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class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indenturecertificate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Indenturecertificate.jpg/220px-Indenturecertificate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Indenturecertificate.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption>An 18th-century indentured servitude contract</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Indentured servitude in British America</b> was the prominent system of labor in the <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British American</a> colonies until it was eventually supplanted by <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">slavery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During its time, the system was so prominent that more than half of all immigrants to British colonies south of New England were white servants, and that nearly half of total white immigration to the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> came under indenture.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> in 1775, only 2 to 3 percent of the colonial <a href="/wiki/Workforce" title="Workforce">labor force</a> was composed of indentured servants.<sup id="cite_ref-Purvis_1995_p._120_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Purvis_1995_p._120-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The consensus view among economic historians and economists is that <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured servitude</a> became popular in the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> in the seventeenth century because of a large demand for labor there, coupled with labor surpluses in Europe and high costs of transatlantic transportation beyond the means of European workers.<sup id="cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_3_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galenson_1984:_3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between the 1630s and the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, one-half to two-thirds of <a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">white</a> immigrants to the Thirteen Colonies arrived under indentures.<sup id="cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galenson_1984:_1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Half a million Europeans, mostly young men, also went to the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> under indenture to work on <a href="/wiki/Plantations" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantations">plantations</a>. Fraud and sometimes even force were widely used as methods of recruitment.<sup id="cite_ref-Hofstadter1750_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofstadter1750-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">debt peonage</a> system similar to indenture was also used in southern <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Long_Island" title="Long Island">Long Island</a> to control and assimilate <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> from the 1600s through the American Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-nativeamindentures_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nativeamindentures-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indentured servitude continued in <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> into the early 20th century, but the number of indentured servants declined over time.<sup id="cite_ref-Galenson_1984_1–26_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galenson_1984_1–26-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although experts do not agree on the causes of the decline, possible factors for the American colonies include changes in the labor market and the legal system that made it cheaper and less risky for an employer to hire <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">African slave labor</a> or paid employees, or made indentures unlawful; increased affordability of travel to North America that made immigrants less likely to rely on indentures to pay travel costs; and effects of the American Revolution, particularly on immigration from <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Britain</a>. In the Caribbean, the number of indentured servants from Europe began to decline in the 17th century as Europeans became aware of the cruelty of plantation masters and the high death rate of servants, largely due to <a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">tropical disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-burnard_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-burnard-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> ended slavery in 1833, plantation owners returned to indentured servitude for labor, with most servants coming from <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-lai_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lai-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until the British government prohibited the practice in 1917.<sup id="cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_26_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galenson_1984:_26-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="North_America">North America</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Between one-half and two-thirds of European immigrants to the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> between the 1630s and the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> came under indentures.<sup id="cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galenson_1984:_1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practice was sufficiently common that the <a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Act_1679" title="Habeas Corpus Act 1679">Habeas Corpus Act 1679</a>, in part, prevented imprisonments overseas; it also made provisions for those with existing transportation contracts and those "praying to be transported" in lieu of remaining in prison upon conviction.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In any case, while half the European immigrants to the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> had been indentured servants at some time, actively indentured servants were outnumbered by non-indentured workers, or by those whose indenture had expired. Thus free wage labor was more common for Europeans in the colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indentured persons were numerically important mostly in the region from <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> north to <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a>. Other colonies saw far fewer of them. The total number of European immigrants to all 13 colonies before 1775 was 500,000–550,000; of these, 55,000 were <a href="/wiki/Penal_transportation" title="Penal transportation">involuntary prisoners</a>. Of the 450,000 or so European arrivals who came voluntarily, Tomlins estimates that 48% were indentured.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 75% were under the age of 25. The age of legal adulthood for men was 24 years; those over 24 generally came on contracts lasting about 3 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Tomlins_2001_at_notes_31,_42,_66_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tomlins_2001_at_notes_31,_42,_66-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regarding the children who came, Gary Nash reports that, "many of the servants were actually nephews, nieces, cousins and children of friends of emigrating Englishmen, who paid their passage in return for their labor once in America."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Farmers, merchants, and shopkeepers in the British colonies found it very difficult to hire free workers, primarily because it was easy for potential workers to set up their own farms.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, a common solution was to transport a young worker from Britain or a German state, who would work for several years to pay off the debt of their travel costs. During the indenture period the servants were not paid cash wages, but were provided with food, accommodation, clothing and training. The indenture document specified how many years the servant would be required to work, after which they would be free. Terms of indenture ranged from one to seven years with typical terms of four or five years.<sup id="cite_ref-White_Servitude_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-White_Servitude-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In southern New England, a variant form of indentured servitude, which controlled the labor of <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> through an exploitative <a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">debt-peonage</a> system, developed in the late 17th century and continued through to the period of the American Revolution. </p><p>Not all European servants came willingly. Several instances of <a href="/wiki/Kidnapping" title="Kidnapping">kidnapping</a> for transportation to the Americas are recorded, though these were often indentured in the same way as their willing counterparts. An illustrative example is that of <a href="/wiki/Peter_Williamson_(Indian_Peter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Williamson (Indian Peter)">Peter Williamson</a> (1730–1799). As historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hofstadter" title="Richard Hofstadter">Richard Hofstadter</a> pointed out, "Although efforts were made to regulate or check their activities, and they diminished in importance in the eighteenth century, it remains true that a certain small part of the white colonial population of America was brought by force, and a much larger portion came in response to deceit and misrepresentation on the part of the spirits [recruiting agents]."<sup id="cite_ref-Hofstadter1750_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofstadter1750-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many white immigrants arrived in colonial America as indentured servants, usually as young men and women from Britain or Germany, under the age of 21. Typically, the father of a teenager would sign the legal papers, and work out an arrangement with a ship captain, who would not charge the father any money.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The captain would transport the indentured servants to the American colonies, and sell their legal papers to someone who needed workers. At the end of the indenture, the young person was given a new suit of clothes and was free to leave. Many immediately set out to begin their own farms, while others used their newly acquired skills to pursue a trade.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moraley2005_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moraley2005-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few became sufficiently prosperous that they were eventually able to acquire indentured servants of their own.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Given the high death rate, many servants did not live to the end of their terms.<sup id="cite_ref-White_Servitude_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-White_Servitude-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 18th and early 19th century, numerous Europeans, mostly from outside the British Isles, traveled to the colonies as <a href="/wiki/Redemptioner" title="Redemptioner">redemptioners</a>, a particularly harsh form of indenture.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indentured servants were a separate category from bound <a href="/wiki/Apprenticeship" title="Apprenticeship">apprentices</a>. The latter were American-born children, usually orphans or from an impoverished family who could not care for them. They were under the control of courts and were bound out to work as an apprentice until a certain age. Two famous bound apprentices were <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> who illegally fled his apprenticeship to his brother, and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a>, who later became <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> used indentured servants;<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in April 1775, he offered a reward for the return of two runaway white servants.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Indentured servitude in the Americas was first used by the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Company" title="Virginia Company">Virginia Company</a> in the early seventeenth century as a method for <a href="/wiki/Collateral_(finance)" title="Collateral (finance)">collateralizing</a> the debt finance for transporting people to its newfound <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">British colonies</a>. </p><p>Before the rise of indentured servitude, a large demand for <a href="/wiki/Labor_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor force">labor</a> existed in the colonies to help build settlements, farm crops and serve as tradesmen, but many laborers in Europe could not afford the <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_crossing" title="Transatlantic crossing">transatlantic crossing</a>, which could cost roughly half a worker's annual wage.<sup id="cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_3_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galenson_1984:_3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>European financial institutions could not easily lend to the workers since there was no effective way to enforce a loan from across the Atlantic, rendering <a href="/wiki/Labor_mobility" title="Labor mobility">labor immobile</a> via the Atlantic because of <a href="/wiki/Capital_market_imperfections" title="Capital market imperfections">capital market imperfections</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_3_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galenson_1984:_3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To address this imperfection, the Virginia Company would allow laborers to borrow against their future earnings at the Virginia Company for a fixed number of years in order to raise sufficient capital to pay for their voyage. Evidence shows this practice was in use by 1609, only two years after the founding of the Virginia Company's original <a href="/wiki/Jamestown,_Virginia" title="Jamestown, Virginia">Jamestown settlement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_4_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galenson_1984:_4-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this practice created a <a href="/wiki/Financial_risk" title="Financial risk">financial risk</a> for the Virginia Company. If workers died or refused to work, the investment would be lost.<sup id="cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_4_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galenson_1984:_4-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1620, the Virginia Company switched to selling contracts of "one hundred servants to be disposed among the old Planters" as soon as the servants reached the colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This minimized risk on its investment to the two–three months of transatlantic voyage. As the system gained in popularity, individual farmers and tradesmen would eventually begin investing in indentured servants as well.