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Signature whistles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It has been reported<sup id="cite_ref-PNAS-2006_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PNAS-2006-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that <a href="/wiki/Bottlenose_dolphins" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottlenose dolphins">bottlenose dolphins</a> can recognize identity information from <a href="/wiki/Signature_whistle" title="Signature whistle">signature whistles</a> even when otherwise stripped of the characteristics of the whistle; making bottlenose dolphins the only animals other than humans that have been shown to transmit identity information independent of the caller's voice or location. The paper concludes that: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The fact that signature whistle shape carries identity information independent from voice features presents the possibility to use these whistles as referential signals, either addressing individuals or referring to them, similar to the use of names in humans. Given the cognitive abilities of bottlenose dolphins, their vocal learning and copying skills, and their fission–fusion social structure, this possibility is an intriguing one that demands further investigation.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>V. M. Janik, <i>et al.</i><sup id="cite_ref-PNAS-2006_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PNAS-2006-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The same researchers later found that <a href="/wiki/Common_bottlenose_dolphin" title="Common bottlenose dolphin">common bottlenose dolphin</a> (<i>Tursiops truncatus</i>) mothers <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflect</a> their signature whistle when their dependent calf is present. Signature whistles, which are in a higher <a href="/wiki/Frequency#Sound" title="Frequency">frequency</a> range than humans can hear, have an important role in facilitating mother–calf contact.<sup id="cite_ref-Dolphin_motherese_PNAS_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dolphin_motherese_PNAS-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Sarasota Dolphin Research Program's library of recordings were 19 female common bottlenose dolphins producing signature whistles both with and without the presence of their calf.<sup id="cite_ref-Dolphin_motherese_PNAS_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dolphin_motherese_PNAS-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In all 19 cases, the mother dolphin inflected the signature whistle when their calf was present, by reaching a higher frequency, or using a wider frequency range.<sup id="cite_ref-Sayigh_et_al.,_2023_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sayigh_et_al.,_2023-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, humans use higher fundamental frequencies and a wider pitch range to inflect <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)#Child_language" title="Prosody (linguistics)">child–directed speech</a> (CDS).<sup id="cite_ref-Sayigh_et_al.,_2023_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sayigh_et_al.,_2023-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dolphin_motherese_PNAS_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dolphin_motherese_PNAS-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gleason_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gleason-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has rarely been discovered in other species.<sup id="cite_ref-Sayigh_et_al.,_2023_87-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sayigh_et_al.,_2023-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The researchers stated that <a href="/wiki/Baby_talk#Use_with_infants" title="Baby talk">CDS benefits</a> for humans are cueing the child to pay attention, long-term bonding, and promoting the development of lifelong <a href="/wiki/Vocal_learning" title="Vocal learning">vocal learning</a>, with parallels in these bottlenose dolphins in an example of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sayigh_et_al.,_2023_87-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sayigh_et_al.,_2023-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_behaviour">Human behaviour</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Human behaviour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another controversial issue is the extent to which human behaviours resemble animal communication, or whether all such communication has disappeared as a result of our linguistic capacity. Some of our bodily features—eyebrows, beards and moustaches, deep adult male voices, perhaps female breasts—strongly resemble adaptations to producing signals. Ethologists such as <a href="/wiki/Eibl-Eibesfeldt" class="mw-redirect" title="Eibl-Eibesfeldt">Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt</a> have argued that facial gestures such as smiling, grimacing, and the <a href="/wiki/Eyebrow_flash" title="Eyebrow flash">eyebrow flash</a> on greeting are universal human communicative signals that can be related to corresponding signals in other <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a>. Given how recently spoken language has emerged, it is very likely that human <a href="/wiki/Body_language" title="Body language">body language</a> does include some more or less involuntary responses that have a similar origin to the communication we have.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Humans also often seek to mimic animals' communicative signals in order to interact with them. For example, cats have a mild affiliative response of slowly closing their eyes; humans often mimic this signal towards a <a href="/wiki/Pet" title="Pet">pet</a> cat to establish a tolerant relationship. Stroking, petting and rubbing pet animals are all actions that probably work through their natural patterns of interspecific communication. </p><p>Dogs have shown an ability to understand human communication. In object choice tasks, dogs utilize human communicative gestures such as pointing and direction of gaze in order to locate hidden food and toys.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in contrast to humans pointing has a different meaning for dogs as it refers to a direction or location.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has also been shown that dogs exhibit a left gaze bias when looking at human faces, indicating that they are capable of reading human emotions.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dogs do not make use of direction of gaze or exhibit left gaze bias with other dogs. </p><p>A new approach in the 21st century in the field of animal communication uses <a href="/wiki/Applied_behavioural_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Applied behavioural analysis">applied behavioural analysis</a>, specifically functional communication training. This form of training previously has been used in schools and clinics with humans with special needs, such as children with autism, to help them develop language. <a href="/wiki/Sean_Senechal" title="Sean Senechal">Sean Senechal</a> at the AnimalSign Center has been using an approach similar to functional communication training with domesticated animals, such as dogs since 2004 and horses since 2000, with encouraging results and benefits to the animals and people. Functional communication training for animals, Senechal calls "Animal Sign Language". This includes teaching communication through gestures (like simplified <a href="/wiki/American_sign_language" class="mw-redirect" title="American sign language">American sign language</a>), <a href="/wiki/Picture_Exchange_Communication_System" title="Picture Exchange Communication System">Picture Exchange Communication System</a>, tapping, and vocalisation. The process for animals includes simplified and modified techniques.