CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Seafloor spreading - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"1dca49a2-6658-4c1b-803c-f6bde38256f1","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Seafloor_spreading","wgTitle":"Seafloor spreading","wgCurRevisionId":1258637910,"wgRevisionId":1258637910,"wgArticleId":145698,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 errors: periodical ignored","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Geological processes","Plate tectonics","Oceanographical terminology"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Seafloor_spreading","wgRelevantArticleId":145698,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[], "wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":30000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q215920","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false, "wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.math.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin", "mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.math.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Global_Map_of_Oceanic_Plate_Age_by_Fabio_Crameri.png/1200px-Global_Map_of_Oceanic_Plate_Age_by_Fabio_Crameri.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="799"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Global_Map_of_Oceanic_Plate_Age_by_Fabio_Crameri.png/800px-Global_Map_of_Oceanic_Plate_Age_by_Fabio_Crameri.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="533"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Global_Map_of_Oceanic_Plate_Age_by_Fabio_Crameri.png/640px-Global_Map_of_Oceanic_Plate_Age_by_Fabio_Crameri.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="426"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Seafloor spreading - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_spreading"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_spreading"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Seafloor_spreading rootpage-Seafloor_spreading skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Seafloor+spreading" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Seafloor+spreading" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Seafloor+spreading" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Seafloor+spreading" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>History of study</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Significance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spreading_center" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spreading_center"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Spreading center</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spreading_center-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Incipient_spreading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Incipient_spreading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Incipient spreading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Incipient_spreading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continued_spreading_and_subduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continued_spreading_and_subduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Continued spreading and subduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continued_spreading_and_subduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debate_and_search_for_mechanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debate_and_search_for_mechanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Debate and search for mechanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debate_and_search_for_mechanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seafloor_global_topography:_cooling_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seafloor_global_topography:_cooling_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Seafloor global topography: cooling models</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Seafloor_global_topography:_cooling_models-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Seafloor global topography: cooling models subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Seafloor_global_topography:_cooling_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cooling_mantle_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cooling_mantle_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Cooling mantle model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cooling_mantle_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cooling_plate_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cooling_plate_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Cooling plate model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cooling_plate_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Seafloor spreading</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 43 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-43" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">43 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%AF_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1" title="تمدد قاع البحر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تمدد قاع البحر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ixamplamiento_d%27o_fond%C3%B3n_oceanico" title="Ixamplamiento d'o fondón oceanico – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Ixamplamiento d'o fondón oceanico" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3" title="সমুদ্রতলদেশ প্রসারণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সমুদ্রতলদেশ প্রসারণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Спрэдзінг – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Спрэдзінг" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5" title="समुंद्रतली फइलाव – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="समुंद्रतली फइलाव" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Спрединг – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Спрединг" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansi%C3%B3_del_fons_oce%C3%A0nic" title="Expansió del fons oceànic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Expansió del fons oceànic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rozp%C3%ADn%C3%A1n%C3%AD_oce%C3%A1nsk%C3%A9ho_dna" title="Rozpínání oceánského dna – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Rozpínání oceánského dna" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanbundsspredning" title="Oceanbundsspredning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Oceanbundsspredning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozeanbodenspreizung" title="Ozeanbodenspreizung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ozeanbodenspreizung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ookeanip%C3%B5hja_laienemine" title="Ookeanipõhja laienemine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ookeanipõhja laienemine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansi%C3%B3n_del_fondo_oce%C3%A1nico" title="Expansión del fondo oceánico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Expansión del fondo oceánico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsas_hondoaren_hedapena" title="Itsas hondoaren hedapena – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Itsas hondoaren hedapena" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%B4_%D8%A8%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3" title="گسترش بستر اقیانوس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گسترش بستر اقیانوس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansion_des_fonds_oc%C3%A9aniques" title="Expansion des fonds océaniques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Expansion des fonds océaniques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leathadh_ghrinneall_na_mara" title="Leathadh ghrinneall na mara – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Leathadh ghrinneall na mara" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansi%C3%B3n_do_fondo_oce%C3%A1nico" title="Expansión do fondo oceánico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Expansión do fondo oceánico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EC%A0%80%ED%99%95%EC%9E%A5%EC%84%A4" title="해저확장설 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해저확장설" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="सागर नितल प्रसरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सागर नितल प्रसरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0irenje_morskog_dna" title="Širenje morskog dna – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Širenje morskog dna" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemekaran_lantai_samudra" title="Pemekaran lantai samudra – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pemekaran lantai samudra" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espansione_del_fondale_oceanico" title="Espansione del fondale oceanico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Espansione del fondale oceanico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A4%D7%A9%D7%98%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%9D" title="התפשטות קרקעית הים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התפשטות קרקעית הים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Спрединг – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Спрединг" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Ширење на морското дно – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ширење на морското дно" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanische_spreiding" title="Oceanische spreiding – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oceanische spreiding" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E6%B4%8B%E5%BA%95%E6%8B%A1%E5%A4%A7%E8%AA%AC" title="海洋底拡大説 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="海洋底拡大説" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havbunnsspredning" title="Havbunnsspredning – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Havbunnsspredning" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havbotnspreiing" title="Havbotnspreiing – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Havbotnspreiing" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekspansja_dna_oceanicznego" title="Ekspansja dna oceanicznego – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ekspansja dna oceanicznego" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expans%C3%A3o_do_fundo_oce%C3%A2nico" title="Expansão do fundo oceânico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Expansão do fundo oceânico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Спрединг – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Спрединг" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Seafloor spreading" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rozch%C3%A1dzanie_oce%C3%A1nskeho_dna" title="Rozchádzanie oceánskeho dna – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Rozchádzanie oceánskeho dna" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razmikanje_morskega_dna" title="Razmikanje morskega dna – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Razmikanje morskega dna" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3_%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Ширење океанског дна – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ширење океанског дна" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0irenje_morskog_dna" title="Širenje morskog dna – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Širenje morskog dna" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanbottenspridning" title="Oceanbottenspridning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Oceanbottenspridning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A3" title="การขยายตัวของพื้นมหาสมุทร – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การขยายตัวของพื้นมหาสมุทร" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deniz_taban%C4%B1_yay%C4%B1lmas%C4%B1" title="Deniz tabanı yayılması – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Deniz tabanı yayılması" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Спрединг – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Спрединг" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1ch_gi%C3%A3n_%C4%91%C3%A1y_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i_d%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Tách giãn đáy đại dương – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tách giãn đáy đại dương" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%BA%95%E6%89%A9%E5%BC%A0%E5%AD%A6%E8%AF%B4" title="海底扩张学说 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="海底扩张学说" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q215920#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Seafloor_spreading" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Seafloor_spreading" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Seafloor_spreading" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&oldid=1258637910" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Seafloor_spreading&id=1258637910&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSeafloor_spreading"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSeafloor_spreading"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Seafloor_spreading&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sea-floor_spreading" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q215920" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Geological process at mid-ocean ridges</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_Map_of_Oceanic_Plate_Age_by_Fabio_Crameri.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Global_Map_of_Oceanic_Plate_Age_by_Fabio_Crameri.png/400px-Global_Map_of_Oceanic_Plate_Age_by_Fabio_Crameri.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Global_Map_of_Oceanic_Plate_Age_by_Fabio_Crameri.png/600px-Global_Map_of_Oceanic_Plate_Age_by_Fabio_Crameri.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Global_Map_of_Oceanic_Plate_Age_by_Fabio_Crameri.png/800px-Global_Map_of_Oceanic_Plate_Age_by_Fabio_Crameri.png 2x" data-file-width="2953" data-file-height="1967" /></a><figcaption>Age of oceanic lithosphere; youngest (light colour) is along spreading centers</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Seafloor spreading</b>, or <b>seafloor spread</b>, is a process that occurs at <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridges</a>, where new <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a> is formed through <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic activity">volcanic activity</a> and then gradually moves away from the ridge. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_study">History of study</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History of study"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Earlier theories by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wegener" title="Alfred Wegener">Alfred Wegener</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_du_Toit" title="Alexander du Toit">Alexander du Toit</a> of <a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">continental drift</a> postulated that continents in motion "plowed" through the fixed and immovable seafloor. The idea that the seafloor itself moves and also carries the continents with it as it spreads from a central rift axis was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Harry_Hammond_Hess" title="Harry Hammond Hess">Harold Hammond Hess</a> from <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Dietz" title="Robert S. Dietz">Robert Dietz</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Navy_Electronics_Laboratory" title="Navy Electronics Laboratory">U.S. Naval Electronics Laboratory</a> in <a href="/wiki/San_Diego" title="San Diego">San Diego</a> in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phenomenon is known today as <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>. In locations where two plates move apart, at mid-ocean ridges, new seafloor is continually formed during seafloor spreading. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Significance">Significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Seafloor spreading helps explain <a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">continental drift</a> in the theory of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>. When oceanic plates <a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">diverge</a>, tensional stress causes fractures to occur in the <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a>. The motivating force for seafloor spreading ridges is tectonic plate <a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">slab pull</a> at <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction zones</a>, rather than magma pressure, although there is typically significant magma activity at spreading ridges.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plates that are not subducting are driven by gravity sliding off the elevated mid-ocean ridges a process called <a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">ridge push</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At a spreading center, <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basaltic magma</a> rises up the fractures and cools on the ocean floor to form new <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">seabed</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</a> are common at spreading centers. Older rocks will be found farther away from the spreading zone while younger rocks will be found nearer to the spreading zone. </p><p><i>Spreading rate</i> is the rate at which an ocean basin widens due to seafloor spreading. (The rate at which new oceanic lithosphere is added to each tectonic plate on either side of a mid-ocean ridge is the <i>spreading half-rate</i> and is equal to half of the spreading rate). Spreading rates determine if the ridge is fast, intermediate, or slow. As a general rule, fast ridges have spreading (opening) rates of more than 90 mm/year. Intermediate ridges have a spreading rate of 40–90 mm/year while slow spreading ridges have a rate less than 40 mm/year.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> The highest known rate was over 200 mm/yr during the <a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a> on the <a href="/wiki/East_Pacific_Rise" title="East Pacific Rise">East Pacific Rise</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1960s, the past record of <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_reversal" title="Geomagnetic reversal">geomagnetic reversals</a> of Earth's magnetic field was noticed by observing magnetic stripe "anomalies" on the ocean floor.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This results in broadly evident "stripes" from which the past magnetic field polarity can be inferred from data gathered with a <a href="/wiki/Magnetometer" title="Magnetometer">magnetometer</a> towed on the sea surface or from an aircraft. The stripes on one side of the mid-ocean ridge were the mirror image of those on the other side. By identifying a reversal with a known age and measuring the distance of that reversal from the spreading center, the spreading half-rate could be computed. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polarityshift.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Polarityshift.gif" decoding="async" width="192" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="192" data-file-height="144" /></a><figcaption>magnetic stripes formed during seafloor spreading</figcaption></figure> <p>In some locations spreading rates have been found to be asymmetric; the half rates differ on each side of the ridge crest by about five percent.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is thought due to temperature gradients in the asthenosphere from <a href="/wiki/Mantle_plume" title="Mantle plume">mantle plumes</a> near the spreading center.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spreading_center">Spreading center</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Spreading center"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Seafloor spreading occurs at spreading centers, distributed along the crests of mid-ocean ridges. Spreading centers end in <a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">transform faults</a> or in <a href="/wiki/Overlapping_spreading_centers" title="Overlapping spreading centers">overlapping spreading center</a> offsets. A spreading center includes a seismically active plate boundary zone a few kilometers to tens of kilometers wide, a crustal accretion zone within the boundary zone where the ocean crust is youngest, and an instantaneous plate boundary – a line within the crustal accretion zone demarcating the two separating plates.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the crustal accretion zone is a 1–2 km-wide neovolcanic zone where active volcanism occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Incipient_spreading">Incipient spreading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Incipient spreading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plates_tect2_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Plates_tect2_en.svg/220px-Plates_tect2_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Plates_tect2_en.svg/330px-Plates_tect2_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Plates_tect2_en.svg/440px-Plates_tect2_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="4167" data-file-height="2844" /></a><figcaption>Plates in the crust of the earth, according to the <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a> theory</figcaption></figure> <p>In the general case, seafloor spreading starts as a <a href="/wiki/Rift_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rift (geology)">rift</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Continental_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental plate">continental land mass</a>, similar to the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>-<a href="/wiki/East_Africa_Rift" class="mw-redirect" title="East Africa Rift">East Africa Rift</a> System today.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process starts by heating at the base of the continental crust which causes it to become more plastic and less dense. Because less dense objects rise in relation to denser objects, the area being heated becomes a broad dome (see <a href="/wiki/Isostasy" title="Isostasy">isostasy</a>). As the crust bows upward, fractures occur that gradually grow into rifts. The typical rift system consists of three rift arms at approximately 120-degree angles. These areas are named <a href="/wiki/Triple_junction" title="Triple junction">triple junctions</a> and can be found in several places across the world today. The separated margins of the <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a> evolve to form <a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">passive margins</a>. Hess' theory was that new seafloor is formed when magma is forced upward toward the surface at a mid-ocean ridge. </p><p>If spreading continues past the incipient stage described above, two of the rift arms will open while the third arm stops opening and becomes a 'failed rift' or <a href="/wiki/Aulacogen" title="Aulacogen">aulacogen</a>. As the two active rifts continue to open, eventually the continental crust is attenuated as far as it will stretch. At this point basaltic oceanic crust and upper mantle <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> begins to form between the separating continental fragments. When one of the rifts opens into the existing ocean, the rift system is flooded with seawater and becomes a new sea. The Red Sea is an example of a new arm of the sea. The East African rift was thought to be a failed arm that was opening more slowly than the other two arms, but in 2005 the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopian</a> Afar Geophysical Lithospheric Experiment<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reported that in the <a href="/wiki/Afar_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Afar (region)">Afar region</a>, September 2005, a 60 km fissure opened as wide as eight meters.