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<span>Languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proposed_precursors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proposed_precursors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Proposed precursors</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Proposed_precursors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Proposed precursors subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Proposed_precursors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Afanasievo_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Afanasievo_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Afanasievo culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Afanasievo_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemurchek_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemurchek_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Chemurchek culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemurchek_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tarim_Basin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tarim_Basin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Tarim Basin</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Tarim_Basin-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Tarim Basin subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Tarim_Basin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_settlement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_settlement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Early settlement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_settlement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tarim_mummies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tarim_mummies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Tarim mummies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tarim_mummies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_migrations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_migrations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Later migrations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_migrations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oasis_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oasis_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Oasis states</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Oasis_states-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Oasis states subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Oasis_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Xiongnu_and_Han_empires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Xiongnu_and_Han_empires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Xiongnu and Han empires</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Xiongnu_and_Han_empires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kushan_Empire_(2nd_century_AD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kushan_Empire_(2nd_century_AD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Kushan Empire (2nd century AD)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kushan_Empire_(2nd_century_AD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flourishing_of_the_oasis_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flourishing_of_the_oasis_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Flourishing of the oasis states</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flourishing_of_the_oasis_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hephthalite_conquest_(circa_480–550_AD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hephthalite_conquest_(circa_480–550_AD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>Hephthalite conquest (circa 480–550 AD)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hephthalite_conquest_(circa_480–550_AD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Göktürks_suzerainty_(560_AD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Göktürks_suzerainty_(560_AD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.2</span> <span>Göktürks suzerainty (560 AD)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Göktürks_suzerainty_(560_AD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tang_conquest_and_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tang_conquest_and_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Tang conquest and aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tang_conquest_and_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epigraphy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epigraphy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Epigraphy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epigraphy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Genetics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Genetics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Haplogroups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haplogroups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Haplogroups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haplogroups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Known_rulers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Known_rulers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Known rulers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Known_rulers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Tocharians</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">56 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86" title="تخاريون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تخاريون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocarios" title="Tocarios – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Tocarios" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxarlar" title="Toxarlar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Toxarlar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%E2%80%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="توخار‌لار – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="توخار‌لار" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="টোকারীয় জাতি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="টোকারীয় জাতি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D2%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D2%99%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Тоһарҙар – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Тоһарҙар" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Тахары – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Тахары" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Тахары – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Тахары" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Тохари – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Тохари" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocaris" title="Tocaris – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tocaris" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocharov%C3%A9" title="Tocharové – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Tocharové" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokharere" title="Tokharere – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tokharere" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocharer" title="Tocharer – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Tocharer" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%8C%CF%87%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B9" title="Τόχαροι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τόχαροι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocarios" title="Tocarios – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tocarios" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/To%C4%A5arianoj" title="Toĥarianoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Toĥarianoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokario" title="Tokario – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Tokario" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A7" title="تخارها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تخارها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokhariens" title="Tokhariens – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Tokhariens" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%86%A0%ED%95%98%EB%9D%BC%EC%9D%B8" title="토하라인 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="토하라인" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97" title="तुषारी लोग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तुषारी लोग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toharci" title="Toharci – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Toharci" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orang_Tokharia" title="Orang Tokharia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Orang Tokharia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokkarar" title="Tokkarar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Tokkarar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocari" title="Tocari – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Tocari" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D" title="טוכארים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טוכארים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ტოხარები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ტოხარები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Тохалар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Тохалар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Тохарлар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Тохарлар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocharai" title="Tocharai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Tocharai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B4kariana_(vahoaka)" title="Tôkariana (vahoaka) – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Tôkariana (vahoaka)" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocharoi" title="Tocharoi – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Tocharoi" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%88%E3%83%8F%E3%83%A9%E4%BA%BA" title="トハラ人 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="トハラ人" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokharere" title="Tokharere – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tokharere" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxarlar" title="Toxarlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Toxarlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%84%D9%88%DA%A9" title="تخاری لوک – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="تخاری لوک" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocharowie" title="Tocharowie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Tocharowie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocarianos" title="Tocarianos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Tocarianos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toharieni" title="Toharieni – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Toharieni" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Тохары – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Тохары" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokarian%C3%ABt" title="Tokarianët – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Tokarianët" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Tocharians" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tochari" title="Tochari – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Tochari" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toharci" title="Toharci – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Toharci" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tohari" title="Tohari – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Tohari" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokaarit" title="Tokaarit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tokaarit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokharer" title="Tokharer – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tokharer" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="தொச்சாரியர்கள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தொச்சாரியர்கள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%91%D0%BD" title="Тухориён – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Тухориён" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toharlar" title="Toharlar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Toharlar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Тохари – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Тохари" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="توخارلار – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="توخارلار" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Di_Tochari" title="Người Tochari – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Người Tochari" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%90%E7%81%AB%E7%BE%85" title="吐火羅 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="吐火羅" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%90%E7%81%AB%E7%BE%85%E4%BA%BA" title="吐火羅人 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="吐火羅人" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%90%E7%81%AB%E7%BD%97%E4%BA%BA" title="吐火罗人 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="吐火罗人" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q192858#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Indo-European ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about ancient people speaking the Tocharian languages in the Tarim Basin. For the Tochari of Greco-Roman geography, see <a href="/wiki/Tokharistan" title="Tokharistan">Tokharistan</a>. For the ancient Indian tribe sometimes identified as "Tocharians" (Tukharas), see <a href="/wiki/Tushara" title="Tushara">Tushara</a>. For the ancient Central Asian people in Chinese records controversially identified with the Tocharians, see <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Tocharians</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><figure class="mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_family,_Cave_17,_Kizil_(family_detail,_retouched).