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linguistics">Linguistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Linguistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width: 210px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_1FY5kL_zXU">Do animals have language? - Michele Bishop</a>, <a href="/wiki/TED_(conference)" title="TED (conference)">TED Ed</a>, 4:54, September 10, 2015<sup id="cite_ref-teded_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-teded-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Animal_language" title="Animal language">Animal language</a></div> <p>For <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, the interest of animal communication systems lies in their similarities to and differences from human language: </p> <ol><li>Human languages are characterized for having a <b><a href="/wiki/Double_articulation" title="Double articulation">double articulation</a></b> (in the characterization of French linguist <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Martinet" title="André Martinet">André Martinet</a>). It means that complex linguistic expressions can be broken down in meaningful elements (such as <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">words</a>), which in turn are composed of smallest phonetic elements that affect meaning, called <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>. Animal signals, however, do not exhibit this dual structure.</li> <li>In general, animal utterances are responses to external stimuli, and do not refer to matters removed in time and space. Matters of relevance at a distance, such as distant food sources, tend to be indicated to other individuals by <a href="/wiki/Body_language" title="Body language">body language</a> instead, for example <a href="/wiki/Wolf" title="Wolf">wolf</a> activity before a hunt, or the information conveyed in <a href="/wiki/Bee_learning_and_communication" title="Bee learning and communication">honeybee dance language</a>. It is therefore unclear to what extent utterances are automatic responses and to what extent deliberate intent plays a part.</li> <li>In contrast to human <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>, animal communication systems are usually not able to express conceptual generalizations. (<a href="/wiki/Cetacean" class="mw-redirect" title="Cetacean">Cetaceans</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a> may be notable exceptions).<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Human languages combine elements to produce new messages (a property known as <b>creativity</b>). One factor in this is that much human language growth is based upon conceptual ideas and hypothetical structures, both being far greater capabilities in humans than animals. This appears far less common in animal communication systems, although current research into <a href="/wiki/Animal_culture" title="Animal culture">animal culture</a> is still an ongoing process with many new discoveries. In 2009 it was reported that affixation may play a role in the call meanings of <a href="/wiki/Campbell%27s_mona_monkey" title="Campbell's mona monkey">Campbell's mona monkey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Errors_in_communication">Errors in communication</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Errors in communication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There becomes possibility for error within communication between animals when certain circumstances apply.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These circumstances could include distance between the two communicating subjects, as well as the complexity of the signal that is being communicated to the "listener" of the situation. It may not always be clear to the "listener" where the location of the communication is coming from, as the "singer" can sometimes deceive them and create more error.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wapiti_from_Wagon_Trails.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Wapiti_from_Wagon_Trails.jpg/32px-Wapiti_from_Wagon_Trails.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Wapiti_from_Wagon_Trails.jpg/48px-Wapiti_from_Wagon_Trails.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Wapiti_from_Wagon_Trails.jpg/64px-Wapiti_from_Wagon_Trails.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2064" data-file-height="1413" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Animals" title="Portal:Animals">Animals portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a> (human–animal studies)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocommunication_(science)" title="Biocommunication (science)">Biocommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_language" title="Body language">Body language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dear_enemy_effect" title="Dear enemy effect">Dear enemy effect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nasty_neighbour_effect" title="Nasty neighbour effect">Nasty neighbour effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception_in_animals" title="Deception in animals">Deception in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degeneracy_(biology)" title="Degeneracy (biology)">Degeneracy (biology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">Emotion in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forms_of_activity_and_interpersonal_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Forms of activity and interpersonal relations">Forms of activity and interpersonal relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Biosemiotic_Studies" title="International Society for Biosemiotic Studies">International Society for Biosemiotic Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Origin of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_Philip_Sidney_game" title="Sir Philip Sidney game">Sir Philip Sidney game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talking_animal" title="Talking animal">Talking animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoomusicology" title="Zoomusicology">Zoomusicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoosemiotics" title="Zoosemiotics">Zoosemiotics</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/animal-communication">"Animal communication"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Animal+communication&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Fanimal-communication&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+communication" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT-20230920-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20230920_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShah2023" class="citation news cs1">Shah, Sonia (20 September 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230921011811/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/20/magazine/animal-communication.html#permid=127890141">"The