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period of initial flooding the new sea is sensitive to changes in climate and <a href="/wiki/Eustasy" class="mw-redirect" title="Eustasy">eustasy</a>. As a result, the new sea will evaporate (partially or completely) several times before the elevation of the rift valley has been lowered to the point that the sea becomes stable. During this period of evaporation large evaporite deposits will be made in the rift valley. Later these deposits have the potential to become hydrocarbon seals and are of particular interest to <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> <a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">geologists</a>. </p><p>Seafloor spreading can stop during the process, but if it continues to the point that the continent is completely severed, then a new <a href="/wiki/Ocean_basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean basin">ocean basin</a> is created. The Red Sea has not yet completely split Arabia from Africa, but a similar feature can be found on the other side of Africa that has broken completely free. South America once fit into the area of the <a href="/wiki/Niger_Delta" title="Niger Delta">Niger Delta</a>. The Niger River has formed in the failed rift arm of the <a href="/wiki/Triple_junction" title="Triple junction">triple junction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Continued_spreading_and_subduction">Continued spreading and subduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Continued spreading and subduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ridge_render.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Ridge_render.jpg/300px-Ridge_render.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Ridge_render.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="179" /></a><figcaption>Spreading at a mid-ocean ridge</figcaption></figure> <p>As new seafloor forms and spreads apart from the mid-ocean ridge it slowly cools over time. Older seafloor is, therefore, colder than new seafloor, and older oceanic basins deeper than new oceanic basins due to isostasy. If the diameter of the earth remains relatively constant despite the production of new crust, a mechanism must exist by which crust is also destroyed. The destruction of oceanic crust occurs at subduction zones where oceanic crust is forced under either continental crust or oceanic crust. Today, the Atlantic basin is actively spreading at the <a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a>. Only a small portion of the oceanic crust produced in the Atlantic is subducted. However, the plates making up the Pacific Ocean are experiencing subduction along many of their boundaries which causes the volcanic activity in what has been termed the <a href="/wiki/Ring_of_Fire" title="Ring of Fire">Ring of Fire</a> of the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific is also home to one of the world's most active spreading centers (the East Pacific Rise) with spreading rates of up to 145 ± 4 mm/yr between the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_plate" title="Pacific plate">Pacific</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nazca_plate" title="Nazca plate">Nazca plates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a slow-spreading center, while the East Pacific Rise is an example of fast spreading. Spreading centers at slow and intermediate rates exhibit a rift valley while at fast rates an axial high is found within the crustal accretion zone.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The differences in spreading rates affect not only the geometries of the ridges but also the geochemistry of the basalts that are produced.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the new oceanic basins are shallower than the old oceanic basins, the total capacity of the world's ocean basins decreases during times of active sea floor spreading. During the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>, sea level was so high that a <a href="/wiki/Western_Interior_Seaway" title="Western Interior Seaway">Western Interior Seaway</a> formed across <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Debate_and_search_for_mechanism">Debate and search for mechanism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Debate and search for mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (and in other mid-ocean ridges), material from the upper <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> rises through the faults between oceanic plates to form new <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> as the plates move away from each other, a phenomenon first observed as continental drift. When <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wegener" title="Alfred Wegener">Alfred Wegener</a> first presented a hypothesis of continental drift in 1912, he suggested that continents plowed through the ocean crust. This was impossible: oceanic crust is both more dense and more rigid than continental crust. Accordingly, Wegener's theory wasn't taken very seriously, especially in the United States. </p><p>At first the driving force for spreading was argued to be convection currents in the mantle.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, it has been shown that the motion of the continents is linked to seafloor spreading by the theory of plate tectonics, which is driven by convection that includes the crust itself as well.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The driver for seafloor spreading in plates with <a href="/wiki/Active_margin" class="mw-redirect" title="Active margin">active margins</a> is the weight of the cool, dense, subducting slabs that pull them along, or slab pull. The magmatism at the ridge is considered to be passive upwelling, which is caused by the plates being pulled apart under the weight of their own slabs.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be thought of as analogous to a rug on a table with little friction: when part of the rug is off of the table, its weight pulls the rest of the rug down with it. However, the Mid-Atlantic ridge itself is not bordered by plates that are being pulled into subduction zones, except the minor subduction in the <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Antilles" title="Lesser Antilles">Lesser Antilles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scotia_Arc" title="Scotia Arc">Scotia Arc</a>. In this case the plates are sliding apart over the mantle upwelling in the process of ridge push.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Seafloor_global_topography:_cooling_models">Seafloor global topography: cooling models</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Seafloor global topography: cooling models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_depth_versus_age" title="Seafloor depth versus age">Seafloor depth versus age</a></div> <p>The depth of the seafloor (or the height of a location on a mid-ocean ridge above a base-level) is closely correlated with its age (age of the lithosphere where depth is measured). The age-depth relation can be modeled by the cooling of a lithosphere plate<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or mantle half-space in areas without significant <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cooling_mantle_model">Cooling mantle model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cooling mantle model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the mantle half-space model,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the seabed height is determined by the <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_lithosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic lithosphere">oceanic lithosphere</a> and mantle temperature, due to thermal expansion. The simple result is that the ridge height or ocean depth is proportional to the square root of its age.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oceanic lithosphere is continuously formed at a constant rate at the <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridges</a>. The source of the lithosphere has a half-plane shape (<i>x</i> = 0, <i>z</i> < 0) and a constant temperature <i>T</i><sub>1</sub>. Due to its continuous creation, the lithosphere at <i>x</i> > 0 is moving away from the ridge at a constant velocity <i>v</i>, which is assumed large compared to other typical scales in the problem. The temperature at the upper boundary of the lithosphere (<i>z</i> = 0) is a constant <i>T</i><sub>0</sub> = 0. Thus at <i>x</i> = 0 the temperature is the <a href="/wiki/Heaviside_step_function" title="Heaviside step function">Heaviside step function</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{1}\cdot \Theta (-z)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Θ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{1}\cdot \Theta (-z)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/46921eb7c9872f376e90560a6195dc2b6c470324" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.605ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{1}\cdot \Theta (-z)}"></span>. The system is assumed to be at a quasi-<a href="/wiki/Steady_state" title="Steady state">steady state</a>, so that the temperature distribution is constant in time, i.e. <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T=T(x,z).}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T=T(x,z).}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/328fe1041b1f2b2693db24cfef5fea4fa7b6855d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.279ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T=T(x,z).}"></span> </p><p>By calculating in the frame of reference of the moving lithosphere (velocity <i>v</i>), which has spatial coordinate <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x'=x-vt,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>v</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x'=x-vt,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/265922e28224a041e55d6bac7dea14b79928cc39" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.897ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x'=x-vt,}"></span> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T=T(x',z,t).}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo>,</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T=T(x',z,t).}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/472bb85e3a16f56fc3f716eb5f467a2700ce7624" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.837ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T=T(x',z,t).