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id="toc-Great_Leap_Forward-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Mao_Zedong_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Mao_Zedong_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Post-Mao Zedong era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Mao_Zedong_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collectivization_and_class_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collectivization_and_class_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Collectivization and class status</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collectivization_and_class_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decollectivization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decollectivization"> 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<span>Village life and expressive culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Village_life_and_expressive_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Village life and expressive culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Village_life_and_expressive_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Film" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Film"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Film</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Film-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Telecommunications_and_internet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Telecommunications_and_internet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Telecommunications and internet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Telecommunications_and_internet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Rural_area" title="Rural area">Rural area</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Rural_economics" title="Rural economics">Economics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rural_crafts" title="Rural crafts">Crafts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rural_industry_in_India" title="Rural industry in India">India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_development" title="Rural development">Development</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rural_delivery_service" title="Rural delivery service">Delivery service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_electrification" title="Rural electrification">Electrification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_Internet" class="mw-redirect" title="Rural Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_health" title="Rural health">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_housing" title="Rural housing">Housing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_poverty" title="Rural poverty">Poverty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_poverty" title="Reservation poverty">Reservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_ghetto" title="Rural ghetto">Ghetto</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Farmer" title="Farmer">Farmer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_farm" title="Family farm">Family farmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmworker" title="Farmworker">Farmworker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenant_farmer" title="Tenant farmer">Tenant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">Pastoralists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herder" title="Herder">Herder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">Peasant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smallholding" title="Smallholding">Smallholders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_women" title="Rural women">Women</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_roles_in_agriculture" title="Gender roles in agriculture">in Agriculture</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Society</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarian_society" title="Agrarian society">Agrarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Country_(identity)" title="Country (identity)">Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_diversity" title="Rural diversity">Diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_flight" title="Rural flight">Flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_tourism" title="Rural tourism">Tourism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agritourism" title="Agritourism">Agricultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Types_of_rural_communities" title="Types of rural communities">Types of communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rurality" title="Rurality">Rurality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rural_society_by_country" title="Category:Rural society by country">By Country</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rural_Canada" title="Rural Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_society_in_Laos" title="Rural society in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_areas_in_the_United_States" title="Rural areas in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Rural_history" title="Rural history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural history">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Regional history">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_American_history" title="Rural American history">Rural American history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarian_socialism" title="Agrarian socialism">Agrarian socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomadic_conflict" title="Nomadic conflict">Nomadic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_parliament" title="Rural parliament">Informal parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_movement" title="Peasant movement">Peasant movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Via_Campesina" title="Via Campesina">Via Campesina</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Peasants" title="United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants">United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rural_society" title="Template:Rural society"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Rural_society&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Rural society (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rural_society" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rural society"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Rural society in the People's Republic of China</b> encompasses less than half of <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>'s population (roughly 45%) and has a varied range of <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</a> and means of living. Life in rural China differs from that of urban China. In <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_southern_China" title="Northern and southern China">southern</a> and coastal China, <a href="/wiki/Rural_area" title="Rural area">rural areas</a> are developing and, in some cases, statistically approaching <a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban</a> economies. In <a href="/wiki/Northwest_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwest China">northwest</a> and western regions, rural society is still perceived as lowly and primitive. Basic needs such as <a href="/wiki/Tap_water" title="Tap water">running water</a> and accessible <a href="/wiki/Transportation" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation">transportation</a> are a problem in these areas. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Republic_of_China">Republic of China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Republic of China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Republic of China</a> period, neither the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a> or the later <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_decade" title="Nanjing decade">Nanjing government</a> succeeded in consolidating governance in rural China.<sup id="cite_ref-:Laikwan_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Laikwan-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 71">: 71 </span></sup> Traditional rural leaders continued to hold power through economic means, interpersonal relationships, and symbolic resources like lineage.<sup id="cite_ref-:Laikwan_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Laikwan-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 71">: 71 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Founding_of_the_People's_Republic"><span id="Founding_of_the_People.27s_Republic"></span>Founding of the People's Republic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Founding of the People's Republic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rural_society_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Rural society in China">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>One of the major avowed objectives of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (CCP) during its rise to prominence between 1921 and 1949 was the improvement of the <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</a> of the average Chinese citizen, the vast majority of whom were rural dwellers. During the pre-1936 period, the CCP played a major role in transforming rural life in areas it influenced or controlled. A major area was <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reform</a>, where control was taken from traditional <a href="/wiki/Landlord" title="Landlord">land owners</a> and wealthy peasants, and appropriated to the state, that is, <a href="/wiki/Collectivization" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivization">collectivized</a>. China in the early post-1949 period saw increases in mechanization of agriculture, the spread of electricity, running water, and modern technology to rural areas. However, by the late 1950s, much remained to be done. </p><p>Mao noted that most benefits were accruing not to the rural areas, where the vast majority of Chinese still lived, and who were the ostensible focus of the revolution, but to urban centers. Identity card systems channeled unequal degrees of resources, including food rations, to urbanites and rural dwellers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Leap_Forward">Great Leap Forward</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Great Leap Forward"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rural_society_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Rural society in China">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a> campaign of 1958 to 1961, China's leaders attempted to accelerate collectivization and dramatically increase the pace of industrial production throughout the country, particularly in rural areas. This mostly involved small-scale production, such as the <a href="/wiki/Backyard_furnace" title="Backyard furnace">smelting of "backyard" steel</a>. It was thought that through collectivization and mass labour, China's steel production would <a href="/wiki/Exceeding_the_UK,_catching_the_USA" title="Exceeding the UK, catching the USA">surpass that of the United Kingdom</a> within only 15 years from the start of the "leap." </p><p>An experimental commune was established in <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a> early in 1958, and soon communes spread throughout the country. Tens of millions were mobilized to produce a single commodity that was symbolic of industrialization: steel. Approximately 25,000 communes were set up, each with around 5,000 households. The hope was to industrialize by making use of the massive supply of cheap labor and avoid having to import heavy <a href="/wiki/Machinery" class="mw-redirect" title="Machinery">machinery</a>. Small backyard steel furnaces were built in every commune where peasants produced small nuggets of cast iron made from scrap metal. Simultaneously, peasant communities were collectivised. </p><p>The Great Leap Forward is now widely seen, both within and outside China, as a major economic disaster. Peasants often abandoned farming to produce steel or work in other industrial production. The three years between 1959 and 1962 were known as the "Three Bitter Years," the <a href="/wiki/Three_Years_of_Natural_Disasters" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Years of Natural Disasters">Three Years of Natural Disasters</a> (although this name is now rarely used in China), and the Great Leap Famine, as the Chinese people suffered from extreme shortages of food. The period had a profound impact on the history of rural life in China. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Mao_Zedong_era">Post-Mao Zedong era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Post-Mao Zedong era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a>, urbanization in China has expanded at an unprecedented speed since the declaration of "Reform and Open Policy".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> new policies in China's economy shifted the approach from <a href="/wiki/Collective_farming" title="Collective farming">collective farming</a> to household-based production quotas, in many ways reversing decades of collectivization efforts. In many areas of China, especially southern and coastal China, the standard of living improved dramatically after Deng's reforms. <a href="/wiki/Township_and_Village_Enterprises" title="Township and Village Enterprises">Township and Village Enterprises</a> brought industrial production to rural areas—predominantly along the southern coasts, helping open these rural communities to greater economic prosperity. (The idea of industrial production in rural areas had been attempted under Mao but with much more limited success; for instance, industrial plants in highly remote areas found their ultimate production efforts hampered.) Soon, however, an imbalance appeared where northern, interior, and western China remained at a far lower degree of economic development, a situation which persists to the twenty-first century. However, there are multiple, complex factors contributing to this state of affairs. For instance, distances are much greater, and geography often more challenging in western and interior regions. Population is more spread out; <a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_China" title="Social structure of China">social structures</a> may also play a role, in that the demographics and social structures of these regions often differ significantly from those of coastal China. </p><p>Deng Xiaoping's reforms included the introduction of planned, centralized management of the macro-economy by technically proficient bureaucrats, abandoning Mao's mass campaign style of economic construction. Deng sustained Mao's legacy to the extent that he stressed the primacy of agricultural output and encouraged a significant decentralization of decision making in the rural economy teams and individual peasant households. At the local level, material incentives, rather than political appeals, were to be used to motivate the labor force, including allowing peasants to earn extra income by selling the produce of their private plots at free market. </p><p>Rural markets selling peasants' homegrown products and the surplus products of communes were revived under the more free-market economic approach of Deng. Not only did rural markets increase agricultural output, they stimulated industrial development as well. With peasants able to sell surplus agricultural yields on the open market, domestic consumption stimulated industrialization as well and also created political support for more difficult economic reforms. </p><p>Development remains uneven, with many highly prosperous areas far outpacing deeply impoverished regions where parents have great difficulty attaining enough income to ensure their children can be sent to school, despite the already-low education fees. Indeed, educational and social imbalances are a salient feature of this uneven development. </p><p>One emerging trend since at least the 1990s is the "floating population" or "black (e.g. black market) people", rural migrants (民工 <i>min gong</i>) entering urban areas in search of work. Until recent developments, rural residents lacked the legal permission to resettle in urban areas without approval, yet between tens and hundred of millions did resettle in search of jobs. Many have found work, in the form of construction and other sectors with relatively low wages and benefits, and high workplace hazards. Numerous social issues have developed as a result, namely discrimination of ruralites in cities, psychological isolation of rural migrants, some of which has led to crime. In this sense, then, rural life has "entered" the cities. </p><p>Lack of employment opportunities has increasingly made life in many rural regions difficult, hence the apparent enticement to resettle in urban areas. Of course, jobs are still limited, so many do relocate in cities only to find prospects much more meager than they had expected. Statistics suggest a very high proportion of residents of rural areas are <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployed</a> or <a href="/wiki/Underemployment" title="Underemployment">underemployed</a>. </p><p>The development of <a href="/wiki/Special_Economic_Zones" class="mw-redirect" title="Special Economic Zones">Special Economic Zones</a> also spurred rural growth in some parts of China. </p><p>An important policy document of the <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a> era, 2013's <i>Decision on Major Issues Concerning Comprehensively Deepening Reforms</i>, described the urban-rural divide as a main obstacle to China's continued modernization and stated that efforts should be made to further integrate development.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 32">: 32 </span></sup> A series of projects designed to decrease the urban-rural divide followed.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 32">: 32 </span></sup> </p><p>In 2013, China announced a new plan to reduce poverty and develop impoverished rural regions by raising rural farmers' income growth and reducing obstacles in agricultural development. The plan includes the promotion of new types of agricultural businesses, such as family farms and organized cooperatives, and encouraging industrial and commercial enterprises to invest in agriculture.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Collectivization_and_class_status">Collectivization and class status</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Collectivization and class status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rural_society_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Rural society in China">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/People%27s_commune" title="People's commune">People's commune</a>, <a href="/wiki/Production_brigade" title="Production brigade">Production brigade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Production_team_(China)" title="Production team (China)">Production team (China)</a></div> <p>The first major action to alter village society was the land reform of the late 1940s and early 1950s, in which the party sent work teams to every village to carry out its land reform policy. This in itself was an unprecedented display of administrative and political power. The land reform had several related goals. The work teams were to redistribute some (though not all) land from the wealthier families or land-owning trusts to the poorest segments of the population and so to effect a more equitable distribution of the basic means of production; to overthrow the village elites, who might be expected to oppose the party and its programs; to recruit new village leaders from among those who demonstrated the most commitment to the party's goals; and to teach everyone to think in terms of class status rather than kinship group or patron-client ties. </p><p>In pursuit of the last goal, the party work teams convened extensive series of meetings, and they classified all the village families either as <a href="/wiki/Landlord" title="Landlord">landlords</a>, rich <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a>, middle peasants, or poor peasants. These labels, based on family landholdings and overall economic position roughly between 1945 and 1950, became a permanent and hereditary part of every family's identity and, as late as 1980, still affected, for example, such things as chances for admission to the armed forces, colleges, universities, and local administrative posts and even marriage prospects. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Collectivization" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivization">collectivization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> was essentially completed with the establishment of the people's communes in 1958. Communes were large, embracing scores of villages. They were intended to be multipurpose organizations, combining economic and local administrative functions. Under the commune system the household remained the basic unit of consumption, and some differences in <a href="/wiki/Standards_of_living" class="mw-redirect" title="Standards of living">standards of living</a> remained, although they were not as marked as they had been before land reform. Under such a system, however, upward mobility required becoming a team or commune cadre or obtaining a scarce technical position such as a being a truck driver. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decollectivization">Decollectivization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Decollectivization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rural_society_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Rural society in China">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Collectivization and other political processes led to widespread famine and tens of millions of deaths. In the late 1970s, administrators in provincial-level units with extensive regions of low yields and consequent low standards of living began experimenting with new forms of <a href="/wiki/Tenure" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenure">tenure</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Production,_costs,_and_pricing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Production, costs, and pricing (page does not exist)">production</a>. In most cases, these took the form of breaking up the collective production team, contracting with individual households to work assigned portions of collective land, and expanding the variety of crops or livestock that could be produced. The experiments were deemed successful and popular, and they soon spread to all districts. By the winter of 1982–1983, the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_communes" class="mw-redirect" title="People's communes">people's communes</a> were abolished; they were replaced by administrative townships and a number of specialized teams or businesses that often leased such collective assets as tractors and provided services for money. </p><p>The agricultural reforms of the early 1980s led to a confusingly large number of new production arrangements and contracts. Underlying the variability of administrative and contractual forms were several basic principles and trends. In the first place, land, the fundamental means of production, remained collective <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a>. It was leased, allocated, or contracted to individual <a href="/wiki/Household" title="Household">households</a>, but the households did not own the land and could not transfer it to other households. The household became, in most cases, the basic economic unit and was responsible for its own production and losses. Most economic activity was arranged through contracts, which typically secured promises to provide a certain amount of a commodity or sum of money to the township government in return for the use of land, or workshops, or tractors. </p><p>The goal of the <a href="/wiki/Contracting_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Contracting system">contracting system</a> was to increase <a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">efficiency</a> in the use of resources and to tap peasant initiative. The rigid requirement that all villages produce grain was replaced by recognition of the advantages of specialization and exchange, as well as a much greater role for markets. Some "specialized households" devoted themselves entirely to production of <a href="/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">cash crops</a> or provision of services and reaped large rewards. The overall picture was one of increasing specialization, differentiation, and exchange in the <a href="/wiki/Rural_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Rural economy">rural economy</a> and in society in general. Rural incomes increased rapidly, in part because the state substantially increased the prices it paid for staple crops and in part because of economic growth stimulated by the expansion of markets and the rediscovery of comparative advantage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_of_the_household">Role of the household</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Role of the household"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rural_society_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Rural society in China">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Decollectivization increased the options available to individual households and made household heads increasingly responsible for the economic success of their households. In 1987, for example, it was legally possible to leave the village and move into a nearby town to work in a small factory, open a noodle stand, or set up a machine repair business. Farmers, however, still could not legally move into medium-sized or large cities. The <a href="/wiki/Newspapers_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers of China">Chinese press</a> reported an increased appreciation in the countryside for <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> and an increased desire for agriculturally oriented newspapers and journals, as well as clearly written manuals on such profitable trades as rabbit-raising and beekeeping. As specialization and <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Division of labor">division of labor</a> increased, along with increasingly visible differences in income and living standards, it became more difficult to encompass most of the rural population in a few large categories. During the early 1980s, the pace of economic and social change in rural China was rapid, and the people caught up in the change had difficulty making sense of the process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consequences_of_rural_reform">Consequences of rural reform</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Consequences of rural reform"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rural_society_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Rural society in China">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The state retained both its powers and its role in the rural economy in the 1980s. Decollectivization, like the collectivization of the 1950s, was directed from the top down. Sometimes, apparently, it was imposed on communities that had been content with their collective methods. But in permitting households and communities greater leeway to decide what to produce and in allowing the growth of rural markets and small-scale industries, the state stepped back from the close supervision and mandatory quotas of the 1960s and 1970s. </p><p>Decollectivization obviated the <a href="/wiki/Supervisor" title="Supervisor">supervisory</a> functions of low-level cadres, who no longer needed to oversee work on the collective fields. Some <a href="/wiki/Professional_revolutionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional revolutionaries">cadres</a> became full-time administrators in township offices, and others took advantage of the reforms by establishing specialized production households or by leasing collective property at favorable rates. Former cadres, with their networks of connections and familiarity with administrative procedures, were in a better position than ordinary farmers to take advantage of the opportunities offered by the growth of markets and commercial activity. Even those cadres not wholly devoted to increasing their own families' income found that to serve their fellow villagers as expected it was necessary to act as <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Entrepreneur">entrepreneurs</a>. Village-level cadres in the mid-1980s were functioning less as overseers and more as extension agents and <a href="/wiki/Marketing" title="Marketing">marketing</a> <a href="/wiki/Consultant" title="Consultant">consultants</a>. </p><p>By 1987 rural society was more open and diverse than in the 1960s and 1970s, and the rigid collective units of that period, which had reflected the state's overwhelming concern for <a href="/wiki/Security" title="Security">security</a>, had been replaced by networks and clusters of smaller units. The new, looser structure demonstrated the priority placed on <a href="/wiki/Economic_efficiency" title="Economic efficiency">efficiency</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a>. Basic security, in the sense of an adequate supply of food and guarantees of support for the disabled, orphaned, or aged, was taken for granted. Less than half of China's population remembered the insecurity and risks of pre-1950 society, but the costs and inefficiencies of the collective system were fresh in their minds. Increased specialization and <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Division of labor">division of labor</a> were trends not likely to be reversed. In the rural areas the significance of the work unit appeared to have diminished, although people still lived in villages, and the actions of low-level administrative cadres still affected ordinary farmers or petty traders in immediate ways. </p><p>The state and its officials still dominated the economy, controlled supplies of essential goods, taxed and regulated businesses and markets, and awarded contracts. The stratification system of the <a href="/wiki/Maoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Maoist">Maoist</a> period had been based on a hierarchy of functionally unspecialized cadres directing the labors of a fairly uniform mass of peasants. It was replaced in the 1980s by a new elite of economically specialized households and entrepreneurs who had managed to come to terms with the administrative cadres who controlled access to many of the resources necessary for economic success. Local cadres still had the power to impose fees, taxes, and all manner of <a href="/wiki/Exaction" title="Exaction">exactions</a>. The norms of the new system were not clear, and the economic and social system continued to change in response to the rapid growth of rural commerce and industry and to national economic policies and reforms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regulations_and_favors">Regulations and favors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Regulations and favors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rural_society_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Rural society in China">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Increased commercial activity produced a high degree of normative ambiguity, especially in areas like central <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a> provinces, where rural economic growth was fastest. Neither the proper role of local officials nor the rights and obligations of new entrepreneurs or traders were clear. The line between the normal use of personal contacts and hospitality and extraordinary and criminal <a href="/wiki/Cronyism" title="Cronyism">favoritism</a> and corruption was ambiguous. There were hints of the development of a system of patron-client ties, in which administrative cadres granted favors to ordinary farmers in return for support, esteem, and an occasional gift. The increased number of corruption cases reported in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_press" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese press">Chinese press</a> and the widespread assumption that the decollectivization and rural economic reforms had led to growing corruption probably reflected both the increased opportunities for deals and favors of all sorts and the ambiguous nature of many of the transactions and relationships. The party's repeated calls for improved "<a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a> spiritual civilization" and the attempts of the central authorities both to create a system of <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> and to foster respect for it can be interpreted as responses to the problem. On the local level, where cadres and entrepreneurs were engaged in constant negotiation on the rules of their game, the problem was presumably being addressed in a more straightforward fashion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Family_and_household">Family and household</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Family and household"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In past Chinese society, the family provided every individual's support, livelihood, and long-term security. Today the state guarantees such security to those with no families to provide for them, and families and work units share long-term responsibility for the individual. The role of families has changed, but they remain important, especially in the countryside. Family members are bound, in law and custom, to support their <a href="/wiki/Aged" class="mw-redirect" title="Aged">aged</a> or <a href="/wiki/Disabled" class="mw-redirect" title="Disabled">disabled</a> members. The state, acting through <a href="/wiki/Work_unit" title="Work unit">work units</a>, provides support and benefits only when families cannot. Households routinely pool <a href="/wiki/Income" title="Income">income</a>, and any individual's <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</a> depends on the number of household wage earners and the number of dependents. In both cities and villages, the highest incomes usually are earned by households with several wage earners, such as unmarried adult sons or daughters. </p><p>In late traditional society, family size and structural complexity varied directly with class. Rural landlords and government officials had the largest families, poor peasants the smallest. The poorest segment of the population, landless laborers, could not afford to marry and start families. The need to provide for old age and the general association between the numbers of sons surviving to adulthood and long-term family success motivated individuals to create various non-standard family forms. Couples who produced no sons, or no children at all, adopted or purchased infants outright. Families with daughters but no sons tried to find men willing to marry their daughters and move into their families, abandoning their original families and sometimes even their original <a href="/wiki/Chinese_surname" title="Chinese surname">surnames</a>. Families with daughters but no property to attract a son-in-law were sometimes forced to sell their daughters as <a href="/wiki/Concubine" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubine">concubines</a> or <a href="/wiki/Prostitute" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostitute">prostitutes</a>. The variation in family size and complexity was the result of variation in class position and of the dual role of the household as both family and economic enterprise. </p><p>From the 1950s onwards, China sought to pursue gender equality by including <a href="/wiki/Women_in_China" title="Women in China">women</a> in the formal labor force.<sup id="cite_ref-:532_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:532-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 132">: 132 </span></sup> In urban areas, this process was facilitated by the development of a network of public nurseries, daycare centers, and kindergartens.<sup id="cite_ref-:532_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:532-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 132">: 132 </span></sup> In rural areas, working mothers obtained support from mothers-in-law and other extended family members, usually on the father's side.<sup id="cite_ref-:532_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:532-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 132–133">: 132–133 </span></sup> By the mid-1970s, the extended family on the father's side was the most important safety net for rural child care.<sup id="cite_ref-:532_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:532-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 133">: 133 </span></sup> The work of childcare was primarily associated with women, particularly mothers-in-law who exercised significant authority.