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The archaeological excavation of a 17th-century Maryland residence in Anne Arundel County discovered what was most likely an indentured servant who was murdered, buried and hidden beneath the floor alongside a garbage pit.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1661 Virginia law prohibited the inappropriate burial of indentured servants.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Transportation_Act_1717" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation Act 1717">Transportation Act 1717</a> established a regulated system for indentured criminal laborers. </p><p>In the 18th century, wages in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a> were low because of a surplus of labor. The average monetary wage was about 50 shillings (£2.50, equivalent to £474 in 2023)<sup id="cite_ref-inflation-UK_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inflation-UK-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a year for a plowman, and 40 shillings (£2) a year for an ordinary unskilled worker. Ships' captains negotiated prices for transporting and feeding a passenger on the seven- or eight-week journey across the ocean, averaging about £5 to £7, equivalent to years of work back in England.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Still, demand for indentured labor remained relatively low until the adoption of staple crops, such as <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a> in the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> in the <a href="/wiki/American_South" class="mw-redirect" title="American South">American South</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Galenson_March_1981:_40_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galenson_March_1981:_40-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With economies largely based on these crops, the West Indies and American South would see the vast majority of indentured labour.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indenturecertificate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Indenturecertificate.jpg/220px-Indenturecertificate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Indenturecertificate.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption>An indenture signed by Henry Mayer, with an "X", in 1738. This contract bound Mayer to Abraham Hestant of <a href="/wiki/Bucks_County,_Pennsylvania" title="Bucks County, Pennsylvania">Bucks County</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, who had paid for Mayer to travel from Europe.</figcaption></figure> <p>Author and historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hofstadter" title="Richard Hofstadter">Richard Hofstadter</a> has written: </p> <blockquote> <p>The most unenviable situation was that of servants on Southern plantations, living alongside but never with Negro slaves, both groups doing much the same work, often under the supervision of a relentless overseer… Even as late as 1770, William Eddis, the English surveyor of customs at Annapolis, thought that the Maryland Negroes were better off than "the Europeans, over whom the rigid planter exercises an inflexible severity." The Negroes, Eddis thought, were a lifelong property so were treated with a certain care, but the whites were "strained to the utmost to perform their allotted labour."<sup id="cite_ref-Hofstadter_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofstadter-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>Over time the market for indentured servitude developed, with length of contracts showing close correlations to indicators of health and productivity. Tall, strong, healthy, literate or skilled servants would often serve shorter terms than less productive or more sickly servants.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, destinations with harsh working climates such as the West Indies would come to offer shorter contracts compared to the more hospitable colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-Galenson_March_1981:_40_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galenson_March_1981:_40-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The majority of indentured servants ended up in the American South, where cash crops necessitated labor-intensive farming. As the Northern colonies moved toward industrialization, they received far less indentured immigration.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, 96% of English emigrants to <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a> from 1773 to 1776 were indentured servants. During the same time period, 2% of English emigrants to <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> were indentured.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_documents">Legal documents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Legal documents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indenture_-_Servitude_1823.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Indenture_-_Servitude_1823.jpg/220px-Indenture_-_Servitude_1823.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="558" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Indenture_-_Servitude_1823.jpg/330px-Indenture_-_Servitude_1823.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Indenture_-_Servitude_1823.jpg/440px-Indenture_-_Servitude_1823.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1274" data-file-height="3232" /></a><figcaption>Indenture of apprenticeship binding Evan Morgan, a child aged 6 years and 11 months, for a period of 14 years, 1 month. Dated Feb. 1, 1823, Sussex Co., Delaware.</figcaption></figure> <p>An indenture was a legal contract enforced by the courts. One indenture reads as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote> <p>This INDENTURE Witnesseth that James Best a Labourer doth Voluntarily put himself Servant to Captain Stephen Jones Master of the Snow Sally to serve the said Stephen Jones and his Assigns, for and during the full Space, Time and Term of three Years from the first Day of the said James’ arrival in Philadelphia in AMERICA, during which Time or Term the said Master or his Assigns shall and will find and supply the said James with sufficient Meat, Drink, Apparel, Lodging and all other necessaries befitting such a Servant, and at the end and expiration of said Term, the said James to be made Free, and receive according to the Custom of the Country. Provided nevertheless, and these Presents are on this Condition, that if the said James shall pay the said Stephen Jones or his Assigns 15 Pounds British in twenty one Days after his arrival he shall be Free, and the above Indenture and every Clause therein, absolutely Void and of no Effect. In Witness whereof the said Parties have hereunto interchangeably put their Hands and Seals the 6th Day of July in the Year of our Lord, One Thousand Seven Hundred and Seventy Three in the Presence of the Right Worshipful Mayor of the City of London. (signatures) </p> </blockquote> <p>When the ship arrived, the captain would often advertise in a newspaper that indentured servants were for sale:<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote> <p>Just imported, on board the Snow Sally, Captain Stephen Jones, Master, from England, A number of healthy, stout English and Welsh Servants and Redemptioners, and a few Palatines [Germans], amongst whom are the following tradesmen, viz. Blacksmiths, watch-makers, coppersmiths, taylors, shoemakers, ship-carpenters and caulkers, weavers, cabinet-makers, ship-joiners, nailers, engravers, copperplate printers, plasterers, bricklayers, sawyers and painters. Also schoolmasters, clerks and book-keepers, farmers and labourers, and some lively smart boys, fit for various other employments, whose times are to be disposed of. Enquire of the Captain on board the vessel, off Walnut-street wharff, or of MEASE and CALDWELL. </p> </blockquote> <p>When a buyer was found, the sale would be recorded at the city court. The <i>Philadelphia Mayor’s Court Indenture Book</i>, page 742, for September 18, 1773 has the following entry:<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote> <p>James Best, who was under Indenture of Redemption to Captain Stephen Jones now cancelled in consideration of £ 15, paid for his Passage from London bound a servant to David Rittenhouse of the City of Philadelphia & assigns three years to be found all necessaries. </p> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Restrictions">Restrictions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Restrictions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Indentures could not marry without the permission of their owner, were subject to physical punishment (like many young ordinary servants), and saw their obligation to labor enforced by the courts. To ensure uninterrupted work by the female servants, the law lengthened the term of their indenture if they became pregnant. But unlike slaves, servants were guaranteed to be eventually released from bondage. At the end of their term they received a payment known as "freedom dues" and became free members of society.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One could buy and sell indentured servants' contracts, and the right to their labor would change hands, but not the person as a piece of property. </p><p>Both male and female laborers could be subject to violence, occasionally even resulting in death. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hofstadter" title="Richard Hofstadter">Richard Hofstadter</a> notes that, as slaves arrived in greater numbers after 1700, white laborers in Virginia became a "privileged stratum, assigned to lighter work and more skilled tasks".<sup id="cite_ref-Hofstadter_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofstadter-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also notes that "Runaways were regularly advertised in the newspapers, rewards were offered, and both sheriffs and the general public were enlisted to secure their return. ... The standard penalty in the North, not always rigorously enforced, was extra service of twice the time the master had lost, though <a href="/wiki/Flagellation" title="Flagellation">whipping</a> was also common."<sup id="cite_ref-Hofstadter_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofstadter-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Redemptioner_profile">Redemptioner profile</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Redemptioner profile"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Indentured servitude was a method of increasing the number of colonists, especially in the <a href="/wiki/English_colonial_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="English colonial empire">English</a> and later British colonies. Voluntary migration and <a href="/wiki/Convict" title="Convict">convict</a> labor only provided so many people, and since the journey across the Atlantic was dangerous, other means of encouraging settlement were necessary. Contract-laborers became an important group of people and so numerous that the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> counted them specifically in appointing representatives: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, <i>including those bound to Service for a Term of Years</i>....<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Displaced from their land and unable to find work in the cities, many of these people signed contracts of indenture and took passage to the Americas. In Massachusetts, religious instruction in the <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritan</a> way of life was often part of the condition of indenture, and people tended to live in towns. </p><p>The labor-intensive cash crop of <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> was farmed in the <a href="/wiki/American_South" class="mw-redirect" title="American South">American South</a> by indentured laborers in the 17th and 18th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-VJT_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VJT-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indentured servitude was not the same as the <a href="/wiki/Apprenticeship" title="Apprenticeship">apprenticeship</a> system by which skilled trades were taught, but similarities do exist between the two, since both require a set period of work. The majority of Virginians were Anglican, not Puritan, and while religion did play a large role in everyday lives, the culture was more commercially based. In the Chesapeake and North Carolina, tobacco constituted a major percentage of the total agricultural output. In the Deep South (mainly Georgia and South Carolina), cotton and rice plantations dominated. In the lower Atlantic colonies <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_in_the_American_Colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Tobacco in the American Colonies">where tobacco was the main cash crop</a>, the majority of labor that indentured servants performed was related to field work. In this situation, social isolation could increase the possibilities for both direct and indirect abuse, as could lengthy, demanding labor in the tobacco fields. </p><p>The system was still widely practiced in the 1780s, picking up immediately after a hiatus during the American Revolution. <a href="/wiki/Fernand_Braudel" title="Fernand Braudel">Fernand Braudel</a> (<i>The Perspective of the World</i> 1984, pp. 405ff) instances a 1783 report on "the import trade from Ireland" and its large profits to a ship owner or a captain, who: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...puts his conditions to the emigrants in <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a> or some other Irish port. Those who can pay for their passage—usually about 100 or 80 [<a href="/wiki/Livre_tournois" title="Livre tournois">livres tournois</a>]—arrive in America free to take any engagement that suits them. Those who cannot pay are carried at the expense of the shipowner, who in order to recoup his money, advertises on arrival that he has imported artisans, laborers and domestic servants and that he has agreed with them on his own account to hire their services for a period normally of three, four, or five years for men and women and 6 or 7 years for children.