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Royal_family%2C_Cave_17%2C_Kizil_%28family_detail%2C_retouched%29.jpg/250px-Royal_family%2C_Cave_17%2C_Kizil_%28family_detail%2C_retouched%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="377" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Royal_family%2C_Cave_17%2C_Kizil_%28family_detail%2C_retouched%29.jpg/375px-Royal_family%2C_Cave_17%2C_Kizil_%28family_detail%2C_retouched%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Royal_family%2C_Cave_17%2C_Kizil_%28family_detail%2C_retouched%29.jpg/500px-Royal_family%2C_Cave_17%2C_Kizil_%28family_detail%2C_retouched%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="1956" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><div class="infobox-caption">Tocharian royal family of the oasis city-state of <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> (King, Queen and fair-haired young Princes), <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cave_of_the_Bodhisattva_Vault_(Cave_17)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Cave of the Bodhisattva Vault (Cave 17)">Cave 17</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a>. Circa 500 AD, <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum" title="Hermitage Museum">Hermitage Museum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sohu.com_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sohu.com-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AVLC68_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AVLC68-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> in 1st millennium AD<br />(modern-day <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian languages</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and others</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo culture</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Indo-European" title="Category:Indo-European">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;background:rgb(220,245,220);"><a href="/wiki/Category:Indo-European" title="Category:Indo-European">Indo-European topics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-European_migrations.gif" title="File:Indo-European migrations.gif"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/140px-Indo-European_migrations.gif" decoding="async" width="140" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/210px-Indo-European_migrations.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/280px-Indo-European_migrations.gif 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="598" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indo-European_languages" title="List of Indo-European languages">List of Indo-European languages</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Extant</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanoid" title="Albanoid">Albanoid</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languages" title="Balto-Slavic languages">Balto-Slavic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nuristani_languages" title="Nuristani languages">Nuristani</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Extinct</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Dacian_language" title="Dacian language">Dacian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_language" title="Illyrian language">Illyrian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Liburnian_language" title="Liburnian language">Liburnian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Messapic_language" title="Messapic language">Messapic</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Mysian_language" title="Mysian language">Mysian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Paeonian_language" title="Paeonian language">Paeonian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Thracian_language" title="Thracian language">Thracian</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Reconstructed</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Phonology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_sound_laws" title="Indo-European sound laws">Sound laws</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_accent" title="Proto-Indo-European accent">Accent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Ablaut</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Hypothetical</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Balkanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daco-Thracian" class="mw-redirect" title="Daco-Thracian">Daco-Thracian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Albanian" title="Graeco-Albanian">Graeco-Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Armenian" title="Graeco-Armenian">Graeco-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Aryan" title="Graeco-Aryan">Graeco-Aryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Phrygian" title="Graeco-Phrygian">Graeco-Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Hittite" title="Indo-Hittite">Indo-Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Celtic" title="Italo-Celtic">Italo-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thraco-Illyrian" title="Thraco-Illyrian">Thraco-Illyrian</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Grammar</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_vocabulary" title="Indo-European vocabulary">Vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_root" title="Proto-Indo-European root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verbs" title="Proto-Indo-European verbs">Verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_nominals" title="Proto-Indo-European nominals">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_pronouns" title="Proto-Indo-European pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_numerals" title="Proto-Indo-European numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_particles" title="Proto-Indo-European particles">Particles</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Other</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Albanian_language" title="Proto-Albanian language">Proto-Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Anatolian_language" title="Proto-Anatolian language">Proto-Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Italo-Celtic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Italo-Celtic language">Proto-Italo-Celtic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a> · <a href="/wiki/Proto-Italic_language" title="Proto-Italic language">Proto-Italic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic language">Proto-Balto-Slavic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Slavic language">Proto-Slavic</a> · <a href="/wiki/Proto-Baltic_language" title="Proto-Baltic language">Proto-Baltic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Iranian language">Proto-Iranian</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Philology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_inscriptions" title="Hittite inscriptions">Hittite inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphic_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphic Luwian">Hieroglyphic Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_inscriptions" title="Greek inscriptions">Greek epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language#Inscriptions" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapic_language#Inscriptions" title="Messapic language">Messapic epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin#Corpus" title="Old Latin">Latin epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaulish#Corpus" title="Gaulish">Gaulish epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runic_inscriptions" title="Runic inscriptions">Runic epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Bible" title="Gothic Bible">Gothic Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Armenian" title="Bible translations into Armenian">Bible translations into Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">Tocharian script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish#Sources" title="Old Irish">Old Irish glosses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanun_(Albania)" title="Kanun (Albania)">Albanian Kanun</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Origins</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_society" title="Proto-Indo-European society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Religion</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Mainstream<br /></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_nomads" title="Eurasian nomads">Eurasian nomads</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Alternative and fringe<br /></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_hypothesis" title="Armenian hypothesis">Armenian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beech_argument" title="Beech argument">Beech argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland#Baltic_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Baltic homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_continuity_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleolithic continuity theory">Paleolithic continuity theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Archaeology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic (Copper Age)</a><br /></dt></dl> <p><i>Pontic Steppe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_horse" title="Domestication of the horse">Domestication of the horse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan" title="Kurgan">Kurgan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_stelae" title="Kurgan stelae">Kurgan stelae</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurgan culture">Kurgan culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Horse,_the_Wheel,_and_Language" title="The Horse, the Wheel, and Language">Steppe cultures</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Bug%E2%80%93Dniester_culture" title="Bug–Dniester culture">Bug–Dniester</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Sredny_Stog_culture" title="Sredny Stog culture">Sredny Stog</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Dnieper%E2%80%93Donets_culture" title="Dnieper–Donets culture">Dnieper–Donets</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Samara_culture" title="Samara culture">Samara</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Khvalynsk_culture" title="Khvalynsk culture">Khvalynsk</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a></span> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Mikhaylovka_culture" title="Mikhaylovka culture">Mikhaylovka culture</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Novotitarovskaya_culture" title="Novotitarovskaya culture">Novotitarovskaya culture</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <p><i>Caucasus</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maykop_culture" title="Maykop culture">Maykop</a></li></ul> <p><i>East Asia</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo</a></li></ul> <p><i>Eastern Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Usatovo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Usatovo culture">Usatovo</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cernavod%C4%83_culture" title="Cernavodă culture">Cernavodă</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cucuteni%E2%80%93Trypillia_culture" title="Cucuteni–Trypillia culture">Cucuteni</a></li></ul> <p><i>Northern Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded ware</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Baden_culture" title="Baden culture">Baden</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dnieper_culture" title="Middle Dnieper culture">Middle Dnieper</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a><br /></dt></dl> <p><i>Pontic Steppe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">Chariot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacomb_culture" title="Catacomb culture">Catacomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-cordoned_ware_culture" title="Multi-cordoned ware culture">Multi-cordoned ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poltavka_culture" title="Poltavka culture">Poltavka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srubnaya_culture" title="Srubnaya culture">Srubnaya</a></li></ul> <p><i>Northern/Eastern Steppe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abashevo_culture" title="Abashevo culture">Abashevo culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta</a></li></ul> <p><i>Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Globular_Amphora_culture" title="Globular Amphora culture">Globular Amphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture" title="Bell Beaker culture">Bell Beaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9An%C4%9Btice_culture" title="Únětice culture">Únětice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trzciniec_culture" title="Trzciniec culture">Trzciniec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terramare_culture" title="Terramare culture">Terramare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus_culture" title="Tumulus culture">Tumulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_culture" title="Lusatian culture">Lusatian</a></li></ul> <p><i>South Asia</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaz_culture" title="Yaz culture">Yaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Gandhara grave</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></dt></dl> <p><i>Steppe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernoles_culture" title="Chernoles culture">Chernoles</a></li></ul> <p><i>Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thraco-Cimmerian" title="Thraco-Cimmerian">Thraco-Cimmerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jastorf_culture" title="Jastorf culture">Jastorf</a></li></ul> <p><i>Caucasus</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colchian_culture" title="Colchian culture">Colchian</a></li></ul> <p><i>India</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Peoples and societies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_peoples" title="Anatolian peoples">Anatolian peoples</a> (<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></span>) <br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></dt></dl> <p><i>Indo-Aryans</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryans</a></li></ul> <p><i>Iranians</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranians</a></li></ul> <p><i>East Asia</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li></ul> <p><i>Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Insular_Celts" title="Insular Celts">Insular Celts</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Hellenic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age Anatolia">Anatolia</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Dacians" title="Dacians">Dacians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Paeonians" title="Paeonians">Paeonians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Phrygians" title="Phrygians">Phrygians</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></dt></dl> <p><i>East Asia</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tocharians</a></li></ul> <p><i>Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Albanians" title="Origin of the Albanians">Albanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Balts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a>/<a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_peoples" title="North Germanic peoples">Medieval Scandinavians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li></ul> <p><i>Indo-Aryan</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval India</a></li></ul> <p><i>Iranian</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Religion and mythology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><i>Reconstructed</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Proto-Indo-European mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_paganism" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism">Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Ancient Iranian