Animals Are Talking. What Does It Mean? - Language was long understood as a human-only affair. New research suggests that isn't so. + comment"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. Archived from the original on 21 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-70595-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-70595-8"><bdi>978-0-226-70595-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Behavioral+Mechanisms+in+Evolutionary+Ecology&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1994-12-15&rft.isbn=978-0-226-70595-8&rft.aulast=Real&rft.aufirst=Leslie+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvzrZsbCR8gcC%26q%3Danimal%2Bcommunication%26pg%3DPA157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+communication" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGergelyComptonNewberryMiklósi2016" class="citation journal cs1">Gergely, Anna; Compton, Anna; Newberry, Ruth; Miklósi, Ádám (Apr 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4830451">"Social Interaction with an "Unidentified Moving Object" Elicits A-Not_B Error in Domestic Dogs"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>11</b> (4): e0151600. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016PLoSO..1151600G">2016PLoSO..1151600G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0151600">10.1371/journal.pone.0151600</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Social+Interaction+with+an+%22Unidentified+Moving+Object%22+Elicits+A-Not_B+Error+in+Domestic+Dogs&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e0151600&rft.date=2016-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4830451%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16369609%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016PLoSO..1151600G&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27073867&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0151600&rft.aulast=Gergely&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft.au=Compton%2C+Anna&rft.au=Newberry%2C+Ruth&rft.au=Mikl%C3%B3si%2C+%C3%81d%C3%A1m&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4830451&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+communication" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_communication&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Animal_communication" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Animal communication">Animal communication</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cultureunplugged.com/documentary/watch-online/play/11936/The-Animal-Communicator">Animal Communicator – Documentary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zoosemiotics.helsinki.fi">Zoosemiotics: animal communication on the web</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051025044148/http://www.zoosemiotics.helsinki.fi/">Archived</a> 2005-10-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://acp.eugraph.com">The Animal Communication Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibac.info/">International Bioacoustics Council</a> research on animal language.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mpg.de/987894/animal-behavior">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> research on animal vocalizations.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.animal-sounds.org/">Animal Sounds</a> different animal sounds to listen and download.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/soundarchive">The British Library Sound Archive</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100722003019/http://www.bl.uk/soundarchive">Archived</a> 2010-07-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> contains over 150,000 recordings of animal sounds and natural atmospheres from all over the world.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Animal_communication" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Animal_communication" title="Template:Animal communication"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Animal_communication" title="Template talk:Animal communication"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Animal_communication" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Animal communication"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Animal_communication" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Animal communication</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_training" title="Animal training">Animal training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_language" title="Animal language">Animal language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_cognitivism" title="Anecdotal cognitivism">Anecdotal cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioacoustics" title="Bioacoustics">Bioacoustics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception_in_animals" title="Deception in animals">Deception in animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_deception_in_animals" title="Tactical deception in animals">Tactical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Evolutionary linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FOXP2" title="FOXP2">FOXP2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FOXP2_and_human_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="FOXP2 and human evolution">FOXP2 and human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_call" title="Mating call">Mating call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_communication" title="Seismic communication">Seismic communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-anointing_in_animals" title="Self-anointing in animals">Self-anointing in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talking_animal" title="Talking animal">Talking animals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal-specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_in_aquatic_animals" title="Communication in aquatic animals">Aquatic animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whale_vocalization" title="Whale vocalization">Whale vocalization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bee_learning_and_communication" title="Bee learning and communication">Bees</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bumblebee_communication" title="Bumblebee communication">Bumblebees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_vocalization" title="Bird vocalization">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Talking_bird" title="Talking bird">Talking birds</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_communication" title="Cat communication">Cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_communication" title="Dog communication">Dogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_communication" title="Elephant communication">Elephants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frog_hearing_and_communication" title="Frog hearing and communication">Frogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yerkish" title="Yerkish">Yerkish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_communication_in_insects" title="Chemical communication in insects">Insects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lizard_communication" title="Lizard communication">Lizards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_communication" title="Wolf