</p></blockquote> <p>In modern terms, the shipowner was acting as a <a href="/wiki/Independent_contractor" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent contractor">contractor</a>, hiring out his laborers. Such circumstances affected the treatment a captain gave his valuable human cargo. After indentures were forbidden, the passage had to be prepaid, giving rise to the inhumane conditions of Irish '<a href="/wiki/Coffin_ship" title="Coffin ship">coffin ships</a>' in the second half of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southern_New_England_Native_Americans_and_indenture">Southern New England Native Americans and indenture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Southern New England Native Americans and indenture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery" title="Category:Slavery">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shackles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/125px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/188px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/250px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="272" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Contemporary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">Involuntary servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st-century jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Historical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Antiquity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law#Three_classes" title="Babylonian law">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Medieval Europe</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">Ancillae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">In Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim world</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">Slavery in al-Andalus</a> ‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Contract of manumission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_on_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Slavery on the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Concubinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_imperial_harem" title="Safavid imperial harem">Safavid imperial harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarya" title="Jarya">Jarya</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odalisque" title="Odalisque">Odalisque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">Umm al-walad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st century</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantes_slave_trade" title="Nantes slave trade">Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyarring" title="Panyarring">Panyarring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Thirteen colonies</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Topics and practice</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">House slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">Slave market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">Slave raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_children_in_the_military" title="History of children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Naval</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghaiing" title="Shanghaiing">Shanghaiing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By country or region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Chad" title="Human trafficking in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali slave trade">Somali slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">North and South America</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Pre-Columbian America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Americas indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">U.S. Natives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery in the United States">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">prison labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">interregional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Bahamas" title="Slavery in the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbados_Slave_Code" title="Barbados Slave Code">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Slavery in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Trinidad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Colombia" title="Slavery in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">Haiti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restavek" title="Restavek">Restavek</a></li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Asia" title="Slavery in Asia">East, Southeast, and South Asia</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Human trafficking in Southeast Asia">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukri_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukri System">Chukri System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwalliso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mongol Empire">Slavery in the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Thailand" title="Slavery in Thailand">Thailand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="United States military and prostitution in South Korea">Yankee princess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Vietnam" title="Slavery in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Oceania">Australia and Oceania</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding_in_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raiding in Easter Island">Slave raiding in Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding_in_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbirding in Polynesia">Blackbirding in Polynesia</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Europe and North Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Sex trafficking in Europe">Sex trafficking in Europe</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Penal labour in the United Kingdom">Penal Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_slave_trade" title="Danish slave trade">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Germany in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Sweden</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>North Africa and West Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking in the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iraq" title="Slavery in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Jordan" title="Slavery in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Lebanon" title="Slavery in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Palestine" title="Slavery in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Syria" title="Slavery in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and slavery">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Opposition and resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">Abolitionists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">Colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">Freedom suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">Slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_slave_trade_in_Persian_gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf (page does not exist)">Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AC_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="fa:ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس">fa</a>]</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Convention" title="Fugitive Slave Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_survivors_of_American_slavery" title="List of last survivors of American slavery">last survivors of American slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slavery-related_memorials_and_museums" title="List of slavery-related memorials and museums">List of slavery-related memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">Slave Route Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">J.Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Lincoln</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_iron_bit" title="Slave iron bit">Iron bit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forced_labour" title="Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Forced_labour" title="Template talk:Forced labour"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Forced_labour" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Starting in the late 17th century, in southern New England and parts of Long Island, Native Americans were increasingly pulled into an exploitative debt-peonage system designed to control and assimilate Native American people into the dominant culture as well as channel their labor into the market-based Atlantic economy.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following <a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a> (1675–1676) most Native Americans in the region were resigned to reservations or lived in increasingly marginal enclaves on the edges of colonial towns. Due to restricted access to resources, <a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">land loss</a>, and changes to the environment caused by European settlement, many Native Americans, especially coastal groups, could no longer practice traditional subsistence activities and therefore became increasingly dependent on European trade goods—cloth, tools, guns, alcohol, and increasingly, food. Merchants trading these items to Native Americans often inflated the cost and, based on a predatory lending scheme, advanced them credit for these purchases, knowing full well most Native Americans would not be able to repay the debts. Eventually when debts mounted, Native Americans were hauled into court by their creditors. When they could not pay either their lands, or more commonly their labor, was seized to settle the debt. Native American debtors were then indentured to their creditors for terms ranging from a few months to sometimes years. Rare cases exist when Native Americans were indentured for a decade or more and a few were enslaved for life (this was quite rare however).<sup id="cite_ref-nativeamindentures_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nativeamindentures-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Native Americans experienced repeated indentures over the course of their lifetimes, amounting to a phenomenon of 'serial indenture' or debt peonage—multiple short indentures alternating with brief periods of 'freedom.' The 'time' Native American servants owed could be sold or willed to heirs if a creditor died. </p><p>Assessing how many Native Americans experienced indenture is difficult as exact Native American populations during the colonial period are unknown. However, Historian John Sainsbury was able to document that by the mid-18th century about a third of all Native Americans in Rhode Island were indentured servants living and working in white households. Also, the Massachusetts state archives contains numerous petitions, written from the 1730s to 1760s from Native American tribes in their jurisdiction complaining about abuses in the indenture system and predatory lending by whites. Statutes were eventually passed attempting to regulate practices. Colonial military records do provide some data on Native American indenture as well. Enlistment records from 1704 to 1726 show that almost two-thirds of Native Americans who joined the army were indentured at the time of their enlistment. Records from 1748 to 1760 show a decline in this rate, but still show almost a third of Native American recruits being bound to white masters at the time of their enlistment. One Connecticut regiment raised in 1746 during <a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a> (containing 980 men total) contained 139 Native American men. Almost half of them had signed their wages over to white creditors before being deployed.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While many Native American men, women and children became servants in New England households, the labor of many adult men was funneled into the whaling industry on Long Island, Rhode Island, Cape Cod and the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket, as well as the coast of eastern Connecticut. These <a href="/w/index.php?title=Whaling_indentures&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Whaling indentures (page does not exist)">whaling indentures</a> were somewhat distinct from normal indenture contracts, and stipulated that Native Americans serve not as servants in white households but instead as crew members on a certain number of whaling voyages or 'seasons' of whaling (typically November through April). Throughout most of the colonial period indentured or heavily indebted Native American whalers were the primary labor force in the early whaling industry. They remained an important source of labor into the Revolutionary and early national era, but as their numbers dwindled and the industry expanded exponentially, they made up a decreasingly small proportion of the labor force.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>Text of Whaling Indenture Contract of Isaac Pepenie (<a href="/wiki/Wampanoag_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Wampanoag people">Wampanoag</a> Indian) to James Lovell Jr. 1729.:</i> </p><p>Witnesseth that Isaac Pepenie Indian of Falmouth, Barnstable labourer, hath ... of his own free will ... Bound and obliged himself to Serve James Lovell Junr ... a Sea faring man, on Diverse Whale Voiages in the several seasons ... the date of these presents: viz. this winter season in ... Barnstable, and the next Spring at Nantucket, and former season following in the sloops or vessels that ... [Lovell] desire[s], all which respective voyages ... and any and all materials for the performing of sd. Voyages ... he the said Isaac Pepenie to have one eighth and diet according to costom ... as shall be needful with his master for the sum of fifteen pounds which he the said James Lovell doth hereby agree to pay for him, ... then the sd. Pepenie doth by these [agreements] oblige himself to attend [the] Whale Voiages at the order and direction of said James Lovell, his administrators or assigns in manner aforesaid ... this first day of October in the Eleventh year of His Majesty's Reign ano dom 1729. </p> <dl><dd>Isaac Papenie</dd> <dd>Barnstable.</dd></dl> <p>We the subscribers two of his Majestys Justices of the Peace for said County being present at the execution of the premesis do allow and approbate the same as just and reasonable. </p> <dl><dd>Danl. Parker, Joseph Lothrop<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline">Decline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Indentured servitude appeared in the Americas in the 1620s and remained in use as late as 1917.<sup id="cite_ref-Galenson_1984_1–26_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galenson_1984_1–26-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The causes behind its decline are a contentious domain in economic history. </p><p>The end of <a href="/wiki/Debtors%27_prison" title="Debtors' prison">debtors' prisons</a> may have created a <a href="/wiki/Capital_market_imperfections#Limited_Commitment" title="Capital market imperfections">limited commitment</a> pitfall in which indentured servants could agree to contracts with ship captains and then refuse to sell themselves once they arrived in the colonies. Increased lobbying from <a href="/wiki/Emigrant_Aid_Societies" title="Emigrant Aid Societies">immigrant aid societies</a> led to increased regulation of the indentured labor market, further increasing the difficulty of enforcing contracts. With less ability to enforce the contracts, demand for indentured servants may have fallen. However, most debtor prisons were still in service when indentured servitude disappeared and many regulations on indentured servitude were put in place well before the practice's disappearance.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A rise in European <a href="/wiki/Per_capita_income" title="Per capita income">per-capita income</a> compared to passage fare during the nineteenth century may also explain the disappearance of indentured servitude. While passage from England to the colonies in 1668 would cost roughly 51 percent of English per-capita income, that ratio would decrease to between 20 and 30 percent by 1841.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This increase in relative income may have been further supplemented by a demonstrated increase in savings among European laborers, meaning European emigrants would have the capital on hand to pay for their own passage. With no need for transit capital, fewer laborers would have become indentured, and the <a href="/wiki/Supply_(economics)" title="Supply (economics)">supply</a> of indentured servants would have decreased.