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<span>Imitations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imitations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Scholars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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class="mw-page-title-main">Engraved gem</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 19 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-19" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">19 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D9%85%D9%86%D9%82%D9%88%D8%B4%D8%A9" title="جوهرة منقوشة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جوهرة منقوشة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Гема – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гема" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Гема – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Гема" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gema" title="Gema – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Gema" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemme" title="Gemme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gemme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemme" title="Gemme – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gemme" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joya_grabada" title="Joya grabada – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Joya grabada" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D5%B4%D5%B4%D5%A1" title="Գեմմա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գեմմա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rezbareni_dragulj" title="Rezbareni dragulj – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rezbareni dragulj" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukiran_permata" title="Ukiran permata – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ukiran permata" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Гемма – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Гемма" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemma" title="Gemma – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gemma" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemma_(kamie%C5%84)" title="Gemma (kamień) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Gemma (kamień)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gema_esculpida" title="Gema esculpida – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Gema esculpida" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Гемма – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гемма" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gema" title="Gema – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Gema" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rezbareni_dragulj" title="Rezbareni dragulj – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rezbareni dragulj" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gem_(%C3%A4delsten)" title="Gem (ädelsten) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Gem (ädelsten)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Гема – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гема" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Small carved gemstones</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Intaglio_Caracalla_Cdm_Paris_Chab2101.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Intaglio_Caracalla_Cdm_Paris_Chab2101.jpg/300px-Intaglio_Caracalla_Cdm_Paris_Chab2101.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="400" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Intaglio_Caracalla_Cdm_Paris_Chab2101.jpg/450px-Intaglio_Caracalla_Cdm_Paris_Chab2101.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Intaglio_Caracalla_Cdm_Paris_Chab2101.jpg/600px-Intaglio_Caracalla_Cdm_Paris_Chab2101.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1225" data-file-height="1633" /></a><figcaption>Roman intaglio portrait of <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> in <a href="/wiki/Amethyst" title="Amethyst">amethyst</a>, once in the Treasury of <a href="/wiki/Sainte-Chapelle" title="Sainte-Chapelle">Sainte-Chapelle</a>. At some point it was adapted by adding an inscription and cross to represent <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Saint Peter</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cameo_prince_Louvre_MR54_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Cameo_prince_Louvre_MR54_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Cameo_prince_Louvre_MR54_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="409" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Cameo_prince_Louvre_MR54_%28cropped%29.jpg/450px-Cameo_prince_Louvre_MR54_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Cameo_prince_Louvre_MR54_%28cropped%29.jpg/600px-Cameo_prince_Louvre_MR54_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="840" data-file-height="1144" /></a><figcaption>Relief <a href="/wiki/Cameo_(carving)" title="Cameo (carving)">cameo</a> of a Roman prince. Perhaps 14th century.</figcaption></figure> <p>An <b>engraved gem</b>, frequently referred to as an <b>intaglio</b>, is a small and usually <a href="/wiki/Semi-precious" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-precious">semi-precious</a> <a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstone</a> that has been carved, in the Western tradition normally with images or inscriptions only on one face.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Engraving" title="Engraving">engraving</a> of gemstones was a major luxury art form in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient world</a>, and an important one in some later periods.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Strictly speaking, <i>engraving</i> means carving <i>in intaglio</i> (with the design cut <i>into</i> the flat background of the stone), but <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> carvings (with the design projecting <i>out of</i> the background as in nearly all <a href="/wiki/Cameo_(carving)" title="Cameo (carving)">cameos</a>) are also covered by the term. This article uses <i>cameo</i> in its strict sense, to denote a carving exploiting layers of differently coloured stone. The activity is also called <i>gem carving</i> and the artists <i>gem-cutters</i>. References to antique gems and intaglios in a <a href="/wiki/Jewellery" title="Jewellery">jewellery</a> context will almost always mean carved gems; when referring to <a href="/wiki/Monumental_sculpture" title="Monumental sculpture">monumental sculpture</a>, the term <a href="/wiki/Counter-relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-relief">counter-relief</a>, meaning the same as <i>intaglio</i>, is more likely to be used. Vessels like the <a href="/wiki/Cup_of_the_Ptolemies" title="Cup of the Ptolemies">Cup of the Ptolemies</a> and heads or figures carved in the round are also known as <a href="/wiki/Hardstone_carving" title="Hardstone carving">hardstone carvings</a>. </p><p><b>Glyptics</b> or <i>glyptic art</i> covers the field of small carved stones, including <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_seal" title="Cylinder seal">cylinder seals</a> and inscriptions, especially in an archaeological context. Though they were keenly collected in antiquity, most carved gems originally functioned as <a href="/wiki/Seal_(insignia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal (insignia)">seals</a>, often mounted in a ring; intaglio designs register most clearly when viewed by the recipient of a letter as an impression in hardened wax. A finely carved seal was practical, as it made forgery more difficult – the distinctive personal <a href="/wiki/Signature" title="Signature">signature</a> did not really exist in antiquity. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technique">Technique</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Engraved_gem&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Technique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gems were mostly cut by using abrasive powder from harder stones in conjunction with a hand-drill, probably often set in a <a href="/wiki/Lathe" title="Lathe">lathe</a>. <a href="/wiki/Emery_(mineral)" class="mw-redirect" title="Emery (mineral)">Emery</a> has been mined for abrasive powder on <a href="/wiki/Naxos_island" class="mw-redirect" title="Naxos island">Naxos</a> since antiquity. Some early types of seal were cut by hand, rather than a drill, which does not allow fine detail. There is no evidence that magnifying lenses were used by gem cutters in antiquity. A medieval guide to gem-carving techniques survives from <a href="/wiki/Theophilus_Presbyter" title="Theophilus Presbyter">Theophilus Presbyter</a>. Byzantine cutters used a flat-edged wheel on a drill for intaglio work, while Carolingian ones used round-tipped drills; it is unclear where they learnt this technique from. In intaglio gems at least, the recessed cut surface is usually very well preserved, and microscopic examination is revealing of the technique used.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The colour of several gemstones can be enhanced by a number of artificial methods, using heat, sugar and dyes. Many of these can be shown to have been used since antiquity – since the 7th millennium BC in the case of heating.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Engraved_gem&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cylinder_seal_antelope_Louvre_AM1639.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Cylinder_seal_antelope_Louvre_AM1639.jpg/220px-Cylinder_seal_antelope_Louvre_AM1639.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Cylinder_seal_antelope_Louvre_AM1639.jpg/330px-Cylinder_seal_antelope_Louvre_AM1639.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Cylinder_seal_antelope_Louvre_AM1639.jpg/440px-Cylinder_seal_antelope_Louvre_AM1639.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1350" /></a><figcaption>Antelopes attacked by birds: <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_seal" title="Cylinder seal">cylinder seal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hematite" title="Hematite">hematite</a> and its impression. Late Bronze Age II (maybe 14th century BC), from <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan</a> period, following Near Eastern precedents.