}"></span> and the <a href="/wiki/Heat_equation" title="Heat equation">heat equation</a> is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa \nabla ^{2}T=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}+\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}x'}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mi>κ</mi> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∇</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>T</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>κ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>z</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>κ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa \nabla ^{2}T=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}+\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}x'}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b167972acf2387505c6f0c238461d1b4efb84b2e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:31.589ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa \nabla ^{2}T=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}+\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}x'}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \kappa }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>κ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \kappa }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/54ddec2e922c5caea4e47d04feef86e782dc8e6d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.339ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \kappa }"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Thermal_diffusivity" title="Thermal diffusivity">thermal diffusivity</a> of the mantle lithosphere. </p><p>Since <i>T</i> depends on <i>x'</i> and <i>t</i> only through the combination <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x=x'+vt,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo>+</mo> <mi>v</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x=x'+vt,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c7f54a3c004fc5011541b6cbc2988665e6266fc5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.897ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x=x'+vt,}"></span>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial x'}}={\frac {1}{v}}\cdot {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>v</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial x'}}={\frac {1}{v}}\cdot {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b7b415e603fc6abff65512f37d6b243d38c3fa62" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:14.735ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial x'}}={\frac {1}{v}}\cdot {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Thus: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa \nabla ^{2}T=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}+{\frac {\kappa }{v^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}t}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mi>κ</mi> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∇</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>T</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>κ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>z</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>κ</mi> <msup> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa \nabla ^{2}T=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}+{\frac {\kappa }{v^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}t}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/51d1360a5c3e7e40e06b33eedbfe301bc7f99fa5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:32.89ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa \nabla ^{2}T=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}+{\frac {\kappa }{v^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}t}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>It is assumed that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>v</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e07b00e7fc0847fbd16391c778d65bc25c452597" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.128ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v}"></span> is large compared to other scales in the problem; therefore the last term in the equation is neglected, giving a 1-dimensional diffusion equation: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mi>κ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>z</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/82a662418469e93f8629033f1aa2b759e24faf7d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:13.098ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>with the initial conditions </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T(t=0)=T_{1}\cdot \Theta (-z).}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Θ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T(t=0)=T_{1}\cdot \Theta (-z).}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4ce7105a77eb3b9e26e808341fa1138918830fe6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:22.896ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T(t=0)=T_{1}\cdot \Theta (-z).}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The solution for <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z\leq 0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>z</mi> <mo>≤</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z\leq 0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cbf1c03024acd74b4635eb942fc28fdc9a5d7fd3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:5.349ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z\leq 0}"></span> is given by the <a href="/wiki/Error_function" title="Error function">error function</a>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T(x',z,t)=T_{1}\cdot \operatorname {erf} \left({\frac {z}{2{\sqrt {\kappa t}}}}\right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo>,</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>erf</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>z</mi> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mi>κ</mi> <mi>t</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T(x',z,t)=T_{1}\cdot \operatorname {erf} \left({\frac {z}{2{\sqrt {\kappa t}}}}\right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/23654b62ff6802632212eac5c043fcf55cd3b006" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:28.835ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T(x',z,t)=T_{1}\cdot \operatorname {erf} \left({\frac {z}{2{\sqrt {\kappa t}}}}\right)}"></span>.</dd></dl> <p>Due to the large velocity, the temperature dependence on the horizontal direction is negligible, and the height at time <i>t</i> (i.e. of sea floor of age <i>t</i>) can be calculated by integrating the thermal expansion over <i>z</i>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h(t)=h_{0}+\alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }\int _{0}^{\infty }[T(z)-T_{1}]dz=h_{0}-{\frac {2}{\sqrt {\pi }}}\alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }T_{1}{\sqrt {\kappa t}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>h</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mi>d</mi> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>2</mn> <msqrt> <mi>π</mi> </msqrt> </mfrac> </mrow> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mi>κ</mi> <mi>t</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h(t)=h_{0}+\alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }\int _{0}^{\infty }[T(z)-T_{1}]dz=h_{0}-{\frac {2}{\sqrt {\pi }}}\alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }T_{1}{\sqrt {\kappa t}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/78274b715f75e2427d82f22531ebf771f699f0b0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:56.739ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h(t)=h_{0}+\alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }\int _{0}^{\infty }[T(z)-T_{1}]dz=h_{0}-{\frac {2}{\sqrt {\pi }}}\alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }T_{1}{\sqrt {\kappa t}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/54a02c2d9f181d2d13cffad1b8ef83262ca60358" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.673ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }}"></span> is the effective volumetric <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">thermal expansion</a> coefficient, and <i>h<sub>0</sub></i> is the mid-ocean ridge height (compared to some reference). </p><p>The assumption that <i>v</i> is relatively large is equivalent to the assumption that the thermal diffusivity <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \kappa }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>κ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \kappa }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/54ddec2e922c5caea4e47d04feef86e782dc8e6d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.339ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \kappa }"></span> is small compared to <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle L^{2}/A}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>L</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>A</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle L^{2}/A}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1ffae4da2fa19a2ea334b360dbb6a9c671ea0561" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.543ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle L^{2}/A}"></span>, where <i>L</i> is the ocean width (from mid-ocean ridges to <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelf</a>) and <i>A</i> is the age of the ocean basin. </p><p>The effective thermal expansion coefficient <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/54a02c2d9f181d2d13cffad1b8ef83262ca60358" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.673ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }}"></span> is different from the usual thermal expansion coefficient <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \alpha }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>α</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \alpha }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b79333175c8b3f0840bfb4ec41b8072c83ea88d3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.488ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \alpha }"></span> due to isostasic effect of the change in water column height above the lithosphere as it expands or retracts. Both coefficients are related by: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }=\alpha \cdot {\frac {\rho }{\rho -\rho _{w}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>α</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }=\alpha \cdot {\frac {\rho }{\rho -\rho _{w}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/685c595ee0054b76853f5121286ddc89656f2465" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:17.428ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }=\alpha \cdot {\frac {\rho }{\rho -\rho _{w}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho \sim 3.3\ \mathrm {g} \cdot \mathrm {cm} ^{-3}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo>∼</mo> <mn>3.3</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi> </mrow> <mo>⋅</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho \sim 3.3\ \mathrm {g} \cdot \mathrm {cm} ^{-3}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3bea7b7aff1a714683a9833343e9a7891a6398ad" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.995ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho \sim 3.3\ \mathrm {g} \cdot \mathrm {cm} ^{-3}}"></span> is the rock density and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho _{0}=1\ \mathrm {g} \cdot \mathrm {cm} ^{-3}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi> </mrow> <mo>⋅</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho _{0}=1\ \mathrm {g} \cdot \mathrm {cm} ^{-3}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cc35d0a4aca4fb93d548d5b71b8850e814876233" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.24ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho _{0}=1\ \mathrm {g} \cdot \mathrm {cm} ^{-3}}"></span> is the density of water. </p><p>By substituting the parameters by their rough estimates: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\kappa &\sim 8\cdot 10^{-7}\ \mathrm {m} ^{2}\cdot \mathrm {s} ^{-1}\\\alpha &\sim 4\cdot 10^{-5}\ {}^{\circ }\mathrm {C} ^{-1}\\T_{1}&\sim 1220\ {}^{\circ }\mathrm {C} &&{\text{for the Atlantic and Indian oceans}}\\T_{1}&\sim 1120\ {}^{\circ }\mathrm {C} &&{\text{for the eastern Pacific}}\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>κ</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>∼</mo> <mn>8</mn> <mo>⋅</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>7</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mtext> </mtext> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>⋅</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>α</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>∼</mo> <mn>4</mn> <mo>⋅</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mtext> </mtext> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>∼</mo> <mn>1220</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd /> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>for the Atlantic and Indian oceans</mtext> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>∼</mo> <mn>1120</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd /> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>for the eastern Pacific</mtext> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\kappa &\sim 8\cdot 10^{-7}\ \mathrm {m} ^{2}\cdot \mathrm {s} ^{-1}\\\alpha &\sim 4\cdot 10^{-5}\ {}^{\circ }\mathrm {C} ^{-1}\\T_{1}&\sim 1220\ {}^{\circ }\mathrm {C} &&{\text{for the Atlantic and Indian oceans}}\\T_{1}&\sim 1120\ {}^{\circ }\mathrm {C} &&{\text{for the eastern Pacific}}\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9477ae2bb88eff5d9ec09061d28d96adcab82411" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -5.671ex; width:61.03ex; height:12.