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Labor substitutions may have led employers away from indentured servants and towards slaves or paid employees. In many places, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States#Colonial_America" title="Slavery in the United States">African slaves</a> became cheaper for unskilled and then eventually skilled labor, and most farmhand positions previously filled by indentured servants were ultimately filled by slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wage_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Wage labor">Wage laborers</a> may have been more productive, since employers were more willing to terminate waged employment. In comparison, firing an indentured servant would mean a loss on the original capital investment spent purchasing the servant's contract.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Either substitution would lead to a decrease in demand for indentured servitude. An additional problem for employers was that, compared to African slaves, European indentured servants who ran away could not always be easily distinguished from the general white population, so they were more difficult to re-capture. </p><p>Indentured servitude's decline for white servants was also largely a result of changing attitudes that accrued over the 18th century and culminated in the early 19th century. Over the 18th century, the penal sanctions that were used against all workers were slowly going away from colonial codes, leaving indentured servants the only adult white labor subject to penal sanctions (with the notable exception of seaman, whose contracts could be criminally enforced up to the 20th century). These penal sanctions for indentured laborers continued in the United States until the 1830s, and by this point treatment of European laborers under contract became the same as the treatment of wage laborers (however, this change in treatment didn't apply to workers of color). This change in treatment can be attributed to a number of factors, such as the growing identification of white indented labor with slavery at a time when slavery was coming under attack in the Northern states, the growing radicalism of workers influenced with the rhetoric of the American Revolution, and the expansion of suffrage in many states which empowered workers politically. Penal sanctions, previously considered perfectly in line with free labor, became in the 19th century a way to transform ordinary labor into "contracts of slavery."<sup id="cite_ref-Steinfeld_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steinfeld-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Labor_market_dynamics">Labor market dynamics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Labor market dynamics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Given the rapid expansion of colonial export industries in the 17th and 18th century, natural population growth and immigration were unable to meet the increasing demand for workers. As a result, the cost of indentured servants rose substantially. In the Chesapeake Bay, for example, the cost of indentures rose as much as 60% in the 1680s.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increase in the price of indentures did not motivate European workers to emigrate, for they did not benefit from the higher prices. As a result, the companies that generated indentures disrupted the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Price_signaling_effect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Price signaling effect (page does not exist)">price signaling effect</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag needs further explanation. (November 2020)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and thus the supply of immigrants did not expand sufficiently to meet demand. Some actors in the market attempted to generate incentives for workers by shortening the length of indenture contracts, based on the productivity of the prospective emigrant.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some American firms also opted to incentivize workers by paying small wages or by negotiating early expiration of indentures.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These measures increased the cost of an indenture, while early termination made it less valuable. </p><p>The rising cost of indentured labor and its inelastic supply pushed American producers towards a cheaper alternative: enslaved workers. Not only were they substantially cheaper, the supply was more abundant; in contrast with indentured workers, they had to emigrate whether they wanted to or not. No incentives were necessary, although higher prices motivated slave traders to expand "production" (in the form of raiding expeditions). Supply was relatively elastic. Slavery thus was better able to satisfy labor demands in colonies requiring large quantities of unskilled agricultural workers (for example, plantation colonies in the Caribbean). Indentures, however, prevailed in colonies that required skilled workers, since the cost of an indenture was less than the cost of training an enslaved worker. Alison Smith and Abbott E. Smith's analysis of London port records shows how the destinations of indentured emigrants shifted from the West Indies towards New England as early as the 1660s,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> supporting the theory that indentured servitude might have declined in some regions because of labor market dynamics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Affordability_of_immigration">Affordability of immigration</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Affordability of immigration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The rise in the affordability of immigration reduced emigrants’ need for external financing in the form of indentures. David Galenson's analysis on affordability shows that the cost of immigration from Britain to the United States over the course of the 18th century dropped from 50% of per capita income to less than 10%.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2014)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This is attributable to higher levels of real income in Europe (a result of economic growth in the 18th century) and to a sharp decline in transportation costs.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Innovation had a strong impact on the ease and cost of passenger transportation, reducing the need of indentures. The railroad made non-port cities a much cheaper destination for immigrants. The steamboat was not necessarily cheaper than older sailing technologies, but it made transatlantic travel much easier and comfortable, an attractive factor for high-income classes (that could easily afford immigration without indentures).<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British Navy's efforts against piracy also reduced transportation costs. Safer seas implied smaller crews (for there was no need to man weapons on board) and also reduced insurance costs (ships were at lower risk of being captured). </p><p>The composition of immigrants also shifted from single males towards entire families. Single males usually left their homes with little if any savings. Instead, families generally liquidated assets in Europe to finance their venture.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Impact_of_American_Revolution">Impact of American Revolution</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Impact of American Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The American Revolution severely limited immigration to the United States. Economic historians differ however on the long-term impact of the Revolution. Sharon Salinger argues that the economic crisis that followed the war made long-term labor contracts unattractive. Her analysis of Philadelphia's population shows how the percentage of bound citizens fell from 17% to 6% over the course of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> William Miller posits a more moderate theory, stating "the Revolution (…) wrought disturbances upon white servitude. But these were temporary rather than lasting".<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> David Galenson supports this theory by proposing that British indentures never recovered, but Europeans from other nationalities replaced them.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Legal_deterrence">Legal deterrence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Legal deterrence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1799 New York State passed the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Act_for_the_Gradual_Abolition_of_Slavery_(New_York)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery (New York) (page does not exist)">Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery</a>. Existing slaves became indentured servants. That status was finally ended in 1827 and all the indentured obtained full freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of acts passed by both the American and the British governments fostered the decline of indentures. The British <a href="/wiki/Passenger_Vessels_Act_1803" title="Passenger Vessels Act 1803">Passenger Vessels Act 1803</a>, which regulated travel conditions aboard ships, attempted to make transportation more expensive in order to stop emigration. The American abolition of imprisonment of debtors by federal law (passed in 1833) made prosecution of runaway servants more difficult, increasing the risk of indenture contract purchases.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 19th century, most indentures of this nature occurred in the old <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territory" title="Northwest Territory">Northwest Territory</a>. The permissibility of such indentures centered on the interpretation of "involuntary servitude" per the 1787 <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a>, which declared: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the territory otherwise than in the punishment of crimes, whereof the Party shall have been duly convicted.<sup id="cite_ref-Steinfeld_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steinfeld-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The permissibility (or not) of penal sanctions in labor became an issue of "fundamental law", in which it was questioned whether those sanctions or specific performance enforcements turned indentured servitude into "involuntary servitude". At the time when the Northwest Ordinance was constructed, white adult servants were still being imported into the United States, and thus, historically, it seems likely that the Ordinance's framers considered indenture to be a form of "voluntary" servitude. In essence, this means the indentured servant chose to work for someone who bought them something.<sup id="cite_ref-Steinfeld_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steinfeld-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Hawaii" title="Territory of Hawaii">Territory of Hawaii</a> was the last place in the United States to widely use indentures, as by 1900 the practice had been abolished in the rest of the country and replaced by alternatives such as the <a href="/wiki/Credit-ticket_system" title="Credit-ticket system">credit-ticket system</a> used to transport Chinese laborers.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to U.S. annexation, indentures were widely used to transport Japanese contract workers to Hawaii for plantation work. In the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Organic_Act" title="Hawaiian Organic Act">Hawaiian Organic Act</a> of 1900 the U.S. prohibited further use of indentures in the territory and voided all such existing contracts, thus ending the practice.<sup id="cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_26_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galenson_1984:_26-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Caribbean">Caribbean</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Caribbean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_servants_in_colonies">European servants in colonies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: European servants in colonies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Irish_indentured_servants" title="Irish indentured servants">Irish indentured servants</a></div> <p>A half million Europeans went as indentured servants to the Caribbean (primarily the English-speaking islands of the Caribbean) before 1840.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most were young men, with dreams of owning their own land or striking it rich quick, who would essentially sell years of their labor in exchange for passage to the islands. However, forceful indenture also provided part of the servants: contemporaries report that youngsters were sometimes tricked into servitude in order to be exploited in the colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The landowners on the islands would pay for a servant's passage and then provide the servant with food, clothes, shelter and instruction during the agreed term. The servant would then be required to work in the landowner's field for a term of bondage (usually four to seven years). Servants were not allowed to marry without the master's permission. Servants could own personal property. They could also complain to a local magistrate about mistreatment that exceeded community norms. However, a servant's contract could be sold or given away by his master. </p><p>After the servant's term was complete he became independent and was paid "freedom dues". These payments could take the form of land which would give the servant the opportunity to become an independent farmer or a free laborer. As free men with little money they became a political force that stood in opposition to the rich planters.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indentured servitude was a common part of the social landscape in England and Ireland during the 17th century. During the 17th century, British and Irish went to <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a> as both masters and as indentured servants. Some went as prisoners.