<sup id="cite_ref-:532_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:532-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 133">: 133 </span></sup> </p><p>In contemporary society, rural families no longer own land or pass it down to the next generation. They may, however, own and transmit houses. Rural families pay medical expenses and school fees for their children. Under the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_commune" title="People's commune">people's commune</a> system in force from 1958 to 1982, the income of a peasant family depended directly on the number of laborers it contributed to the collective fields. This, combined with concern over the level of support for the aged or disabled provided by the collective unit, encouraged peasants to have many sons. Under the agricultural reforms that began in the late 1970s, households took on an increased and more responsible economic role. The labor of family members is still the primary determinant of income. But rural economic growth and <a href="/wiki/Commercialization" title="Commercialization">commercialization</a> increasingly have rewarded managerial and technical skills and have made unskilled farm labor less desirable. As long as this economic trend continues in the countryside in the late 1980s, peasant families are likely to opt for fewer but better educated children. </p><p>The consequence of the general changes in China's economy and the greater separation of families and economic enterprises has been a greater <a href="/wiki/Standardization" title="Standardization">standardization</a> of family forms since 1950. In 1987 most families approximated the middle peasant (a peasant owning some land) norm of the past. Such a family consisted of five or six people and was based on marriage between an adult son and an adult woman who moved into her husband's family. The variant family forms - either the very large and complex or those based on minor, nonstandard forms of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_marriage" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese marriage">marriage</a> - were much less common. The state had outlawed concubinage, child <a href="/wiki/Betrothal" class="mw-redirect" title="Betrothal">betrothal</a>, and the sale of infants or females, all of which were formerly practiced, though not common. Increased <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a> meant that a greater proportion of <a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">infants</a> survived to <a href="/wiki/Adulthood" class="mw-redirect" title="Adulthood">adulthood</a> and that more adults lived into their sixties or seventies. More rural families were able to achieve the traditional goal of a three-generation family in the 1980s. There were fewer orphans and young or middle-aged widows or widowers. Far fewer men were forced to retain lifelong single status. <a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">Divorce</a>, although possible, was rare, and families were stable, on-going units. </p><p>A number of traditional attitudes toward the family have survived without being questioned. It is taken for granted that everyone should marry, and marriage remains part of the definition of normal adult status. Marriage is expected to be permanent. That marriage requires a woman to move into her husband's family and to become a daughter-in-law as well as a wife is still largely accepted. The norm of patrilineal descent and the assumption that it is sons who bear the primary responsibility for their aged parents remain. The party and government have devoted great effort to controlling the number of births and have attempted to limit the number of children per couple. But the authorities have not attempted to control population growth by suggesting that some people should not marry at all. </p><p>In the past, <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> principles were extended beyond the domestic group and were used to form large-scale groups, such as lineages. <a href="/wiki/Lineage_(anthropology)" title="Lineage (anthropology)">Lineages</a> were quite distinct from families; they were essentially corporate economic-political groups. They controlled land and, in some areas of China, dominated whole villages and sets of villages and held title to most of the farmland. Like most other late traditional associations, lineages were dominated by wealthy and educated elites. Ordinary peasants paid as much of their crop to their lineage group as they might have to a landlord. The Communists denounced these organizations as feudal systems by means of which <a href="/wiki/Landlord" title="Landlord">landlords</a> exploited others. The lineages were suppressed in the early 1950s and their land confiscated and redistributed in the <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reform</a>. Communal <a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">worship</a> of distant lineage ancestors lost much of its justification with the dissolution of the lineage estate and was easily suppressed over the next several years. Domestic <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestor worship">ancestor worship</a>, in which members of a single family worshiped and memorialized their immediate ancestors, continued at least until 1966 and 1967, in the early stages of the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>, when Red Guards destroyed altars and ancestral tablets. In 1987 the party was still condemning ancestor worship as superstitious but had made little effort to end it.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marriage">Marriage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Marriage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rural_society_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Rural society in China">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_marriage" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese marriage">Chinese marriage</a></div> <p>The Marriage Law of 1950 guaranteed everyone the freedom to choose their marriage partner. Nevertheless, especially in the countryside, there were few opportunities to meet potential mates. Rural China offered little <a href="/wiki/Privacy" title="Privacy">privacy</a> for <a href="/wiki/Courtship" title="Courtship">courtship</a>, and in villages there was little public tolerance for <a href="/wiki/Flirting" title="Flirting">flirting</a> or even extended conversation between unmarried men and women. Introductions and go-betweens continued to play a major role in the arrangement of marriages. In most cases each of the young people, and their parents, had an effective <a href="/wiki/Veto" title="Veto">veto</a> over any proposed match. </p><p>In the past, marriage was seen as the concern of families as well as of the two parties to the match. Families united by marriage were expected to be of equivalent status, or the <a href="/wiki/Bridegroom" title="Bridegroom">groom</a>'s family to be of somewhat higher status. This aspect of marriage patterns has continued while the definitions of status have changed. Because inherited wealth was eliminated as a significant factor, evaluation had been shifted to estimates of <a href="/wiki/Earning_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Earning power">earning power</a> and future <a href="/wiki/Prosperity" title="Prosperity">prosperity</a>. The most desirable husbands have been administrative cadres, party members, and employees of large state enterprises. Conversely, men from poor villages have had difficulty finding wives. From the early 1950s to the late 1970s, when hereditary class labels were very significant, anyone with a "counter-revolutionary" background, that is, anyone previously identified with the landlord or even rich peasant class, was a bad prospect for marriage. Such pariahs often had no choice but to marry the offspring of other families with "bad" class backgrounds. At the other end of the social scale, there appeared to be a high level of intermarriage among the children of high-level cadres. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Community_structure">Community structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Community structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rural_society_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Rural society in China">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Most rural Chinese has lived in one of some 900,000 villages, which have an average population of from 1,000 to 2,000 people. Villages have never been self-contained, self-sufficient units, and the social world of Chinese peasants has extended beyond their home villages. Almost all new wives come into a village from other settlements, and daughters marry out. All villagers have close kinship ties with families in other villages, and marriage go-betweens shuttle from village to village. </p><p>Before 1950 clusters of villages centered on small market towns that linked them to the wider economy and society. Most peasants were only a few hours' walk or less from a <a href="/wiki/Market_town" title="Market town">market town</a>, which provided not only opportunities to buy and sell but also opportunities for <a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">entertainment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">social life</a>, and a host of specialized services. The villages around a market formed a <a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">social unit</a> that, although less immediately visible than the villages, was equally significant. </p><p>From the early 1950s on, China's revolutionary government made great efforts to put the state and its <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> into direct contact with the villages and to sweep aside the <a href="/wiki/Intermediaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Intermediaries">intermediaries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brokers" class="mw-redirect" title="Brokers">brokers</a> who had traditionally interpreted central policies and national values for villagers. The state and the party were generally successful, establishing unprecedented degrees of political and ideological integration of villages into the state and of village-level awareness of state policies and political goals. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Unintended_consequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Unintended consequence">unintended consequence</a> of the economic and political policies of the 1950s and 1960s was to increase the closed, <a href="/wiki/Corporate" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate">corporate</a> quality of China's villages and to narrow the social horizons of villagers. <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">Land reform</a> and the reorganization of villages as subunits of <a href="/wiki/People%27s_communes" class="mw-redirect" title="People's communes">people's communes</a> meant that villages became collective landholding units and had clear boundaries between their lands and those of adjacent villages. Central direction of labor on collective fields made the former practices of swapping labor between villages impossible. The household registration and rationing systems confined villagers to their home settlements and made it impossible for them to seek their fortune elsewhere. Cooperation with fellow villagers and good relations with village leaders became even more important than they had been in the past. The suppression of rural markets, which accompanied the drive for self-sufficiency in grain production and other economic activities, had severe social as well as economic consequences. Most peasants had neither reason nor opportunity for regular trips to town, and their opportunities for exchange and cooperation with residents of other villages were diminished. Villages became <a href="/wiki/Work_unit" title="Work unit">work units</a>, with all that that implied. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Decollectivization" class="mw-redirect" title="Decollectivization">Decollectivization</a> in the early 1980s resulted in the revival of rural marketing, and a limited relaxation of controls on out-<a href="/wiki/Emigration" title="Emigration">migration</a> opened villages and diminished the social boundaries around them. The social world of peasants expanded, and the larger marketing community took on more significance as that of the village proper was diminished. Village membership, once the single most important determinant of an individual's circumstances, became only one of a number of significant factors, which also included occupation, personal connections, and managerial talent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Healthcare">Healthcare</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Healthcare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_barefoot_doctor_performing_acupuncture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Chinese_barefoot_doctor_performing_acupuncture.jpg/220px-Chinese_barefoot_doctor_performing_acupuncture.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Chinese_barefoot_doctor_performing_acupuncture.jpg/330px-Chinese_barefoot_doctor_performing_acupuncture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Chinese_barefoot_doctor_performing_acupuncture.jpg/440px-Chinese_barefoot_doctor_performing_acupuncture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Chinese <a href="/wiki/Barefoot_doctor" title="Barefoot doctor">barefoot doctor</a> using acupuncture to treat a production brigade worker</figcaption></figure> <p>After 1949, the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Healthcare" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare">healthcare</a> system, in rural areas the first tier was made up of "<a href="/wiki/Barefoot_doctor" title="Barefoot doctor">barefoot doctors</a>" working out of village medical centers. They provided preventive and primary-care services, with an average of two doctors per 1,000 people. The barefoot doctors emerged in 1968 when China lacked qualified health workers in rural areas and in 1985, China stopped using the term of barefoot doctor. Most of them were transferred to village doctors as private practitioners, making a living out of drug sales based on user fees.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the next level were the township health centers, which functioned primarily as out-patient clinics for about 10,000 to 30,000 people each. These centers had about ten to thirty beds each, and the most qualified members of the staff were assistant doctors. The two lower-level tiers made up the "rural collective health system" that provided most of the country's medical care. Only the most seriously ill patients were referred to the third and final tier, the county hospitals, which served 200,000 to 600,000 people each and were staffed by senior doctors who held degrees from 5-year medical schools. </p><p>In the late 20th and early 21st century, the availability and quality of health care varied widely from city to countryside. According to 1982 census data, in rural areas the crude death rate was 1.6 per 1,000 higher than in urban areas, and life expectancy was about 4 years lower. The number of senior physicians per 1,000 population was about 10 times greater in urban areas than in rural ones; state expenditure on medical care was more than -Y26 per capita in urban areas and less than -Y3 per capita in rural areas. There were also about twice as many hospital beds in urban areas as in rural areas. These are aggregate figures, however, and certain rural areas had much better medical care and nutritional levels than others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Village_life_and_expressive_culture">Village life and expressive culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Village life and expressive culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Xiaonong_Yishi" title="Xiaonong Yishi">Xiaonong Yishi</a></div> <p>Traditional Chinese village life focused on agricultural, ritual, and festival activities based closely on seasonal and environmental requirements. Early Western studies of Chinese village life dealt with villages in Hong Kong or Taiwan as mainland China was not accessible to Western scholars at that time. For a useful compendium of studies on the Hong Kong New Territories see James L. Watson and Rubie S. Watson (2004), which comprises studies based on fieldwork carried out from 1969 to 1997.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For studies of village life in Taiwan see Seaman (1978),<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Ahern and Gates (1981).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1980s and 1990s it became possible to undertake fieldwork in mainland China. Anthropologists working in the mainland noticed the revival of pre-1949 religious and festival practices throughout rural China in the post-Mao era. Thomas David DuBois investigated village life in Cang County, Hebei, from 1997 to 2002. According to DuBois: "What has remained constant is that religion continues to permeate all aspects of life in rural North China," (DuBois 2005, p. 2).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Funerals in rural villages can last for days and include thousands of people and complex <a href="/wiki/Chinese_funeral_rituals" title="Chinese funeral rituals">funeral rituals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:532_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:532-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: xxii">: xxii </span></sup> </p><p>Thousands of temples were rebuilt at village and county level in the reform era (post 1978). Temples provide entertainment and festival occasions as well as religious activity. According to Adam Yuet Chau, who studied the Dragon King Temple in rural Shaanbei in north China, the temple was the focus of entertainments such as folk operas, dance troupes, storytellers, and musicians (Chao, 2006, p. 242).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argues further that "Temple associations…have played an important role in expanding folk cultural space and the agrarian public sphere in contemporary China" (Chau, 2006, 242) Temple activities promote good community relations and offer assurance of mutual help in time of need (Chau, <i>Miraculous Response</i>, 144). For studies of the role of temples in the revival of Taoist sacrifices in Fujian see Dean (1993).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He notes the importance of temples in the economic, political, and social life of the village (Dean,1993, 17). David Johnson has studied the close relationship between village temple opera and territorial units known as <i>shȇ</i> (Johnson 2009).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He claims that village-level communal rituals were "the highest expression of the values and beliefs of ordinary people" (Johnson 2009, 10). </p><p>In the contemporary era (post 1978), village administrators, including communist party officials, can be very involved in the running of village temple activities (Tsai 2007, 140).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, other aspects of village culture, such as the performances of itinerant folk musicians, are subject to minimal regulation by the state (Jones 2009, xxi).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Folk musicians carry out ritual roles as well as provide entertainment. Jones distinguishes between the "institutional" role of temple Buddhist and Daoist monks and the more "diffused" activities of lay Buddhist and Daoist ritual practitioners, many of whom are "ordinary peasants performing for life-cycle and calendrical ceremonies" (Jones, 2009, xxi). Very talented rural singers may be able to adapt their repertoire to attract both elite and popular audiences (Gibbs 2018).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In border areas, informal and often hidden song traditions help bolster ethnic identities. For a study of the revival of the song and storytelling traditions of the Tai Lüe people of Sipsongpanna, Yunnan, see Davis (2005).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Village ritual, expressive culture, and festival activities reflect the villagers' struggle with their local environment. In southern rice-growing regions, which require intensive irrigation, both drought and floods can be a problem. The famous Chinese anthropologist, Fei Xiaotong, investigated village life in the Lower Yangzi Delta region in the 1920s. He observed that the villagers enacted religious ceremonies and rituals at times of drought, floods, and locusts (Fei, 2010, 134).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a comprehensive study of the ritual and expressive culture associated with rice growing in the Lower Yangzi Delta region see Jiang Bin (1996).<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rice cultivators along the shores of Lake Tai in Jiangsu province believed that "the rice-seedling transformed from a young girl, to a pregnant wife, and finally to a Rice Mother bearing child-grains," (McLaren, 2022, xviii).<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lake Tai songs and stories include tales of a local hero who brought back the art of rice growing from a paradisial land to his home village (McLaren, 2022, 77–110). The songs of the Kam people of Guizhou reflect local "environmental management and agricultural practices" in this rice-cultivation zone (Ingram 2011, 445).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ingram observes that these instructional songs "complement and assist in retaining longstanding farming techniques" (Ingram 2011, 446). Drought is a serious problem for villagers living in the region of the Yellow River. The Dragon King is venerated because he can dispense rain and save the community from drought (Chau, 2006, 79). The ritual operas of Aoshi in Shanxi were performed "to bring rain during droughts, to drive away disease, and to prevent fires, as well as to celebrate the New Year" (Johnson 2009, 71–72). </p><p>The resurgence of popular folk practices and beliefs after 1980 was largely due to the lack of economic advances in most of rural China during the period of high socialism. As Stephen Jones points out, "In Shaanbei, as elsewhere in China, one may partly relate the persistence of pre-Communist belief systems (like worship of the gods and ceremonial practices) throughout these periods to the inability of modern governments to transform the environment. The largely agrarian society has remained poor and partially dependent on divine blessing, even since the 1980s when some parts of the area made clear economic progress." (Jones, 2009, xix-xx). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Film">Film</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Film"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the PRC's founding in 1949, there were less than 600 movie theatres in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 102">: 102 </span></sup> Projectionists traveled through rural China showing films, a process modeled on the Soviet Union's use of mobile film teams to spread revolutionary culture.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 45">: 45 </span></sup> Rural mobile projectionist teams and urban movie theaters were generally managed through the PRC's cultural bureaucracy.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 47">: 47 </span></sup> Until the 1990s, the vast majority of people in China lived in rural areas, and therefore did not encounter film until mobile projectionists brought them in the 1950s and 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 148">: 148 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Telecommunications_and_internet">Telecommunications and internet</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Telecommunications and internet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2004, the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Industry_and_Information_Technology" title="Ministry of Industry and Information Technology">Ministry of Industry and Information Technology</a> began the Connecting Every Village Project to promote universal access to <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">telecommunication</a> and <a href="/wiki/Internet_in_China" title="Internet in China">internet services</a> in rural China.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 24–25">: 24–25 </span></sup> The MIIT required that six state-owned companies, including the main telecommunications and internet providers <a href="/wiki/China_Mobile" title="China Mobile">China Mobile</a>, <a href="/wiki/China_Unicom" title="China Unicom">China Unicom</a>, and <a href="/wiki/China_Telecom" title="China Telecom">China Telecom</a>, build the communications infrastructure and assist in financing the project.