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\kappa &\sim 8\cdot 10^{-7}\ \mathrm {m} ^{2}\cdot \mathrm {s} ^{-1}\\\alpha &\sim 4\cdot 10^{-5}\ {}^{\circ }\mathrm {C} ^{-1}\\T_{1}&\sim 1220\ {}^{\circ }\mathrm {C} &&{\text{for the Atlantic and Indian oceans}}\\T_{1}&\sim 1120\ {}^{\circ }\mathrm {C} &&{\text{for the eastern Pacific}}\end{aligned}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>gives:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h(t)\sim {\begin{cases}h_{0}-390{\sqrt {t}}&{\text{for the Atlantic and Indian oceans}}\\h_{0}-350{\sqrt {t}}&{\text{for the eastern Pacific}}\end{cases}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>h</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>∼</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>{</mo> <mtable columnalign="left left" rowspacing=".2em" columnspacing="1em" displaystyle="false"> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mn>390</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mi>t</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>for the Atlantic and Indian oceans</mtext> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mn>350</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mi>t</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>for the eastern Pacific</mtext> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo fence="true" stretchy="true" symmetric="true"></mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h(t)\sim {\begin{cases}h_{0}-390{\sqrt {t}}&{\text{for the Atlantic and Indian oceans}}\\h_{0}-350{\sqrt {t}}&{\text{for the eastern Pacific}}\end{cases}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a293e09953243f17203a23c4503a9f7870fc667e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:57.525ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h(t)\sim {\begin{cases}h_{0}-390{\sqrt {t}}&{\text{for the Atlantic and Indian oceans}}\\h_{0}-350{\sqrt {t}}&{\text{for the eastern Pacific}}\end{cases}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where the height is in meters and time is in millions of years. To get the dependence on <i>x</i>, one must substitute <i>t</i> = <i>x</i>/<i>v</i> ~ <i>Ax</i>/<i>L</i>, where <i>L</i> is the distance between the ridge to the <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelf</a> (roughly half the ocean width), and <i>A</i> is the ocean basin age. </p><p>Rather than height of the ocean floor <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h(t)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>h</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h(t)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/66abbb8ae1d9f30bb529739b109e1e5bbe83c626" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.988ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h(t)}"></span> above a base or reference level <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h_{b}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h_{b}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/140aec52ffb1fd0966772704b2fe00827cdefa13" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.277ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h_{b}}"></span>, the depth of the ocean <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d(t)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d(t)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e115e742b9743138b3f4c1fd7cf9c7263dcdbe43" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.865ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d(t)}"></span> is of interest. Because <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d(t)+h(t)=h_{b}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d(t)+h(t)=h_{b}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c994f04ff8b2e2985c99ad52e8c5ae3cfe8e192e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:16.068ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d(t)+h(t)=h_{b}}"></span>(with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h_{b}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h_{b}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/140aec52ffb1fd0966772704b2fe00827cdefa13" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.277ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h_{b}}"></span> measured from the ocean surface): </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d(t)=h_{b}-h_{0}+350{\sqrt {t}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mn>350</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mi>t</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d(t)=h_{b}-h_{0}+350{\sqrt {t}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2407cd3f5401309b43e7a0039ba82ac5ad639266" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:23.577ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d(t)=h_{b}-h_{0}+350{\sqrt {t}}}"></span>; for the eastern Pacific for example, where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h_{b}-h_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h_{b}-h_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9e9535dcdc637c0623841f0d3e0d320ee78f62c4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.51ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h_{b}-h_{0}}"></span> is the depth at the ridge crest, typically 2600 m.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cooling_plate_model">Cooling plate model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cooling plate model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The depth predicted by the square root of seafloor age derived above is too deep for seafloor older than 80 million years.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depth is better explained by a cooling lithosphere plate model rather than the cooling mantle half-space.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plate has a constant temperature at its base and spreading edge. Analysis of depth versus age and depth versus square root of age data allowed Parsons and Sclater<sup id="cite_ref-:4_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to estimate model parameters (for the North Pacific): </p> <dl><dd>~125 km for lithosphere thickness</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{1}\thicksim 1350\ {}^{\circ }\mathrm {C} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo class="MJX-variant">∼</mo> <mn>1350</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{1}\thicksim 1350\ {}^{\circ }\mathrm {C} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c13b5028d3200ccfc6ee539a28b39f73b17c5cca" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:13.473ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{1}\thicksim 1350\ {}^{\circ }\mathrm {C} }"></span> at base and young edge of plate</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \alpha \thicksim 3.2\cdot 10^{-5}\ {}^{\circ }\mathrm {C} ^{-1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>α</mi> <mo class="MJX-variant">∼</mo> <mn>3.2</mn> <mo>⋅</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mtext> </mtext> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \alpha \thicksim 3.2\cdot 10^{-5}\ {}^{\circ }\mathrm {C} ^{-1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4bcf3dd4ecf7a436b5d00edcc8bb7426a82cd960" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:19.54ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \alpha \thicksim 3.2\cdot 10^{-5}\ {}^{\circ }\mathrm {C} ^{-1}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Assuming isostatic equilibrium everywhere beneath the cooling plate yields a revised age depth relationship for older sea floor that is approximately correct for ages as young as 20 million years: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d(t)=6400-3200\exp {\bigl (}-t/62.8{\bigr )}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mn>6400</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mn>3200</mn> <mi>exp</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">(</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>62.8</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d(t)=6400-3200\exp {\bigl (}-t/62.8{\bigr )}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a80ba34785abb24b9549b43db17dedaec1f917a0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:34.536ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d(t)=6400-3200\exp {\bigl (}-t/62.8{\bigr )}}"></span> meters</dd></dl> <p>Thus older seafloor deepens more slowly than younger and in fact can be assumed almost constant at ~6400 m depth. Parsons and Sclater concluded that some style of mantle convection must apply heat to the base of the plate everywhere to prevent cooling down below 125 km and lithosphere contraction (seafloor deepening) at older ages.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their plate model also allowed an expression for conductive heat flow, <i>q(t)</i> from the ocean floor, which is approximately constant at <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1\cdot 10^{-6}\mathrm {cal} \,\mathrm {cm} ^{-2}\mathrm {sec} ^{-1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mo>⋅</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">l</mi> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1\cdot 10^{-6}\mathrm {cal} \,\mathrm {cm} ^{-2}\mathrm {sec} ^{-1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c4d4d643b704e7428f1a6ed6e43b84f37777223a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:21.343ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1\cdot 10^{-6}\mathrm {cal} \,\mathrm {cm} ^{-2}\mathrm {sec} ^{-1}}"></span> beyond 120 million years: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q(t)=11.3/{\sqrt {t}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>q</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mn>11.3</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mi>t</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q(t)=11.3/{\sqrt {t}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fc12b2077546a2b943c9ac215998de2d909b33ee" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.889ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q(t)=11.3/{\sqrt {t}}}"></span></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sea-floor_spreading" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Sea-floor spreading">Sea-floor spreading</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a> – Linear feature that exists between two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a> – Concept in plate tectonics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV <i>ALVIN</i></a> the research submersible that explored spreading centers in the Atlantic (<a href="/wiki/Project_FAMOUS" title="Project FAMOUS">Project FAMOUS</a>) and Pacific Oceans (<a href="/wiki/RISE_project_(oceanography)" class="mw-redirect" title="RISE project (oceanography)">RISE project</a>).