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href="#Optical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Optical</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Optical-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Optical subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Optical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transmitted_light" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transmitted_light"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Transmitted light</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transmitted_light-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Systematic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Systematic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Systematic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Systematic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation_environments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_environments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Formation environments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_environments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biomineralogy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biomineralogy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Biomineralogy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biomineralogy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mineral_ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mineral_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Mineral ecology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mineral_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Uses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Uses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Uses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Collecting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collecting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Collecting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collecting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Associations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Associations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>Associations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Associations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mineralogy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 89 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-89" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">89 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogie" title="Mineralogie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Mineralogie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogie" title="Mineralogie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Mineralogie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%86" title="علم المعادن – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم المعادن" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralox%C3%ADa" title="Mineraloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Mineraloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogiya" title="Mineralogiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mineralogiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%B2ng-bu%CC%8Dt-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Khòng-bu̍t-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Khòng-bu̍t-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Минералогия – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Минералогия" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Мінералогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Мінералогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Мінэралёгія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Мінэралёгія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralohiya" title="Mineralohiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Mineralohiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Минералогия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Минералогия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogija" title="Mineralogija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Mineralogija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogia" title="Mineralogia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mineralogia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogie" title="Mineralogie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mineralogie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mwynyddiaeth" title="Mwynyddiaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Mwynyddiaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogi" title="Mineralogi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Mineralogi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AA" title="تامعدنيت – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="تامعدنيت" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogie" title="Mineralogie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mineralogie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineraloogia" title="Mineraloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mineraloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CF%81%CF%85%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ορυκτολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ορυκτολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralog%C3%ADa" title="Mineralogía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mineralogía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogio" title="Mineralogio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mineralogio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogia" title="Mineralogia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mineralogia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="کانی‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کانی‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min%C3%A9ralogie" title="Minéralogie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Minéralogie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mianreola%C3%ADocht" title="Mianreolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Mianreolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralox%C3%ADa" title="Mineraloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Mineraloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B4%91%EB%AC%BC%ED%95%99" title="광물학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="광물학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Միներալոգիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միներալոգիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="खनिज विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="खनिज विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogija" title="Mineralogija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Mineralogija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogio" title="Mineralogio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Mineralogio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogi" title="Mineralogi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mineralogi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogia" title="Mineralogia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Mineralogia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steindafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Steindafræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Steindafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogia" title="Mineralogia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Mineralogia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A8%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="מינרלוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מינרלוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogi" title="Mineralogi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Mineralogi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%96%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C_%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಖನಿಜ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಖನಿಜ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="მინერალოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მინერალოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Минералогия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Минералогия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elimu_madini" title="Elimu madini – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Elimu madini" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%AEneroloj%C3%AE" title="Mînerolojî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Mînerolojî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Минералогия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Минералогия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogia" title="Mineralogia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Mineralogia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralo%C4%A3ija" title="Mineraloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Mineraloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogie" title="Mineralogie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Mineralogie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogija" title="Mineralogija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mineralogija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81sv%C3%A1nytan" title="Ásványtan – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ásványtan" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Минералогија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Минералогија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9E%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="ധാതുവിജ്ഞാനീയം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ധാതുവിജ്ഞാനീയം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogi" title="Mineralogi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Mineralogi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogi" title="Mineralogi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Mineralogi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku%C5%8Dng-%C5%ADk-h%C5%8Fk" title="Kuōng-ŭk-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Kuōng-ŭk-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%81_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Эрдэс судлал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Эрдэс