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 25">: 25 </span></sup> As of December 2019, 135 million rural households had used broadband internet.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 25">: 25 </span></sup> The program successfully extended internet infrastructure throughout rural China and promoted development of the internet.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 25">: 25 </span></sup> </p><p>The expansion of <a href="/wiki/E-commerce" title="E-commerce">e-commerce</a> in China has resulted in the development of <a href="/wiki/Taobao_village" title="Taobao village">Taobao villages</a>, clusters of e-commerce businesses operating in rural areas.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 112">: 112 </span></sup> Because Taobao villages have increased the incomes of rural people and entrepreneurship in rural China, Taobao villages have become a component of rural revitalization strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 278">: 278 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hukou" title="Hukou">Hukou</a> - system of household registration used in mainland China</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten-star_household" title="Ten-star household">Ten-star household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_society_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban society in the People's Republic of China">Urban society in the People's Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_healthcare_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's healthcare in the People's Republic of China">Women's healthcare in the People's Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wokai" title="Wokai">Wokai</a> - Organization that connects contributors worldwide with micro-entrepreneurs in rural China to help them start small businesses</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:Laikwan-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:Laikwan_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Laikwan_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLaikwan2024" class="citation book cs1">Laikwan, Pang (2024). <i>One and All: The Logic of Chinese Sovereignty</i>. Stanford, CA: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781503638815" title="Special:BookSources/9781503638815"><bdi>9781503638815</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=One+and+All%3A+The+Logic+of+Chinese+Sovereignty&rft.place=Stanford%2C+CA&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=9781503638815&rft.aulast=Laikwan&rft.aufirst=Pang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARural+society+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2016" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, Zengxiang (Oct 2016). "Urban expansion in China and its effect on cultivated land before and after initiating "Reform and Open Policy"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Science China Earth Sciences</i>. <b>59</b> (10): 1930–1945. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016ScChD..59.1930Z">2016ScChD..59.1930Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11430-015-0160-2">10.1007/s11430-015-0160-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:133182671">133182671</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+China+Earth+Sciences&rft.atitle=Urban+expansion+in+China+and+its+effect+on+cultivated+land+before+and+after+initiating+%22Reform+and+Open+Policy%22&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1930-1945&rft.date=2016-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A133182671%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11430-015-0160-2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016ScChD..59.1930Z&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Zengxiang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARural+society+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShi2023" class="citation book cs1">Shi, Song (2023). <i>China and the Internet: Using New Media for Development and Social Change</i>. New Brunswick, NJ: <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University_Press" title="Rutgers University Press">Rutgers University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781978834736" title="Special:BookSources/9781978834736"><bdi>9781978834736</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+and+the+Internet%3A+Using+New+Media+for+Development+and+Social+Change&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781978834736&rft.aulast=Shi&rft.aufirst=Song&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARural+society+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130510194409/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/business/2012-12/22/c_132057739.htm">"China eyes more rural development in 2013 - Xinhua | English.news.cn"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/business/2012-12/22/c_132057739.htm">the original</a> on 2013-05-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87197-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87197-6"><bdi>978-0-521-87197-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accountability+without+Democracy%3A+Solidary+Groups+and+Public+Goods+Provision+in+Rural+China&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Cambridge+Studies+in+Comparative+Politics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-87197-6&rft.aulast=Tsai&rft.aufirst=Lily+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Faccountability-without-democracy%2F10A2F783C031C216ADA437E4B93A25EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARural+society+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Ritual-and-Music-of-North-China-Volume-2-Shaanbei/Jones/p/book/9781138056787">"Ritual and Music of North China: Volume 2: Shaanbei"</a>. <i>Routledge & CRC Press</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-11-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UH+Press&rft.atitle=Song+King%3A+Connecting+People%2C+Places%2C+and+Past+in+Contemporary+China&rft.date=2020-06-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fuhpress.hawaii.edu%2Ftitle%2Fsong-king-connecting-people-places-and-past-in-contemporary-china%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARural+society+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2006" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Sara L. M. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/298412652"><i>Song and silence : ethnic revival on China's southwest borders</i></a>. Silk Worm Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/974-9511-17-4" title="Special:BookSources/974-9511-17-4"><bdi>974-9511-17-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/298412652">298412652</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Song+and+silence+%3A+ethnic+revival+on+China%27s+southwest+borders&rft.pub=Silk+Worm+Books&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F298412652&rft.isbn=974-9511-17-4&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Sara+L.+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F298412652&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARural+society+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFei2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Fei, Xiaotong (2010). <i>Peasant Life in China: A Field Study of Country Life in the Yangtze Valley</i> (in English and Chinese). Beijing: Foreign Language and Teaching Research Press. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-5135-0268-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-5135-0268-9"><bdi>978-7-5135-0268-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peasant+Life+in+China%3A+A+Field+Study+of+Country+Life+in+the+Yangtze+Valley&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=Foreign+Language+and+Teaching+Research+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-7-5135-0268-9&rft.aulast=Fei&rft.aufirst=Xiaotong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARural+society+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF姜彬1996" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">姜彬 (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zI6BAAAAIAAJ"><i>稻作文化与江南民俗</i></a> (in Chinese). 上海文艺出版社. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-5321-1383-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-5321-1383-5"><bdi>978-7-5321-1383-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E7%A8%BB%E4%BD%9C%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E4%B8%8E%E6%B1%9F%E5%8D%97%E6%B0%91%E4%BF%97&rft.pub=%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E6%96%87%E8%89%BA%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-7-5321-1383-5&rft.au=%E5%A7%9C%E5%BD%AC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzI6BAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARural+society+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambriapress.com/pub.cfm?bid=854">"Memory Making in Folk Epics of China: The Intimate and the Local in Chinese Regional Culture By Anne E. McLaren"</a>. <i>www.cambriapress.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-11-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cambriapress.com&rft.atitle=Memory+Making+in+Folk+Epics+of+China%3A+The+Intimate+and+the+Local+in+Chinese+Regional+Culture+By+Anne+E.+McLaren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambriapress.com%2Fpub.cfm%3Fbid%3D854&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARural+society+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngram2011" class="citation journal cs1">Ingram, Catherine (2011-12-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10357823.2011.628008">"Echoing the Environment in Kam Big Song"</a>. <i>Asian Studies Review</i>. <b>35</b> (4): 439–455. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10357823.2011.628008">10.1080/10357823.2011.628008</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1035-7823">1035-7823</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145471425">145471425</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Studies+Review&rft.atitle=Echoing+the+Environment+in+Kam+Big+Song&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=439-455&rft.date=2011-12-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145471425%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1035-7823&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10357823.2011.628008&rft.aulast=Ingram&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F10357823.2011.628008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARural+society+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:12_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2022" class="citation book cs1">Li, Jie (2022). "Mobile Projectionists and the Things They Carried". In Altehenger, Jennifer; Ho, Denise Y. (eds.). <i>Material Contradictions in Mao's China</i>. Seattle: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington_Press" title="University of Washington Press">University of Washington Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-75085-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-75085-9"><bdi>978-0-295-75085-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mobile+Projectionists+and+the+Things+They+Carried&rft.btitle=Material+Contradictions+in+Mao%27s+China&rft.place=Seattle&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-295-75085-9&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Jie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARural+society+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2023" class="citation book cs1">Li, Jie (2023). <i>Cinematic Guerillas: Propaganda, Projectionists, and Audiences in Socialist China</i>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231206273" title="Special:BookSources/9780231206273"><bdi>9780231206273</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cinematic+Guerillas%3A+Propaganda%2C+Projectionists%2C+and+Audiences+in+Socialist+China&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9780231206273&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Jie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARural+society+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHu2023" class="citation book cs1">Hu, Richard (2023). <i>Reinventing the Chinese City</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-21101-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-21101-7"><bdi>978-0-231-21101-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reinventing+the+Chinese+City&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-231-21101-7&rft.aulast=Hu&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARural+society+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYangWangZhou2021" class="citation book cs1">Yang, Saidi; Wang, Puqing; Zhou, Deyi (2021). "Transformation and Development of Taobao Village in China Based on "Zhijiang Mode"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Proceedings of the 2020 3rd International Seminar on Education Research and Social Science (ISERSS 2020)</i>. Paris, France: Atlantis Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2991%2Fassehr.k.210120.053">10.2991/assehr.k.210120.053</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-6239-316-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-6239-316-5"><bdi>978-94-6239-316-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Transformation+and+Development+of+Taobao+Village+in+China+Based+on+%22Zhijiang+Mode%22&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+2020+3rd+International+Seminar+on+Education+Research+and+Social+Science+%28ISERSS+2020%29&rft.place=Paris%2C+France&rft.pub=Atlantis+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2991%2Fassehr.k.210120.053&rft.isbn=978-94-6239-316-5&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Saidi&rft.au=Wang%2C+Puqing&rft.au=Zhou%2C+Deyi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARural+society+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rural_society_in_China&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Yang, Dali. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cntoc.html">Calamity and Reform in China: State, Rural Society and Institutional Change since the Great Leap Famine</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804734707" title="Special:BookSources/9780804734707">9780804734707</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/History_of_foreign_relations_of_China" title="History of foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs" title="List of Chinese monarchs">Monarchs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistoric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Imperial_China" title="History of China">Imperial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Wu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin (266–420)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin (1115–1234)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Modern_China" title="History of China">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">Tiananmen Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China" title="COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">persecution of Uyghurs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_China" title="Geography of China">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_China" title="Borders of China">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_China" title="List of extreme points of China">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_China" title="Geology of China">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_disasters_in_China" title="Natural disasters in China">Natural disasters</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_China" title="List of regions of China">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_China" title="East China">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Central_China" title="South Central China">South Central</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_China" title="Central China">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China" title="South China">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_China" title="Western China">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_China" title="Northwestern China">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_China" title="Southwestern China">Southwestern</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Terrain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bays_of_China" title="Category:Bays of China">Bays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canyons_and_gorges_of_China" title="Category:Canyons and gorges of China">Canyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caves_of_China" title="Category:Caves of China">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deserts_of_China" title="Category:Deserts of China">Deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Grasslands_of_China" title="Category:Grasslands of China">Grasslands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hills_of_China" title="Category:Hills of China">Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_China" title="List of islands of China">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_China" title="Category:Mountains of China">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_ranges_of_China" title="Category:Mountain ranges of China">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_passes_of_China" title="Category:Mountain passes of China">passes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peninsulas_of_China" title="Category:Peninsulas of China">Peninsulas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China_Plain" title="Northeast China Plain">Northeast</a> / <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North</a> / <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Valleys_of_China" title="Category:Valleys of China">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_China" title="List of volcanoes in China">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canals_in_China" title="Category:Canals in China">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_China" title="List of lakes of China">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_China" title="List of rivers of China">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Waterfalls_of_China" title="Category:Waterfalls of China">Waterfalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wetlands_of_China" title="Category:Wetlands of China">Wetlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources_of_China" title="Water resources of China">Water resources</a></li> <li>Seas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohai_Sea" title="Bohai Sea">Bohai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Sea" title="Yellow Sea">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_China_Sea" title="East China Sea">East China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_China" title="Environment of China">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_China" title="Climate change in China">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_policy_of_China" title="Climate policy of China">Climate policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_China" title="Environmental issues in China">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_in_China" title="Environmental policy in China">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_protected_areas_of_China" title="List of protected areas of China">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_China" title="List of national parks of China">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nature_reserves_in_China" title="Category:Nature reserves in China">Nature reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_UNESCO_Biosphere_Reserves_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of UNESCO Biosphere Reserves in China">UNESCO Biosphere Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_China" title="Wildlife of China">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Fauna of China">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_China" title="Flora of China">Flora</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baselines_of_the_Chinese_territorial_sea" title="Baselines of the Chinese territorial sea">Baseline islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Border_crossings_of_China" title="Category:Border crossings of China">Border crossings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_China" title="List of cities in China">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Province-level subdivisions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_China" title="Politics of China">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Law" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Law of the People's Republic of China">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_China" title="Judicial system of China">Judicial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_China" title="Human rights in China">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in China">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Tibet" title="Human rights in Tibet">in Tibet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_China" title="Law enforcement in China">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">Penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_laws_in_China" title="Naming laws in China">Naming laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationality law of China">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_China" title="Terrorism in China">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_China" title="Government of China">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Civil service of the People's Republic of China">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_China" title="Constitution of China">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_China" title="Democracy in China">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_democracy_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese democracy movement">Pro-democratisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_China" title="Elections in China">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_in_China" title="Environmental policy in China">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_China" title="Foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People's Congress">National People's Congress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" title="Standing Committee of the National People's Congress">Standing Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_China" title="National security of China">National security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_China" title="List of political parties in China">Political parties and movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party">General Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party">Politburo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_front_(China)" title="United front (China)">United front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference" title="Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">Political Consultative Conference</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_stage_of_socialism" title="Primary stage of socialism">Primary stage of socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_China" title="President of China">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_China" title="Vice President of China">Vice President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="State Council of the People's Republic of China">State Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_China" title="Premier of China">Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_Premier_of_China" title="Vice Premier of China">Vice Premier</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_country,_two_systems" title="One country, two systems">One country, two systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of China">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_military_history_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Outline of the military history of the People's Republic of China">Outline of military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Military_Commission_(China)" title="Central Military Commission (China)">Central Military Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Defense_(China)" title="Ministry of National Defense (China)">Ministry of National Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Ground_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Ground