religion</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Historical</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li></ul> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indo-Aryan</a></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></span></li></ul> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Persian</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_mythology" title="Kurdish mythology">Kurdish</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_mythology" title="Ossetian mythology">Ossetian</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> <p><i>Others</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li></ul> <p><i><a href="/wiki/European_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="European paganism">European</a></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Albanian_paganism" title="Albanian paganism">Albanian</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Dacian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian religion">Dacian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_mythology" title="Scottish mythology">Scottish</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Breton_mythology" title="Breton mythology">Breton</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_mythology" title="Welsh mythology">Welsh</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Cornish_mythology" title="Cornish mythology">Cornish</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Practices</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship#Indo-European_religions" title="Fire worship">Fire rituals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_sacrifice" title="Horse sacrifice">Horse sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_solstice" title="Winter solstice">Winter solstice</a>/<a href="/wiki/Yule" title="Yule">Yule</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European studies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><i>Scholars</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marija_Gimbutas" title="Marija Gimbutas">Marija Gimbutas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">J. P. Mallory</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Institutes</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_Studies_in_Indo-European" title="Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European">Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Publications</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Horse,_the_Wheel,_and_Language" title="The Horse, the Wheel, and Language">The Horse, the Wheel, and Language</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Indo-European_Studies" title="Journal of Indo-European Studies">Journal of Indo-European Studies</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indogermanisches_etymologisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch">Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary" title="Indo-European Etymological Dictionary">Indo-European Etymological Dictionary</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indo-European_topics" title="Template:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indo-European_topics" title="Template talk:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indo-European_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Tocharians</b> or <b>Tokharians</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɛər/: 'are' in 'bare'">ɛər</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span></span><span class="wrap"> </span>-<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɑːr/: 'ar' in 'far'">ɑːr</span></span>-/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling">toh-<span style="font-size:90%">KAIR</span>-ee-ən, -⁠<span style="font-size:90%">KAR</span>-</i></a>;<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɑːr/: 'ar' in 'far'">ɑːr</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling">to-<span style="font-size:90%">KAR</span>-ee-ən</i></a>)<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were speakers of the <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a> known from around 7,600 documents from around AD 400 to 1200, found on the northern edge of the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-JPM4_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JPM4-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name "Tocharian" was given to these languages in the early 20th century by scholars who identified their speakers with a people known in ancient Greek sources as the <i><a href="/wiki/Tokharistan" title="Tokharistan">Tókharoi</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">Tochari</i>), who inhabited <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> from the 2nd century BC. This identification is now generally considered erroneous, but the name "Tocharian" remains the most common term for the languages and their speakers. Their actual ethnic name is unknown, although they may have <a href="/wiki/Endonym_and_exonym" title="Endonym and exonym">referred to themselves</a> as the <i><a href="/wiki/Karasahr" title="Karasahr">Agni</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kuči</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Kror%C3%A4n" class="mw-redirect" title="Krorän">Krorän</a></i> or as the <i>Agniya</i> and <i>Kuchiya</i> known from <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> texts.<sup id="cite_ref-MNW_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MNW-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="What is the relationship of these two lists to each other, and what precisely are the individual names within each list referring to? (November 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Agricultural communities first appeared in the oases of the northern Tarim circa 2000 BC. Some scholars have linked these communities to the <a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo culture</a> found earlier (c. 3500–2500 BC) in Siberia, north of the Tarim or Central Asian <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a> culture. The earliest <a href="/wiki/Tarim_mummies" title="Tarim mummies">Tarim mummies</a> date from c. 1800 BC, but it is unclear whether they are connected to the Tocharians of two millennia later. this once theorized ancestry between Tocharians and these mummies is however now largely considered to be discredited by the absence of a genetic connection with <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a>-speaking migrants, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Afanasievo" class="mw-redirect" title="Afanasievo">Afanasievo</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a> cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhang_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 2nd century BC, these settlements had developed into <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</a>, overshadowed by nomadic peoples to the north and Chinese empires to the east. These cities, the largest of which was <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a>, also served as way stations on the branch of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> that ran along the northern edge of the <a href="/wiki/Taklamakan_Desert" title="Taklamakan Desert">Taklamakan Desert</a>. </p><p>For several centuries, the Tarim basin was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>. From the 8th century AD, the <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghurs</a> – speakers of a <a href="/wiki/Turkic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkic language">Turkic language</a> – settled in the region and founded the <a href="/wiki/Qocho" title="Qocho">Kingdom of Qocho</a> that ruled the Tarim Basin. The peoples of the Tarim city-states intermixed with the Uyghurs, whose <a href="/wiki/Old_Uyghur_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Uyghur language">Old Uyghur language</a> spread through the region. The Tocharian languages are believed to have become extinct during the 9th century. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names">Names</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Names"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Around the beginning of the 20th century, archaeologists recovered a number of manuscripts from oases in the Tarim Basin written in two closely related but previously unknown <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>, which were easy to read because they used <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">a close variation</a> of the already deciphered Indian <a href="/wiki/Middle-Brahmi_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle-Brahmi script">Middle-Brahmi script</a>. These languages were designated in similar fashion by their geographical neighbours:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5jG1eHe3y4ECpgPA381_380-381]_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5jG1eHe3y4ECpgPA381_380-381]-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>A Buddhist work in <a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Turkic language">Old Turkic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghur</a>), included a <a href="/wiki/Colophon_(publishing)" title="Colophon (publishing)">colophon</a> stating that the text had been translated from <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> via <i>toxrï tyly</i> (<i>Tωγry tyly</i>, "The language of the Togari").<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5jG1eHe3y4ECpgPA381_380-381]_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5jG1eHe3y4ECpgPA381_380-381]-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MNW_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MNW-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Manichean texts in several languages of neighbouring regions used the expression "the land of the Four Toghar" (<i>Toγar</i>~<i>Toχar</i>, written <i>Twγr</i>) to designate the area "from <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karashar" class="mw-redirect" title="Karashar">Karashar</a> to <a href="/wiki/Qocho" title="Qocho">Qocho</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beshbalik" title="Beshbalik">Beshbalik</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5jG1eHe3y4ECpgPA381_380-381]_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5jG1eHe3y4ECpgPA381_380-381]-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_W._K._M%C3%BCller" title="Friedrich W. K. Müller">Friedrich W. K. Müller</a> was the first to propose a characterization for the newly discovered languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Tocharian_Online_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tocharian_Online-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5jG1eHe3y4ECpgPA381_380-383]_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5jG1eHe3y4ECpgPA381_380-383]-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Müller called the languages "<a href="/wiki/Tocharian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tocharian language">Tocharian</a>" (German <i>Tocharisch</i>), linking this <i>toxrï</i> (Tωγry, "Togari")<sup id="cite_ref-MNW_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MNW-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the ethnonym <i>Tókharoi</i> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Τόχαροι</span>) applied by <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> to one of the "<a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Scythian</a>" tribes "from the country on the other side of the <a href="/wiki/Jaxartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaxartes">Iaxartes</a>" that overran the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Bactrian kingdom">Greco-Bactrian kingdom</a> (present day <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>) in the second half of the 2nd century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5jG1eHe3y4ECpgPA381_380-383]_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5jG1eHe3y4ECpgPA381_380-383]-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This term also appears in Indo-Iranian languages (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Tushara" title="Tushara">Tushara</a></i>/<i>Tukhāra</i>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a> <i>tuxāri-</i>, <a href="/wiki/Saka_language" title="Saka language">Khotanese</a> <i>ttahvāra</i>), and became the source of the term "<a href="/wiki/Tokharistan" title="Tokharistan">Tokharistan</a>" usually referring to 1st millennium <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Takhar_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Takhar province">Takhar province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>. The <i>Tókharoi</i> are often identified by modern scholars with the <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a> of Chinese historical accounts, who founded the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000270–297_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000270–297-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200983–84_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200983–84-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Müller's identification became a minority position among scholars when it turned out that the people of <a href="/wiki/Tokharistan" title="Tokharistan">Tokharistan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a>) spoke <a href="/wiki/Bactrian_language" title="Bactrian language">Bactrian</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Iranian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Iranian language">Eastern Iranian language</a>, which is quite distinct from the Tocharian languages. Nevertheless, "Tocharian" remained the standard term for the languages of the Tarim Basin manuscripts and for the people who produced them.<sup id="cite_ref-Tocharian_Online_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tocharian_Online-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997509_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997509-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few scholars argue that the Yuezhi were originally speakers of Tocharian who later adopted the Bactrian language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009381_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009381-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The name of Kucha in Tocharian B was <i>Kuśi</i>, with adjectival form <i>kuśiññe</i>. The word may be derived from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a> *keuk "shining, white".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams2013198_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams2013198-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Tocharian B word <i>akeññe</i> may have referred to people of Agni, with a derivation meaning "borderers, marchers".