судлал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%AF%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="သတ္တုဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သတ္တုဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogie" title="Mineralogie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mineralogie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%89%B1%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="鉱物学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="鉱物学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogi" title="Mineralogi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mineralogi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogi" title="Mineralogi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Mineralogi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogia" title="Mineralogia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Mineralogia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogiya" title="Mineralogiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Mineralogiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%AF%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="သတ္တုဗေဒ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="သတ္တုဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="کانپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کانپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogie" title="Mineralogie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Mineralogie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogia" title="Mineralogia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mineralogia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogia" title="Mineralogia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mineralogia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogie" title="Mineralogie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Mineralogie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Минералогия – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Минералогия" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Минералогия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Минералогия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Минералогия – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Минералогия" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogjia" title="Mineralogjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mineralogjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Mineralogy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral%C3%B3gia" title="Mineralógia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Mineralógia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogija" title="Mineralogija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Mineralogija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Минералогија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Минералогија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogija" title="Mineralogija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mineralogija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogia" title="Mineralogia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mineralogia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogi" title="Mineralogi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mineralogi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralohiya" title="Mineralohiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mineralohiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%88" title="วิทยาแร่ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิทยาแร่" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Минералшиносӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Минералшиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineroloji" title="Mineroloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mineroloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Мінералогія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мінералогія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kho%C3%A1ng_v%E1%BA%ADt_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Khoáng vật học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Khoáng vật học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralohiya" title="Mineralohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Mineralohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%BF%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="矿物学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="矿物学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%A6%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="礦物學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="礦物學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%BF%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="矿物学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="矿物学" data-language-autonym="中文" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Scientific study of minerals and mineralised artifacts</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mineralogy_between_its_other_sciences_around.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Mineralogy_between_its_other_sciences_around.png/330px-Mineralogy_between_its_other_sciences_around.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Mineralogy_between_its_other_sciences_around.png/495px-Mineralogy_between_its_other_sciences_around.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Mineralogy_between_its_other_sciences_around.png/660px-Mineralogy_between_its_other_sciences_around.png 2x" data-file-width="2285" data-file-height="2281" /></a><figcaption>Mineralogy applies principles of <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a> to the study of minerals</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Mineralogy</b><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a subject of <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> specializing in the scientific study of the <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal structure</a>, and physical (including <a href="/wiki/Optical_mineralogy" title="Optical mineralogy">optical</a>) properties of <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a> and mineralized <a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">artifacts</a>. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as their utilization. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohs_mineralogy_vol_2_plate_19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Mohs_mineralogy_vol_2_plate_19.jpg/220px-Mohs_mineralogy_vol_2_plate_19.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Mohs_mineralogy_vol_2_plate_19.jpg/330px-Mohs_mineralogy_vol_2_plate_19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Mohs_mineralogy_vol_2_plate_19.jpg/440px-Mohs_mineralogy_vol_2_plate_19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3364" data-file-height="2770" /></a><figcaption>Page from <i>Treatise on mineralogy</i> by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Mohs" title="Friedrich Mohs">Friedrich Mohs</a> (1825)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moon_Mineralogy_Mapper_left.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Moon_Mineralogy_Mapper_left.jpg/220px-Moon_Mineralogy_Mapper_left.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Moon_Mineralogy_Mapper_left.jpg/330px-Moon_Mineralogy_Mapper_left.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Moon_Mineralogy_Mapper_left.jpg/440px-Moon_Mineralogy_Mapper_left.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Moon_Mineralogy_Mapper" title="Moon Mineralogy Mapper">Moon Mineralogy Mapper</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Spectrometer" title="Spectrometer">spectrometer</a> that mapped the lunar surface<sup id="cite_ref-JPL_M3_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JPL_M3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_mineralogy" title="History of mineralogy">History of mineralogy</a></div> <p>Early writing on mineralogy, especially on <a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstones</a>, comes from ancient <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, the ancient <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman">Greco-Roman</a> world, ancient and medieval <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">China</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> texts from <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">ancient India</a> and the ancient Islamic world.<sup id="cite_ref-Needham_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Needham-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Books on the subject included the <i><a href="/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalis Historia">Natural History</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>, which not only described many different minerals but also explained many of their properties, and Kitab al Jawahir (Book of Precious Stones) by Persian scientist <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a>. The <a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" title="German Renaissance">German Renaissance</a> specialist <a href="/wiki/Georgius_Agricola" title="Georgius Agricola">Georgius Agricola</a> wrote works such as <i><a href="/wiki/De_re_metallica" title="De re metallica">De re metallica</a></i> (<i>On Metals</i>, 1556) and <i><a href="/wiki/De_Natura_Fossilium" title="De Natura Fossilium">De Natura Fossilium</a></i> (<i>On the Nature of Rocks</i>, 1546) which began the scientific approach to the subject. Systematic scientific studies of minerals and rocks developed in post-<a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Needham_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Needham-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern study of mineralogy was founded on the principles of <a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">crystallography</a> (the origins of geometric crystallography, itself, can be traced back to the mineralogy practiced in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries) and to the <a href="/wiki/Microscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Microscopic">microscopic</a> study of rock sections with the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a> in the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Needham_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Needham-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Steno" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Steno">Nicholas Steno</a> first observed the law of constancy of interfacial angles (also known as the first law of crystallography) in quartz crystals in 1669.<sup id="cite_ref-Ness_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ness-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4">: 4 </span></sup> This was later generalized and established experimentally by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_L._Rom%C3%A9_de_l%27Isle" title="Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle">Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Islee</a> in 1783.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Just_Ha%C3%BCy" title="René Just Haüy">René Just Haüy</a>, the "father of modern crystallography", showed that crystals are periodic and established that the orientations of crystal faces can be expressed in terms of rational numbers, as later encoded in the Miller indices.<sup id="cite_ref-Ness_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ness-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4">: 4 </span></sup> In 1814, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius" title="Jöns Jacob Berzelius">Jöns Jacob Berzelius</a> introduced a classification of minerals based on their chemistry rather than their crystal structure.