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a> many Scottish and Irish prisoners of war were sold as indentured laborers to the colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHigman1997108_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigman1997108-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were also reports of <a href="/wiki/Kidnapping" title="Kidnapping">kidnappings</a> of youngsters to work as servants. </p><p>After 1660, fewer indentured servants came from Europe to the Caribbean. Newly freed servant farmers, given 25–50 acres of land, were unable to make a living because profitable <a href="/wiki/Sugar_cane" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar cane">sugar</a> plantations needed to cover hundreds of acres. However, profit could still be made through the tobacco trade, which was what these small 25-acre farms did to live comfortably. The landowners’ reputation as cruel masters became a deterrent to the potential indentured servant. In the 17th century, the islands became known as death traps, as between 33 and 50 percent of indentured servants died before they were freed, many from <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> and other diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-burnard_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-burnard-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_servants_after_abolition">Indian servants after abolition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Indian servants after abolition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Indian_indenture_system" title="Indian indenture system">Indian indenture system</a></div> <p>When <a href="/wiki/British_Empire#Abolition_of_slavery" title="British Empire">slavery ended in the British Empire</a> in 1833, plantation owners turned to <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured servitude</a> for inexpensive labor. These servants arrived from across the globe; the majority came from <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> where many <a href="/wiki/Indian_indenture_system" title="Indian indenture system">indentured laborers came from</a> to work in colonies requiring manual labor. As a result, today <a href="/wiki/Indo-Caribbean" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Caribbean">Indo-Caribbean</a> people make up a plurality in <a href="/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a>, and a substantial minority in <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a>, <a href="/wiki/St_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="St Lucia">St Lucia</a> and other Caribbean islands.<sup id="cite_ref-lai_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lai-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British government finally ended indentures in the Caribbean in 1917 by prohibiting the further transportation of persons from India for purposes of servitude for debt.<sup id="cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_26_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galenson_1984:_26-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the colonial United States">Slavery in the colonial United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_Pennsylvania" title="Indentured servitude in Pennsylvania">Indentured servitude in Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_indentured_servants" title="Irish indentured servants">Irish indentured servants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_Virginia" title="Indentured servitude in Virginia">Indentured servitude in Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_slave_trade_in_the_American_Southeast" title="Indian slave trade in the American Southeast">Indian slave trade in the American Southeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_labor_law" title="United States labor law">United States labor law</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTomlins2001" class="citation journal cs1">Tomlins, Christopher (2001). "Reconsidering Indentured Servitude: European Migration and the Early American Labor Force, 1600–1775". <i>Labor History</i>. <b>42</b>: 5–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00236560123269">10.1080/00236560123269</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153628561">153628561</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Labor+History&rft.atitle=Reconsidering+Indentured+Servitude%3A+European+Migration+and+the+Early+American+Labor+Force%2C+1600%E2%80%931775&rft.volume=42&rft.pages=5-43&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00236560123269&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153628561%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tomlins&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalenson1978" class="citation journal cs1">Galenson, David (1978). "British Servants and the Colonial Indenture System in the Eighteenth Century". <i>The Journal of Southern History</i>. <b>44</b> (1): 41–66. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2208243">10.2307/2208243</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2208243">2208243</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=British+Servants+and+the+Colonial+Indenture+System+in+the+Eighteenth+Century&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=41-66&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2208243&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2208243%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Galenson&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Purvis_1995_p._120-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Purvis_1995_p._120_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurvis1995" class="citation book cs1">Purvis, Thomas L. (1995). Balkin, Richard (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816025282/page/120"><i>Revolutionary America 1763 to 1800</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Infobase_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Infobase Publishing">Facts on File</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816025282/page/120">120</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0816025282" title="Special:BookSources/978-0816025282"><bdi>978-0816025282</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionary+America+1763+to+1800&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0816025282&rft.aulast=Purvis&rft.aufirst=Thomas+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780816025282%2Fpage%2F120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Galenson_1984:_3-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_3_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_3_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_3_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Galenson 1984: 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhaples1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Whaples" title="Robert Whaples">Whaples, Robert</a> (March 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.employees.csbsju.edu/jolson/econ315/whaples2123771.pdf">"Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Economic_History" title="The Journal of Economic History">The Journal of Economic History</a></i>. <b>55</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>: 140, 144. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.482.4975">10.1.1.482.4975</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050700040602">10.1017/S0022050700040602</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2123771">2123771</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145691938">145691938</a>. <q>...[the] vast majority [of economic historians and economists] accept the view that indentured servitude was an economic arrangement designed to iron out imperfections in the capital market.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Where+Is+There+Consensus+Among+American+Economic+Historians%3F+The+Results+of+a+Survey+on+Forty+Propositions&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=140%2C+144&rft.date=1995-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.482.4975%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145691938%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2123771%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050700040602&rft.aulast=Whaples&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.employees.csbsju.edu%2Fjolson%2Fecon315%2Fwhaples2123771.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Galenson_1984:_1-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_1_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_1_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Galenson 1984: 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hofstadter1750-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hofstadter1750_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hofstadter1750_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Hofstadter1971" class="citation book cs1">Richard Hofstadter (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zO4ulIkeKX8C&pg=PA36"><i>America at 1750: A Social Portrait</i></a>. Knopf Doubleday. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307809650" title="Special:BookSources/9780307809650"><bdi>9780307809650</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America+at+1750%3A+A+Social+Portrait&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=9780307809650&rft.au=Richard+Hofstadter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzO4ulIkeKX8C%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nativeamindentures-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nativeamindentures_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nativeamindentures_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Perhaps the largest source of information about these indentures are dozens of debt proceedings against Native Americans in David T. Konig, ed. <i>Plymouth Court Records</i>, 1686–1859, (Wilmington, Del.: Pilgrim Society, 1979–1981); Also important are the contracts reprinted int John Strong, "Sharecropping the Sea: Shinnecock Whalers in the Seventeenth Century," in <i>The Shinnecock Indians: A Culture History</i>, edited by Gaynell Stone [Readings in Long Island Archaeology and Ethnohistory, Volume VI] (Lexington, Mass.: Ginn Custom Publishing, 1983), 231–63, and in Philip Rabito-Wyppensenwah, "Discovering the Montauketts in Rediscovered Documents," and "Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Native American Whaling on Eastern Long Island," in <i>The History and Archaeology of the Montauk</i>, edited by Gaynell Stone [Readings in Long Island Archaeology and Ethnohistory, volume III] 2nd edition, (Stony Brook, NY: Suffolk County Archaeological Association, 1993), 423–29, 437–44; Other archives containing Native American indenture contracts include contract of Elisha Osborne. Indenture contract, 23 June 1755. Archives, Mashantucket Museum and Research Center, Mashantucket, CT, MSS 191; also, The collection of the Fairfield Historical Society, Connecticut Colonial Records, Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, Volume 1 [Source: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.cslib.org/earlygr.html">http://www.cslib.org/earlygr.html</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>], and the library of the Falmouth Historical Society in Falmouth, Mass. has some as well, as does the Historical Society of Old Yarmouth, in Yarmouth, Mass.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Galenson_1984_1–26-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Galenson_1984_1–26_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Galenson_1984_1–26_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalenson1984" class="citation journal cs1">Galenson, David (1984). "The Rise and Fall of Indentured Servitude in the Americas: An Economic Analysis". <i>Journal of Economic History</i>. 1. <b>44</b>: 1–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs002205070003134x">10.1017/s002205070003134x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154682898">154682898</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Indentured+Servitude+in+the+Americas%3A+An+Economic+Analysis&rft.volume=44&rft.pages=1-26&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs002205070003134x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154682898%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Galenson&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-burnard-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-burnard_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-burnard_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/3788343?uid=3738776&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21101834820177">A failed settler society: marriage and demographic failure in early Jamaica</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Social_History" title="Journal of Social History">Journal of Social History</a></i>, Vol. 28, No. 1, Autumn, 1994, by Trevor Burnard</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lai-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lai_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lai_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walton Lai, <i>Indentured labour, Caribbean sugar: Chinese and Indian migrants to the British West Indies, 1838–1918</i> (1993)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Galenson_1984:_26-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_26_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_26_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_26_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Galenson 1984: 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.british-history.ac.uk/statutes-realm/vol5/pp935-938#h3-0012">Charles II, 1679: An Act for the better securing the Liberty of the Subject and for Prevention of Imprisonments beyond the Seas.</a>, Statutes of the Realm: Volume 5, 1628–1680, pp. 935–38. Great Britain Record Commission, (1819)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Donoghue, "Indentured Servitude in the 17th Century English Atlantic: A Brief Survey of the Literature," <i>History Compass</i> (2013) 11#10 pp. 893–902.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher Tomlins, "Reconsidering Indentured Servitude: European Migration and the Early American Labor Force, 1600–1775," <i>Labor History</i> (2001) 42#1 pp. 5–43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tomlins_2001_at_notes_31,_42,_66-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tomlins_2001_at_notes_31,_42,_66_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tomlins (2001) at notes 31, 42, 66</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gary Nash (1979). <i>The Urban Crucible: The Northern Seaports and the Origins of the American Revolution</i>. p. 15<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fred Shannon, <i>Economic History of the People of the United States</i> (1934) pp. 73–79</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-White_Servitude-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-White_Servitude_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-White_Servitude_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.montgomerycollege.edu/Departments/hpolscrv/whiteser.html">White Servitude</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141009091039/http://www.montgomerycollege.edu/Departments/hpolscrv/whiteser.html">Archived</a> 2014-10-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by Richard Hofstadter</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Moraley and Susan E. Klepp, <i>The infortunate: the voyage and adventures of William Moraley an indentured servant</i>, p. xx.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Curtis Ballagh, <i>White Servitude In The Colony Of Virginia: A Study Of The System Of Indentured Labor In The American Colonies</i> (1895)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank R. Diffenderffer (1979). <i>The German Immigration into Pennsylvania Through the Port of Philadelphia, 1700–1775</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moraley2005-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moraley2005_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoraleyKlepp,_Susan_E.Smith,_Billy_Gordon2005" class="citation book cs1">Moraley, William; Klepp, Susan E.; Smith, Billy Gordon (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FPk4MtlX9oUC"><i>The infortunate: the voyage and adventures of William Moraley, an indentured servant</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_State_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania State University Press">Pennsylvania State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-02676-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-02676-6"><bdi>0-271-02676-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+infortunate%3A+the+voyage+and+adventures+of+William+Moraley%2C+an+indentured+servant&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-271-02676-6&rft.aulast=Moraley&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Klepp%2C+Susan+E.