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams20132–3_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams20132–3-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the Tocharian A texts have <i>ārśi-käntwā</i> as a name for their own language, so that <i>ārśi</i> may have meant "Agnean", though "monk" is also possible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams201357_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams201357-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tocharian kings apparently gave themselves the title <i>Ñäktemts soy</i> (in Tocharian B), an equivalent of the title <i>Devaputra</i> ("Son of God") of the <a href="/wiki/Kushans" class="mw-redirect" title="Kushans">Kushans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Languages">Languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Tocharian_language" title="Proto-Tocharian language">Proto-Tocharian language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian languages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Figure_of_nobility,_Cave_17,_Kizil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Figure_of_nobility%2C_Cave_17%2C_Kizil.jpg/170px-Figure_of_nobility%2C_Cave_17%2C_Kizil.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Figure_of_nobility%2C_Cave_17%2C_Kizil.jpg/255px-Figure_of_nobility%2C_Cave_17%2C_Kizil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Figure_of_nobility%2C_Cave_17%2C_Kizil.jpg/340px-Figure_of_nobility%2C_Cave_17%2C_Kizil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="948" data-file-height="1596" /></a><figcaption>Figure of Tocharian nobility, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cave_of_the_Bodhisattva_Vault_(Cave_17)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Cave of the Bodhisattva Vault (Cave 17)">Cave 17</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a>, circa 500 AD</figcaption></figure> <p>The Tocharian languages are known from around 7600 documents dating from about 400 to 1200 AD, found at 30 sites in the northeast Tarim area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory20156–7_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory20156–7-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The manuscripts are written in two distinct, but closely related, <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>, conventionally known as Tocharian A and Tocharian B.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinter1998154_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinter1998154-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to glotto-chronological data, Tocharian languages are closest to Western Indo-European languages such as proto-Germanic or proto-Italian, and being devoid of <a href="/wiki/Satemization" class="mw-redirect" title="Satemization">satemization</a> predate the evolution of eastern Indo-European languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKovalev201117_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev201117-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tocharian A (Agnean or East Tocharian) was found in the northeastern oases known to the Tocharians as <a href="/wiki/Karasahr" title="Karasahr">Ārśi</a>, later Agni (i.e. Chinese Yanqi; modern Karasahr) and <a href="/wiki/Turpan" title="Turpan">Turpan</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Gaochang" title="Gaochang">Khocho</a> or Qočo; known in Chinese as Gaochang). Some 500 manuscripts have been studied in detail, mostly coming from Buddhist monasteries. Many authors take this to imply that Tocharian A had become a purely literary and liturgical language by the time of the manuscripts, but it may be that the surviving documents are unrepresentative.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory20154_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory20154-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tocharian B (Kuchean or West Tocharian) was found at all the Tocharian A sites and also in several sites further west, including <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kuchi</a> (later Kucha). It appears to have still been in use in daily life at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over 3200 manuscripts have been studied in detail.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory20154_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory20154-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The languages had significant differences in phonology, morphology and vocabulary, making them mutually unintelligible "at least as much as modern Germanic or Romance languages".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinter1998155_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinter1998155-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory20157_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory20157-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tocharian A shows innovations in the vowels and nominal inflection, whereas Tocharian B has changes in the consonants and verbal inflection. Many of the differences in vocabulary between the languages concern Buddhist concepts, which may suggest that they were associated with different Buddhist traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinter1998155_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinter1998155-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Se_pa%C3%B1%C3%A4kte_sa%E1%B9%85ketavattse_%E1%B9%A3arsa_papaiykau.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Se_pa%C3%B1%C3%A4kte_sa%E1%B9%85ketavattse_%E1%B9%A3arsa_papaiykau.jpg/280px-Se_pa%C3%B1%C3%A4kte_sa%E1%B9%85ketavattse_%E1%B9%A3arsa_papaiykau.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Se_pa%C3%B1%C3%A4kte_sa%E1%B9%85ketavattse_%E1%B9%A3arsa_papaiykau.jpg/420px-Se_pa%C3%B1%C3%A4kte_sa%E1%B9%85ketavattse_%E1%B9%A3arsa_papaiykau.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Se_pa%C3%B1%C3%A4kte_sa%E1%B9%85ketavattse_%E1%B9%A3arsa_papaiykau.jpg/560px-Se_pa%C3%B1%C3%A4kte_sa%E1%B9%85ketavattse_%E1%B9%A3arsa_papaiykau.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1858" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">Tocharian script</a> is very similar to the Indian <a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a> period, with only slight variations in calligraphy. Tocharian language inscription: <i>Se pañäkte saṅketavattse ṣarsa papaiykau</i> "This Buddha was painted by the hand of Sanketava",<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on a painting <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dated" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dated">carbon dated</a> to 245-340 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The differences indicate that they diverged from a common ancestor between 500 and 1000 years before the earliest documents, that is, sometime in the 1st millennium BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory20157–8_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory20157–8-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common Indo-European vocabulary retained in Tocharian includes words for herding, cattle, sheep, pigs, dogs, horses, textiles, farming, wheat, gold, silver, and wheeled vehicles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory201517–19_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory201517–19-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> documents from 3rd century <a href="/wiki/Kror%C3%A4n" class="mw-redirect" title="Krorän">Krorän</a>, Andir and <a href="/wiki/Niya_(Tarim_Basin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niya (Tarim Basin)">Niya</a> on the southeast edge of the Tarim Basin contain around 100 loanwords and 1000 proper names that cannot be traced to an <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indic</a> or Iranian source.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000277–278_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000277–278-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Burrow" title="Thomas Burrow">Thomas Burrow</a> suggested that they come from a variety of Tocharian, dubbed Tocharian C or Kroränian, which may have been spoken by at least some of the local populace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000278–279_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000278–279-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Burrow's theory is widely accepted, but the evidence is meagre and inconclusive, and some scholars favour alternative explanations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory20156–7_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory20156–7-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maya_Cave_224,_Tocharian_Prince_mourning_the_Buddha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Maya_Cave_224%2C_Tocharian_Prince_mourning_the_Buddha.jpg/300px-Maya_Cave_224%2C_Tocharian_Prince_mourning_the_Buddha.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Maya_Cave_224%2C_Tocharian_Prince_mourning_the_Buddha.jpg/450px-Maya_Cave_224%2C_Tocharian_Prince_mourning_the_Buddha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Maya_Cave_224%2C_Tocharian_Prince_mourning_the_Buddha.jpg/600px-Maya_Cave_224%2C_Tocharian_Prince_mourning_the_Buddha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="773" data-file-height="575" /></a><figcaption>Tocharian Prince mourning the Cremation of the Buddha, in <a href="/wiki/File:Maya_Cave_224,_mural_3.jpg" title="File:Maya Cave 224, mural 3.jpg">a mural</a> from Maya Cave (224) in <a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil</a>. He is cutting his forehead with a knife, a practice of self-mutilation also known among the <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AVLC80_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AVLC80-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Most of the Tocharian inscriptions are based on <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> monastic texts, which suggests that the Tocharians largely embraced <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>. The pre-Buddhist beliefs of the Tocharians are largely unknown, but several Chinese goddesses are similar to the reconstructed <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European religion">Proto-Indo-European</a> <a href="/wiki/Sun_goddess" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun goddess">sun goddess</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hausos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hausos">dawn goddess</a>, which implies that the Chinese were influenced by the pre-Buddhist beliefs of the Tocharians when they traveled on trade routes which were located in Tocharian territories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnow2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnow2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tocharian B has a noun <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sw%C4%81%C3%B1co" class="extiw" title="wikt:swāñco">swāñco</a> derived from the name of the Proto-Indo-European sun goddess, while Tocharian A has <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ko%E1%B9%83" class="extiw" title="wikt:koṃ">koṃ</a>, a loanword etymologically connected to the Turkic sun goddess <a href="/wiki/Gun_Ana" title="Gun Ana">Gun Ana</a>. Besides this, they might have also worshipped a <a href="/wiki/Lunar_deity" title="Lunar deity">lunar deity</a> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/me%C3%B1-" class="extiw" title="wikt:meñ-">meñ-</a>) and an earth one (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ke%E1%B9%83-" class="extiw" title="wikt:keṃ-">keṃ-</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory2015[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory2015[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The murals found in the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a>, especially those of the <a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a>, mostly depict <a href="/wiki/Jataka" class="mw-redirect" title="Jataka">Jataka</a> stories, <a href="/wiki/Avadana" title="Avadana">avadanas</a>, and legends of the Buddha, and are an artistic representation in the tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a> school of the <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvastivadas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-tokharian_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tokharian-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Chinese Monk <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> visited <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> in 630 AD, he received the favours of the Tocharian king Suvarnadeva, the son and successor of <a href="/wiki/Suvarnapushpa" title="Suvarnapushpa">Suvarnapushpa</a>, whom he described as a believer of <a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a> Buddhism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197099_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset197099-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the account of his travel to <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> (屈支国) he stated that "There are about one hundred convents (saṅghārāmas) in this country, with five thousand and more disciples. These belong to the <a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Little Vehicle</a> of the school of the <a href="/wiki/Sarv%C4%81stiv%C4%81das" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarvāstivādas">Sarvāstivādas</a> (zhuyiqieyoubu). Their doctrine (teaching of Sūtras) and their rules of discipline (principles of the Vinaya) are like those of India, and those who read them use the same (originals)."<sup id="cite_ref-DCW_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DCW-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Psychology_Press_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Psychology_Press-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-屈支国_in_大唐西域记/01_-_维基文库，自由的图书馆_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-屈支国_in_大唐西域记/01_-_维基文库，自由的图书馆-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proposed_precursors">Proposed precursors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Proposed precursors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The route by which speakers of Indo-European languages reached the Tarim Basin is uncertain. A leading contender is the <a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo culture</a>, who occupied the Altai region to the north between 3300 and 2500 BC. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Afanasievo_culture">Afanasievo culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Afanasievo culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="noresize thumb tright" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:402px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:0px; top:0px; width:400px; position:absolute;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-European_migrations.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Indo-European migrations, with location of the Afanasievo culture (genetically identical to the Yamnaya culture of the Pontic steppes) and their probable Tocharian descendants.[46]"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Indo-European_migrations.jpg/400px-Indo-European_migrations.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Indo-European_migrations.jpg/600px-Indo-European_migrations.