<sup id="cite_ref-Rafferty_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rafferty-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_Nicol_(geologist)" title="William Nicol (geologist)">William Nicol</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Nicol_prism" title="Nicol prism">Nicol prism</a>, which polarizes light, in 1827–1828 while studying fossilized wood; <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clifton_Sorby" title="Henry Clifton Sorby">Henry Clifton Sorby</a> showed that thin sections of minerals could be identified by their optical properties using a <a href="/wiki/Polarizing_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Polarizing microscope">polarizing microscope</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ness_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ness-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4">: 4 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rafferty_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rafferty-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 15">: 15 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_D._Dana" class="mw-redirect" title="James D. Dana">James D. Dana</a> published his first edition of <i>A System of Mineralogy</i> in 1837, and in a later edition introduced a chemical classification that is still the standard.<sup id="cite_ref-Ness_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ness-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4">: 4 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rafferty_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rafferty-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 15">: 15 </span></sup> X-ray diffraction was demonstrated by <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Max von Laue</a> in 1912, and developed into a tool for analyzing the crystal structure of minerals by the father/son team of <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">William Henry Bragg</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Lawrence_Bragg" class="mw-redirect" title="William Lawrence Bragg">William Lawrence Bragg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ness_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ness-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4">: 4 </span></sup> </p><p>More recently, driven by advances in experimental technique (such as <a href="/wiki/Neutron_diffraction" title="Neutron diffraction">neutron diffraction</a>) and available computational power, the latter of which has enabled extremely accurate atomic-scale simulations of the behaviour of crystals, the science has branched out to consider more general problems in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">inorganic chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">solid-state physics</a>. It, however, retains a focus on the crystal structures commonly encountered in rock-forming minerals (such as the <a href="/wiki/Perovskite_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Perovskite structure">perovskites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clay_minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Clay minerals">clay minerals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tectosilicate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectosilicate">framework silicates</a>). In particular, the field has made great advances in the understanding of the relationship between the atomic-scale structure of minerals and their function; in nature, prominent examples would be accurate measurement and prediction of the elastic properties of minerals, which has led to new insight into <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">seismological</a> behaviour of rocks and depth-related discontinuities in seismograms of the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle" title="Earth's mantle">Earth's mantle</a>. To this end, in their focus on the connection between atomic-scale phenomena and macroscopic properties, the <i>mineral sciences</i> (as they are now commonly known) display perhaps more of an overlap with <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a> than any other discipline. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_properties">Physical properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Physical properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calcit_Scalenoeder_-_Egremont,_England.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Calcit_Scalenoeder_-_Egremont%2C_England.jpg/220px-Calcit_Scalenoeder_-_Egremont%2C_England.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Calcit_Scalenoeder_-_Egremont%2C_England.jpg/330px-Calcit_Scalenoeder_-_Egremont%2C_England.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Calcit_Scalenoeder_-_Egremont%2C_England.jpg/440px-Calcit_Scalenoeder_-_Egremont%2C_England.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1150" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">Calcite</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonate minerals">carbonate mineral</a> (CaCO<sub>3</sub>) with a <a href="/wiki/Rhombohedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhombohedral">rhombohedral</a> crystal structure.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aragonite_redbrown_crystals.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Aragonite_redbrown_crystals.jpg/220px-Aragonite_redbrown_crystals.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Aragonite_redbrown_crystals.jpg/330px-Aragonite_redbrown_crystals.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Aragonite_redbrown_crystals.jpg/440px-Aragonite_redbrown_crystals.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1192" data-file-height="1069" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aragonite" title="Aragonite">Aragonite</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Orthorhombic" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthorhombic">orthorhombic</a> polymorph of calcite.</figcaption></figure> <p>An initial step in identifying a mineral is to examine its physical properties, many of which can be measured on a hand sample. These can be classified into <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> (often given as <a href="/wiki/Specific_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific gravity">specific gravity</a>); measures of mechanical cohesion (<a href="/wiki/Mohs_scale" title="Mohs scale">hardness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tenacity_(mineralogy)" title="Tenacity (mineralogy)">tenacity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cleavage_(crystal)" title="Cleavage (crystal)">cleavage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fracture_(mineralogy)" title="Fracture (mineralogy)">fracture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cleavage_(crystal)#Parting" title="Cleavage (crystal)">parting</a>); macroscopic visual properties (<a href="/wiki/Luster_(mineralogy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luster (mineralogy)">luster</a>, color, <a href="/wiki/Streak_(mineralogy)" title="Streak (mineralogy)">streak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luminescence" title="Luminescence">luminescence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transparency_and_translucency" title="Transparency and translucency">diaphaneity</a>); magnetic and electric properties; radioactivity and solubility in <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_chloride" title="Hydrogen chloride">hydrogen chloride</a> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H</a><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Cl</a></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-Ness_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ness-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 97–113">: 97–113 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Klein_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klein-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 39–53">: 39–53 </span></sup> </p><p><i>Hardness</i> is determined by comparison with other minerals. In the <a href="/wiki/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohs scale of mineral hardness">Mohs scale</a>, a standard set of minerals are numbered in order of increasing hardness from 1 (talc) to 10 (diamond). A harder mineral will scratch a softer, so an unknown mineral can be placed in this scale, by which minerals; it scratches and which scratch it. A few minerals such as <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kyanite" title="Kyanite">kyanite</a> have a hardness that depends significantly on direction.<sup id="cite_ref-Manual_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manual-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 254–255">: 254–255 </span></sup> Hardness can also be measured on an absolute scale using a <a href="/wiki/Sclerometer" title="Sclerometer">sclerometer</a>; compared to the absolute scale, the Mohs scale is nonlinear.<sup id="cite_ref-Klein_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klein-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 52">: 52 </span></sup> </p><p><i>Tenacity</i> refers to the way a mineral behaves, when it is broken, crushed, bent or torn. A mineral can be <a href="/wiki/Brittle" class="mw-redirect" title="Brittle">brittle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malleable" class="mw-redirect" title="Malleable">malleable</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sectile" class="mw-redirect" title="Sectile">sectile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ductile" class="mw-redirect" title="Ductile">ductile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stiffness" title="Stiffness">flexible</a> or <a href="/wiki/Elastic_deformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Elastic deformation">elastic</a>. An important influence on tenacity is the type of chemical bond (<i>e.g.,</i> <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bonding" title="Ionic bonding">ionic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Metallic_bonding" title="Metallic bonding">metallic</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Manual_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manual-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 255–256">: 255–256 </span></sup> </p><p>Of the other measures of mechanical cohesion, <i>cleavage</i> is the tendency to break along certain crystallographic planes. It is described by the quality (<i>e.g.