</figcaption></figure> <p>The technique has an ancient tradition in the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>, and is represented in all or most early cultures from the area, and the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilization">Indus Valley civilization</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_seal" title="Cylinder seal">cylinder seal</a>, whose design appears only when it is rolled over damp clay, from which the flat ring type developed, was the usual form in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a> and other cultures, and spread to the Aegean and <a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan world</a>, including parts of <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These were made in various types of stone, not all hardstone, and gold rings were a related development in <a href="/wiki/Minoan_seal" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoan seal">Minoan seals</a>, which are often very fine. The Greek tradition emerged in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Ancient Greek art</a> under Minoan influence on mainland <a href="/wiki/Helladic" class="mw-redirect" title="Helladic">Helladic</a> culture, and reached an apogee of subtlety and refinement in the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>. Pre-<a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egyptian</a> seals tend to have inscriptions in <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a> rather than images. The biblical <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Book of Exodus</a> describes the form of the <a href="/wiki/Hoshen" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoshen">hoshen</a>, a ceremonial breastplate worn by the high priest, bearing twelve gems engraved with the names of the <a href="/wiki/Twelve_tribes_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelve tribes of Israel">Twelve tribes of Israel</a>. </p><p>Round or oval Greek gems (along with similar objects in bone and ivory) are found from the 8th and 7th centuries BC, usually with animals in energetic geometric poses, often with a border marked by dots or a rim.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early examples are mostly in softer stones. Gems of the 6th century are more often oval,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a <a href="/wiki/Scarab_(artifact)" title="Scarab (artifact)">scarab</a> back (in the past this type was called a "scarabaeus"), and human or divine figures as well as animals; the scarab form was apparently adopted from <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The forms are sophisticated for the period, despite the usually small size of the gems.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 5th century gems became somewhat larger, but still only 2-3 centimetres tall. Despite this, very fine detail is shown, including the eyelashes on one male head, perhaps a portrait. Four gems signed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dexamenos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dexamenos (page does not exist)">Dexamenos</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chios" title="Chios">Chios</a> are the finest of the period, two showing <a href="/wiki/Heron" title="Heron">herons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scarab_satyr_BM_Gem_465.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Scarab_satyr_BM_Gem_465.jpg/220px-Scarab_satyr_BM_Gem_465.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Scarab_satyr_BM_Gem_465.jpg/330px-Scarab_satyr_BM_Gem_465.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Scarab_satyr_BM_Gem_465.jpg/440px-Scarab_satyr_BM_Gem_465.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1950" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption>Reclining <a href="/wiki/Satyr" title="Satyr">satyr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_art" title="Etruscan art">Etruscan</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550 BC</span>, 2.2 cm wide. Note the vase shown "sideways"; it is characteristic of early gems that not all elements in the design are read from the same direction of view.</figcaption></figure> <p>Relief carving became common in 5th century BC Greece, and gradually most of the spectacular carved gems in the Western tradition were in relief, although the <a href="/wiki/Sassanian" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanian">Sassanian</a> and other traditions remained faithful to the intaglio form. Generally a relief image is more impressive than an intaglio one; in the earlier form the recipient of a document saw this in the impressed sealing wax, while in the later reliefs it was the owner of the seal who kept it for himself, probably marking the emergence of gems meant to be collected or worn as jewellery <a href="/wiki/Pendant" title="Pendant">pendants</a> in necklaces and the like, rather than used as seals – later ones are sometimes rather large to use to seal letters. However inscriptions are usually still in reverse ("mirror-writing") so they only read correctly on impressions (or by viewing from behind with transparent stones). This aspect also partly explains the collecting of impressions in plaster or wax from gems, which may be easier to appreciate than the original. </p><p>The cameo, which is rare in intaglio form, seems to have reached Greece around the 3rd century; the <a href="/wiki/Farnese_Tazza" class="mw-redirect" title="Farnese Tazza">Farnese Tazza</a> is the only major surviving Hellenistic example (depending on the date assigned to the <a href="/wiki/Gonzaga_Cameo" title="Gonzaga Cameo">Gonzaga Cameo</a> – see below), but other <a href="/wiki/Glass_casting" title="Glass casting">glass-paste</a> imitations with portraits suggest that gem-type cameos were made in this period.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conquests of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> had opened up new trade routes to the Greek world and increased the range of gemstones available.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman gems generally continued <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> styles, and can be hard to date, until their quality sharply declines at the end of the 2nd century AD. Philosophers are sometimes shown; <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> refers to people having portraits of their favourite on their cups and rings.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans invented <a href="/wiki/Cameo_glass" title="Cameo glass">cameo glass</a>, best known from the <a href="/wiki/Portland_Vase" title="Portland Vase">Portland Vase</a>, as a cheaper material for cameos, and one that allowed consistent and predictable layers on even round objects. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aachen_Germany_Domschatz_Cross-of-Lothair-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Aachen_Germany_Domschatz_Cross-of-Lothair-01.jpg/220px-Aachen_Germany_Domschatz_Cross-of-Lothair-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Aachen_Germany_Domschatz_Cross-of-Lothair-01.jpg/330px-Aachen_Germany_Domschatz_Cross-of-Lothair-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Aachen_Germany_Domschatz_Cross-of-Lothair-01.jpg/440px-Aachen_Germany_Domschatz_Cross-of-Lothair-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1891" data-file-height="2834" /></a><figcaption>There are several antique and medieval engraved gems on the <a href="/wiki/Ottonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottonian">Ottonian</a> <a href="/wiki/Cross_of_Lothair" title="Cross of Lothair">Cross of Lothair</a> (10th century with a 14 century base). Many antique engraved gems survived in such contexts.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the European <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> antique engraved gems were one classical art form which was always highly valued, and a large but unknown number of ancient gems have (unlike most surviving classical works of art) never been buried and then excavated. Gems were used to decorate elaborate pieces of goldsmith work such as <a href="/wiki/Votive_crown" title="Votive crown">votive crowns</a>, book-covers and crosses, sometimes very inappropriately given their subject matter. <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Paris" title="Matthew Paris">Matthew Paris</a> illustrated a number of gems owned by <a href="/wiki/St_Albans_Abbey" class="mw-redirect" title="St Albans Abbey">St Albans Abbey</a>, including one large Late Roman imperial <a href="/wiki/Cameo_(carving)" title="Cameo (carving)">cameo</a> (now lost) called <i>Kaadmau</i> which was used to induce overdue childbirths – it was slowly lowered, with a prayer to St Alban, on its chain down the woman's cleavage, as it was believed that the infant would flee downwards to escape it,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a belief in accordance with the views of the "father of mineralogy", <a href="/wiki/Georgius_Agricola" title="Georgius Agricola">Georgius Agricola</a> (1494–1555) on <a href="/wiki/Jasper" title="Jasper">jasper</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some gems were engraved, mostly with religious scenes in intaglio, during the period both in <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> and Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the West production revived from the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_art" title="Carolingian art">Carolingian period</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Rock_crystal" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock crystal">rock crystal</a> was the commonest material. The <a href="/wiki/Lothair_Crystal" title="Lothair Crystal">Lothair Crystal</a> (or <i>Suzanna Crystal</i>, <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, 11.5 cm diameter), clearly not designed for use as a seal, is the best known of 20 surviving Carolingian large intaglio gems with complex figural scenes, although most were used for seals.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several crystals were designed, like the <i>Susanna Crystal</i>, to be viewed through the gem from the unengraved side, so their inscriptions were reversed like the seals. In wills and inventories, engraved gems were often given pride of place at the head of a list of treasures.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some gems in a remarkably effective evocation of classical style were made in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">Southern Italy</a> for the court of <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor</a> in the first half of the 13th century, several in the <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_des_M%C3%A9dailles" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabinet des Médailles">Cabinet des Médailles</a> in Paris. Meanwhile, the church led the development of large, often double-sided, metal seal matrices for wax seals that were left permanently attached to <a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">charters</a> and similar legal documents, dangling by a cord, though smaller ring seals that were broken when a letter was opened remained in use. It is not clear to what extent this also continued practices in the ancient world. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Renaissance_revival">Renaissance revival</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Engraved_gem&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Renaissance revival"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicolo_intaglio_warriors_CdM_Paris.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Nicolo_intaglio_warriors_CdM_Paris.jpg/170px-Nicolo_intaglio_warriors_CdM_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Nicolo_intaglio_warriors_CdM_Paris.jpg/255px-Nicolo_intaglio_warriors_CdM_Paris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Nicolo_intaglio_warriors_CdM_Paris.jpg/340px-Nicolo_intaglio_warriors_CdM_Paris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2050" data-file-height="2775" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior</a> supporting dying comrade. 