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHess1962" class="citation book cs1">Hess, H. H. (November 1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Hess1962.pdf">"History of Ocean Basins"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In A. E. J. Engel; Harold L. James; B. F. Leonard (eds.). <i>Petrologic studies: a volume to honor A. F. Buddington</i>. Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America. pp. 599–620.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=History+of+Ocean+Basins&rft.btitle=Petrologic+studies%3A+a+volume+to+honor+A.+F.+Buddington&rft.place=Boulder%2C+CO&rft.pages=599-620&rft.pub=Geological+Society+of+America&rft.date=1962-11&rft.aulast=Hess&rft.aufirst=H.+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mantleplumes.org%2FWebDocuments%2FHess1962.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDietz1961" class="citation journal cs1">Dietz, Robert S. (1961). "Continent and Ocean Basin Evolution by Spreading of the Sea Floor". <i>Nature</i>. <b>190</b> (4779): 854–857. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1961Natur.190..854D">1961Natur.190..854D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F190854a0">10.1038/190854a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4288496">4288496</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Continent+and+Ocean+Basin+Evolution+by+Spreading+of+the+Sea+Floor&rft.volume=190&rft.issue=4779&rft.pages=854-857&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F190854a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4288496%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1961Natur.190..854D&rft.aulast=Dietz&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanTolstoyWaldhauserWilcock2016" class="citation journal cs1">Tan, Yen Joe; <a href="/wiki/Maya_Tolstoy" title="Maya Tolstoy">Tolstoy, Maya</a>; Waldhauser, Felix; Wilcock, William S. D. (2016). "Dynamics of a seafloor-spreading episode at the East Pacific Rise". <i>Nature</i>. <b>540</b> (7632): 261–265. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016Natur.540..261T">2016Natur.540..261T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature20116">10.1038/nature20116</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27842380">27842380</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205251567">205251567</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Dynamics+of+a+seafloor-spreading+episode+at+the+East+Pacific+Rise&rft.volume=540&rft.issue=7632&rft.pages=261-265&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature20116&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205251567%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27842380&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016Natur.540..261T&rft.aulast=Tan&rft.aufirst=Yen+Joe&rft.au=Tolstoy%2C+Maya&rft.au=Waldhauser%2C+Felix&rft.au=Wilcock%2C+William+S.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForsythUyeda1975" class="citation journal cs1">Forsyth, Donald; Uyeda, Seiya (1975-10-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-246x.1975.tb00631.x">"On the Relative Importance of the Driving Forces of Plate Motion"</a>. <i>Geophysical Journal International</i>. <b>43</b> (1): 163–200. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975GeoJ...43..163F">1975GeoJ...43..163F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-246x.1975.tb00631.x">10.1111/j.1365-246x.1975.tb00631.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0956-540X">0956-540X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Journal+International&rft.atitle=On+the+Relative+Importance+of+the+Driving+Forces+of+Plate+Motion&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=163-200&rft.date=1975-10-01&rft.issn=0956-540X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-246x.1975.tb00631.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1975GeoJ...43..163F&rft.aulast=Forsyth&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft.au=Uyeda%2C+Seiya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1365-246x.1975.tb00631.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacdonald2019" class="citation cs2">Macdonald, Ken C. (2019), "Mid-Ocean Ridge Tectonics, Volcanism, and Geomorphology", <i>Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences</i>, Elsevier, pp. 405–419, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-409548-9.11065-6">10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.11065-6</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780128130827" title="Special:BookSources/9780128130827"><bdi>9780128130827</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mid-Ocean+Ridge+Tectonics%2C+Volcanism%2C+and+Geomorphology&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Ocean+Sciences&rft.pages=405-419&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-409548-9.11065-6&rft.isbn=9780128130827&rft.aulast=Macdonald&rft.aufirst=Ken+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacdonald1982" class="citation journal cs1">Macdonald, K. C. (1982). "Mid-Ocean Ridges: Fine Scale Tectonic, Volcanic and Hydrothermal Processes Within the Plate Boundary Zone". <i>Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences</i>. <b>10</b> (1): 155–190. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982AREPS..10..155M">1982AREPS..10..155M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ea.10.050182.001103">10.1146/annurev.ea.10.050182.001103</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Earth+and+Planetary+Sciences&rft.atitle=Mid-Ocean+Ridges%3A+Fine+Scale+Tectonic%2C+Volcanic+and+Hydrothermal+Processes+Within+the+Plate+Boundary+Zone&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=155-190&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ea.10.050182.001103&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1982AREPS..10..155M&rft.aulast=Macdonald&rft.aufirst=K.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSearle2013" class="citation book cs1">Searle, Roger (2013). <i>Mid-ocean ridges</i>. New York: Cambridge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107017528" title="Special:BookSources/9781107017528"><bdi>9781107017528</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/842323181">842323181</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mid-ocean+ridges&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F842323181&rft.isbn=9781107017528&rft.aulast=Searle&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1996" class="citation journal cs1">Wilson, Douglas S. (1996-10-15). "Fastest known spreading on the Miocene Cocos-Pacific Plate Boundary". <i>Geophysical Research Letters</i>. <b>23</b> (21): 3003–3006. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996GeoRL..23.3003W">1996GeoRL..23.3003W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F96GL02893">10.1029/96GL02893</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Fastest+known+spreading+on+the+Miocene+Cocos-Pacific+Plate+Boundary&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=3003-3006&rft.date=1996-10-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F96GL02893&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1996GeoRL..23.3003W&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Douglas+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVine,_F._J.Matthews1963" class="citation journal cs1">Vine, F. J.; Matthews, D. H. (1963). "Magnetic Anomalies Over Oceanic Ridges". <i>Nature</i>. <b>199</b> (4897): 947–949. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1963Natur.199..947V">1963Natur.199..947V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F199947a0">10.1038/199947a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4296143">4296143</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Magnetic+Anomalies+Over+Oceanic+Ridges&rft.volume=199&rft.issue=4897&rft.pages=947-949&rft.date=1963&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4296143%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F199947a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1963Natur.199..947V&rft.au=Vine%2C+F.+J.&rft.au=Matthews%2C+D.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVine1966" class="citation journal cs1">Vine, F. J. (1966-12-16). "Spreading of the Ocean Floor: New Evidence". <i>Science</i>. <b>154</b> (3755): 1405–1415. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1966Sci...154.1405V">1966Sci...154.1405V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.154.3755.1405">10.1126/science.154.3755.1405</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17821553">17821553</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44362406">44362406</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Spreading+of+the+Ocean+Floor%3A+New+Evidence&rft.volume=154&rft.issue=3755&rft.pages=1405-1415&rft.date=1966-12-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A44362406%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1966Sci...154.1405V&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.154.3755.1405&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17821553&rft.aulast=Vine&rft.aufirst=F.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeisselHayes1971" class="citation journal cs1">Weissel, Jeffrey K.; Hayes, Dennis E. (1971). "Asymmetric Seafloor Spreading south of Australia". <i>Nature</i>. <b>231</b> (5304): 518–522. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971Natur.231..518W">1971Natur.231..518W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F231518a0">10.1038/231518a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4171566">4171566</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Asymmetric+Seafloor+Spreading+south+of+Australia&rft.volume=231&rft.issue=5304&rft.pages=518-522&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F231518a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4171566%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1971Natur.231..518W&rft.aulast=Weissel&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+K.&rft.au=Hayes%2C+Dennis+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüllerSdroliasGainaRoest2008" class="citation journal cs1">Müller, R. Dietmar; Sdrolias, Maria; Gaina, Carmen; Roest, Walter R. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00000/3900/">"Age, spreading rates, and spreading asymmetry of the world's ocean crust: DIGITAL MODELS OF THE WORLD'S OCEAN CRUST"</a>. <i>Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems</i>. <b>9</b> (4): n/a. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008GGG.....9.4006M">2008GGG.....9.4006M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2007GC001743">10.1029/2007GC001743</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15960331">15960331</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geochemistry%2C+Geophysics%2C+Geosystems&rft.atitle=Age%2C+spreading+rates%2C+and+spreading+asymmetry+of+the+world%27s+ocean+crust%3A+DIGITAL+MODELS+OF+THE+WORLD%27S+OCEAN+CRUST&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=n%2Fa&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15960331%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2007GC001743&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008GGG.....9.4006M&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCller&rft.aufirst=R.