Force">Ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Navy" title="People's Liberation Army Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Air_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Air Force">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Rocket_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Rocket Force">Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Strategic_Support_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force">Strategic Support</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Armed_Police" title="People's Armed Police">People's Armed Police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Coast_Guard" title="China Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militia_(China)" title="Militia (China)">Militia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Militia" title="Maritime Militia">Maritime Militia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_China" title="Agriculture in China">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_in_China" title="Aquaculture in China">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_China" title="Banking in China">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China" title="People's Bank of China">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">Economic history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China" title="Special economic zones of China">Special economic zones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-commerce_in_China" title="E-commerce in China">E-commerce</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_advertising_in_China" title="Online advertising in China">Online advertising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_China" title="Energy policy of China">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_in_China" title="Coal in China">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_China" title="Petroleum industry in China">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_China" title="Renewable energy in China">Renewable</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_China" title="Foreign aid to China">Foreign aid received</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_foreign_aid" title="Chinese foreign aid">Foreign aid program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_GDP_of_China" title="Historical GDP of China">Historical GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_of_China" title="Industry of China">Industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry_in_China" title="Chemical industry in China">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining_in_China" title="Gold mining in China">Gold mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry_in_China" title="Semiconductor industry in China">Semiconductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_China" title="Textile industry in China">Textiles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_China" title="Poverty in China">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_China" title="Standard of living in China">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_China" title="Taxation in China">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_China" title="Tourism in China">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trade_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of trade of the People's Republic of China">Trade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture in China">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_China" title="Housing in China">Housing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">Telecommunications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_China" title="Internet in China">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China" title="Water supply and sanitation in China">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_China" title="Transport in 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class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_China" title="Abortion in China">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_China" title="Censorship in China">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Dream" title="Chinese Dream">Chinese Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_China" title="Crime in China">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_China" title="Corruption in China">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_China" title="Prostitution in China">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_China" title="Sex trafficking in China">Sex trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_China" title="Literacy in China">Literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonious_Society" title="Harmonious Society">Harmonious Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_China" title="Health in China">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_China" title="Food safety in China">Food safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_incidents_in_China" title="Food safety incidents in China">incidents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_China" title="HIV/AIDS in China">HIV/AIDS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_intellectualism" title="Chinese intellectualism">Intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Written Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_China" title="Propaganda in China">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_China" title="Public holidays in China">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rural society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_China" title="Science and technology in China">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_China" title="Technological and industrial history of China">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_China" title="Sexuality in China">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issues_in_China" title="Social issues in China">Social issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy_in_China" title="Patriarchy in China">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_China" title="Racism in China">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_discrimination_in_China" title="Regional discrimination in China">Regional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_China" title="Suicide in China">Suicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_social_relations" title="Chinese social relations">Social relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_China" title="Social structure of China">Structure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_China" title="Time in China">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_society_in_China" title="Urban society in China">Urban society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_China" title="Welfare in China">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of China">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_China" title="Archaeology of China">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archives_in_China" title="Archives in China">Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_China" title="Cinema of China">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cuisine" title="Chinese cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_China" title="Dance in China">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libraries_in_China" title="Libraries in China">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">Poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_martial_arts" title="Chinese martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_China" title="Mass media in China">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_China" title="Music of China">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_China" title="Smoking in China">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_China" title="Sport in China">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_tea_culture" title="Chinese tea culture">Tea culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_variety_art" title="Chinese variety art">Variety art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_Historical_and_Cultural_Site_Protected_at_the_National_Level" class="mw-redirect" title="Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level">Major Historical and Cultural Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_China" title="List of World Heritage Sites in China">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fours_of_China" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Fours of China</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Treasures_of_the_Study" title="Four Treasures of the Study">Four Treasures of the Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions" title="Four Great Inventions">Four Great Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Gentlemen" title="Four Gentlemen">Four Gentlemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowers_of_the_Four_Seasons" title="Flowers of the Four Seasons">Flowers of the Four Seasons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Beauties" title="Four Beauties">Four Beauties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_Chinese_Novels" title="Classic Chinese Novels">Four Classic Novels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_arts" title="Four arts">Four arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Symbols" title="Four Symbols">Four Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Holy_Beasts" title="Four Holy Beasts">Four Holy Beasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Pillars_of_Destiny" title="Four Pillars of Destiny">Four Pillars of Destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Paragons_of_the_Early_Tang" title="Four Paragons of the Early Tang">Four Paragons of the Early Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Ming dynasty">Four Masters of the Ming dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty">Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Pests_campaign" title="Four Pests campaign">Four Pests campaign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_China" title="Demographics of China">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emigration" title="Chinese emigration">Emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_China" title="List of ethnic groups in China">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eunuchs_in_China" title="Eunuchs in China">Eunuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_in_China" title="Migration in China">Internal migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_administrative_divisions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Chinese administrative divisions by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Statistics_of_China" title="National Bureau of Statistics of China">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_China" title="Population history of China">Population history</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Post-80s" title="Post-80s">Post-80s</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Post-90s" title="Post-90s">Post-90s</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_China" title="Urbanization in China">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_China" title="Women in China">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China" title="Catholic Church in China">Catholic Church in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_China" title="Protestantism in China">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_China" title="Freedom of religion in China">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_China" title="History of religion in China">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_China" title="Irreligion in China">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_China" title="National symbols of China">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/March_of_the_Volunteers" title="March of the Volunteers">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Emblem_of_China" title="National Emblem of China">Emblem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_China" title="Flag of China">Flag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:China" 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