</i>, perfect or fair) and the orientation of the plane in crystallographic nomenclature. </p><p><i>Parting</i> is the tendency to break along planes of weakness due to pressure, twinning or <a href="/wiki/Exsolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Exsolution">exsolution</a>. Where these two kinds of break do not occur, <i>fracture</i> is a less orderly form that may be <i><a href="/wiki/Conchoidal_fracture" title="Conchoidal fracture">conchoidal</a></i> (having smooth curves resembling the interior of a shell), <i>fibrous</i>, <i>splintery</i>, <i>hackly</i> (jagged with sharp edges), or <i>uneven</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Manual_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manual-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 253–254">: 253–254 </span></sup> </p><p>If the mineral is well crystallized, it will also have a distinctive <a href="/wiki/Crystal_habit" title="Crystal habit">crystal habit</a> (for example, hexagonal, columnar, <a href="/wiki/Botryoidal" title="Botryoidal">botryoidal</a>) that reflects the <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal structure</a> or internal arrangement of atoms.<sup id="cite_ref-Klein_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klein-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 40–41">: 40–41 </span></sup> It is also affected by crystal defects and <a href="/wiki/Crystal_twinning" title="Crystal twinning">twinning</a>. Many crystals are <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymorphism (materials science)">polymorphic</a>, having more than one possible crystal structure depending on factors such as pressure and temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-Ness_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ness-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 66–68">: 66–68 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Klein_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klein-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 126">: 126 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Crystal_structure">Crystal structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Crystal structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Perovskite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Perovskite.jpg/220px-Perovskite.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Perovskite.jpg/330px-Perovskite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Perovskite.jpg/440px-Perovskite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="755" data-file-height="726" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Perovskite_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Perovskite structure">perovskite crystal structure</a>. The most abundant mineral in the Earth, <a href="/wiki/Bridgmanite" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridgmanite">bridgmanite</a>, has this structure.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharp_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharp-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its chemical formula is (Mg,Fe)SiO<sub>3</sub>; the red spheres are oxygen, the blue spheres silicon and the green spheres magnesium or iron.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">Crystal structure</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></div> <p>The crystal structure is the arrangement of atoms in a crystal. It is represented by a <a href="/wiki/Crystal_lattice" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystal lattice">lattice</a> of points which repeats a basic pattern, called a <a href="/wiki/Unit_cell" title="Unit cell">unit cell</a>, in three dimensions. The lattice can be characterized by its symmetries and by the dimensions of the unit cell. These dimensions are represented by three <i><a href="/wiki/Miller_index" title="Miller index">Miller indices</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ashcroft_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashcroft-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 91–92">: 91–92 </span></sup> The lattice remains unchanged by certain symmetry operations about any given point in the lattice: <a href="/wiki/Reflection_symmetry" title="Reflection symmetry">reflection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rotational_symmetry" title="Rotational symmetry">rotation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Point_reflection" title="Point reflection">inversion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Improper_rotation" title="Improper rotation">rotary inversion</a>, a combination of rotation and reflection. Together, they make up a mathematical object called a <i><a href="/wiki/Crystallographic_point_group" title="Crystallographic point group">crystallographic point group</a></i> or <i>crystal class</i>. There are 32 possible crystal classes. In addition, there are operations that displace all the points: <a href="/wiki/Translational_symmetry" title="Translational symmetry">translation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Screw_axis" title="Screw axis">screw axis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Glide_plane" class="mw-redirect" title="Glide plane">glide plane</a>. In combination with the point symmetries, they form 230 possible <a href="/wiki/Space_group" title="Space group">space groups</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ashcroft_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashcroft-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 125–126">: 125–126 </span></sup> </p><p>Most geology departments have <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> <a href="/wiki/Powder_diffraction" title="Powder diffraction">powder diffraction</a> equipment to analyze the crystal structures of minerals.<sup id="cite_ref-Klein_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klein-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 54–55">: 54–55 </span></sup> X-rays have wavelengths that are the same order of magnitude as the distances between atoms. <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">Diffraction</a>, the constructive and destructive interference between waves scattered at different atoms, leads to distinctive patterns of high and low intensity that depend on the geometry of the crystal. In a sample that is ground to a powder, the X-rays sample a random distribution of all crystal orientations.<sup id="cite_ref-Dinnebier_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dinnebier-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Powder diffraction can distinguish between minerals that may appear the same in a hand sample, for example <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a> and its polymorphs <a href="/wiki/Tridymite" title="Tridymite">tridymite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cristobalite" title="Cristobalite">cristobalite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Klein_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klein-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 54">: 54 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Isomorphism_(crystallography)" title="Isomorphism (crystallography)">Isomorphous</a> minerals of different compositions have similar powder diffraction patterns, the main difference being in spacing and intensity of lines. For example, the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Na</a><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Cl</a></span> (<a href="/wiki/Halite" title="Halite">halite</a>) crystal structure is space group <i>Fm3m</i>; this structure is shared by <a href="/wiki/Sylvite" title="Sylvite">sylvite</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">K</a><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Cl</a></span>), <a href="/wiki/Periclase" title="Periclase">periclase</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Mg</a><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">O</a></span>), <a href="/wiki/Bunsenite" title="Bunsenite">bunsenite</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Ni</a><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">O</a></span>), <a href="/wiki/Galena" title="Galena">galena</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Pb</a><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">S</a></span>), <a href="/wiki/Alabandite" title="Alabandite">alabandite</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Mn</a><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">S</a></span>), <a href="/wiki/Chlorargyrite" title="Chlorargyrite">chlorargyrite</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Ag</a><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Cl</a></span>), and <a href="/wiki/Titanium_nitride" title="Titanium nitride">osbornite</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Ti</a><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">N</a></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-Manual_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manual-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 150–151">: 150–151 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemical_elements">Chemical elements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Chemical elements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">analytical chemistry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portable_Micro-X-ray_fluorescence_machine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Portable_Micro-X-ray_fluorescence_machine.jpg/170px-Portable_Micro-X-ray_fluorescence_machine.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Portable_Micro-X-ray_fluorescence_machine.jpg/255px-Portable_Micro-X-ray_fluorescence_machine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Portable_Micro-X-ray_fluorescence_machine.jpg/340px-Portable_Micro-X-ray_fluorescence_machine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Portable Micro-X-ray fluorescence machine</figcaption></figure> <p>A few minerals are <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, but the vast majority are <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">compounds</a>. The classical method for identifying composition is <i><a href="/wiki/Wet_chemistry" title="Wet chemistry">wet chemical analysis</a></i>, which involves dissolving a mineral in an acid such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> (HCl). The elements in solution are then identified using <a href="/wiki/Colorimetry_(chemical_method)" title="Colorimetry (chemical method)">colorimetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titration" title="Titration">volumetric analysis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gravimetric_analysis" title="Gravimetric analysis">gravimetric analysis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Manual_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manual-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 224–225">: 224–225 </span></sup> </p><p>Since 1960, most chemistry analysis is done using instruments. One of these, <a href="/wiki/Atomic_absorption_spectroscopy" title="Atomic absorption spectroscopy">atomic absorption spectroscopy</a>, is similar to wet chemistry in that the sample must still be dissolved, but it is much faster and cheaper. The solution is vaporized and its absorption spectrum is measured in the visible and ultraviolet range.