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Billy+Gordon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFPk4MtlX9oUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Fort Scott Tribune</i>, (newspaper) <a href="/wiki/Fort_Scott,_Kansas" title="Fort Scott, Kansas">Fort Scott, Kansas</a>, November 3, 1986, p. 4B</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090620035713/http://www.immigrantservants.com/">"Price & Associates: Immigrant Servants Database"</a>. Immigrantservants.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.immigrantservants.com/">the original</a> on 2009-06-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-07-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Price+%26+Associates%3A+Immigrant+Servants+Database&rft.pub=Immigrantservants.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.immigrantservants.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ruth Wallis Herndon and John E. Murray, eds., <i>Children Bound to Labor: The Pauper Apprentice System in Early America</i> (2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fulltextarchive.com/page/George-Washington-Farmer2#p161">George Washington: Farmer</a>", by Paul Leland Haworth.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/3664862/The-forgotten-history-of-Britains-white-slaves.html">The forgotten history of Britain's white slaves</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a></i>. May 3, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Galenson_1984:_4-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_4_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Galenson_1984:_4_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Galenson 1984: 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galenson 1984: 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galenson 1984: 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">National Museum of Natural History. Smithsonian Institution. (February 7, 2009 – January 6, 2014). "Exhibition: Written in Bone: Forensic Files of the Seventeenth Century Chesapeake." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://naturalhistory2.si.edu/anthropology/WIB/">Smithsonian website</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181127143322/https://naturalhistory2.si.edu/anthropology/WIB/">Archived</a> 2018-11-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved 14 November 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lost Towns Project, Inc. "Leavy Neck (18AN828)." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.losttownsproject.org/research-the-past/past-research-projects/providence-1649/leavy-neck/">Lost Towns Project website</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181114182225/http://www.losttownsproject.org/research-the-past/past-research-projects/providence-1649/leavy-neck/">Archived</a> 2018-11-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved 14 November 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-inflation-UK-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-inflation-UK_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">UK <a href="/wiki/Retail_Price_Index" title="Retail Price Index">Retail Price Index</a> inflation figures are based on data from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2017" class="citation web cs1">Clark, Gregory (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://measuringworth.com/datasets/ukearncpi/">"The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/MeasuringWorth" title="MeasuringWorth">MeasuringWorth</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MeasuringWorth&rft.atitle=The+Annual+RPI+and+Average+Earnings+for+Britain%2C+1209+to+Present+%28New+Series%29&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmeasuringworth.com%2Fdatasets%2Fukearncpi%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shannon, <i>Economic History of the People of the United States</i> (1934) pp. 75–76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKerby_A._Miller_et_al,,_eds.2003" class="citation book cs1">Kerby A. Miller et al,, eds. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bq79_YZ8ViIC&pg=PA75"><i>Irish Immigrants in the Land of Canaan: Letters and Memoirs from Colonial and Revolutionary America, 1675–1815</i></a>. Oxford UP. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195348224" title="Special:BookSources/9780195348224"><bdi>9780195348224</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Irish+Immigrants+in+the+Land+of+Canaan%3A+Letters+and+Memoirs+from+Colonial+and+Revolutionary+America%2C+1675%E2%80%931815&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=Oxford+UP&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780195348224&rft.au=Kerby+A.+Miller+et+al%2C%2C+eds.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbq79_YZ8ViIC%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Galenson_March_1981:_40-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Galenson_March_1981:_40_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Galenson_March_1981:_40_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Galenson March 1981: 40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galenson March 1981: 39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hofstadter-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hofstadter_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hofstadter_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hofstadter_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mc.cc.md.us/Departments/hpolscrv/whiteser.html">White Servitude</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930043503/http://www.mc.cc.md.us/departments/hpolscrv/whiteser.html">Archived</a> 2007-09-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by Richard Hofstadter</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grubb 1985: 868</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galenson June 1981: 462</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grubb July 1985: 328</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grubb July 1985: 334</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank R. Diffenderffer, <i>The German Immigration into Pennsylvania Through the Port of Philadelphia, 1700–1775</i>, Genealogical Pub. Co., Baltimore, 1979.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Pennsylvania Gazette</i> (weekly Philadelphia newspaper), August 17, 1774</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Record of Indentures, Philadelphia, 1771–1773</i>, Genealogical Publishing Co., Baltimore, 1973.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Foner: Give me liberty. W.W. Norton & Company, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-97873-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-97873-5">978-0-393-97873-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">U.S. Constitution, Article 1, Section 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VJT-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VJT_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.virtualjamestown.org/servlaws.html">"Laws on Indentured Servants"</a>. VirtualJamestown.org. 1619–1654<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-08-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Laws+on+Indentured+Servants&rft.pub=VirtualJamestown.org&rft.date=1619%2F1654&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.virtualjamestown.org%2Fservlaws.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jackson, Pauline (1984). "Women in 19th Century Irish Emigration"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The literature on New England Native American indenture, while relatively new is actually vast and growing. John A. Sainsbury, "Indian Labor in Early Rhode Island," <i>New England Quarterly</i>, 48, no. 3 (September 1975), 379–80; David J. Silverman, "The Impact of Indentured Servitude on the Society and Culture of Southern New England Native Americans, 1680–1810," <i>New England Quarterly</i> 74, no. 4 (Dec. 2001): 622–66; Silverman, Faith <i>and Boundaries: Colonists, Christianity, and Community among the Wampanoag Indians of Martha’s Vineyard, 1600–1871</i> (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Daniel Mandell, <i>Behind the Frontier: Indians in Eighteenth-Century Eastern Massachusetts</i> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996); Jean M. O’Brien, <i>Dispossession by Degrees: Indian Land and Identity in Natick, Massachusetts, 1650–1790</i> (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Jim Coogan, "Slavery and Indentured Servitude on Cape Cod," <i>Cape Cod Times</i>, May 19, 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sainsbury, "Indian Labor in Early Rhode Island"; Brian D. Carroll, "From Warrior to Soldiers: New England Indians in the Colonial Military," Ph.D. dissertation (University of Connecticut, 2009); Carroll, "Savages in the Service of Empire: Native American Soldiers in Gorham's Rangers, 1744–1762," <i>New England Quarterly</i> 85, no. 3 (2012): 383–429.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel Vickers, "The First Whalemen of Nantucket," <i>William and Mary Quarterly</i>, 3rd ser. 40 (1983): 560–83, and "Nantucket Whalemen in the Deep-Sea Fishery: The Changing Anatomy of an Early American Labor Force," <i>Journal of American History</i> 72 (1985): 277–96; Elizabeth A. Little, "Indian Contributions to Shore Whaling," <i>Nantucket Algonquian Studies</i> 8 (1973): 38; Mark A. Nicholas, "Mashpee Wampanoags of Cape Cod, the Whalefishery, and Seafaring’s Impact on Community Development," <i>American Indian Quarterly</i> 26 (2002): 162–95; Russell Lawrence Basch, "'Colored' Seamen in the New England Whaling Industry: An Afro-Indian Consortium," in <i>Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America</i>, ed. James F. Brooks (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002); John Braginton-Smith and Duncan Oliver, <i>Cape Cod Shore Whaling: America’s First Whalemen</i> (Yarmouth, Mass.: Historical Society of Old Yarmouth, 2004).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lovell Family Collection. Archives, Falmouth Historical Society, Falmouth, MA.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grubb Spring 1994: 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galenson 1984: 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grubb Dec. 1994: 815</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galenson 1984: 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galenson March 1981: 47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grubb Spring 1994: 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Steinfeld-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Steinfeld_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steinfeld_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steinfeld_61-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinfeld2001" class="citation book cs1">Steinfeld, Robert J. (2001). <i>Coercion, contract, and free labor in the nineteenth century</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521774004" title="Special:BookSources/0521774004"><bdi>0521774004</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coercion%2C+contract%2C+and+free+labor+in+the+nineteenth+century&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0521774004&rft.aulast=Steinfeld&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenard1973" class="citation journal cs1">Menard, Russel (1973). "From Servant to Freeholder: Status Mobility and Property Accumulation in Seventeenth-Century Maryland". <i>William and Mary Quarterly</i>. 1. <b>30</b> (1): 37–64 [50]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1923702">10.2307/1923702</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1923702">1923702</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.atitle=From+Servant+to+Freeholder%3A+Status+Mobility+and+Property+Accumulation+in+Seventeenth-Century+Maryland&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=37-64+50&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1923702&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1923702%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Menard&rft.aufirst=Russel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalenson1984" class="citation journal cs1">Galenson, David (1984). "The Rise and Fall of Indentured Servitude in the Americas: An Economic Analysis". <i>Journal of Economic History</i>. 1. <b>44</b>: 1–26 [10]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs002205070003134x">10.1017/s002205070003134x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154682898">154682898</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Indentured+Servitude+in+the+Americas%3A+An+Economic+Analysis&rft.volume=44&rft.pages=1-26+10&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs002205070003134x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154682898%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Galenson&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalenson1984" class="citation journal cs1">Galenson, David (1984). "The Rise and Fall of Indentured Servitude in the Americas: An Economic Analysis". <i>Journal of Economic History</i>. 1. <b>44</b>: 8–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs002205070003134x">10.1017/s002205070003134x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154682898">154682898</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Indentured+Servitude+in+the+Americas%3A+An+Economic+Analysis&rft.volume=44&rft.pages=8-9&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs002205070003134x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154682898%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Galenson&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbbott_Emerson1947" class="citation book cs1">Abbott Emerson, Smith (1947). <i>Colonists in Bondage: White Servitude and Convict Labor in America, 1607–1776</i>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonists+in+Bondage%3A+White+Servitude+and+Convict+Labor+in+America%2C+1607%E2%80%931776&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1947&rft.aulast=Abbott+Emerson&rft.aufirst=Smith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalenson1984" class="citation journal cs1">Galenson, David (1984). 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(June 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authors.library.caltech.edu/83352/1/sswp316%20-%20published.pdf">"The Market Evaluation of Human Capital: The Case of Indentured Servitude"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Political Economy</i>. <b>89</b> (3): 446–67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F260980">10.1086/260980</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44248111">44248111</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=The+Market+Evaluation+of+Human+Capital%3A+The+Case+of+Indentured+Servitude&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=446-67&rft.date=1981-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F260980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A44248111%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Galenson&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fauthors.library.caltech.edu%2F83352%2F1%2Fsswp316%2520-%2520published.