1st century BC or AD.</figcaption></figure> <p>The late medieval French and Burgundian courts collected and commissioned gems, and began to use them for portraits. The British Museum has what is probably a seated portrait of <a href="/wiki/John,_Duke_of_Berry" title="John, Duke of Berry">John, Duke of Berry</a> in intaglio on a <a href="/wiki/Sapphire" title="Sapphire">sapphire</a>, and the Hermitage has a cameo head of <a href="/wiki/Charles_VII_of_France" title="Charles VII of France">Charles VII of France</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Interest had also revived in <a href="/wiki/Early_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Renaissance">Early Renaissance</a> Italy, where <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> soon became a particular centre of production. Along with the Roman statues and <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarcophagi">sarcophagi</a> being newly excavated, antique gems were prime sources for artists eager to regain a classical figurative vocabulary. Cast bronze copies of gems were made, which circulated around Italy, and later Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-draper_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-draper-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among very many examples of borrowings that can be traced confidently, the <i>Felix</i> or <i>Diomedes</i> gem owned by <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_de%27_Medici" title="Lorenzo de' Medici">Lorenzo de' Medici</a> (see below), with an unusual pose, was copied by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> and may well have provided the "starting point" for one of <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>'s <i>ignudi</i> on the <a href="/wiki/Sistine_Chapel_ceiling" title="Sistine Chapel ceiling">Sistine Chapel ceiling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another of Lorenzo's gems supplied, probably via a drawing by <a href="/wiki/Perugino" class="mw-redirect" title="Perugino">Perugino</a>, a pose used by <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 16th century carved and engraved gems were keenly collected across Europe for dedicated sections of a <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities" title="Cabinet of curiosities">cabinet of curiosities</a>, and their production revived, in classical styles; 16th-century gem-cutters working with the same types of <a href="/wiki/Sardonyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Sardonyx">sardonyx</a> and other hardstones and using virtually the same techniques, produced classicizing works of glyptic art, often intended as forgeries, in such quantity that they compromised the market for them, as <a href="/wiki/Gisela_Richter" title="Gisela Richter">Gisela Richter</a> observed in 1922.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even today, Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Boardman_(art_historian)" title="John Boardman (art historian)">John Boardman</a> admits that "We are sometimes at a loss to know whether what we are looking at belongs to the 1st or the 15th century AD, a sad confession for any art-historian."<sup id="cite_ref-Boardman_lecture_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boardman_lecture-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other Renaissance gems reveal their date by showing mythological scenes derived from literature that were not part of the visual repertoire in classical times, or borrowing compositions from Renaissance paintings, and using "compositions with rather more figures than any ancient engraver would have tolerated or attempted".<sup id="cite_ref-Boardman_lecture_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boardman_lecture-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among artists, the wealthy <a href="/wiki/Rubens" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubens">Rubens</a> was a notable collector.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parallel_traditions">Parallel traditions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Engraved_gem&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Parallel traditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Engraved gems occur in the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, especially when the <a href="/wiki/Hoshen" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoshen">hoshen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ephod" title="Ephod">ephod</a> worn by the <a href="/wiki/Kohen_Gadol" class="mw-redirect" title="Kohen Gadol">High Priest</a> are described; though these were inscribed with the names of the <a href="/wiki/Tribes_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribes of Israel">tribes of Israel</a> in letters, rather than any images. A few identifiably Jewish gems survive from the classical world, including Persia, mostly with the owner's name in Hebrew, but some with symbols such as the <a href="/wiki/Menorah_(Temple)" class="mw-redirect" title="Menorah (Temple)">menorah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many gems are inscribed in the Islamic world, typically with verses from the <a href="/wiki/Koran" class="mw-redirect" title="Koran">Koran</a>, and sometimes gems in the Western tradition just contain inscriptions. </p><p>Many Asian and Middle Eastern cultures have their own traditions, although for example the important Chinese tradition of carved gemstones and hardstones, especially <a href="/wiki/Chinese_jade" title="Chinese jade">jade carving</a>, is broader than the European one of concentration on a flattish faced stone that might fit into a ring. <a href="/wiki/Seal_engraving_(art)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal engraving (art)">Seal engraving</a> covers the inscription that is printed by stamping, which nearly always only contains script rather than images. <a href="/wiki/Seal_sculpture_(art)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal sculpture (art)">Other decoration</a> of the seal itself was not intended to be reproduced. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Iconography">Iconography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Engraved_gem&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Iconography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kunsthistorisches_Museum_Vienna_June_2006_031.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kunsthistorisches_Museum_Vienna_June_2006_031.jpg/220px-Kunsthistorisches_Museum_Vienna_June_2006_031.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kunsthistorisches_Museum_Vienna_June_2006_031.jpg/330px-Kunsthistorisches_Museum_Vienna_June_2006_031.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kunsthistorisches_Museum_Vienna_June_2006_031.jpg/440px-Kunsthistorisches_Museum_Vienna_June_2006_031.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1739" data-file-height="1619" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Gemma_Augustea" title="Gemma Augustea">Gemma Augustea</a> cameo, in two layered <a href="/wiki/Onyx" title="Onyx">onyx</a>; 19 × 23 cm.</figcaption></figure> <p>The iconography of gems is similar to that of coins, though more varied. Early gems mostly show animals. Gods, <a href="/wiki/Satyr" title="Satyr">satyrs</a>, and mythological scenes were common, and famous statues often represented – much modern knowledge of the poses of lost Greek cult statues such as <a href="/wiki/Athena_Promachos" title="Athena Promachos">Athena Promachos</a> comes from the study of gems, which often have clearer images than coins.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 6th(?) century BC Greek gem already shows <a href="/wiki/Ajax_the_Great" title="Ajax the Great">Ajax</a> committing suicide, with his name inscribed.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The story of <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a> was, as in other arts, the most common source of narrative subjects. A scene may be intended as the subject of an <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">early Archaic</a> gem, and certainly appears on 6th century examples from the later Archaic period.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Portraits of monarchs are found from the Hellenistic period onwards, although as they do not usually have identifying inscriptions, many fine ones cannot be identified with a subject. In the Roman Imperial period, portraits of the imperial family were often produced for the court circle, and many of these have survived, especially a number of spectacular cameos from the time of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>. As private objects, produced no doubt by artists trained in the tradition of Hellenistic monarchies, their iconography is less inhibited than the public state art of the period about showing divine attributes as well as sexual matters.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The identity and interpretation of figures in the <a href="/wiki/Gemma_Augustea" title="Gemma Augustea">Gemma Augustea</a> remains unclear. A number of gems from the same period contain scenes apparently from the lost epic on the <a href="/wiki/Iliou_persis" class="mw-redirect" title="Iliou persis">Sack of Troy</a>, of which the finest is by Dioskurides (<a href="/wiki/Chatsworth_House" title="Chatsworth House">Chatsworth House</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Renaissance and later gems remain dominated by the Hellenistic repertoire of subjects, though portraits in contemporary styles were also produced. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Collectors">Collectors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Engraved_gem&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Collectors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coupe_des_Ptol%C3%A9m%C3%A9es_01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Coupe_des_Ptol%C3%A9m%C3%A9es_01.JPG/220px-Coupe_des_Ptol%C3%A9m%C3%A9es_01.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Coupe_des_Ptol%C3%A9m%C3%A9es_01.JPG/330px-Coupe_des_Ptol%C3%A9m%C3%A9es_01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Coupe_des_Ptol%C3%A9m%C3%A9es_01.JPG/440px-Coupe_des_Ptol%C3%A9m%C3%A9es_01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1718" data-file-height="1402" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Coupe_des_Ptol%C3%A9m%C3%A9es" class="mw-redirect" title="Coupe des Ptolémées">Coupe des Ptolémées</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cabinet_des_M%C3%A9dailles" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabinet des Médailles">Cabinet des Médailles</a>, Paris)</figcaption></figure> <p>Famous collectors begin with King <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates VI of Pontus">Mithridates VI of Pontus</a> (d. 63 BC), whose collection was part of the booty of <a href="/wiki/Pompey_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Pompey the Great">Pompey the Great</a>, who donated it to the Temple of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter</a> in Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> was determined to excel Pompey in this as in other areas, and later gave six collections to his own <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Venus_Genetrix" title="Temple of Venus Genetrix">Temple of Venus Genetrix</a>; according to <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a> gems were among his varied collecting passions.