+Dietmar&rft.au=Sdrolias%2C+Maria&rft.au=Gaina%2C+Carmen&rft.au=Roest%2C+Walter+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchimer.ifremer.fr%2Fdoc%2F00000%2F3900%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuyendykMacdonald1976" class="citation journal cs1">Luyendyk, Bruce P.; Macdonald, Ken C. (1976-06-01). "Spreading center terms and concepts". <i>Geology</i>. <b>4</b> (6): 369. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976Geo.....4..369L">1976Geo.....4..369L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2F0091-7613%281976%294%3C369%3Asctac%3E2.0.co%3B2">10.1130/0091-7613(1976)4<369:sctac>2.0.co;2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0091-7613">0091-7613</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geology&rft.atitle=Spreading+center+terms+and+concepts&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=369&rft.date=1976-06-01&rft.issn=0091-7613&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2F0091-7613%281976%294%3C369%3Asctac%3E2.0.co%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1976Geo.....4..369L&rft.aulast=Luyendyk&rft.aufirst=Bruce+P.&rft.au=Macdonald%2C+Ken+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaignieresCourtillotBayerTapponnier1975" class="citation journal cs1">Daignieres, Marc; Courtillot, Vincent; Bayer, Roger; Tapponnier, Paul (1975). "A model for the evolution of the axial zone of mid-ocean ridges as suggested by icelandic tectonics". <i>Earth and Planetary Science Letters</i>. <b>26</b> (2): 222–232. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975E&PSL..26..222D">1975E&PSL..26..222D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0012-821x%2875%2990089-8">10.1016/0012-821x(75)90089-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth+and+Planetary+Science+Letters&rft.atitle=A+model+for+the+evolution+of+the+axial+zone+of+mid-ocean+ridges+as+suggested+by+icelandic+tectonics&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=222-232&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0012-821x%2875%2990089-8&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1975E%26PSL..26..222D&rft.aulast=Daignieres&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft.au=Courtillot%2C+Vincent&rft.au=Bayer%2C+Roger&rft.au=Tapponnier%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcClintonWhite2015" class="citation journal cs1">McClinton, J. Timothy; White, Scott M. (2015-03-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F2014gc005632">"Emplacement of submarine lava flow fields: A geomorphological model from the Niños eruption at the Galápagos Spreading Center"</a>. <i>Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems</i>. <b>16</b> (3): 899–911. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015GGG....16..899M">2015GGG....16..899M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F2014gc005632">10.1002/2014gc005632</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1525-2027">1525-2027</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geochemistry%2C+Geophysics%2C+Geosystems&rft.atitle=Emplacement+of+submarine+lava+flow+fields%3A+A+geomorphological+model+from+the+Ni%C3%B1os+eruption+at+the+Gal%C3%A1pagos+Spreading+Center&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=899-911&rft.date=2015-03-01&rft.issn=1525-2027&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F2014gc005632&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015GGG....16..899M&rft.aulast=McClinton&rft.aufirst=J.+Timothy&rft.au=White%2C+Scott+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252F2014gc005632&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakrisGinzburg1987" class="citation journal cs1">Makris, J.; Ginzburg, A. (1987-09-15). "Sedimentary basins within the Dead Sea and other rift zones The Afar Depression: transition between continental rifting and sea-floor spreading". <i>Tectonophysics</i>. <b>141</b> (1): 199–214. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987Tectp.141..199M">1987Tectp.141..199M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0040-1951%2887%2990186-7">10.1016/0040-1951(87)90186-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129438029">129438029</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tectonophysics&rft.atitle=Sedimentary+basins+within+the+Dead+Sea+and+other+rift+zones+The+Afar+Depression%3A+transition+between+continental+rifting+and+sea-floor+spreading&rft.volume=141&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=199-214&rft.date=1987-09-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129438029%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0040-1951%2887%2990186-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1987Tectp.141..199M&rft.aulast=Makris&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Ginzburg%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBastowKeirDaly2011" class="citation book cs1">Bastow, Ian D.; Keir, Derek; Daly, Eve (2011-06-01). <i>The Ethiopia Afar Geoscientific Lithospheric Experiment (EAGLE): Probing the transition from continental rifting to incipient seafloor spreading</i>. Geological Society of America Special Papers. Vol. 478. pp. 51–76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2F2011.2478%2804%29">10.1130/2011.2478(04)</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2158%2F1110145">2158/1110145</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8137-2478-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8137-2478-2"><bdi>978-0-8137-2478-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0072-1077">0072-1077</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ethiopia+Afar+Geoscientific+Lithospheric+Experiment+%28EAGLE%29%3A+Probing+the+transition+from+continental+rifting+to+incipient+seafloor+spreading&rft.series=Geological+Society+of+America+Special+Papers&rft.pages=51-76&rft.date=2011-06-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2158%2F1110145&rft.issn=0072-1077&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2F2011.2478%2804%29&rft.isbn=978-0-8137-2478-2&rft.aulast=Bastow&rft.aufirst=Ian+D.&rft.au=Keir%2C+Derek&rft.au=Daly%2C+Eve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrandinSocquetBinetKlinger2009" class="citation journal cs1">Grandin, R.; Socquet, A.; Binet, R.; Klinger, Y.; Jacques, E.; Chabalier, J.-B. de; King, G. C. P.; Lasserre, C.; Tait, S. (2009-08-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01622558/file/2008JB005843%20%281%29.pdf">"September 2005 Manda Hararo-Dabbahu rifting event, Afar (Ethiopia): Constraints provided by geodetic data"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Geophysical Research</i>. <b>114</b> (B8): B08404. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JGRB..114.8404G">2009JGRB..114.8404G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2008jb005843">10.1029/2008jb005843</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10220%2F8648">10220/8648</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2156-2202">2156-2202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=September+2005+Manda+Hararo-Dabbahu+rifting+event%2C+Afar+%28Ethiopia%29%3A+Constraints+provided+by+geodetic+data&rft.volume=114&rft.issue=B8&rft.pages=B08404&rft.date=2009-08-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10220%2F8648&rft.issn=2156-2202&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2008jb005843&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009JGRB..114.8404G&rft.aulast=Grandin&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Socquet%2C+A.&rft.au=Binet%2C+R.&rft.au=Klinger%2C+Y.&rft.au=Jacques%2C+E.&rft.au=Chabalier%2C+J.-B.+de&rft.au=King%2C+G.+C.+P.&rft.au=Lasserre%2C+C.&rft.au=Tait%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-01622558%2Ffile%2F2008JB005843%2520%25281%2529.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke1977" class="citation journal cs1">Burke, K (1977-05-01). "Aulacogens and Continental Breakup". <i>Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences</i>. <b>5</b> (1): 371–396. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977AREPS...5..371B">1977AREPS...5..371B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ea.05.050177.002103">10.1146/annurev.ea.05.050177.002103</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0084-6597">0084-6597</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Earth+and+Planetary+Sciences&rft.atitle=Aulacogens+and+Continental+Breakup&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=371-396&rft.date=1977-05-01&rft.issn=0084-6597&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ea.05.050177.002103&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977AREPS...5..371B&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeMetsGordonArgus2010" class="citation journal cs1">DeMets, Charles; Gordon, Richard G.; Argus, Donald F. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-246X.2009.04491.x">"Geologically current plate motions"</a>. <i>Geophysical Journal International</i>. <b>181</b> (1): 52. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010GeoJI.181....1D">2010GeoJI.181....1D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-246X.2009.04491.x">10.1111/j.1365-246X.2009.04491.x</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Journal+International&rft.atitle=Geologically+current+plate+motions&rft.volume=181&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=52&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-246X.2009.04491.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010GeoJI.181....1D&rft.aulast=DeMets&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Gordon%2C+Richard+G.&rft.au=Argus%2C+Donald+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1365-246X.2009.04491.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhagwat2009" class="citation book cs1">Bhagwat, S.B. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Fkw99wNiyQ0C&pg=PA83"><i>Foundation of Geology Vol 1</i></a>. Global Vision Publishing House. p. 83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788182202764" title="Special:BookSources/9788182202764"><bdi>9788182202764</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundation+of+Geology+Vol+1&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=Global+Vision+Publishing+House&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9788182202764&rft.aulast=Bhagwat&rft.aufirst=S.B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFkw99wNiyQ0C%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElsasser1971" class="citation journal cs1">Elsasser, Walter M. (1971-02-10). "Sea-floor spreading as thermal convection". <i>Journal of Geophysical Research</i>. <b>76</b> (5): 1101–1112. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971JGR....76.1101E">1971JGR....76.1101E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2FJB076i005p01101">10.1029/JB076i005p01101</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=Sea-floor+spreading+as+thermal+convection&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1101-1112&rft.date=1971-02-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2FJB076i005p01101&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1971JGR....76.1101E&rft.aulast=Elsasser&rft.aufirst=Walter+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatriat,_PhilippeAchache1984" class="citation journal cs1">Patriat, Philippe; Achache, José (1984). "India–Eurasia collision chronology has implications for crustal shortening and driving mechanism of plates". <i>Nature</i>. <b>311</b> (5987): 615. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984Natur.311..615P">1984Natur.311..615P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F311615a0">10.1038/311615a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4315858">4315858</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=India%E2%80%93Eurasia+collision+chronology+has+implications+for+crustal+shortening+and+driving+mechanism+of+plates&rft.volume=311&rft.issue=5987&rft.pages=615&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4315858%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F311615a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984Natur.311..615P&rft.au=Patriat%2C+Philippe&rft.au=Achache%2C+Jos%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKenzie1967" class="citation journal cs1">McKenzie, Dan P. (1967-12-15). "Some remarks on heat flow and gravity anomalies". <i>Journal of Geophysical Research</i>. <b>72</b> (24): 6261–6273. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967JGR....72.6261M">1967JGR....72.6261M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2FJZ072i024p06261">10.1029/JZ072i024p06261</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=Some+remarks+on+heat+flow+and+gravity+anomalies&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=6261-6273&rft.date=1967-12-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2FJZ072i024p06261&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1967JGR....72.6261M&rft.aulast=McKenzie&rft.aufirst=Dan+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSclaterFrancheteau1970" class="citation journal cs1">Sclater, J. G.; Francheteau, J. (1970-09-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-246X.1970.tb06089.x">"The Implications of Terrestrial Heat Flow Observations on Current Tectonic and Geochemical Models of the Crust and Upper Mantle of the Earth"</a>. <i>Geophysical Journal International</i>. <b>20</b> (5): 509–542. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970GeoJ...20..509S">1970GeoJ...20..509S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-246X.1970.tb06089.x">10.1111/j.1365-246X.1970.tb06089.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0956-540X">0956-540X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Journal+International&rft.atitle=The+Implications+of+Terrestrial+Heat+Flow+Observations+on+Current+Tectonic+and+Geochemical+Models+of+the+Crust+and+Upper+Mantle+of+the+Earth&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=509-542&rft.date=1970-09-01&rft.issn=0956-540X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-246X.1970.tb06089.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1970GeoJ...20..509S&rft.aulast=Sclater&rft.aufirst=J.+G.&rft.au=Francheteau%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1365-246X.1970.tb06089.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSclaterAndersonBell1971" class="citation journal cs1">Sclater, John G.; Anderson, Roger N.; Bell, M. Lee (1971-11-10). "Elevation of ridges and evolution of the central eastern Pacific". <i>Journal of Geophysical Research</i>. <b>76</b> (32): 7888–7915. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971JGR....76.7888S">1971JGR....76.7888S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2Fjb076i032p07888">10.1029/jb076i032p07888</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2156-2202">2156-2202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=Elevation+of+ridges+and+evolution+of+the+central+eastern+Pacific&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=32&rft.pages=7888-7915&rft.date=1971-11-10&rft.issn=2156-2202&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2Fjb076i032p07888&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1971JGR....76.7888S&rft.aulast=Sclater&rft.aufirst=John+G.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Roger+N.&rft.au=Bell%2C+M.+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_27-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_27-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParsonsSclater1977" class="citation journal cs1">Parsons, Barry; Sclater, John G. (1977-02-10). "An analysis of the variation of ocean floor bathymetry and heat flow with age". <i>Journal of Geophysical Research</i>. <b>82</b> (5): 803–827. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977JGR....82..803P">1977JGR....82..803P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2Fjb082i005p00803">10.1029/jb082i005p00803</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2156-2202">2156-2202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=An+analysis+of+the+variation+of+ocean+floor+bathymetry+and+heat+flow+with+age&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=803-827&rft.date=1977-02-10&rft.issn=2156-2202&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2Fjb082i005p00803&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977JGR....82..803P&rft.aulast=Parsons&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft.au=Sclater%2C+John+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_28-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavisLister1974" class="citation journal cs1">Davis, E.E; Lister, C. R. B. (1974). "Fundamentals of Ridge Crest Topography". <i>Earth and Planetary Science Letters</i>. <b>21</b> (4): 405–413. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974E&PSL..21..405D">1974E&PSL..21..405D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0012-821X%2874%2990180-0">10.1016/0012-821X(74)90180-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth+and+Planetary+Science+Letters&rft.atitle=Fundamentals+of+Ridge+Crest+Topography&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=405-413&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0012-821X%2874%2990180-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1974E%26PSL..21..405D&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=E.E&rft.au=Lister%2C+C.+R.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeafloor+spreading" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">The Wikibook <i><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Historical_Geology" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Historical Geology">Historical Geology</a></i> has a page on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Historical_Geology/Seafloor_spreading" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Historical Geology/Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03fire/logs/ridge.html">Animation of a mid-ocean ridge</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physical_oceanography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physical_oceanography" title="Template talk:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physical_oceanography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Waves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airy_wave_theory" title="Airy wave theory">Airy wave theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballantine_scale" title="Ballantine scale">Ballantine scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modulational_instability" title="Modulational instability">Benjamin–Feir instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boussinesq_approximation_(water_waves)" title="Boussinesq approximation (water waves)">Boussinesq approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a></span><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate<br />tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">Sea level</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography" title="Ocean acoustic tomography">Ocean acoustic tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofar_bomb" title="Sofar bomb">Sofar bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOFAR_channel" title="SOFAR channel">SOFAR channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2" title="OSTM/Jason-2">OSTM/Jason-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(oceanography)" title="Argo (oceanography)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_lander" title="Benthic lander">Benthic lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Color of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV <i>Alvin</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea">Marginal sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mooring_(oceanography)" title="Mooring (oceanography)">Mooring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanographic_Data_Center" title="National Oceanographic Data Center">National Oceanographic Data Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Explorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_observations" title="Ocean observations">Observations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_reanalysis" title="Ocean reanalysis">Reanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">Ocean surface topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">Ocean temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_oceanography" title="Outline of oceanography">Outline of oceanography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">Pelagic sediment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Sea surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">Seawater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_On_a_Sphere" title="Science On a Sphere">Science On a Sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">Stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">Thermocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_glider" title="Underwater glider">Underwater glider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Atlas" title="World Ocean Atlas">World Ocean Atlas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" title="Category:Physical oceanography">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Physical oceanography">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&oldid=1258637910">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&oldid=1258637910</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geological_processes" title="Category:Geological processes">Geological processes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Plate_tectonics" title="Category:Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oceanographical_terminology" title="Category:Oceanographical terminology">Oceanographical terminology</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_periodical_ignored" title="Category:CS1 errors: periodical ignored">CS1 errors: periodical ignored</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 20 November 2024, at 20:16<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreading&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-vkl22","wgBackendResponseTime":120,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.562","walltime":"0.770","ppvisitednodes":{"value":3039,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":101890,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":1439,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":3,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":125317,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 547.155 1 -total"," 39.11% 214.006 1 Template:Reflist"," 19.81% 108.387 23 Template:Cite_journal"," 18.49% 101.196 2 Template:Annotated_link"," 14.42% 78.907 1 Template:Physical_oceanography"," 14.14% 77.377 1 Template:Navbox"," 13.24% 72.422 4 Template:Cite_book"," 10.38% 56.806 1 Template:Short_description"," 6.44% 35.256 2 Template:Pagetype"," 6.42% 35.108 2 Template:Sister_project"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.346","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":24023336,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.canary-84779d6bf6-nb2j4","timestamp":"20241122141110","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Seafloor spreading","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seafloor_spreading","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q215920","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q215920","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-11-10T07:11:49Z","dateModified":"2024-11-20T20:16:39Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/cb\/Global_Map_of_Oceanic_Plate_Age_by_Fabio_Crameri.png","headline":"process at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge"}</script> </body> </html>