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Indo-European_migrations.jpg/800px-Indo-European_migrations.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3326" data-file-height="1372" /></a></span></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:transparent; line-height:110%;"> <div id="annotation_260x10" style="position:absolute; left:260px; top:10px; font-size:10px; font-weight:bold; font-size:10; line-height:12px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#FF4500;"><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo<br />culture</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_230x73" style="position:absolute; left:230px; top:73px; font-size:10px; font-weight:bold; font-size:10; line-height:12px;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;">Tocharians</span></div> <div id="annotation_270x56" style="position:absolute; left:270px; top:56px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Feather-arrows-arrow-down-left.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Feather-arrows-arrow-down-left.svg/20px-Feather-arrows-arrow-down-left.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Feather-arrows-arrow-down-left.svg/30px-Feather-arrows-arrow-down-left.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Feather-arrows-arrow-down-left.svg/40px-Feather-arrows-arrow-down-left.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="24" data-file-height="24" /></a></span></span></div> <div id="annotation_205x113" style="position:absolute; left:205px; top:113px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#FF4500;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryans">Indo-Aryans</a></span></div> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-European_migrations.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Indo-European_migrations.jpg/400px-Indo-European_migrations.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Indo-European_migrations.jpg/600px-Indo-European_migrations.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Indo-European_migrations.jpg/800px-Indo-European_migrations.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3326" data-file-height="1372" /></a></span></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-European_migrations.jpg" title="File:Indo-European migrations.jpg"> </a></div><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a>, with location of the <a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo culture</a> (genetically identical to the <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Pontic_steppes" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontic steppes">Pontic steppes</a>) and their probable Tocharian descendants.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chemurchek_statue_Khukh_uzuuriin_dugui_I_-_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Chemurchek_statue_Khukh_uzuuriin_dugui_I_-_1.png/110px-Chemurchek_statue_Khukh_uzuuriin_dugui_I_-_1.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Chemurchek_statue_Khukh_uzuuriin_dugui_I_-_1.png/165px-Chemurchek_statue_Khukh_uzuuriin_dugui_I_-_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Chemurchek_statue_Khukh_uzuuriin_dugui_I_-_1.png/220px-Chemurchek_statue_Khukh_uzuuriin_dugui_I_-_1.png 2x" data-file-width="785" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Chemurchek statue, Khukh uzuuriin dugui I - 1. <a href="/wiki/Bulgan,_Khovd" title="Bulgan, Khovd">Bulgan, Khovd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKovalev2012124,_statue_55_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev2012124,_statue_55-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The Afanasievo culture resulted from an eastern offshoot of the <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a>, originally based in the <a href="/wiki/Pontic_steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontic steppe">Pontic steppe</a> north of the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus Mountains</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Allentoft_2015_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allentoft_2015-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Afanasevo culture (c. 3500–2500 BC) displays cultural and genetic connections with the Indo-European-associated cultures of the Central Asian steppe yet predates the specifically <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranian</a>-associated <a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a> (c. 2000–900 BC). </p><p><a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">J. P. Mallory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Victor_H._Mair" title="Victor H. Mair">Victor H. Mair</a> argued that the Tarim Basin was first settled by <a href="/wiki/Proto-Tocharian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Tocharian">Proto-Tocharian</a>-speakers from an eastern offshoot of the Afanasievo culture, who migrated to the south and occupied the northern and eastern edges of the basin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000314–318_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000314–318-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early eastward expansion of the Yamnaya culture circa 3300 BC is enough to account for the isolation of the Tocharian languages from <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a> linguistic innovations like <a href="/wiki/Satemization" class="mw-redirect" title="Satemization">satemization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000294–296,_317–318_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000294–296,_317–318-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Michaël Peyrot argues that several of the most striking typological peculiarities of Tocharian are rooted in a prolonged contact of Proto-Tocharian-speaking Afanasievans with speakers of an early stage of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Samoyedic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Samoyedic">Proto-Samoyedic</a> in South Siberia. Among others, this might explain the merger of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">all three-stop series</a> (e.g., *t, *d, *dʰ > *t), which must have led to a huge amount of <a href="/wiki/Homonyms" class="mw-redirect" title="Homonyms">homonyms</a>, as well as the development of an <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">agglutinative</a> case system.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chao Ning et al. (2019) found in burials from around 200 BC at the <a href="/wiki/Shirenzigou_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Shirenzigou site">Shirenzigou site</a> on the eastern edge of <a href="/wiki/Dzungaria" title="Dzungaria">Dzungaria</a> 20–80% Yamnaya-like ancestry, lending support to the hypothesis of a migration from Afanasievo into Dzungaria, which is just north of the Tarim Basin.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemurchek_culture">Chemurchek culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Chemurchek culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to archaeologist Alexey Kovalev, the <a href="/wiki/Chemurchek_culture" title="Chemurchek culture">Chemurchek culture</a> (2750-1900 BCE), an Altaic culture with many similarities with cultures of Western Europe and especially Southern France in burial and statuary styles, may have been associated with the Proto-Tokharians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKovalev201117_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev201117-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to glotto-chronological data, proto-Tokharians must have migrated to the east around the same period, and their Western Indo-European language is closest to proto-Germanic and proto-Italic, corresponding to the broad geographical area encompassing southern France where the style most similar to those of the Chemurchek culture have been identified.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKovalev201117_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev201117-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The language of the Chemurchek/Proto-Tokharians may have originated from the same general location in Western Europe, as did their burial and statuary styles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKovalev201117_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev201117-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tarim_Basin">Tarim Basin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Tarim Basin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_settlement">Early settlement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early settlement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Taklamakan_Desert" title="Taklamakan Desert">Taklamakan Desert</a> is roughly oval in shape, about 1,000 km long and 400 km wide, surrounded on three sides by high mountains. The main part of the desert is sandy, surrounded by a belt of gravel desert.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995247_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995247-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The desert is completely barren, but in the late spring the melting snows of the surrounding mountains feed streams, which have been altered by human activity to create oases with mild <a href="/wiki/Microclimate" title="Microclimate">microclimates</a> and supporting intensive agriculture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995247_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995247-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the northern edge of the basin, these oases occur in small valleys before the gravels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995247_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995247-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the southern edge, they occur in <a href="/wiki/Alluvial_fan" title="Alluvial fan">alluvial fans</a> on the edge of the sand zone. Isolated alluvial fan oases also occur in the gravel deserts of the <a href="/wiki/Turpan_Depression" title="Turpan Depression">Turpan Depression</a> to the east of the Taklamakan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995248_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995248-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From around 2000 BC, these oases supported Bronze Age settled agricultural communities of steadily increasing sophistication.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995250–272_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995250–272-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The necessary irrigation technology was first developed during the 3rd millennium BC in the <a href="/wiki/Bactria-Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex</a> (BMAC) to the west of the <a href="/wiki/Pamir_mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Pamir mountains">Pamir mountains</a>, but it is unclear how it reached the Tarim.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995245_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995245-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000262,_269_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000262,_269-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The staple crops, wheat and barley, also originated in the west.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000269_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000269-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tarim_mummies">Tarim mummies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Tarim mummies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tarim_mummies" title="Tarim mummies">Tarim mummies</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:166px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Xinjiang_Uygur_Autonomous_Region_Museum_Urumqi_Xinjiang_China_%E6%96%B0%E7%96%86_%E4%B9%8C%E9%B2%81%E6%9C%A8%E9%BD%90_%E6%96%B0%E7%96%86%E7%BB%B4%E5%90%BE%E5%B0%94%E8%87%AA%E6%B2%BB%E5%8C%BA%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A6%86_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Xinjiang_Uygur_Autonomous_Region_Museum_Urumqi_Xinjiang_China_%E6%96%B0%E7%96%86_%E4%B9%8C%E9%B2%81%E6%9C%A8%E9%BD%90_%E6%96%B0%E7%96%86%E7%BB%B4%E5%90%BE%E5%B0%94%E8%87%AA%E6%B2%BB%E5%8C%BA%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A6%86_-_panoramio.jpg/222px-Xinjiang_Uygur_Autonomous_Region_Museum_Urumqi_Xinjiang_China_%E6%96%B0%E7%96%86_%E4%B9%8C%E9%B2%81%E6%9C%A8%E9%BD%90_%E6%96%B0%E7%96%86%E7%BB%B4%E5%90%BE%E5%B0%94%E8%87%AA%E6%B2%BB%E5%8C%BA%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A6%86_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="222" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Xinjiang_Uygur_Autonomous_Region_Museum_Urumqi_Xinjiang_China_%E6%96%B0%E7%96%86_%E4%B9%8C%E9%B2%81%E6%9C%A8%E9%BD%90_%E6%96%B0%E7%96%86%E7%BB%B4%E5%90%BE%E5%B0%94%E8%87%AA%E6%B2%BB%E5%8C%BA%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A6%86_-_panoramio.jpg/333px-Xinjiang_Uygur_Autonomous_Region_Museum_Urumqi_Xinjiang_China_%E6%96%B0%E7%96%86_%E4%B9%8C%E9%B2%81%E6%9C%A8%E9%BD%90_%E6%96%B0%E7%96%86%E7%BB%B4%E5%90%BE%E5%B0%94%E8%87%AA%E6%B2%BB%E5%8C%BA%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A6%86_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Xinjiang_Uygur_Autonomous_Region_Museum_Urumqi_Xinjiang_China_%E6%96%B0%E7%96%86_%E4%B9%8C%E9%B2%81%E6%9C%A8%E9%BD%90_%E6%96%B0%E7%96%86%E7%BB%B4%E5%90%BE%E5%B0%94%E8%87%AA%E6%B2%BB%E5%8C%BA%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A6%86_-_panoramio.jpg/444px-Xinjiang_Uygur_Autonomous_Region_Museum_Urumqi_Xinjiang_China_%E6%96%B0%E7%96%86_%E4%B9%8C%E9%B2%81%E6%9C%A8%E9%BD%90_%E6%96%B0%E7%96%86%E7%BB%B4%E5%90%BE%E5%B0%94%E8%87%AA%E6%B2%BB%E5%8C%BA%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A6%86_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1800" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">One of the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_mummies" title="Tarim mummies">Tarim mummies</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:164px;max-width:164px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:166px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Loulan_beauty_face.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Loulan_beauty_face.jpg/162px-Loulan_beauty_face.jpg" decoding="async" width="162" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Loulan_beauty_face.jpg/243px-Loulan_beauty_face.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Loulan_beauty_face.jpg/324px-Loulan_beauty_face.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1253" data-file-height="1284" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">"<a href="/wiki/Loulan" class="mw-redirect" title="Loulan">Loulan</a> beauty"</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The oldest of the Tarim mummies, bodies preserved by the desert conditions, date from 2000 BC and were found on the eastern edge of the Tarim Basin. The mummies have been described as being both "Caucasoid" and "Mongoloid", and mixed-race individuals are also observed.