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalenson1984" class="citation journal cs1">Galenson, David (March 1984). 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"The Incidence of Servitude in Trans-Atlantic Migration, 1771–1804". <i>Explorations in Economic History</i>. <b>22</b> (3): 316–39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0014-4983%2885%2990016-6">10.1016/0014-4983(85)90016-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Explorations+in+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+Incidence+of+Servitude+in+Trans-Atlantic+Migration%2C+1771%E2%80%931804&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=316-39&rft.date=1985-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0014-4983%2885%2990016-6&rft.aulast=Grubb&rft.aufirst=Farley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrubb1985" class="citation journal cs1">Grubb, Farley (Dec 1985). "The Market for Indentured Immigrants: Evidence on the Efficiency of Forward-Labor Contracting in Philadelphia, 1745–1773". <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>45</b> (4): 855–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0022050700035130">10.1017/s0022050700035130</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36848963">36848963</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+Market+for+Indentured+Immigrants%3A+Evidence+on+the+Efficiency+of+Forward-Labor+Contracting+in+Philadelphia%2C+1745%E2%80%931773&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=855-68&rft.date=1985-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0022050700035130&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36848963%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Grubb&rft.aufirst=Farley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrubb1994" class="citation journal cs1">Grubb, Farley (Spring 1994). "The Disappearance of Organised Markets for European Immigrant Servants in the United States: Five Popular Explanations Reexamined". <i>Social Science History</i>. <b>18</b> (1): 1–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1171397">10.2307/1171397</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1171397">1171397</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+History&rft.atitle=The+Disappearance+of+Organised+Markets+for+European+Immigrant+Servants+in+the+United+States%3A+Five+Popular+Explanations+Reexamined&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-30&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1171397&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1171397%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Grubb&rft.aufirst=Farley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrubb1994" class="citation journal cs1">Grubb, Farley (Dec 1994). "The End of European Immigrant Servitude in the United States: An Economic Analysis of Market Collapse, 1772–1835". <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>54</b> (4): 794–824. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0022050700015497">10.1017/s0022050700015497</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153945665">153945665</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+End+of+European+Immigrant+Servitude+in+the+United+States%3A+An+Economic+Analysis+of+Market+Collapse%2C+1772%E2%80%931835&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=794-824&rft.date=1994-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0022050700015497&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153945665%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Grubb&rft.aufirst=Farley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndentured+servitude+in+British+America" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Tomlins, Christopher (2001). "Reconsidering Indentured Servitude: European Migration and the Early American Labor Force, 1600–1775," <i>Labor History</i> 42#1 pp. 5–43. (new statistical estimates)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Abramitzky, Ran; Braggion, Fabio. "Migration and Human Capital: Self-Selection of Indentured Servants to the Americas," <i>Journal of Economic History,</i> (2006) 66#4 pp. 882–905, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4501107">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Ballagh, James Curtis. <i>White Servitude In The Colony Of Virginia: A Study Of The System Of Indentured Labor In The American Colonies</i> (1895) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wmhj5_BEKkwC">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Brown, Kathleen. <i>Goodwives, Nasty Wenches & Anxious Patriachs: gender, race and power in Colonial Virginia</i>, U. of North Carolina Press, 1996.</li> <li>Hofstadter, Richard. <i>America at 1750: A Social Portrait</i> (Knopf, 1971) pp. 33–65 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930043503/http://www.mc.cc.md.us/departments/hpolscrv/whiteser.html">online</a></li> <li>Jernegan, Marcus Wilson <i>Laboring and Dependent Classes in Colonial America, 1607–1783</i> (1931)</li> <li>Jordan, Don & Walsh, Michael. <i>White Cargo: The Forgotten History of Britain's White Slaves in America</i>. New York University Press (2008).</li> <li>Morgan, Edmund S. <i>American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia.</i> (Norton, 1975).</li> <li>Salinger, Sharon V. <i>To serve well and faithfully: Labor and Indentured Servants in Pennsylvania</i>, 1682–1800.<i> (2000)</i></li> <li>Tomlins, Christopher. <i>Freedom Bound: Law, Labor, and Civic Identity in English Colonisation, 1580–1865</i> (2010); influential recent interpretation <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=32263">online review</a></li> <li>Torabully, Khal and Marina Carter (2002). <i>Coolitude: An Anthology of the Indian Labour Diaspora</i> London: Anthem Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84331-003-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-84331-003-1">1-84331-003-1</a></li> <li>Whitehead, John Frederick, Johann Carl Buttner, Susan E. Klepp, and Farley Grubb. <i>Souls for Sale: Two German Redemptioners Come to Revolutionary America</i>, Max Kade German-American Research Institute Series, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-02882-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-02882-3">0-271-02882-3</a>.</li> <li>Zipf, Karin L. (2005). <i>Labor of Innocents: Forced Apprenticeship in North Carolina, 1715–1919</i></li></ul> <dl><dt>Historiography</dt></dl> <ul><li>Donoghue, John. "Indentured Servitude in the 17th Century English Atlantic: A Brief Survey of the Literature," <i>History Compass</i> (Oct. 2013) 11#10 pp. 893–902, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fhic3.12088">10.1111/hic3.12088</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indentured_servitude_in_British_America&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070226121513/http://www.rbcradio.com/guiana1838.html">Guiana 1838 – a film about indentured laborers</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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American history">Rural American history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American history of agriculture in the United States">African-American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_land_loss_in_the_United_States" title="Black land loss in the United States">Black land loss</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Hawaiian_aquaculture" title="Ancient Hawaiian aquaculture">Ancient Hawaiian aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cattle_drives_in_the_United_States" title="Cattle drives in the United States">Cattle drives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Agricultural_Complex" title="Eastern Agricultural Complex">Eastern Agricultural Complex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three_Sisters_(agriculture)" title="Three Sisters (agriculture)">Three Sisters</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_food_regulation_in_the_United_States" title="Early history of food regulation in the United States">Early history of food regulation in the United States</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indentured servitude in British America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_Virginia" title="Indentured servitude in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_Pennsylvania" title="Indentured servitude in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_crops" title="New World crops">New World crops</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_plants_native_to_the_Americas" title="List of food plants native to the Americas">List of food plants native to the Americas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_agriculture_in_Virginia" title="Native American agriculture in Virginia">Native American in Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_agriculture_on_the_Great_Plains" title="Prehistoric agriculture on the Great Plains">Prehistoric agriculture on the Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_agriculture_in_the_Southwestern_United_States" title="Prehistoric agriculture in the Southwestern United States">Prehistoric agriculture in the Southwestern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_wine" title="History of American wine">Wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Range_war" title="Range war">Range war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sheep_wars" title="Sheep wars">Sheep wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Colonial</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IHC_corn_picker,_Story_County,_Iowa,_2011.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg/100px-IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg/150px-IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg/200px-IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1363" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Industries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banana_production_in_the_United_States" title="Banana production in the United States">Banana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beekeeping_in_the_United_States" title="Beekeeping in the United States">Bee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackcurrant_production_in_the_United_States" title="Blackcurrant production in the United States">Blackcurrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_the_United_States" title="Cannabis in the United States">Cannabis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hemp_in_the_United_States" title="Hemp in the United States">Hemp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_production_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherry production in the United States">Cherry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_tree_production_in_the_United_States" title="Christmas tree production in the United States">Christmas tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corn_production_in_the_United_States" title="Corn production in the United States">Corn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_production_in_the_United_States" title="Cotton production in the United States">Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cider_in_the_United_States" title="Cider in the United States">Cider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dairy_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Dairy industry in the United States">Dairy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hop_production_in_the_United_States" title="Hop production in the United States">Hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poultry_farming_in_the_United_States" title="Poultry farming in the United States">Poultry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice_production_in_the_United_States" title="Rice production in the United States">Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinach_in_the_United_States" title="Spinach in the United States">Spinach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_industry_of_the_United_States" title="Sugar industry of the United States">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_production_in_the_United_States" title="Tea production in the United States">Tea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="Tobacco in the United States">Tobacco</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_shade_tobacco" title="Connecticut shade tobacco">Connecticut shade tobacco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheat_production_in_the_United_States" title="Wheat production in the United States">Wheat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_wine" title="American wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State, commonwealth,<br /> or territory-specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Alabama" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Alabama">Alabama</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_wine" title="Alabama wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Alaska" title="Agriculture in Alaska">Alaska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_in_Alaska" title="Aquaculture in Alaska">aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Alaska" title="Cannabis in Alaska">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_wine" title="Alaska wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Arizona <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arizona_wine" title="Arizona wine">wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Arizona" title="Cannabis in Arizona">cannabis</a></li></ul></li> <li>Arkansas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rice_cultivation_in_Arkansas" title="Rice cultivation in Arkansas">rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_wine" title="Arkansas wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_California" title="Agriculture in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almonds_in_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Almonds in California">almonds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_California" title="Cannabis in California">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walnuts_in_California" title="Walnuts in California">walnuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_wine" title="California wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Colorado" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Colorado">Colorado</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_wine" title="Colorado wine">wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Colorado" title="Cannabis in Colorado">cannabis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Connecticut" title="Agriculture in Connecticut">Connecticut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Connecticut" title="Cannabis in Connecticut">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_wine" title="Connecticut wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Delaware <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Delaware" title="Cannabis in