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many later emperors also collected gems. Chapters 4-6 of Book 37 of the <i><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> give a summary art history of the Greek and Roman tradition, and of Roman collecting. According to Pliny <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Scaurus_(praetor_56_BC)" title="Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (praetor 56 BC)">Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (praetor 56 BC)</a> was the first Roman collector.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As in later periods objects carved in the round from semi-precious stone were regarded as a similar category of object; these are also known as <a href="/wiki/Hardstone_carving" title="Hardstone carving">hardstone carvings</a>. One of the largest, the <i><a href="/wiki/Coupe_des_Ptol%C3%A9m%C3%A9es" class="mw-redirect" title="Coupe des Ptolémées">Coupe des Ptolémées</a></i> was probably donated to the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Saint-Denis" title="Basilica of Saint-Denis">Basilica of Saint-Denis</a>, near Paris, by <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Bald" title="Charles the Bald">Charles the Bald</a>, as the inscription on its former gem-studded gold Carolingian mounting stated; it may have belonged to <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>. One of the best collections of such vessels, though mostly plain without carved decoration, was looted from <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a>, and is in the Treasury of the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Marco" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilica of San Marco">Basilica of San Marco</a> in <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>. Many of these retain the medieval mounts which adapted them for liturgical use.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like the <i>Coupe des Ptolémées</i>, most objects in European museums lost these when they became objects of classicist interest from the Renaissance onwards, or when the mounts were removed for the value of the materials, as happened to many in the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cammeo_gonzaga_con_doppio_ritratto_di_tolomeo_II_e_arsinoe_II,_III_sec._ac._(alessandria),_da_hermitage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Cammeo_gonzaga_con_doppio_ritratto_di_tolomeo_II_e_arsinoe_II%2C_III_sec._ac._%28alessandria%29%2C_da_hermitage.jpg/200px-Cammeo_gonzaga_con_doppio_ritratto_di_tolomeo_II_e_arsinoe_II%2C_III_sec._ac._%28alessandria%29%2C_da_hermitage.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Cammeo_gonzaga_con_doppio_ritratto_di_tolomeo_II_e_arsinoe_II%2C_III_sec._ac._%28alessandria%29%2C_da_hermitage.jpg/300px-Cammeo_gonzaga_con_doppio_ritratto_di_tolomeo_II_e_arsinoe_II%2C_III_sec._ac._%28alessandria%29%2C_da_hermitage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Cammeo_gonzaga_con_doppio_ritratto_di_tolomeo_II_e_arsinoe_II%2C_III_sec._ac._%28alessandria%29%2C_da_hermitage.jpg/400px-Cammeo_gonzaga_con_doppio_ritratto_di_tolomeo_II_e_arsinoe_II%2C_III_sec._ac._%28alessandria%29%2C_da_hermitage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2156" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Gonzaga_Cameo" title="Gonzaga Cameo">Gonzaga Cameo</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum" title="Hermitage Museum">Hermitage Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a>. The gem measures 15.7 x 11.8 cm.</figcaption></figure> <p>The collection of 827 engraved gems of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_II" title="Pope Paul II">Pope Paul II</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which included the "Felix gem" of <a href="/wiki/Diomedes" title="Diomedes">Diomedes</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Palladium_(classical_antiquity)" title="Palladium (classical antiquity)">Palladium</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was acquired by <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_il_Magnifico" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorenzo il Magnifico">Lorenzo il Magnifico</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Medici" class="mw-redirect" title="Medici">Medici</a> collection included many other gems and was legendary, valued in inventories much higher than his <a href="/wiki/Botticelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Botticelli">Botticellis</a>. Somewhat like Chinese collectors, Lorenzo had all his gems inscribed with his name.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Gonzaga_Cameo" title="Gonzaga Cameo">Gonzaga Cameo</a> passed through a series of famous collections before coming to rest in the <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum" title="Hermitage Museum">Hermitage</a>. First known in the collection of <a href="/wiki/Isabella_d%27Este" title="Isabella d'Este">Isabella d'Este</a>, it passed to the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Gonzaga" title="House of Gonzaga">Gonzaga</a> <a href="/wiki/Dukes_of_Mantua" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukes of Mantua">Dukes of Mantua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor Rudolf II</a>, Queen <a href="/wiki/Christina_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Christina of Sweden">Christina of Sweden</a>, Cardinal <a href="/wiki/Decio_Azzolini" class="mw-redirect" title="Decio Azzolini">Decio Azzolini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Livio_Odescalchi" title="Livio Odescalchi">Livio Odescalchi</a>, Duke of <a href="/wiki/Bracciano" title="Bracciano">Bracciano</a>, and Pope <a href="/wiki/Pius_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Pius VI">Pius VI</a> before <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> carried it off to Paris, where his <a href="/wiki/Empress_Jos%C3%A9phine" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress Joséphine">Empress Joséphine</a> gave it to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander I of Russia</a> after Napoleon's downfall, as a token of goodwill.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It remains disputed whether the cameo is <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandrian</a> work of the 3rd century BC, or a <a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty" title="Julio-Claudian dynasty">Julio-Claudian</a> imitation of the style from the 1st century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three of the largest cameo gems from antiquity were created for members of the <a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty" title="Julio-Claudian dynasty">Julio-Claudian dynasty</a> and seem to have survived above ground since antiquity. The large <a href="/wiki/Gemma_Augustea" title="Gemma Augustea">Gemma Augustea</a> appeared in 1246 in the treasury of the <a href="/wiki/Basilique_St-Sernin,_Toulouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilique St-Sernin, Toulouse">Basilique St-Sernin, Toulouse</a>. In 1533, <a href="/wiki/Francis_I_of_France" title="Francis I of France">King François I</a> appropriated it and moved it to Paris, where it soon disappeared around 1590. Not long thereafter it was fenced for 12,000 gold pieces to Emperor Rudolph II; it remains in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, alongside the <a href="/wiki/Gemma_Claudia" title="Gemma Claudia">Gemma Claudia</a>. The largest flat engraved gem known from antiquity is the <a href="/wiki/Great_Cameo_of_France" title="Great Cameo of France">Great Cameo of France</a>, which entered (or re-entered) the French royal collection in 1791 from the treasury of <a href="/wiki/Sainte-Chapelle" title="Sainte-Chapelle">Sainte-Chapelle</a>, where it had been since at least 1291. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CdM,_troilo_e_polissena_sorpresi_da_achille,_sardonice,_I_sec._a.c..JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/CdM%2C_troilo_e_polissena_sorpresi_da_achille%2C_sardonice%2C_I_sec._a.c..JPG/220px-CdM%2C_troilo_e_polissena_sorpresi_da_achille%2C_sardonice%2C_I_sec._a.c..JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/CdM%2C_troilo_e_polissena_sorpresi_da_achille%2C_sardonice%2C_I_sec._a.c..JPG/330px-CdM%2C_troilo_e_polissena_sorpresi_da_achille%2C_sardonice%2C_I_sec._a.c..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/CdM%2C_troilo_e_polissena_sorpresi_da_achille%2C_sardonice%2C_I_sec._a.c..JPG/440px-CdM%2C_troilo_e_polissena_sorpresi_da_achille%2C_sardonice%2C_I_sec._a.c..JPG 2x" data-file-width="1291" data-file-height="1014" /></a><figcaption>1st century BC cameo with <i><a href="/wiki/Troilus" title="Troilus">Troilus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polyxena" title="Polyxena">Polyxena</a> surprised by <a href="/wiki/Achilles" title="Achilles">Achilles</a></i>. Later mount.</figcaption></figure> <p>In England, a false dawn of gem collecting was represented by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Frederick,_Prince_of_Wales" title="Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales">Henry, Prince of Wales</a>' purchase of the cabinet of the Flemish antiquary <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Gorlaeus" title="Abraham Gorlaeus">Abraham Gorlaeus</a> in 1609,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and engraved gems featured among the antiquities assembled by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Howard,_21st_Earl_of_Arundel" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel">Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel</a>. Later in the century <a href="/wiki/William_Cavendish,_2nd_Duke_of_Devonshire" title="William Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Devonshire">William Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Devonshire</a>, formed a collection of gems that is still conserved at <a href="/wiki/Chatsworth,_Derbyshire" title="Chatsworth, Derbyshire">Chatsworth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the eighteenth century a more discerning cabinet of gems was assembled by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Howard,_4th_Earl_of_Carlisle" title="Henry Howard, 4th Earl of Carlisle">Henry Howard, 4th Earl of Carlisle</a>, acting upon the advice of Francesco Maria Zanetti and <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Ficoroni" title="Francesco Ficoroni">Francesco Ficoroni</a>; 170 of the Carlisle gems, both Classical and post-Classical, were purchased in 1890 for the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>. </p><p>By the mid-eighteenth century prices had reached such a level that major collections could only be formed by the very wealthy; lesser collectors had to make do with collecting <a href="/wiki/Plaster_cast" title="Plaster cast">plaster casts</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was also very popular, or buying one of many sumptuously illustrated catalogues of collections that were published.