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A genetic study of remains from the oldest layer of the <a href="/wiki/Xiaohe_Cemetery" title="Xiaohe Cemetery">Xiaohe Cemetery</a> found that the <a href="/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_DNA_haplogroup" title="Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup">maternal lineages</a> were a mixture of east and west Eurasian types, while all the <a href="/wiki/Human_Y-chromosome_DNA_haplogroup" title="Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup">paternal lineages</a> were of west Eurasian type.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiLiCuiXie2010_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiLiCuiXie2010-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is unknown whether they are connected with the frescoes painted at Tocharian sites more than two millennia later, which also depict some figures with light hair color. However, genetic studies have failed to find a direct link between the mummies and the Tocharians.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhang_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mummies were found with plaid-woven tapestries that are notably similar to the weaving pattern of the "tartan" style of the <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt culture</a> of central Europe, associated with <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a>; the wool used in the tapestries was found to come from sheep with European ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2021 genetic study demonstrated that the Tarim mummies were unrelated to Afanasievo populations and instead were a genetic isolate descending mainly from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Eurasian" title="Ancient North Eurasian">Ancient North Eurasians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_migrations">Later migrations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Later migrations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Later, groups of <a href="/wiki/Nomadic_pastoralism" title="Nomadic pastoralism">nomadic pastoralists</a> moved from the steppe into the grasslands to the north and northeast of the Tarim. They were the ancestors of peoples later known to Chinese authors as the <a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000318_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000318-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is thought that at least some of them spoke <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000318_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000318-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but a minority of scholars suggest that the Yuezhi were Tocharian speakers.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200984,_380–383_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200984,_380–383-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1st millennium BC, a further wave of immigrants, the <a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a> speaking Iranian languages, arrived from the west and settled along the southern rim of the Tarim.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000268,_318_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000268,_318-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are believed to be the source of Iranian loanwords in Tocharian languages, particularly related to commerce and warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000310–311,_318_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000310–311,_318-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Subeshi_culture" title="Subeshi culture">Subeshi culture</a> is a candidate for the Iron Age predecessors of the Tocharians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory201524_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory201524-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Oasis_states">Oasis states</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Oasis states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Larger_Tarim_oasis_states_(1st_century_BC).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Larger_Tarim_oasis_states_%281st_century_BC%29.svg/300px-Larger_Tarim_oasis_states_%281st_century_BC%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Larger_Tarim_oasis_states_%281st_century_BC%29.svg/450px-Larger_Tarim_oasis_states_%281st_century_BC%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Larger_Tarim_oasis_states_%281st_century_BC%29.svg/600px-Larger_Tarim_oasis_states_%281st_century_BC%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="844" data-file-height="454" /></a><figcaption>Major oasis states of the ancient Tarim Basin</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/450px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/600px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3196" data-file-height="1840" /></a></span><div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Tocharian_areas.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Map_of_Tocharian_areas.png/300px-Map_of_Tocharian_areas.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Map_of_Tocharian_areas.png/450px-Map_of_Tocharian_areas.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Map_of_Tocharian_areas.png/600px-Map_of_Tocharian_areas.png 2x" data-file-width="3196" data-file-height="1840" 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style="position:absolute; left:121px; top:89px; font-size:5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:5; line-height:7px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Nezak_Huns" title="Nezak Huns"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><i><b>Nezaks</b></i></span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_159x69" style="position:absolute; left:159px; top:69px; font-size:5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:5; line-height:7px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">TOCHA-<br />RIANS</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_150x90" style="position:absolute; left:150px; top:90px; font-size:5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:5; line-height:7px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Zhangzhung" title="Zhangzhung"><span class="mw-no-invert" 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color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Baltic-Finnic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic-Finnic peoples"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><i><b>Finnish</b></i></span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_65x10" style="position:absolute; left:65px; top:10px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Ugrians" title="Ugrians"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><i><b>Ugrians</b></i></span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_115x10" style="position:absolute; left:115px; top:10px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Yakuts" title="Yakuts"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><i><b>Yakuts</b></i></span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_110x30" style="position:absolute; left:110px; top:30px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Bashkirs" title="Bashkirs"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><i><b>Bashkirs</b></i></span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_1x38" style="position:absolute; left:1px; top:38px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Antes_people" title="Antes people"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><i><b>Antes</b></i></span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_278x70" style="position:absolute; left:278px; top:70px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">GOGU-<br />RYEO</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_22x144" style="position:absolute; left:22px; top:144px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><b>AKSUM</b></span></a></span></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Asia_physical_(continental).png" title="File:Map Asia physical (continental).png">class=notpageimage| </a></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">The Tocharians and contemporary Asian polities c. 500 AD.</div></div></div></div> <p>The first record of the oasis states is found in Chinese histories. The <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Han" title="Book of Han">Book of Han</a></i> lists 36 statelets in the Tarim basin in the last two centuries BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200066_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200066-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These oases served as waystations on the trade routes forming part of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> passing along the northern and southern edges of the Taklamakan desert.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward20216_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward20216-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The largest were <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> with 81,000 inhabitants and <a href="/wiki/Karasahr" title="Karasahr">Agni</a> (Yanqi or Karashar) with 32,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200068,_72_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200068,_72-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Next was the <a href="/wiki/Loulan_Kingdom" title="Loulan Kingdom">Loulan Kingdom</a> (Krorän), first mentioned in 126 BC. Chinese histories give no evidence of ethnic changes in these cities between that time and the period of the Tocharian manuscripts from these sites.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997591_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997591-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Situated on the northern and southern edges of the Tarim, these small urban societies were overshadowed by <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_nomads" title="Eurasian nomads">nomadic peoples</a> to the north and Chinese empires to the east. They became the object of rivalry between the Chinese and the Xiongnu. They conceded tributary relations with the larger powers when required, and acted independently when they could.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200072_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200072-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Xiongnu_and_Han_empires">Xiongnu and Han empires</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Xiongnu and Han empires"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 177 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a> drove the <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a> from western Gansu, causing most of them to flee west to the <a href="/wiki/Ili_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Ili Valley">Ili Valley</a> and then to <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a>. The Xiongnu then overcame the Tarim statelets, which became a vital part of their empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYü1986405,_407_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYü1986405,_407-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chinese <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> was determined to weaken their Xiongnu enemies by depriving them of this area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYü1986407_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYü1986407-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was achieved in a series of campaigns beginning in 108 BC and culminating in the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Protectorate_of_the_Western_Regions" title="Protectorate of the Western Regions">Protectorate of the Western Regions</a> in 60 BC under <a href="/wiki/Zheng_Ji_(general)" title="Zheng Ji (general)">Zheng Ji</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYü1986409–411_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYü1986409–411-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Han government used a range of tactics, including plots to assassinate local rulers, direct attacks on a few states (e.g. Kucha in 65 BC) to cow the rest, and the massacre of the entire population of <a href="/wiki/Luntai" class="mw-redirect" title="Luntai">Luntai</a> (80 km east of Kucha) when they resisted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe197949_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe197949-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Han">Later Han</a> (25–220 AD), the whole <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> again became a focus of rivalry between the <a href="/wiki/Xiong-nu" class="mw-redirect" title="Xiong-nu">Xiong-nu</a> to the north and the Chinese to the east.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197040-47_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset197040-47-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 74 AD, Chinese troops started to take control of the Tarim Basin with the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Turfan" class="mw-redirect" title="Turfan">Turfan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197042_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset197042-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1st century AD, Kucha resisted the Chinese invasion, and allied itself with the <a href="/wiki/Xiong-nu" class="mw-redirect" title="Xiong-nu">Xiong-nu</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a> against the Chinese general <a href="/wiki/Ban_Chao" title="Ban Chao">Ban Chao</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197045-46_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset197045-46-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kujula_Kadphises" title="Kujula Kadphises">Kujula Kadphises</a> sent an army to the Tarim Basin to support Kucha, but they retreated after minor encounters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197045-46_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset197045-46-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 124, <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> formally submitted to the Chinese court, and by 127 China had conquered the whole of the Tarim Basin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197048_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset197048-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> China's control of the Silk Road facilitated the exchange of art and the progation of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> from Central Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197047-48_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset197047-48-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman <a href="/wiki/Maes_Titianus" title="Maes Titianus">Maes Titianus</a> is known to have visited the area in the 2nd century AD,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197040,_48_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset197040,_48-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as did numerous great Buddhist missionaries such as the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a> <a href="/wiki/An_Shigao" title="An Shigao">An Shigao</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhis</a> <a href="/wiki/Lokaksema_(Buddhist_monk)" title="Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)">Lokaksema</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhi_Qian" title="Zhi Qian">Zhi Qian</a>, or the Indian Chu Sho-fu (竺朔佛).