<sup id="cite_ref-Manual_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manual-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 225–226">: 225–226 </span></sup> Other techniques are <a href="/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence" title="X-ray fluorescence">X-ray fluorescence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electron_microprobe" title="Electron microprobe">electron microprobe</a> analysis <a href="/wiki/Atom_probe" title="Atom probe">atom probe</a> tomography and <a href="/wiki/Atomic_emission_spectroscopy" title="Atomic emission spectroscopy">optical emission spectrography</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Manual_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manual-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 227–232">: 227–232 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Optical">Optical</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Optical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_1483_Olivine_Adcumulate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/CSIRO_ScienceImage_1483_Olivine_Adcumulate.jpg/220px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_1483_Olivine_Adcumulate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/CSIRO_ScienceImage_1483_Olivine_Adcumulate.jpg/330px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_1483_Olivine_Adcumulate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/CSIRO_ScienceImage_1483_Olivine_Adcumulate.jpg/440px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_1483_Olivine_Adcumulate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2657" data-file-height="1759" /></a><figcaption>Photomicrograph of <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a> adcumulate from the <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archaean</a> <a href="/wiki/Komatiite" title="Komatiite">komatiite</a> of <a href="/wiki/Agnew,_Western_Australia" title="Agnew, Western Australia">Agnew, Western Australia</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Optical_mineralogy" title="Optical mineralogy">Optical mineralogy</a></div> <p>In addition to macroscopic properties such as colour or lustre, minerals have properties that require a polarizing microscope to observe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transmitted_light">Transmitted light</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Transmitted light"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When light passes from air or a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> into a transparent crystal, some of it is <a href="/wiki/Reflection_(physics)" title="Reflection (physics)">reflected</a> at the surface and some <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refracted</a>. The latter is a bending of the light path that occurs because the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a> changes as it goes into the crystal; <a href="/wiki/Snell%27s_law" title="Snell's law">Snell's law</a> relates the bending <a href="/wiki/Angle" title="Angle">angle</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">Refractive index</a>, the ratio of speed in a vacuum to speed in the crystal. Crystals whose point symmetry group falls in the <a href="/wiki/Cubic_crystal_system" title="Cubic crystal system">cubic system</a> are <i>isotropic</i>: the index does not depend on direction. All other crystals are <i>anisotropic</i>: light passing through them is broken up into two plane <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(waves)" title="Polarization (waves)">polarized</a> <a href="/wiki/Ray_(optics)" title="Ray (optics)">rays</a> that travel at different speeds and refract at different angles.<sup id="cite_ref-Manual_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manual-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 289–291">: 289–291 </span></sup> </p><p>A polarizing microscope is similar to an ordinary microscope, but it has two plane-polarized filters, a (<i><a href="/wiki/Polarizer" title="Polarizer">polarizer</a></i>) below the sample and an analyzer above it, polarized perpendicular to each other. Light passes successively through the polarizer, the sample and the analyzer. If there is no sample, the analyzer blocks all the light from the polarizer. However, an anisotropic sample will generally change the polarization so some of the light can pass through. Thin sections and powders can be used as samples.<sup id="cite_ref-Manual_10-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manual-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 293–294">: 293–294 </span></sup> </p><p>When an isotropic crystal is viewed, it appears dark because it does not change the polarization of the light. However, when it is <a href="/wiki/Oil_immersion" title="Oil immersion">immersed in a calibrated liquid</a> with a lower index of refraction and the microscope is thrown out of focus, a bright line called a <i><a href="/wiki/Becke_line_test" title="Becke line test">Becke line</a></i> appears around the perimeter of the crystal. By observing the presence or absence of such lines in liquids with different indices, the index of the crystal can be estimated, usually to within <span class="texhtml">± 0.003</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Manual_10-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manual-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 294–295">: 294–295 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Systematic">Systematic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Systematic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hanksite.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Hanksite.JPG/220px-Hanksite.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Hanksite.JPG/330px-Hanksite.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Hanksite.JPG/440px-Hanksite.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2432" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hanksite" title="Hanksite">Hanksite</a>, Na<sub>22</sub>K(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>9</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>Cl, one of the few minerals that is considered a carbonate and a sulfate</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mineral#Mineral_classes" title="Mineral">Mineral § Mineral classes</a></div> <p>Systematic mineralogy is the identification and classification of minerals by their properties. Historically, mineralogy was heavily concerned with <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomy</a> of the rock-forming minerals. In 1959, the <a href="/wiki/International_Mineralogical_Association" title="International Mineralogical Association">International Mineralogical Association</a> formed the Commission of New Minerals and Mineral Names to rationalize the nomenclature and regulate the introduction of new names. In July 2006, it was merged with the Commission on Classification of Minerals to form the Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature, and Classification.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are over 6,000 named and unnamed minerals, and about 100 are discovered each year.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Manual of Mineralogy</i> places minerals in the following classes: <a href="/wiki/Native_element_mineral" title="Native element mineral">native elements</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfide_mineral" title="Sulfide mineral">sulfides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfosalt_minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfosalt minerals">sulfosalts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxide_mineral" title="Oxide mineral">oxides and hydroxides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Halide_mineral" title="Halide mineral">halides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonate minerals">carbonates, nitrates and borates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfate_mineral" title="Sulfate mineral">sulfates, chromates, molybdates and tungstates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphate_mineral" title="Phosphate mineral">phosphates, arsenates and vanadates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Silicate_minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicate minerals">silicates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Manual_10-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manual-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation_environments">Formation environments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Formation environments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The environments of mineral formation and growth are highly varied, ranging from slow crystallization at the high temperatures and pressures of <a href="/wiki/Igneous_petrology" title="Igneous petrology">igneous</a> <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">melts</a> deep within the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> to the low temperature precipitation from a saline brine at the Earth's surface. </p><p>Various possible methods of formation include:<sup id="cite_ref-ramsdell_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ramsdell-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_sublimate" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic sublimate">sublimation</a> from <a href="/wiki/Volcanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic">volcanic</a> gases</li> <li>deposition from <a href="/wiki/Aqueous_solution" title="Aqueous solution">aqueous solutions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal">hydrothermal</a> <a href="/wiki/Brine" title="Brine">brines</a></li> <li>crystallization from an <a href="/wiki/Igneous_petrology" title="Igneous petrology">igneous</a> <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a></li> <li>recrystallization due to <a href="/wiki/Metamorphism" title="Metamorphism">metamorphic</a> processes and <a href="/wiki/Metasomatism" title="Metasomatism">metasomatism</a></li> <li>crystallization during <a href="/wiki/Diagenesis" title="Diagenesis">diagenesis</a> of sediments</li> <li>formation by <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> of rocks exposed to the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a> or within the <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> environment.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biomineralogy">Biomineralogy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Biomineralogy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Biomineralogy is a cross-over field between mineralogy, <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>. It is the study of how plants and animals stabilize minerals under biological control, and the sequencing of mineral replacement of those minerals after deposition.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It uses techniques from chemical mineralogy, especially isotopic studies, to determine such things as growth forms in living plants and animals<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as things like the original mineral content of fossils.