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a>'s collection is in the <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum" title="Hermitage Museum">Hermitage Museum</a>; one large collection she had bought was the gems from the <a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9ans_Collection" class="mw-redirect" title="Orléans Collection">Orléans Collection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XV of France">Louis XV of France</a> hired <a href="/wiki/Dominique_Vivant" class="mw-redirect" title="Dominique Vivant">Dominique Vivant</a> to assemble a collection for <a href="/wiki/Madame_de_Pompadour" title="Madame de Pompadour">Madame de Pompadour</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brit_Mus_13sept10_brooches_etc_068.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Brit_Mus_13sept10_brooches_etc_068.jpg/220px-Brit_Mus_13sept10_brooches_etc_068.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Brit_Mus_13sept10_brooches_etc_068.jpg/330px-Brit_Mus_13sept10_brooches_etc_068.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Brit_Mus_13sept10_brooches_etc_068.jpg/440px-Brit_Mus_13sept10_brooches_etc_068.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Casts ("pastes") of gems in collector's cabinets</figcaption></figure> <p>In the eighteenth century British aristocrats were able to outcompete even the agents for royal and princely collectors on the Continent, aided by connoisseur-dealers like Count <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Maria_Zanetti" title="Antonio Maria Zanetti">Antonio Maria Zanetti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philipp_von_Stosch" title="Philipp von Stosch">Philipp von Stosch</a>. Zanetti travelled Europe in pursuit of gems hidden in private collections for the British aristocrats he tutored in connoisseurship;<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> his own collection was described in <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Francesco_Gori" title="Antonio Francesco Gori">A.F. Gori</a>, <i>Le gemme antiche di Anton Maria Zanetti</i> (Venice, 1750), illustrated with eighty plates of engravings from his own drawings. Baron <a href="/wiki/Philipp_von_Stosch" title="Philipp von Stosch">Philipp von Stosch</a> (1691–1757), a Prussian who lived in Rome and then Florence, was a major collector, as well as a dealer in engraved gems: "busy, unscrupulous, and in his spare time a spy for England in Italy".<sup id="cite_ref-Boardman_lecture_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boardman_lecture-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among his contemporaries, Stosch made his lasting impression with <i>Gemmæ Antiquæ Cælatæ</i> (<i>Pierres antiques graveés</i>) (1724), in which <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Picart" title="Bernard Picart">Bernard Picart</a>'s engravings reproduced seventy antique carved hardstones like onyx, jasper and carnelian from European collections. He also encouraged <a href="/wiki/Johann_Lorenz_Natter" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Lorenz Natter">Johann Lorenz Natter</a> (1705–1763) whom Stosch set to copying ancient carved gems in Florence. <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a> of <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> bought Stosch's collection in 1765 and built the <a href="/wiki/Antique_Temple" title="Antique Temple">Antique Temple</a> in the park of the <a href="/wiki/Sanssouci_Palace" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanssouci Palace">Sanssouci Palace</a> to house his collections of ancient sculpture, coins and over 4,000 gems – the two were naturally often grouped together. The gems are now in the <a href="/wiki/Antikensammlung_Berlin" title="Antikensammlung Berlin">Antikensammlung Berlin</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VishnuGandhara.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/VishnuGandhara.JPG/220px-VishnuGandhara.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/VishnuGandhara.JPG/330px-VishnuGandhara.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/VishnuGandhara.JPG/440px-VishnuGandhara.JPG 2x" data-file-width="930" data-file-height="1268" /></a><figcaption>Cast of the sardonyx <a href="/wiki/Vishnu_Nicolo_Seal" class="mw-redirect" title="Vishnu Nicolo Seal">Vishnu Nicolo Seal</a> with Vishnu blessing a worshipper, Afghanistan or Pakistan, 4th-6th century AD. The inscription in cursive Bactrian reads: "Mikira, Vishnu and Shiva"</figcaption></figure> <p>The collection of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Smith_(1682%E2%80%931770)" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Smith (1682–1770)">Joseph Smith</a>, British <a href="/wiki/Consul" title="Consul">consul</a> in <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> was bought by King <a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">George III</a> of Great Britain and remains in the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Collection" title="Royal Collection">Royal Collection</a>. The collections of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Towneley" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Towneley">Charles Towneley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Payne_Knight" title="Richard Payne Knight">Richard Payne Knight</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Mordaunt_Cracherode" title="Clayton Mordaunt Cracherode">Clayton Mordaunt Cracherode</a> were bought by or bequeathed to the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, founding their very important collection.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>But the most famous English collection was that formed by the <a href="/wiki/George_Spencer,_4th_Duke_of_Marlborough" title="George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough">4th Duke of Marlborough</a> (1739–1817), "which the Duke kept in his bedroom and resorted to as a relief from his ambitious wife, his busy sister and his many children".<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This included collections formerly owned by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Gonzaga" title="House of Gonzaga">Gonzagas</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mantua" title="Mantua">Mantua</a> (later owned by Lord Arundel), <a href="/wiki/William_Ponsonby,_2nd_Earl_of_Bessborough" title="William Ponsonby, 2nd Earl of Bessborough">the 2nd Earl of Bessborough</a>, and the brother of <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chesterfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Chesterfield">Lord Chesterfield</a>, who himself warned his son in one of his <i>Letters</i> against "days lost in poring upon imperceptible intaglios and cameos".<sup id="cite_ref-beazley.ox.ac.uk_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beazley.ox.ac.uk-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The collection, including its single most famous cameo, <i>the</i> "<a href="/wiki/Marlborough_gem" title="Marlborough gem">Marlborough gem</a>" depicting an initiation of Cupid and Psyche, was dispersed after a sale in 1899, fortunately timed for the new American museums and provided the core of the collection of the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan</a> in New York and elsewhere,<sup id="cite_ref-draper_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-draper-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the largest group still together being about 100 in the <a href="/wiki/Walters_Art_Museum" title="Walters Art Museum">Walters Art Museum</a>, Baltimore.<sup id="cite_ref-beazley.ox.ac.uk_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beazley.ox.ac.uk-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prince <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Poniatowski_(1754-1833)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanisław Poniatowski (1754-1833)">Stanisław Poniatowski</a> (1754–1833) "commissioned about 2500 gems and encouraged the belief that they were, in fact, ancient." He presented a set of 419 plaster impressions of his collection of <a href="/wiki/Poniatowski_gem" class="mw-redirect" title="Poniatowski gem">Poniatowski gems</a> to the King of <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> which now form the Daktyliothek Poniatowski in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, where they were recognised as modern in 1832, mainly because the signatures of ancient artists from very different times were found on gems in too consistent a style.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Artists">Artists</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Engraved_gem&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Artists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Punishment_of_Tityus,_a_rock_crystal_intaglio_by_Giovanni_Bernardi,_the_British_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/The_Punishment_of_Tityus%2C_a_rock_crystal_intaglio_by_Giovanni_Bernardi%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg/220px-The_Punishment_of_Tityus%2C_a_rock_crystal_intaglio_by_Giovanni_Bernardi%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/The_Punishment_of_Tityus%2C_a_rock_crystal_intaglio_by_Giovanni_Bernardi%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg/330px-The_Punishment_of_Tityus%2C_a_rock_crystal_intaglio_by_Giovanni_Bernardi%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/The_Punishment_of_Tityus%2C_a_rock_crystal_intaglio_by_Giovanni_Bernardi%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg/440px-The_Punishment_of_Tityus%2C_a_rock_crystal_intaglio_by_Giovanni_Bernardi%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><i>The Punishment of <a href="/wiki/Tityos" title="Tityos">Tityus</a></i>, a rock crystal intaglio by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Bernardi" title="Giovanni Bernardi">Giovanni Bernardi</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>As in other fields, not many ancient artists' names are known from literary sources, although some gems are signed. According to Pliny, <a href="/wiki/Pyrgoteles" title="Pyrgoteles">Pyrgoteles</a> was the only artist allowed to carve gems for the seal rings of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>. Most of the most famous Roman artists were Greeks, like Dioskurides, who is thought to have produced the Gemma Augustea, and is recorded as the artist of the matching <a href="/wiki/Signet_ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Signet ring">signet rings</a> of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> – very carefully controlled, they allowed orders to be issued in his name by his most trusted associates. Other works survive signed by him (rather more than are all likely to be genuine), and his son Hyllos was also a gem engraver.