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCHzGvqRbV_ICpgPA49_49_ff]_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCHzGvqRbV_ICpgPA49_49_ff]-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Han controlled the Tarim states until their final withdrawal in 150 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen201266_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen201266-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202123_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202123-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kushan_Empire_(2nd_century_AD)"><span id="Kushan_Empire_.282nd_century_AD.29"></span>Kushan Empire (2nd century AD)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Kushan Empire (2nd century AD)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Devotees_of_the_Cave_of_the_Hippocampi,_Kizil_Caves.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Devotees_of_the_Cave_of_the_Hippocampi%2C_Kizil_Caves.jpg/440px-Devotees_of_the_Cave_of_the_Hippocampi%2C_Kizil_Caves.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Devotees_of_the_Cave_of_the_Hippocampi%2C_Kizil_Caves.jpg/660px-Devotees_of_the_Cave_of_the_Hippocampi%2C_Kizil_Caves.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Devotees_of_the_Cave_of_the_Hippocampi%2C_Kizil_Caves.jpg/880px-Devotees_of_the_Cave_of_the_Hippocampi%2C_Kizil_Caves.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3808" data-file-height="1356" /></a><figcaption>Tocharian kneeling devotees circa 300 AD, in the paintings of the <i><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cave_of_the_Hippocampi_(Cave_118)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Cave of the Hippocampi (Cave 118)">Cave of the Hippocampi</a></i> (Cave 118), <a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MMRB651_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MMRB651-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a> expanded into the Tarim during the 2nd century AD, bringing <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, Kushan art, <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> as a liturgical language and <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> as an administrative language (in the southern Tarim states).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200097_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200097-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With these Indic languages came scripts, including the <a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a> (later adapted to write Tocharian) and the <a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a> script.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000115_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000115-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the 3rd century, Kucha became a center of Buddhist studies. <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a> were translated into Chinese by Kuchean monks, the most famous of whom was <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a> (344–412/5).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalter19985–9_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalter19985–9-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen201266_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen201266-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Captured by <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Guang" title="Lü Guang">Lü Guang</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Later_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Later Liang</a> in an attack on Kucha in 384, Kumārajīva learned Chinese during his years of captivity in Gansu. In 401, he was brought to the <a href="/wiki/Later_Qin" title="Later Qin">Later Qin</a> capital of <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a>, where he remained as head of a translation bureau until his death in 413.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202127–28_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202127–28-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen201268_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen201268-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a> lie 65 km west of Kucha, and contain over 236 Buddhist temples. Their murals date from the 3rd to the 8th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalter199821–17_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalter199821–17-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these murals were removed by <a href="/wiki/Albert_von_Le_Coq" title="Albert von Le Coq">Albert von Le Coq</a> and other European archaeologists in the early 20th century, and are now held in European museums, but others remain in their original locations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen201261–65_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen201261–65-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An increasingly dry climate in the 4th and 5th centuries led to the abandonment of several of the southern cities, including <a href="/wiki/Niya_(Tarim_Basin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niya (Tarim Basin)">Niya</a> and Krorän, with a consequent shift of trade from the southern route to the northern one.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202125–26_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202125–26-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Confederations of nomadic tribes also began to jostle for supremacy. The northern oasis states were conquered by <a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a> in the late 5th century, leaving the local leaders in place. The nearby area of <a href="/wiki/Gaochang" title="Gaochang">Gaochang</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Jushi_Kingdom" title="Jushi Kingdom">Jushi Kingdom</a> were alternatively ruled as a Chinese Prefecture, taken over by the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Liang" title="Northern Liang">Northern Liang</a> in 442 CE, conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran Khaganate</a> in 460, and conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Tiele_people" title="Tiele people">Gaoju Turks</a> in 488. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flourishing_of_the_oasis_states">Flourishing of the oasis states</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Flourishing of the oasis states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cave_123_complete_with_sides.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Cave_123_complete_with_sides.jpg/170px-Cave_123_complete_with_sides.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Cave_123_complete_with_sides.jpg/255px-Cave_123_complete_with_sides.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Cave_123_complete_with_sides.jpg/340px-Cave_123_complete_with_sides.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3991" data-file-height="5095" /></a><figcaption>The Buddhist <i><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cave_with_the_Ring-Bearing_Doves_(Kizil)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Cave with the Ring-Bearing Doves (Kizil)">Cave with the Ring-Bearing Doves</a></i> (Cave 123) at the <a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a> near <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a>, built circa 430-530 AD.</figcaption></figure> <p>Kucha, the largest of the oasis cities, was ruled by royal families sometimes autonomously and sometimes as vassals of outside powers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen201266,_75_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen201266,_75-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chinese named these Kuchean kings by adding the prefix <i>Bai</i> (白), meaning "White", probably pointing to the fair complexion of the Kucheans.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government included some 30 named posts below the king, with all but the highest-ranking titles occurring in pairs of left and right. Other states had similar structures, though on a smaller scale.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2000398_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2000398-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Jin" title="Book of Jin">Book of Jin</a></i> says of the city: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>They have a walled city and suburbs. The walls are threefold. Within are Buddhist temples and stupas numbering a thousand. The people are engaged in agriculture and husbandry. The men and women cut their hair and wear it at the neck. The prince's palace is grand and imposing, glittering like an abode of the gods.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Book of Jin</i>, Chapter 97<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202128_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202128-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cave_of_the_Painters_(detail_of_the_Monks).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Cave_of_the_Painters_%28detail_of_the_Monks%29.jpg/300px-Cave_of_the_Painters_%28detail_of_the_Monks%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Cave_of_the_Painters_%28detail_of_the_Monks%29.jpg/450px-Cave_of_the_Painters_%28detail_of_the_Monks%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Cave_of_the_Painters_%28detail_of_the_Monks%29.jpg/600px-Cave_of_the_Painters_%28detail_of_the_Monks%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1314" data-file-height="526" /></a><figcaption>Monks from the Cave of the Painters circa 500 AD, <a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The inhabitants grew <a href="/wiki/Red_millet" class="mw-redirect" title="Red millet">red millet</a>, wheat, rice, legumes, <a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">hemp</a>, grapes and pomegranates, and reared horses, cattle, sheep and camels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200073_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200073-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They also extracted a wide range of metals and minerals from the surrounding mountains.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200074_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200074-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Handicrafts included leather goods, fine felts and rugs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200074_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200074-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a> appear portraits of Royal families, composed of the King, Queen and young Prince. They are accompanied by monks, and men in caftan.<sup id="cite_ref-sohu.com_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sohu.com-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Historian of Art Benjamin Rowland, these portraits show "that the Tocharians were European rather than Mongol in appearance, with light complexions, blue eyes, and blond or reddish hair, and the costumes of the knights and their ladies have haunting suggestions of the chivalric age of the West".<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kucha ambassador are known to have visited the Chinese court of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yuan_of_Liang" title="Emperor Yuan of Liang">Emperor Yuan of Liang</a> in his capital <a href="/wiki/Jingzhou" title="Jingzhou">Jingzhou</a> in 516–520 AD, at or around the same time as the <a href="/wiki/Hepthalite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hepthalite">Hepthalite</a> embassies there. An ambassador from Kucha is illustrated in <i><a href="/wiki/Portraits_of_Periodical_Offering_of_Liang" class="mw-redirect" title="Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang">Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang</a></i>, painted in 526–539 AD, an 11th-century Song copy of which as remained. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hephthalite_conquest_(circa_480–550_AD)"><span id="Hephthalite_conquest_.28circa_480.E2.80.93550_AD.29"></span>Hephthalite conquest (circa 480–550 AD)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hephthalite conquest (circa 480–550 AD)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kucha_ambassador_to_the_Southern_Liang_court_516-520_CE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Kucha_ambassador_to_the_Southern_Liang_court_516-520_CE.jpg/250px-Kucha_ambassador_to_the_Southern_Liang_court_516-520_CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Kucha_ambassador_to_the_Southern_Liang_court_516-520_CE.jpg/375px-Kucha_ambassador_to_the_Southern_Liang_court_516-520_CE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Kucha_ambassador_to_the_Southern_Liang_court_516-520_CE.jpg/500px-Kucha_ambassador_to_the_Southern_Liang_court_516-520_CE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="2096" /></a><figcaption>Ambassador from <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> (龜茲國 <i>Qiuci-guo</i>), one of the main Tocharian cities, visiting the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Liang_dynasty" title="Liang dynasty">Southern Liang</a> court in <a href="/wiki/Jingzhou" title="Jingzhou">Jingzhou</a> circa 516–520 AD at the time of <a href="/wiki/Hephthalite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite">Hephthalite</a> domination over the region, with explanatory text. <i><a href="/wiki/Portraits_of_Periodical_Offering_of_Liang" class="mw-redirect" title="Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang">Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang</a></i>, 11th century Song copy.