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A new approach to mineralogy called <a href="/wiki/Mineral_evolution" title="Mineral evolution">mineral evolution</a> explores the co-evolution of the geosphere and biosphere, including the role of minerals in the origin of life and processes as mineral-catalyzed organic synthesis and the selective adsorption of organic molecules on mineral surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mineral_ecology">Mineral ecology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mineral ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2011, several researchers began to develop a Mineral Evolution Database.<sup id="cite_ref-Needs_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Needs-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This database integrates the <a href="/wiki/Crowdsourcing" title="Crowdsourcing">crowd-sourced</a> site <a href="/wiki/Mindat.org" title="Mindat.org">Mindat.org</a>, which has over 690,000 mineral-locality pairs, with the official IMA list of approved minerals and age data from geological publications.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This database makes it possible to apply <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a> to answer new questions, an approach that has been called <i>mineral ecology</i>. One such question is how much of mineral evolution is <a href="/wiki/Deterministic_system" title="Deterministic system">deterministic</a> and how much the result of <a href="/wiki/Randomness" title="Randomness">chance</a>. Some factors are deterministic, such as the chemical nature of a mineral and conditions for its <a href="/wiki/Chemical_stability" title="Chemical stability">stability</a>; but mineralogy can also be affected by the processes that determine a planet's composition. In a 2015 paper, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hazen" title="Robert Hazen">Robert Hazen</a> and others analyzed the number of minerals involving each element as a function of its abundance. They found that Earth, with over 4800 known minerals and 72 elements, has a <a href="/wiki/Power_law" title="Power law">power law</a> relationship. The Moon, with only 63 minerals and 24 elements (based on a much smaller sample) has essentially the same relationship. This implies that, given the chemical composition of the planet, one could predict the more common minerals. However, the distribution has a <a href="/wiki/Long_tail" title="Long tail">long tail</a>, with 34% of the minerals having been found at only one or two locations. The model predicts that thousands more mineral species may await discovery or have formed and then been lost to erosion, burial or other processes. This implies a role of chance in the formation of rare minerals occur.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In another use of big data sets, <a href="/wiki/Network_theory" title="Network theory">network theory</a> was applied to a dataset of carbon minerals, revealing new patterns in their diversity and distribution. The analysis can show which minerals tend to coexist and what conditions (geological, physical, chemical and biological) are associated with them. This information can be used to predict where to look for new deposits and even new mineral species.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Americana_1920_Mineralogy_-_Valuable_Minerals.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Americana_1920_Mineralogy_-_Valuable_Minerals.jpg/170px-Americana_1920_Mineralogy_-_Valuable_Minerals.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Americana_1920_Mineralogy_-_Valuable_Minerals.jpg/255px-Americana_1920_Mineralogy_-_Valuable_Minerals.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Americana_1920_Mineralogy_-_Valuable_Minerals.jpg/340px-Americana_1920_Mineralogy_-_Valuable_Minerals.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1415" data-file-height="2127" /></a><figcaption>A color chart of some raw forms of commercially valuable metals.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Minerals are essential to various needs within human society, such as minerals used as <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ores</a> for essential components of metal products used in various <a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">commodities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Machinery" class="mw-redirect" title="Machinery">machinery</a>, essential components to building materials such as <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">marble</a>, <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">gravel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plaster" title="Plaster">plaster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">cement</a>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-ramsdell_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ramsdell-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Minerals are also used in <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a> to enrich the growth of <a href="/wiki/Agricultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural">agricultural</a> crops. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mineralogy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Mineralogy.jpg/220px-Mineralogy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Mineralogy.jpg/330px-Mineralogy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Mineralogy.jpg/440px-Mineralogy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>A small collection of mineral samples, with cases. Labels in Russian.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collecting">Collecting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Collecting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mineral_collecting" title="Mineral collecting">Mineral collecting</a> is also a recreational study and collection <a href="/wiki/Hobby" title="Hobby">hobby</a>, with clubs and societies representing the field.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Museums, such as the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Smithsonian">Smithsonian</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History#Hall_of_Geology,_Gems,_and_Minerals" title="National Museum of Natural History">National Museum of Natural History Hall of Geology, Gems, and Minerals</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_Los_Angeles_County" title="Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County">Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="Carnegie Museum of Natural History">Carnegie Museum of Natural History</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_London" title="Natural History Museum, London">Natural History Museum, London</a>, and the private <a href="/wiki/Mim_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Mim Museum">Mim Mineral Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have popular collections of mineral specimens on permanent display.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/28px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/42px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/56px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="2790" data-file-height="2776" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Earth_sciences" title="Portal:Earth sciences">Earth sciences portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_minerals" title="List of minerals">List of minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association" title="List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association">List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mineralogists" title="List of mineralogists">List of mineralogists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_collecting" title="Mineral collecting">Mineral collecting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_physics" title="Mineral physics">Mineral physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrology</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Commonly pronounced <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-collins_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-collins-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> due to the common phonological process of <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(phonology)" title="Assimilation (phonology)">anticipatory assimilation</a>, especially in North-American but also in UK English. Nevertheless, even modern descriptive UK dictionaries tend to record only the <a href="/wiki/Spelling_pronunciation" title="Spelling pronunciation">spelling pronunciation</a> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span>, sometimes even while their sound file instead has the assimilated pronunciation, as in the case of the <i>Collins Dictionary</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-collins_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-collins-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Sources don't support most of this discussion (October 2017)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="Reference-AHD-mineralogy" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=mineralogy">"mineralogy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language">The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</a></i> (5th ed.). HarperCollins<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-10-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary+of+the+English+Language&rft.atitle=mineralogy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahdictionary.com%2Fword%2Fsearch.html%3Fq%3Dmineralogy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-collins-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-collins_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-collins_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/mineralogy">"mineralogy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/CollinsDictionary.com" class="mw-redirect" title="CollinsDictionary.com">CollinsDictionary.com</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-10-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CollinsDictionary.com&rft.atitle=mineralogy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fmineralogy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JPL_M3-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JPL_M3_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090101015823/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2008-239">"NASA Instrument Inaugurates 3-D Moon Imaging"</a>. JPL. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2008-239">the original</a> on 1 January 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NASA+Instrument+Inaugurates+3-D+Moon+Imaging&rft.pub=JPL&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjpl.nasa.gov%2Fnews%2Fnews.cfm%3Frelease%3D2008-239&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Needham-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Needham_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Needham_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Needham_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1959" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph (1959). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sciencecivilisat00need_228"><i>Science and civilisation in China</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sciencecivilisat00need_228/page/n749">637</a>–638. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521058018" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521058018"><bdi>978-0521058018</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+civilisation+in+China&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=637-638&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=978-0521058018&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsciencecivilisat00need_228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ness-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ness_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ness_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ness_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ness_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ness_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ness_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ness_6-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNesse2012" class="citation book cs1">Nesse, William D. (2012). <i>Introduction to mineralogy</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199827381" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199827381"><bdi>978-0199827381</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+mineralogy&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0199827381&rft.aulast=Nesse&rft.aufirst=William+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://reference.iucr.org/dictionary/Law_of_the_constancy_of_interfacial_angles">"Law of the constancy of interfacial angles"</a>. <i>Online dictionary of crystallography</i>. International Union of Crystallography. 24 August 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161019024137/http://reference.iucr.org/dictionary/Law_of_the_constancy_of_interfacial_angles">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Law+of+the+constancy+of+interfacial+angles&rft.btitle=Online+dictionary+of+crystallography&rft.pub=International+Union+of+Crystallography&rft.date=2014-08-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freference.iucr.org%2Fdictionary%2FLaw_of_the_constancy_of_interfacial_angles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rafferty-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rafferty_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rafferty_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rafferty_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRafferty2012" class="citation book cs1">Rafferty, John P. (2012). <i>Geological sciences</i> (1st ed.). New York: Britannica Educational Pub. in association with Rosen Educational Services. pp. 14–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781615304950" title="Special:BookSources/9781615304950"><bdi>9781615304950</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geological+sciences&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=14-15&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Britannica+Educational+Pub.+in+association+with+Rosen+Educational+Services&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781615304950&rft.aulast=Rafferty&rft.aufirst=John+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Klein-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Klein_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Klein_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Klein_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Klein_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Klein_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Klein_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleinPhilpotts2013" class="citation book cs1">Klein, Cornelis; Philpotts, Anthony R. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-05-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Collector%27s+Corner&rft.pub=The+Mineralogical+Society+of+America&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.minsocam.org%2FMSA%2Fcollectors_corner%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amfed.org/">"The American Federation of Mineral Societies"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170722052926/http://www.amfed.org/">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-07-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-05-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+American+Federation+of+Mineral+Societies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amfed.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2013" class="citation journal cs1">Wilson, W (2013). "The Opening of the Mim Mineral Museum in Beirut, Lebanon". <i>The Mineralogical Record</i>. <b>45</b> (1): 61–83.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Mineralogical+Record&rft.atitle=The+Opening+of+the+Mim+Mineral+Museum+in+Beirut%2C+Lebanon&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=61-83&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyckberg2013" class="citation news cs1">Lyckberg, Peter (16 October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mindat.org/article.php/1807/The+MIM+Museum+opening,+Lebanon">"The MIM Museum opening, Lebanon"</a>. Mindat.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131026010621/http://www.mindat.org/article.php/1807/The+MIM+Museum+opening,+Lebanon">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+MIM+Museum+opening%2C+Lebanon&rft.date=2013-10-16&rft.aulast=Lyckberg&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mindat.org%2Farticle.php%2F1807%2FThe%2BMIM%2BMuseum%2Bopening%2C%2BLebanon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhm.org/site/explore-exhibits/permanent-exhibits/gems-minerals">"Gems and Minerals"</a>. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100531021208/http://www.nhm.org/site/explore-exhibits/permanent-exhibits/gems-minerals">Archived</a> from the original on 2010-05-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-05-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gems+and+Minerals&rft.pub=Natural+History+Museum+of+Los+Angeles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhm.org%2Fsite%2Fexplore-exhibits%2Fpermanent-exhibits%2Fgems-minerals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGribbleHall1993" class="citation book cs1">Gribble, C.D.; Hall, A.J. (1993). <i>Optical Mineralogy: Principles And Practice</i>. London: CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203498705" title="Special:BookSources/9780203498705"><bdi>9780203498705</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Optical+Mineralogy%3A+Principles+And+Practice.&rft.place=London&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780203498705&rft.aulast=Gribble&rft.aufirst=C.D.&rft.au=Hall%2C+A.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrell2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Harrell, James A. (2012). "Mineralogy". In Bagnall, Roger S.; Brodersen, Kai; Champion, Craige B.; Erskine, Andrew (eds.). <i>The encyclopedia of ancient history</i>. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444338386.wbeah21217">10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah21217</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444338386" title="Special:BookSources/9781444338386"><bdi>9781444338386</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mineralogy&rft.btitle=The+encyclopedia+of+ancient+history&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781444338386.wbeah21217&rft.isbn=9781444338386&rft.aulast=Harrell&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHazen1984" class="citation journal cs1">Hazen, Robert M. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hazen.carnegiescience.edu/sites/hazen.gl.ciw.edu/files/516-MinHist-JGE-1984.pdf">"Mineralogy: A historical review"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Geological Education</i>. <b>32</b> (5): 288–298. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984JGeoE..32..288H">1984JGeoE..32..288H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5408%2F0022-1368-32.5.288">10.5408/0022-1368-32.5.288</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170928010217/https://hazen.carnegiescience.edu/sites/hazen.gl.ciw.edu/files/516-MinHist-JGE-1984.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 28 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geological+Education&rft.atitle=Mineralogy%3A+A+historical+review&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=288-298&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5408%2F0022-1368-32.5.288&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984JGeoE..32..288H&rft.aulast=Hazen&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhazen.carnegiescience.edu%2Fsites%2Fhazen.gl.ciw.edu%2Ffiles%2F516-MinHist-JGE-1984.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaudan1993" class="citation book cs1">Laudan, Rachel (1993). <i>From mineralogy to geology : the foundations of a science, 1650-1830</i> (Pbk. ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226469478" title="Special:BookSources/9780226469478"><bdi>9780226469478</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+mineralogy+to+geology+%3A+the+foundations+of+a+science%2C+1650-1830&rft.place=Chicago&rft.edition=Pbk.&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780226469478&rft.aulast=Laudan&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOldroyd1998" class="citation book cs1">Oldroyd, David (1998). <i>Sciences of the earth : studies in the history of mineralogy and geology</i>. Aldershot: Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780860787709" title="Special:BookSources/9780860787709"><bdi>9780860787709</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sciences+of+the+earth+%3A+studies+in+the+history+of+mineralogy+and+geology&rft.place=Aldershot&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780860787709&rft.aulast=Oldroyd&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins2014" class="citation book cs1">Perkins, Dexter (2014). <i>Mineralogy</i>. Pearson Higher Ed. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780321986573" title="Special:BookSources/9780321986573"><bdi>9780321986573</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mineralogy&rft.pub=Pearson+Higher+Ed&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780321986573&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=Dexter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRapp2002" class="citation book cs1">Rapp, George R. (2002). <i>Archaeomineralogy</i>. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783662050057" title="Special:BookSources/9783662050057"><bdi>9783662050057</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeomineralogy&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9783662050057&rft.aulast=Rapp&rft.aufirst=George+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTisljar2013" class="citation book cs1">Tisljar, S.K. Haldar, Josip (2013). <i>Introduction to mineralogy and petrology</i>. Burlington: Elsevier Science. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780124167100" title="Special:BookSources/9780124167100"><bdi>9780124167100</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+mineralogy+and+petrology&rft.place=Burlington&rft.pub=Elsevier+Science&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780124167100&rft.aulast=Tisljar&rft.aufirst=S.K.+Haldar%2C+Josip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWenkBulakh2016" class="citation book cs1">Wenk, Hans-Rudolf; Bulakh, Andrey (2016). <i>Minerals: Their Constitution and Origin</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781316425282" title="Special:BookSources/9781316425282"><bdi>9781316425282</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Minerals%3A+Their+Constitution+and+Origin&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781316425282&rft.aulast=Wenk&rft.aufirst=Hans-Rudolf&rft.au=Bulakh%2C+Andrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhewell2010" class="citation book cs1">Whewell, William (2010). "Book XV. History of Mineralogy". <i>History of the Inductive Sciences: From the Earliest to the Present Times</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 187–252. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108019262" title="Special:BookSources/9781108019262"><bdi>9781108019262</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Book+XV.+History+of+Mineralogy&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Inductive+Sciences%3A+From+the+Earliest+to+the+Present+Times&rft.pages=187-252&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781108019262&rft.aulast=Whewell&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMineralogy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mineralogy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikisource has original works on the topic: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Mineralogy" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mineralogy.eu/">The Virtual Museum of the History of Mineralogy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Associations">Associations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mineralogy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Associations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amfed.org/">American Federation of Mineral Societies</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sfmc-fr.org/">French Society of Mineralogy and Crystallography</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111029134635/http://www.geosociety.org/">Geological Society of America</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dmg-home.org/">German Mineralogical Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wwwobs.univ-bpclermont.fr/ima/">International Mineralogical Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.socminpet.it/">Italian Mineralogical and Petrological Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mineralogicalassociation.ca/">Mineralogical Association of Canada</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.minersoc.org/">Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.minsocam.org/">Mineralogical Society of America</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Minerals" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Minerals" title="Template:Minerals"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Minerals" title="Template talk:Minerals"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Minerals" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Minerals"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Minerals" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Minerals</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Mineral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_minerals" title="List of minerals">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mineralogy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mineralogy" title="History of mineralogy">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:S%C3%A9randite,_natrolite,_analcime,_aegirine_300-4-2112.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/S%C3%A9randite%2C_natrolite%2C_analcime%2C_aegirine_300-4-2112.JPG/80px-S%C3%A9randite%2C_natrolite%2C_analcime%2C_aegirine_300-4-2112.JPG" decoding="async" width="80" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/S%C3%A9randite%2C_natrolite%2C_analcime%2C_aegirine_300-4-2112.JPG/120px-S%C3%A9randite%2C_natrolite%2C_analcime%2C_aegirine_300-4-2112.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/S%C3%A9randite%2C_natrolite%2C_analcime%2C_aegirine_300-4-2112.JPG/160px-S%C3%A9randite%2C_natrolite%2C_analcime%2C_aegirine_300-4-2112.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3916" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Common minerals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphibole" title="Amphibole">Amphibole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridgmanite" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridgmanite">Bridgmanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-feldspar" class="mw-redirect" title="K-feldspar">K-feldspar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">Mica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">Olivine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plagioclase" title="Plagioclase">Plagioclase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroxene" title="Pyroxene">Pyroxene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">Quartz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinel" title="Spinel">Spinel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_mineral" title="Industrial mineral">Industrial mineral</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Am%C3%A9thystre_sceptre2.jpg/23px-Am%C3%A9thystre_sceptre2.jpg" decoding="async" width="23" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Am%C3%A9thystre_sceptre2.jpg/34px-Am%C3%A9thystre_sceptre2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Am%C3%A9thystre_sceptre2.jpg/46px-Am%C3%A9thystre_sceptre2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2893" data-file-height="3552" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Minerals" title="Portal:Minerals">Minerals portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geology" title="Template:Geology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geology" title="Template talk:Geology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geology" title="Outline of geology">Outline of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" title="Glossary of geology">Glossary of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">History of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geology_articles" title="Index of geology articles">Index of geology articles</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/50px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/75px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/100px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span><br /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">History of geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_geology" title="Timeline of geology">Timeline of geology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Composition and structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mineralogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentology" title="Sedimentology">Sedimentology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_geology" title="Historical geology">Historical geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">Stratigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynamic Earth</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structural_geology" title="Structural geology">Structural geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodynamics" title="Geodynamics">Geodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanology" title="Volcanology">Volcanology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">Hydrogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">Earth's orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_astronomy" title="Geodetic astronomy">Geodetic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Gravity of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science#Planetary_geodesy" title="Planetary science">Planetary geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopositioning" title="Geopositioning">Geopositioning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetism" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomagnetism">Geomagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_survey" title="Geophysical survey">Geophysical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science#Planetary_Geophysics_and_Space_Physics" title="Planetary science">Planetary geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">Seismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonophysics" title="Tectonophysics">Tectonophysics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geology" title="Economic geology">Economic geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_geology" title="Engineering geology">Engineering geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_geology" title="Environmental geology">Environmental geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_geology" title="Forensic geology">Forensic geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_geophysics" title="Forensic geophysics">Forensic geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteoritics" title="Meteoritics">Meteoritics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_geology" title="Mining geology">Mining geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_physics" title="Mineral physics">Mineral physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">Geologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_geologist" title="Petroleum geologist">Petroleum geologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanologist" title="Volcanologist">Volcanologist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/16px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/24px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/32px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geology" title="Portal:Geology">Geology portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932504q">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Minéralogie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932504q">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="鉱物学"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00566086">Japan</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="mineralogie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph115320&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX525383">Spain</a></span></li><li><span 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