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Anichini_family" title="Anichini family">Anichini family</a> were leading artists in Venice and elsewhere in the 15th and 16th centuries. Many Renaissance artists no doubt kept their activities quiet, as they were passing their products off as antique. Other specialist carvers included <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Bernardi" title="Giovanni Bernardi">Giovanni Bernardi</a> (1494–1553), <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Jacopo_Caraglio" class="mw-redirect" title="Giovanni Jacopo Caraglio">Giovanni Jacopo Caraglio</a> (c. 1500–1565), <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Antonio_Torricelli" title="Giuseppe Antonio Torricelli">Giuseppe Antonio Torricelli</a> (1662–1719), the German-Italian <a href="/wiki/Anton_Pichler" title="Anton Pichler">Anton Pichler</a> (1697–1779) and his sons <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pichler" title="Giovanni Pichler">Giovanni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pichler" title="Luigi Pichler">Luigi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Christian_Reisen" title="Charles Christian Reisen">Charles Christian Reisen</a> (Anglo-Norwegian, 1680–1725). Other sculptors also carved gems, or had someone in their workshop who did. <a href="/wiki/Leone_Leoni" title="Leone Leoni">Leone Leoni</a> said he personally spent two months on a double-sided cameo gem with portraits of <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor_Charles_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Roman Emperor Charles V">Holy Roman Emperor Charles V</a> and his wife and son.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Scot <a href="/wiki/James_Tassie" title="James Tassie">James Tassie</a> (1735–1799), and his nephew <a href="/wiki/William_Tassie" title="William Tassie">William</a> (1777–1860) developed methods for taking hard impressions from old gems, and also for casting new designs from carved wax in <a href="/wiki/Vitreous_enamel" title="Vitreous enamel">enamel</a>, enabling a huge production of what are really imitation engraved gems. The fullest catalogue of his impressions ("Tassie gems") was published in 1791, with 15,800 items.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are complete sets of the impressions in the Hermitage, the <a href="/wiki/Victoria_%26_Albert_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria & Albert Museum">Victoria & Albert Museum</a> in London, and in Edinburgh.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other types of imitation became fashionable for ladies' <a href="/wiki/Brooch" title="Brooch">brooches</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Ceramic_art" title="Ceramic art">ceramic</a> cameos by <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Wedgwood" title="Josiah Wedgwood">Josiah Wedgwood</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jasperware" title="Jasperware">jasperware</a>. The engraved gem fell permanently out of fashion from about the 1860s,<sup id="cite_ref-draper_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-draper-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> perhaps partly as a growing realization of the number of gems that were not what they seemed to be scared collectors. Among the last practitioners was <a href="/wiki/James_Robertson_(photographer)" title="James Robertson (photographer)">James Robertson</a>, who sensibly moved into the new art of <a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">photography</a>. Perhaps the best known gem engraver of the 20th century, working in a contemporary idiom, is the British artist <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Pennell" title="Ronald Pennell">Ronald Pennell</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whose work is held in the British <a href="/wiki/Crafts_Council" title="Crafts Council">Crafts Council</a> Collection among many others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Imitations">Imitations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Engraved_gem&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Imitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n4.jpg/170px-Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n4.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n4.jpg/255px-Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n4.jpg/340px-Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2300" data-file-height="3484" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Portland_Vase" title="Portland Vase">Portland Vase</a> in Roman <a href="/wiki/Cameo_glass" title="Cameo glass">cameo glass</a> in imitation of <a href="/wiki/Onyx" title="Onyx">onyx</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Cameo_glass" title="Cameo glass">Cameo glass</a> was invented by the Romans in about 30BC to imitate engraved hardstone cameos, with the advantage that consistent layering could be achieved even on round vessels – impossible with natural gemstones. It was however very difficult to manufacture and surviving pieces, most famously the <a href="/wiki/Portland_Vase" title="Portland Vase">Portland Vase</a>, are actually much rarer than Roman gemstone cameos.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The technique was revived in the 18th and especially 19th centuries in England and elsewhere,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was most effectively used in French <a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a> glass that made no attempt to follow classical styles. </p><p>The Middle Ages, which lived by <a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">charters</a> and other sealed documents, were at least as keen on using seals as the ancient world, now creating them for towns and church institutions, but they normally used metal matrices and <a href="/wiki/Signet_ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Signet ring">signet rings</a>. However some objects, like a 13th-century Venetian <i><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sleepers_of_Ephesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Sleepers of Ephesus">Seven Sleepers of Ephesus</a></i>, mimicked the engraved gem.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another offshoot of the mania for engraved gems is the fine-grained slightly translucent <a href="/wiki/Stoneware" title="Stoneware">stoneware</a> called <a href="/wiki/Jasperware" title="Jasperware">jasperware</a> that was developed by <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Wedgwood" title="Josiah Wedgwood">Josiah Wedgwood</a> and perfected in 1775.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though white-on-blue matte jasperware is the most familiar Wedgwood ceramic line, still in production today and widely imitated since the mid-19th century, white-on-black was also produced. Wedgwood made notable jasperware copies of the Portland Vase and the <i>Marlborough gem</i>, a famous head of <a href="/wiki/Antinous" title="Antinous">Antinous</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and interpreted in jasperware casts from antique gems by James Tassie. <a href="/wiki/John_Flaxman" title="John Flaxman">John Flaxman</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">neoclassical</a> designs for jasperware were carried out in the extremely low relief typical of cameo production. Some other <a href="/wiki/Porcelain" title="Porcelain">porcelain</a> imitated three-layer cameos purely by paint, even in implausible objects like a flat <a href="/wiki/Manufacture_nationale_de_S%C3%A8vres" title="Manufacture nationale de Sèvres">Sèvres</a> tea-tray of 1840.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scholars">Scholars</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Engraved_gem&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Scholars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gems were a favourite topic for <a href="/wiki/Antiquaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiquaries">antiquaries</a> from the Renaissance onwards, culminating in the work of Philipp von Stosch, described above. Major progress in understanding Greek gems was made in the work of <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Furtw%C3%A4ngler" title="Adolf Furtwängler">Adolf Furtwängler</a> (1853–1907, father of <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Furtw%C3%A4ngler" title="Wilhelm Furtwängler">the conductor, Wilhelm</a>). Among recent scholars <a href="/wiki/John_Boardman_(art_historian)" title="John Boardman (art historian)">Sir John Boardman</a> (b. 1927) has made a special contribution, again concentrating on Greek gems. <a href="/wiki/Gertrud_Seidmann" title="Gertrud Seidmann">Gertrud Seidmann</a> (1919–2013) moved into the subject, having previously been a German teacher. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Engraved_gem&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fully half of the antique engraved gems in the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_museums" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin museums">Berlin museums</a> and the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> are either <a href="/wiki/Sard" class="mw-redirect" title="Sard">sard</a> or <a href="/wiki/Carnelian" title="Carnelian">carnelian</a>, Etta M. Saunders, noted. Saunders, "Goddess Riding a Goat-Bull Monster: A Ceres Zodiac Gem from the Walters Art Gallery" <i>The Journal of the Walters Art Gallery</i> <b>49/50</b> (1991/1992;7–11) note 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The three preeminent European collections of post-Classical engraved gems are the <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_des_M%C3%A9dailles" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabinet des Médailles">Cabinet des Médailles</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">Bibliothèque nationale</a>, Paris, the Habsburg collection, Vienna, and the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, London, <a href="/wiki/Ormonde_Maddock_Dalton" class="mw-redirect" title="Ormonde Maddock Dalton">O. M. Dalton</a> observed in "Mediæval and Later Engraved Gems in the British Museum — I" <i>The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs</i> <b>23</b> No. 123 (June 1913:128-136) and "II" <i>The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs</i> <b>24</b> No. 127 (October 1913:28–32).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kornbluth, 8-16 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8bWo5T2JdVUC&dq=Engraved+gem&pg=PA6">quotes passages</a> from Theophilius and others, and discusses various techniques. See Theophilius's article for full on-line texts.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thoresen, "Gemstone enhancement"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211125224500/https://www.christies.com/features/Engraved-classical-gems-collecting-guide-9818-1.aspx">"A brief history of engraved Classical gems"</a>. <i>www.christies.com</i>. <a href="/wiki/Christie%27s" title="Christie's">Christie's</a>. 28 May 2020. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.christies.com/features/Engraved-classical-gems-collecting-guide-9818-1.aspx">the original</a> on 25 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.christies.com&rft.atitle=A+brief+history+of+engraved+Classical+gems&rft.date=2020-05-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.christies.com%2Ffeatures%2FEngraved-classical-gems-collecting-guide-9818-1.