communication">Wolves</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roar_(vocalization)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roar (vocalization)">Roar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Talking_birds" title="Category:Talking birds">Category:Talking birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Individual_apes_involved_in_language_studies" title="Category:Individual apes involved in language studies">Category:Individual apes involved in language studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Great_ape_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Great_ape_language" title="Template:Great ape language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Great_ape_language" title="Template talk:Great ape language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Great_ape_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Great ape language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Great_ape_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Languages taught<br />to non-human apes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yerkish" title="Yerkish">Yerkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-human apes<br />taught<br />simple languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">Bonobos</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kanzi" title="Kanzi">Kanzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyota_(bonobo)" title="Nyota (bonobo)">Nyota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panbanisha" title="Panbanisha">Panbanisha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">Chimpanzees</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lana_(chimpanzee)" title="Lana (chimpanzee)">Lana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loulis" title="Loulis">Loulis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_(chimpanzee)" title="Lucy (chimpanzee)">Lucy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nim_Chimpsky" title="Nim Chimpsky">Nim Chimpsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_(chimpanzee)" title="Sarah (chimpanzee)">Sarah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viki_(chimpanzee)" title="Viki (chimpanzee)">Viki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washoe_(chimpanzee)" title="Washoe (chimpanzee)">Washoe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">Gorillas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Koko_(gorilla)" title="Koko (gorilla)">Koko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_(gorilla)" title="Michael (gorilla)">Michael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndume" title="Ndume">Ndume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">Orangutans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azy_(orangutan)" title="Azy (orangutan)">Azy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantek" title="Chantek">Chantek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francine_Patterson" title="Francine Patterson">Francine Patterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sue_Savage-Rumbaugh" title="Sue Savage-Rumbaugh">Sue Savage-Rumbaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_K._Temerlin" title="Maurice K. Temerlin">Maurice K. Temerlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Fouts" title="Roger Fouts">Roger Fouts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetsuro_Matsuzawa" title="Tetsuro Matsuzawa">Tetsuro Matsuzawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_M._Fields" title="William M. Fields">William M. Fields</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research centers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee_and_Human_Communication_Institute" title="Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute">Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elgin_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Elgin Center">Elgin Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iowa_Primate_Learning_Sanctuary" class="mw-redirect" title="Iowa Primate Learning Sanctuary">Iowa Primate Learning Sanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gorilla_Foundation" title="The Gorilla Foundation">The Gorilla Foundation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Koko:_A_Talking_Gorilla" title="Koko: A Talking Gorilla">Koko: A Talking Gorilla</a></i> (1978 film)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Mind_of_an_Ape" title="The Mind of an Ape">The Mind of an Ape</a></i> (1983 book)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Next_of_Kin_(Fouts_book)" title="Next of Kin (Fouts book)">Next of Kin</a></i> (1997 book)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Project_Nim_(film)" title="Project Nim (film)">Project Nim</a></i> (2011 film)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_language" title="Animal language">Animal language</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethology" title="Template:Ethology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethology" title="Template talk:Ethology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_culture" title="Animal culture">Animal culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_sexual_behaviour" title="Animal sexual behaviour">Animal sexual behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare_science" title="Animal welfare science">Animal welfare science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bee_learning_and_communication" title="Bee learning and communication">Bee learning and communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behavioural ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_endocrinology" title="Behavioral endocrinology">Behavioral endocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioural genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breed" title="Breed">Breed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ethology" title="Cognitive ethology">Cognitive ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_behaviour_in_animals" title="Comfort behaviour in animals">Comfort behaviour</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personal_grooming" title="Personal grooming">Grooming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">Emotion in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethogram" title="Ethogram">Ethogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">Feeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hover_(behaviour)" title="Hover (behaviour)">Hover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ethology" title="Human ethology">Human ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instinct" title="Instinct">Instinct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_animals" title="Pain in animals">Pain in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_ethology" title="Philosophical ethology">Philosophical ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypy_(non-human)" title="Stereotypy (non-human)">Stereotypy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structures_built_by_animals" title="Structures built by animals">Structures</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beehive" title="Beehive">Hive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honeycomb_structure" title="Honeycomb structure">Honeycomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nest" title="Nest">Nest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nesting_instinct" title="Nesting instinct">Instinct</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_use_by_non-humans" title="Tool use by non-humans">Tool use by non-humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoosemiotics" title="Zoosemiotics">Zoosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoomusicology" title="Zoomusicology">Zoomusicology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Bateson" title="Patrick Bateson">Patrick Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Bekoff" title="Marc Bekoff">Marc Bekoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Broom" title="Donald Broom">Donald Broom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_B._Calhoun" title="John B. Calhoun">John B. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_Dawkins" title="Marian Dawkins">Marian Dawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iren%C3%A4us_Eibl-Eibesfeldt" title="Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt">Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dian_Fossey" title="Dian Fossey">Dian Fossey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Goodall" title="Jane Goodall">Jane Goodall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heini_Hediger" title="Heini Hediger">Heini Hediger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Julian Huxley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmond_Morris" title="Desmond Morris">Desmond Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sebeok" title="Thomas Sebeok">Thomas Sebeok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Homan_Thorpe" title="William Homan Thorpe">William Homan Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_von_Uexk%C3%BCll" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakob von Uexküll">Jakob von Uexküll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Wickler" title="Wolfgang Wickler">Wolfgang Wickler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solly_Zuckerman" class="mw-redirect" title="Solly Zuckerman">Solly Zuckerman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Societies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_Animal_Behaviour" title="Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour">Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Applied_Ethology" title="International Society for Applied Ethology">International Society for Applied Ethology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Behaviour_(journal)" title="Animal Behaviour (journal)">Animal Behaviour</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Cognition" title="Animal Cognition">Animal Cognition</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Welfare_(journal)" title="Animal Welfare (journal)">Animal Welfare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_Ecology_(journal)" title="Behavioral Ecology (journal)">Behavioral Ecology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Behaviour_(journal)" title="Behaviour (journal)">Behaviour</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ethology" title="Category:Ethology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nonverbal_communication" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nonverbal_communication" title="Template:Nonverbal communication"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nonverbal_communication" title="Template talk:Nonverbal communication"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nonverbal_communication" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nonverbal communication"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nonverbal_communication" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_communication" title="Nonverbal communication">Nonverbal communication</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Modalities" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Modality_(semiotics)" title="Modality (semiotics)">Modalities</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blushing" title="Blushing">Blushing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_language" title="Body language">Body language</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kinesics" title="Kinesics">Kinesics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body-to-body_communication" title="Body-to-body communication">Body-to-body communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Facial_Action_Coding_System" title="Facial Action Coding System">Facial Action Coding System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microexpression" title="Microexpression">Microexpression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtle_expression" title="Subtle expression">Subtle expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gesture" title="Gesture">Gesture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gestures" title="List of gestures">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech-independent_gestures" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech-independent gestures">Speech-independent gestures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptic_communication" title="Haptic communication">Haptic communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imitation" title="Imitation">Imitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronization#Human_movement" title="Synchronization">Interpersonal synchrony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laughter" title="Laughter">Laughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oculesics" title="Oculesics">Oculesics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eye_contact" title="Eye contact">Eye contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pupillary_response" title="Pupillary response">Pupil dilation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactic_communication" title="Olfactic communication">Olfaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posture_(psychology)" title="Posture (psychology)">Posture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxemics" title="Proxemics">Proxemics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">Speech</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(linguistics)" title="Affect (linguistics)">Affect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_prosody" title="Emotional prosody">Emotional prosody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paralanguage" title="Paralanguage">Paralanguage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">Intonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loudness" title="Loudness">Loudness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">Prosody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhythm" title="Rhythm">Rhythm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">Stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">Tone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">Voice quality</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social context</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronemics" title="Chronemics">Chronemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitus_(sociology)" title="Habitus (sociology)">Habitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-context_and_low-context_cultures" title="High-context and low-context cultures">High-context and low-context cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">Interpersonal relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emoticon" title="Emoticon">Emoticon</a> / <a href="/wiki/Smiley" title="Smiley">Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-bit_message" title="One-bit message">One-bit message</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missed_call" title="Missed call">Missed call</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_service_code" title="Silent service code">Silent service code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Unconscious_communication" title="Unconscious communication">Unconscious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microexpression" title="Microexpression">Microexpression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-verbal_leakage" title="Non-verbal leakage">Non-verbal leakage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multi-faceted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Affect display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_recognition" title="Emotion recognition">Emotion recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_impression_(psychology)" title="First impression (psychology)">First impression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimate_relationship" title="Intimate relationship">Intimacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Broader_concepts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Broader concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_interpersonal_communicative_skills" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic interpersonal communicative skills">Basic interpersonal communicative skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunchi" title="Nunchi">Nunchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_skills" title="People skills">People skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">Social behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cue" title="Social cue">Social cue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_competence" title="Social competence">Social competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_skills" title="Social skills">Social skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsaid" title="Unsaid">Unsaid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Further_information" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Further information</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aprosodia" title="Aprosodia">Aprosodia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asperger_syndrome" title="Asperger syndrome">Asperger syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fragile_X_syndrome" title="Fragile X syndrome">Fragile X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pervasive_developmental_disorder_not_otherwise_specified" title="Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified">Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_disintegrative_disorder" title="Childhood disintegrative disorder">Childhood disintegrative disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rett_syndrome" title="Rett syndrome">Rett syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyssemia" title="Dyssemia">Dyssemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_learning_disorder" title="Nonverbal learning disorder">Nonverbal learning disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_(pragmatic)_communication_disorder" title="Social (pragmatic) communication disorder">Social (pragmatic) communication disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">Limbic system</a> / <a href="/wiki/Limbic_lobe" title="Limbic lobe">Limbic lobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_neuron" title="Mirror neuron">Mirror neuron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_reading" title="Cold reading">Cold reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie_detection" title="Lie detection">Lie detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freudian_slip" title="Freudian slip">Freudian slip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_(poker)" title="Tell (poker)">Poker tell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_(advertising)" class="mw-redirect" title="Attention (advertising)">Targeted advertising</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_processing_of_body_language" title="Computer processing of body language">Computer processing of body language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_recognition_in_conversation" title="Emotion recognition in conversation">Emotion recognition in conversation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gesture_recognition" title="Gesture recognition">Gesture recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_facial_expression_databases" title="List of facial expression databases">List of facial expression databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentiment_analysis" title="Sentiment analysis">Sentiment analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Birdwhistell" title="Ray Birdwhistell">Ray Birdwhistell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ekman" title="Paul Ekman">Paul Ekman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_communication" title="Behavioral communication">Behavioral communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assertiveness" title="Assertiveness">Assertive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deference" title="Deference">Passive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive-aggressive_behavior" title="Passive-aggressive behavior">Passive-aggressive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impression_management" title="Impression management">Impression management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-communication" title="Meta-communication">Meta-communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monastic_sign_languages" title="Monastic sign languages">Monastic sign lexicons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Verbal communication</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-verbal language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactile_signing" title="Tactile signing">Tactile signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadoma" title="Tadoma">Tadoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Art and literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mime_artist" title="Mime artist">Mime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimoplastic_art" title="Mimoplastic art">Mimoplastic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtext" title="Subtext">Subtext</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1434121#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1434121#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1434121#identifiers" title="Edit this at 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style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Animal communication"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85005167">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="コミュニケーション (動物)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00566544">Japan</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="komunikace živočichů"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph134853&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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