Delaware">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delaware_wine" title="Delaware wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Florida" title="Agriculture in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Florida_wine" title="Florida wine">wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomato_production_in_Florida" title="Tomato production in Florida">tomato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mango_production_in_Florida" title="Mango production in Florida">mango</a></li></ul></li> <li>Georgia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)_wine" title="Georgia (U.S. state) wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Hawaii" title="Agriculture in Hawaii">Hawaii</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Hawaii" title="Coffee production in Hawaii">coffee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_plantations_in_Hawaii" title="Sugar plantations in Hawaii">sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaii_wine" title="Hawaii wine">wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_in_Hawaii" title="Genetically modified food in Hawaii">genetically modified food</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Idaho" title="Agriculture in Idaho">Idaho</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_wine" title="Idaho wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Illinois <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Illinois" title="Cannabis in Illinois">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_wine" title="Illinois wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Indiana">Indiana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_wine" title="Indiana wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iowa_wine" title="Iowa wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Kansas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_wine" title="Kansas wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Kentucky" title="Agriculture in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_wine" title="Kentucky wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Louisiana <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_wine" title="Louisiana wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maine <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_in_Maine" title="Aquaculture in Maine">aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Maine" title="Cannabis in Maine">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maine_wine" title="Maine wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Maryland" title="Agriculture in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Maryland" title="Cannabis in Maryland">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_wine" title="Maryland wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Massachusetts" title="Cannabis in Massachusetts">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_wine" title="Massachusetts wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Michigan" title="Cannabis in Michigan">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_production_in_Michigan" title="Cherry production in Michigan">cherries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_wine" title="Michigan wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Minnesota <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minnesota_wine" title="Minnesota wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mississippi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_wine" title="Mississippi wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Missouri <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Missouri" title="Cannabis in Missouri">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_wine" title="Missouri wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Montana <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Montana" title="Cannabis in Montana">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montana_wine" title="Montana wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Nebraska <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_wine" title="Nebraska wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Nevada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Nevada" title="Cannabis in Nevada">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_wine" title="Nevada wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>New Hampshire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_wine" title="New Hampshire wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>New Jersey <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_New_Jersey" title="Cannabis in New Jersey">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_wine" title="New Jersey wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_New_York" title="Agriculture in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_New_York" title="Cannabis in New York">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_wine" title="New York wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>New Mexico <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_New_Mexico" title="Cannabis in New Mexico">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_chile" title="New Mexico chile">chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_wine" title="New Mexico wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_North_Carolina" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in North Carolina">North Carolina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_wine" title="North Carolina wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>North Dakota <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Dakota_wine" title="North Dakota wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Ohio <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_wine" title="Ohio wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Oklahoma <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_wine" title="Oklahoma wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Oregon <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_wine" title="Oregon wine">wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Oregon" title="Cannabis in Oregon">cannabis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Pennsylvania" title="Agriculture in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_wine" title="Pennsylvania wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Agriculture in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Cannabis in Puerto Rico">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Coffee production in Puerto Rico">coffee</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rhode Island <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Rhode_Island" title="Cannabis in Rhode Island">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_wine" title="Rhode Island wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>South Carolina <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_wine" title="South Carolina wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>South Dakota <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota_wine" title="South Dakota wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tennessee <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_wine" title="Tennessee wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Utah <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Utah_wine" title="Utah wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vermont <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Vermont" title="Cannabis in Vermont">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermont_wine" title="Vermont wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Virginia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Virginia" title="Cannabis in Virginia">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_wine" title="Virginia wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Virgin Islands <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="Cannabis in the United States Virgin Islands">cannabis</a></li></ul></li> <li>Washington <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Washington_apples" title="Washington apples">apples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Washington_(state)" title="Cannabis in Washington (state)">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_wine" title="Washington wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>West Virginia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_wine" title="West Virginia wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Wisconsin" title="Agriculture in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_dairy_industry" title="Wisconsin dairy industry">dairy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_wine" title="Wisconsin wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Wyoming <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wyoming_wine" title="Wyoming wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Guam <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Guam" title="Cannabis in Guam">cannabis</a></li></ul></li> <li>Northern Mariana Islands <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Cannabis in the Northern Mariana Islands">cannabis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Texas" title="Agriculture in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Texas_rice_production" title="Texas rice production">rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_wine" title="Texas wine">wine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Southwestern_United_States" title="Agriculture in the Southwestern United States">Southwestern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Dirt_Region" title="Black Dirt Region">Black Dirt Region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corn_Belt" title="Corn Belt">Corn Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Belt" title="Cotton Belt">Cotton Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_Belt" title="Fruit Belt">Fruit Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice_Belt" title="Rice Belt">Rice Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest_oyster_industry" title="Pacific Northwest oyster industry">Pacific Northwest oyster industry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government <br />organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">United States Department of Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Agricultural_Statistics_Service" title="National Agricultural Statistics Service">National Agricultural Statistics Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Census_of_Agriculture" title="United States Census of Agriculture">United States Census of Agriculture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Law and<br />politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Agricultural policy of the United States">Agricultural policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Trade_Development_and_Assistance_Act_of_1954" title="Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954">Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_Risk_Protection_Act_of_2000" title="Agriculture Risk Protection Act of 2000">Agriculture Risk Protection Act of 2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Agricultural_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1975" title="California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975">California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capper%E2%80%93Volstead_Act" title="Capper–Volstead Act">Capper–Volstead Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Act_for_Responsible_Employment" title="Children's Act for Responsible Employment">Children's Act for Responsible Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_farm_bill" title="United States farm bill">Farm bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_Security_Act_of_1985" title="Food Security Act of 1985">Food Security Act of 1985</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food,_Agriculture,_Conservation,_and_Trade_Act_of_1990" title="Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990">Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Agriculture_Improvement_and_Reform_Act_of_1996" title="Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996">Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grain_Futures_Act" title="Grain Futures Act">Grain Futures Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packers_and_Stockyards_Act" title="Packers and Stockyards Act">Packers and Stockyards Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Food_and_Drug_Act" title="Pure Food and Drug Act">Pure Food and Drug Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Grazing_Act_of_1934" title="Taylor Grazing Act of 1934">Taylor Grazing Act of 1934</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health and<br /> environment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health_in_United_States_agricultural_workers" title="Mental health in United States agricultural workers">Agricultural workers mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmers%27_suicides_in_the_United_States" title="Farmers' suicides in the United States">Farmer suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_in_the_United_States" title="Genetically modified food in the United States">Genetically modified food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ogallala_Aquifer" title="Ogallala Aquifer">Ogallala Aquifer</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Crime</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adulterated_food_in_the_United_States" title="Adulterated food in the United States">Adulterated food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_nut_crimes" title="California nut crimes">California nut crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cattle_raiding" title="Cattle raiding">Cattle raiding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Farmworkers_in_the_United_States" title="Farmworkers in the United States">Labor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bracero_Program" title="Bracero Program">Bracero Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convict_leasing" title="Convict leasing">Convict leasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm_Labor_Organizing_Committee" title="Farm Labor Organizing Committee">Farm Labor Organizing Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H-2A_visa" title="H-2A visa">H-2A visa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blooming_Onion" title="Operation Blooming Onion">Operation Blooming Onion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Farm_Workers" title="United Farm Workers">United Farm Workers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Food_and_Commercial_Workers" title="United Food and Commercial Workers">United Food and Commercial Workers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woman%27s_Land_Army_of_America" title="Woman's Land Army of America">Woman's Land Army of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corn_maze" title="Corn maze">Corn maze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranch" title="Ranch">Ranch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cowboy" title="Cowboy">Cowboy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dude_ranch" class="mw-redirect" title="Dude ranch">Dude ranch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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