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngraved+gem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boardman, 39 See Beazley for more detail.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Lenticular" or "lentoid" gems have the form of a <a href="/wiki/Lens_(geometry)" title="Lens (geometry)">lens</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beazley, Later Archaic Greek gems: introduction.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boardman, 68-69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boardman, 129-130</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boardman, 187-188</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beazley, "Hellenistic gems: introduction"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boardman, 275-6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henderson, 112-113</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qNOB-vcob88C&dq=poison+gemstone&pg=PA12">De Natura fossilium Bk 1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Examples: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/came/ho_40.20.59.htm">14th century French Crucifixion</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bnpr/ho_1975.1.1522.htm">Rosary pendant, 15th century</a>, both onyx and in the MMA New York.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kornbluth, 1, 4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe_mla/t/the_lothar,_or_susanna_crystal.aspx">Susanna Crystal</a>, British Museum.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kornbluth, 1, 4-6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Campbell, 411</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-draper-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-draper_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-draper_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-draper_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Draper, James David. "Cameo Appearances". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/came/hd_came.htm">(August 2008)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Claire <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Clark" title="Kenneth Clark">Clark, Kenneth</a> in J. Farago (ed)<i>Leonardo's projects, c. 1500-1519. Volume 3 of Leonardo da Vinci, selected scholarship</i>, Publisher Taylor & Francis, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8153-2935-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8153-2935-0">0-8153-2935-0</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-2935-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-2935-0">978-0-8153-2935-0</a>. p. 28/160 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1mCBiu2yFUgC&dq=Michelangelo+ignudi+gem&pg=PA160">Google books</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/archive/lectures/boardman.htm">Image and description by Boardman</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181119050212/http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/archive/lectures/boardman.htm">Archived</a> 2018-11-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henk Th. van Veen. <i>The translation of Raphael's Roman style</i>. Volume 22 of Groningen studies in cultural change, GSCC; 22, p. 26, Peeters Publishers, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-429-1855-1" title="Special:BookSources/90-429-1855-1">90-429-1855-1</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1855-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1855-9">978-90-429-1855-9</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rkjpwSr7JqoC&dq=Raphael+antique+gem&pg=PA26">Google books</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Nowadays, however, they have been somewhat neglected—probably because a genuine gem is difficult to distinguish from forged one, and collectors have grown timid in consequence" (Richter, "Engraved Gems" <i>The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin</i>, <b>17</b>.9 (September 1922:193-196) p. 193</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boardman_lecture-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Boardman_lecture_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boardman_lecture_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boardman_lecture_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Beazley, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/archive/lectures/boardman.htm">Boardman lecture</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181119050212/http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/archive/lectures/boardman.htm">Archived</a> 2018-11-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Getty, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.getty.edu/art/exhibitions/gems/collectors.html">Collectors</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beazley Archive, "Late Antique, Early Christian and Jewish gems: Sasanian gems – Christian and Jewish"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Numismatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Numismatic">Numismatic</a> evidence is the other most indicative evidence of the general pose of locally important <a href="/wiki/Cult_image" title="Cult image">cult images</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beazley, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/gems/styles/geometric/island.htm">Geometric and Early Archaic gems: Island gems</a> 6th down.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beazley, Archaic period pages</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hennig, 154-5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/gr/c/cameo_portrait_of_augustus.aspx">British Museum</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Blacas_Cameo" title="Blacas Cameo">Blacas Cameo</a> of Augustus.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hennig, 153, Boardman, 275-6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pliny, see below. Whether he was right to claim Mithridates as the first collector is dubious.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>De Vita Caesarum, Divus Iulius</i>, (The Lives of the Caesars, The Deified Julius), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/suetonius-julius.html">Fordham online text</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pliny, <i>Natural History</i>, xxxvii.5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160309133542/http://humanities-interactive.org/medieval/sanmarco">"Treasury of San Marco"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanities-interactive.org/medieval/sanmarco/">the original</a> on 2016-03-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Treasury+of+San+Marco&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.humanities-interactive.org%2Fmedieval%2Fsanmarco%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngraved+gem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.getty.edu/art/exhibitions/gems/collectors.html">Getty Collectors, under Pietro Barbó</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It passed into the <a href="/wiki/Arundel_marbles" title="Arundel marbles">Arundel collection</a> and came to Oxford: see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ashmolean.org/ash/objectofmonth/2004-10/history.htm">Ashmolean image and description</a> and Graham Pollard, "The Felix Gem at Oxford and its provenance" <i>The Burlington Magazine</i> <b>119</b> No. 893 (August 1977:574).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521452458&ss=exc">Online: The <i>Introduction</i> from <i>Lorenzo de'Medici, Collector of Antiquities<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>, by Laurie Fusco & Gino Corti, Cambridge UP 2006, which gives a survey of early Renaissance collecting in general. On his signing his gems see Draper</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cammeogonzaga.it/eng/art-exhibitions-Italy.asp">Gonzaga Cameo</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120223224110/http://www.cammeogonzaga.it/eng/art-exhibitions-Italy.asp">Archived</a> 2012-02-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Exhibition in Mantua <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/img.htm?id=882">further details</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090624203023/http://www.cammeogonzaga.it/eng/Gonzaga-cameo-hermitage.asp">"Mantua exhibition"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cammeogonzaga.it/eng/Gonzaga-cameo-hermitage.asp">the original</a> on 2009-06-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mantua+exhibition&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cammeogonzaga.it%2Feng%2FGonzaga-cameo-hermitage.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngraved+gem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roy Strong, <i>Henry Prince of Wales and England's Lost Renaissance</i> (1986:199).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diana Scarisbrick, "The Devonshire Parure", <i>Archaeologia</i> <b>108</b> (1986:241).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Sulphurs" provided even finer detail; <a href="/wiki/James_Tassie" title="James Tassie">James Tassie</a> made a career of casting gems in plaster and in coloured opaque glass.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Apart from those mentioned below, there is information on other notable collections <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.getty.edu/art/exhibitions/gems/collectors.html">from the Getty Museum</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140419013411/http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/04/b2003/hm4_1_i.html">"Hermitage Museum"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/04/b2003/hm4_1_i.html">the original</a> on 2014-04-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hermitage+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hermitagemuseum.org%2Fhtml_En%2F04%2Fb2003%2Fhm4_1_i.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngraved+gem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">His correspondence with <a href="/wiki/Henry_Howard,_4th_Earl_of_Carlisle" title="Henry Howard, 4th Earl of Carlisle">Henry Howard, 4th Earl of Carlisle</a> is published by Diana Scarisbrick, "Gem Connoisseurship – The 4th Earl of Carlisle's Correspondence with Francesco de Ficoroni and Antonion Maria Zanetti", <i>The Burlington Magazine</i> <b>129</b>No. 1007 (February 1987:90-104).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Towneley's were bought from his heirs, the others bequeathed. See King, 218-225 for a selection of highlights</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beazley, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/gems/marlborough/default.htm">Marlborough Collection</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150729005503/http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/gems/marlborough/default.htm">Archived</a> 2015-07-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-beazley.ox.ac.uk-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-beazley.ox.ac.uk_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-beazley.ox.ac.uk_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Beazley, <i>The Marlborough Gems</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/archive/lectures/boardman.htm">Boardman Lecture</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181119050212/http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/archive/lectures/boardman.htm">Archived</a> 2018-11-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/a/explore.thewalters.org/thechamberofwonders/collecting-gems-and-jewelry-gems-belonging-to-the-fourth-duke-of-marlborough-in-the-walters">Walters, "Gems belonging to the Fourth Duke of Marlborough in the Walters"</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Beazley" title="John Beazley">John Beazley</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.carc.ox.ac.uk/carc/gems/The-Poniatowski-Collection/Introduction">The Poniatowski Collection of gems</a>. More details in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lacmaonfire.blogspot.com/2009/07/bernie-madoff-of-gem-collectors.html"><i>The Bernie Madoff of Gem Collectors</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boardman, 275-6. Hennig 153-4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/came/ho_38.150.9.htm">Metropolitan</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An earlier version is on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f-kHAAAAQAAJ&q=A+Catalogue,+Of+Impressions+In+Sulphur:+Of+Antique+And+Modern+Gems+From+Which+Pastes+Are+Made+And+Sold">Google books</a> <i>A Catalogue, Of Impressions In Sulphur: Of Antique And Modern Gems From Which Pastes Are Made And Sold</i> (1775) (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/110459093X" title="Special:BookSources/110459093X">110459093X</a> / 1-104-59093-X)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beazley, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/gems/tassie/default.htm">Tassie</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190325163213/http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/gems/tassie/default.htm">Archived</a> 2019-03-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Significant Figures in Art & Craft Today, Derek Reay, MoTi publishing, UK 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trentinella, Rosemarie. "Roman Cameo Glass". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–9. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rcam/hd_rcam.htm">link</a> (October 2003, retr. 16 September, 2009); Whitehouse, David. <i>Roman glass in the Corning Museum of Glass</i>, Volume 1 <a href="/wiki/Corning_Museum_of_Glass" title="Corning Museum of Glass">Corning Museum of Glass</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tyg6KxKwLWYC&dq=Roman+cameo+glass&pg=PA41">Google books</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://forsyth.tamu.edu/cameobackground">Texas A&M University Museum</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090408023951/http://forsyth.tamu.edu/cameobackground">Archived</a> 2009-04-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Exhibition feature <i>George Woodall and the Art of English Cameo Glass</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/File:Britishmuseumsevensleeperscameo.jpg" title="File:Britishmuseumsevensleeperscameo.jpg">picture and link</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robin Reilly, <i>Wedgwood Jasper</i> London, 1972.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.antinoos.info/antin9a.htm">Antinoos.info</a> See "Gems" section for gem and casts etc</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/special/royal_porcelain/view_1.asp?item=0">Sèvres tea-tray from the Metropolitan museum of Art</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Engraved_gem&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Intaglios" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Intaglios">Intaglios</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cameos" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Cameos">Cameos</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>"Beazley" The Classical Art Research Centre, Oxford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/gems/">Beazley Archive</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100819090533/http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/gems/">Archived</a> 2010-08-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Extensive website on classical gems; page titles used as references</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Boardman_(art_historian)" title="John Boardman (art historian)">Boardman, John</a> ed., <i>The Oxford History of Classical Art</i>, 1993, OUP, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814386-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-814386-9">0-19-814386-9</a></li> <li>Campbell, Gordon (ed). <i>The Grove Encyclopedia of Decorative Arts</i>, Oxford University Press US, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-518948-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-518948-5">0-19-518948-5</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518948-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518948-3">978-0-19-518948-3</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jGsVHV098K0C&pg=RA1-PA411">Google books</a></li> <li>Furtwängler, Adolf. <i>Die antiken Gemmen</i>, 1900. This photo repertory was the cornerstone of modern studies.</li> <li>Henderson, George. <i>Early Medieval Art</i>, 1972, rev. 1977, Penguin.</li> <li>Henig, Martin (ed), <i>A Handbook of Roman Art</i>, Phaidon, 1983, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7148-2214-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7148-2214-0">0-7148-2214-0</a></li> <li>King, C. W.; <i>Handbook of Engraved Gems</i>, 1866, reprinted Kessinger Publishing, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7661-5164-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7661-5164-6">0-7661-5164-6</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-5164-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-5164-2">978-0-7661-5164-2</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8LDg-1tCBUC&q=Anichini+gem">Google books</a></li> <li>Kornbluth, Genevra Alisoun. <i>Engraved gems of the Carolingian empire</i>, <a href="/wiki/Penn_State_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Penn State Press">Penn State Press</a>, 1995, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-01426-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-01426-1">0-271-01426-1</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8bWo5T2JdVUC&pg=PA6">Google books</a></li> <li>Thoresen, Lisbet. "On Gemstones: Gemological and Analytical Studies of Ancient Intaglios and Cameos." In Ancient Glyptic Art- Gem Engraving and Gem Carving. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081226040154/http://ancient-gems.lthoresen.com/">LThoresen.com</a> (February 2009)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091002070209/http://old.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0137">Gems and gem engraving</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Engraved_gem&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Boardman, John. <i>Island Gems</i>, 1963.</li> <li>Boardman, John. <i>Archaic Greek Gems</i>, 1968.</li> <li>Brown, Clifford M. (ed). <i>Engraved Gems : Survivals and Revivals</i>, National Gallery of Art Washington, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89468-271-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-89468-271-7">0-89468-271-7</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89468-271-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89468-271-1">978-0-89468-271-1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrett" class="citation web cs1">Barrett, Caitlín E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150526164252/https://antiquities.library.cornell.edu/gems/plaster-perspectives-on-magical-gems">"Plaster Perspectives on "Magical Gems": Rethinking the Meaning of "Magic" in Cornell's Dactyliotheca"</a>. <i>Cornell Collection of Antiquities</i>. Cornell University Library. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://antiquities.library.cornell.edu/gems/plaster-perspectives-on-magical-gems">the original</a> on 26 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cornell+Collection+of+Antiquities&rft.atitle=Plaster+Perspectives+on+%22Magical+Gems%22%3A+Rethinking+the+Meaning+of+%22Magic%22+in+Cornell%27s+Dactyliotheca&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.aufirst=Caitl%C3%ADn+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fantiquities.library.cornell.edu%2Fgems%2Fplaster-perspectives-on-magical-gems&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngraved+gem" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKunz1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Frederick_Kunz" title="George Frederick Kunz">Kunz, George Frederick</a> (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lapidary and Gem Cutting"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Lapidary_and_Gem_Cutting">"Lapidary and Gem Cutting" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 195–199.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lapidary+and+Gem+Cutting&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=195-199&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Kunz&rft.aufirst=George+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngraved+gem" class="Z3988"></span> This has more detail about lapidary in the ancient world, although only based on research available in the early 20th century.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Engraved_gem&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/gems/">Beazley Archive</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100819090533/http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/gems/">Archived</a> 2010-08-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Extensive site on classical gems</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.getty.edu/art/exhibitions/gems/"><i>Carvers and Collectors</i></a>, a 2009 exhibition at the <a href="/wiki/Getty_Villa" title="Getty Villa">Getty Villa</a>, with many features</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110816092540/http://sites.google.com/site/digitallibrarynumis/subjects/32-engraved-gems/01-general-texts">Digital Library Numis (DLN)</a> Online books and articles on engraved gems</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/5188/rec/1">The Johnston collection of engraved gems</a> at the Metropolitan Museum of Art</li> <li>Damen, Giada. "Antique Engraved Gems and Renaissance Collectors", In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gems/hd_gems.htm">online</a> (March 2013)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150526135142/https://antiquities.library.cornell.edu/gems">Gems Collection: Cornell Collection of Antiquities</a>, at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Library" title="Cornell University Library">Cornell University Library</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sscommons.org/openlibrary/welcome.html#3%7Ccollections%7C7730297%7C%7CCornell3A20Gem20Impressions20Collection">Cornell: Gem Impressions Collection</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output 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