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the late 5th century AD the <a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a>, based in <a href="/wiki/Tokharistan" title="Tokharistan">Tokharistan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a>), expanded eastward through the <a href="/wiki/Pamir_Mountains" title="Pamir Mountains">Pamir Mountains</a>, which are comparatively easy to cross, as did the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushans</a> before them, due to the presence of convenient plateaus between high peaks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202137_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202137-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They occupied the western <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khotan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khotan">Khotan</a>), taking control of the area from the <a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rourans</a>, who had been collecting heavy tribute from the oasis cities, but were now weakening under the assaults of the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Wei dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202130_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202130-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 479 they took the east end of the Tarim Basin, around the region of <a href="/wiki/Turfan" class="mw-redirect" title="Turfan">Turfan</a>. In 497–509, they pushed north of Turfan to the <a href="/wiki/Urumchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Urumchi">Urumchi</a> region. In the early years of the 6th century, they were sending embassies from their dominions in the Tarim Basin to the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Wei dynasty</a>. The Hephthalites continued to occupy the Tarim Basin until the end of their Empire, circa 560 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202130,_408_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202130,_408-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the territories ruled by the Hephthalites expanded into Central Asia and the Tarim Basin, the art of the Hephthalites, with characteristic clothing and hairstyles, also came to be used in the areas they ruled, such as <a href="/wiki/Sogdiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdiana">Sogdiana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bamiyan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bamiyan">Bamiyan</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kumtura_Caves" title="Kumtura Caves">Kumtura Caves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subashi_Temple" title="Subashi Temple">Subashi reliquary</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-EK200_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EK200-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these areas appear dignitaries with caftans with a triangular collar on the right side, crowns with three crescents, some crowns with wings, and a unique hairstyle. Another marker is the two-point suspension system for swords, which seems to have been an Hephthalite innovation, and was introduced by them in the territories they controlled.<sup id="cite_ref-EK200_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EK200-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The paintings from the <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> region, particularly the swordmen in the <a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a>, appear to have been made during Hephthalite rule in the region, circa 480–550 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-EK200_107-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EK200-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The influence of the <a href="/wiki/Art_of_Gandhara" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Gandhara">art of Gandhara</a> in some of the earliest paintings at the <a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a>, dated to circa 500 AD, is considered as a consequence of the political unification of the area between Bactria and <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> under the Hephthalites.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Göktürks_suzerainty_(560_AD)"><span id="G.C3.B6kt.C3.BCrks_suzerainty_.28560_AD.29"></span>Göktürks suzerainty (560 AD)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Göktürks suzerainty (560 AD)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King_Suvarnapusa_of_Kucha,_Cave_69,_Kizil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/King_Suvarnapusa_of_Kucha%2C_Cave_69%2C_Kizil.jpg/170px-King_Suvarnapusa_of_Kucha%2C_Cave_69%2C_Kizil.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/King_Suvarnapusa_of_Kucha%2C_Cave_69%2C_Kizil.jpg/255px-King_Suvarnapusa_of_Kucha%2C_Cave_69%2C_Kizil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/King_Suvarnapusa_of_Kucha%2C_Cave_69%2C_Kizil.jpg/340px-King_Suvarnapusa_of_Kucha%2C_Cave_69%2C_Kizil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="821" data-file-height="1531" /></a><figcaption>King <a href="/wiki/Suvarnapushpa" title="Suvarnapushpa">Suvarnapushpa</a> of Kucha is historically known and ruled 600–625 AD. Cave 69, <a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The early Turks of the <a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First Turkic Khaganate</a> then took control of the <a href="/wiki/Turfan" class="mw-redirect" title="Turfan">Turfan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> areas from around 560 AD, and, in alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>, became instrumental in the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Hephthalite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite Empire">Hephthalite Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turks</a> then split into <a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a> Khaganates by 580 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2012[httpsarchiveorgdetailsisbn_9780195159318page75mode2up_75]_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2012[httpsarchiveorgdetailsisbn_9780195159318page75mode2up_75]-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tocharian royal families continued to rule Kucha, as vassals of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Turks" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Turks">Western Turks</a>, to whom they provided tribute and troops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2012[httpsarchiveorgdetailsisbn_9780195159318page75mode2up_75]_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2012[httpsarchiveorgdetailsisbn_9780195159318page75mode2up_75]-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many surviving texts in Tocharian date from this period, and deal with a wide variety of administrative, religious and everyday topics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen201276_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen201276-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also include travel passes, small slips of <a href="/wiki/Populus_euphratica" title="Populus euphratica">poplar</a> wood giving the size of the permitted caravans for officials at the next station along the road.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen201277_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen201277-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kizil_16,_sword-bearers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Kizil_16%2C_sword-bearers.jpg/290px-Kizil_16%2C_sword-bearers.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Kizil_16%2C_sword-bearers.jpg/435px-Kizil_16%2C_sword-bearers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Kizil_16%2C_sword-bearers.jpg/580px-Kizil_16%2C_sword-bearers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2160" data-file-height="1986" /></a><figcaption>Tocharian knights from <a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a> (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cave_of_the_Sixteen_Sword-Bearers" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Cave of the Sixteen Sword-Bearers">Cave 16</a>). Circa 600 AD</figcaption></figure> <p>In 618, king <a href="/wiki/Suvarnapushpa" title="Suvarnapushpa">Suvarnapushpa</a> of Kucha sent an embassy to the court of the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> acknowledging vassalship.<sup id="cite_ref-GV_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GV-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197099_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset197099-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 630, the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Chinese</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Buddhist</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monk" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist monk">monk</a> <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> visited the cities of the Tarim Basin on his pilgrimage to India. He later described the characteristics of Kucha (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">屈支国</span></span>) in great detail in his <i><a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Western_Regions" title="Records of the Western Regions">Records of the Western Regions</a></i>:<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Psychology_Press_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Psychology_Press-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-屈支国_in_大唐西域记/01_-_维基文库，自由的图书馆_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-屈支国_in_大唐西域记/01_-_维基文库，自由的图书馆-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> 1) "The style of writing is Indian, with some differences"<br /> 2) "They clothe themselves with ornamental garments of silk and embroidery. They cut their hair and wear a flowing covering (over their heads)"<br /> 3) "The king is of Kuchean race"<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> 4) "There are about one hundred convents (saṅghārāmas) in this country, with five thousand and more disciples. These belong to the <a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Little Vehicle</a> of the school of the <a href="/wiki/Sarv%C4%81stiv%C4%81das" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarvāstivādas">Sarvāstivādas</a> (Shwo-yih-tsai-yu-po). Their doctrine (teaching of Sūtras) and their rules of discipline (principles of the Vinaya) are like those of India, and those who read them use the same (originals)."<br /> 5) "About 40 li to the north of this desert city there are two convents close together on the slope of a mountain".<sup id="cite_ref-DCW_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DCW-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tang_conquest_and_aftermath">Tang conquest and aftermath</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Tang conquest and aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizong%27s_campaign_against_the_Western_Regions" title="Emperor Taizong's campaign against the Western Regions">Emperor Taizong's campaign against the Western Regions</a></div> <p>In the 7th century, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Taizong of Tang">Emperor Taizong</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang China</a>, having <a href="/wiki/Tang_campaign_against_the_Eastern_Turks" title="Tang campaign against the Eastern Turks">overcome</a> the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern Turks</a>, sent his armies west to attack the Western Turks and the oasis states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979220_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979220-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first oasis to fall was <a href="/wiki/Turfan" class="mw-redirect" title="Turfan">Turfan</a>, which was captured in 630 and annexed as part of China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979225_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979225-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emperor_Taizong%27s_campaign_against_Xiyu_states.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Emperor_Taizong%27s_campaign_against_Xiyu_states.svg/220px-Emperor_Taizong%27s_campaign_against_Xiyu_states.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Emperor_Taizong%27s_campaign_against_Xiyu_states.svg/330px-Emperor_Taizong%27s_campaign_against_Xiyu_states.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Emperor_Taizong%27s_campaign_against_Xiyu_states.svg/440px-Emperor_Taizong%27s_campaign_against_Xiyu_states.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1026" data-file-height="674" /></a><figcaption>Emperor Taizong's campaign against the oasis states</figcaption></figure> <p>Next to the west lay the city of Agni, which had been a tributary of the Tang since 632. Alarmed by the nearby Chinese armies, Agni stopped sending Tribute to China and formed an alliance with the Western Turks. They were aided by Kucha, who also stopped sending tribute. The Tang captured Agni in 644, defeating a Western Turk relief force, and made the king of Kucha Suvarnadeva (Chinese: 蘇伐疊 <i>Sufadie</i>) resume tribute. When that king was deposed by a relative named Haripushpa (Chinese: 訶黎布失畢 <i>Helibushibi</i>) in 648, the Tang sent an army under the Turk general Ashina She'er to install a compliant member of the local royal family, a younger brother of Haripushpa.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979226_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979226-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ashina She'er continued to capture Kucha, and made it the headquarters of the Tang <a href="/wiki/Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West" title="Protectorate General to Pacify the West">Protectorate General to Pacify the West</a>. Kuchean forces recaptured the city and killed protector-general, Guo Xiaoke, but it fell again to Ashina She'er, who had 11,000 of the inhabitants executed in reprisal for the killing of Guo.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979226,_228_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979226,_228-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was also recorded about other cities that "he destroyed five great towns and with them many myriads of men and women... the lands of the west were seized with terror."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970100_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970100-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>The Tocharian cities never recovered from the Tang conquest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979228_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979228-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Tang lost the Tarim basin to the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a> in 670, but regained it in 692, and continued to rule there until it was recaptured by the Tibetans in 792.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen201280_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen201280-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ruling Bai family of Kucha are last mentioned in Chinese sources in 787.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000272_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000272-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is little mention of the region in Chinese sources for the 9th and 10th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000272–273_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000272–273-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghur Khaganate</a> took control of the northern Tarim in 803. After their capital in Mongolia was sacked by the <a href="/wiki/Yenisei_Kyrgyz" title="Yenisei Kyrgyz">Yenisei Kyrgyz</a> in 840, they established a new state, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Qocho" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Qocho">Kingdom of Qocho</a> with its capital at <a href="/wiki/Gaochang" title="Gaochang">Gaochang</a> (near Turfan) in 866.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2012108_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2012108-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over centuries of contact and intermarriage, the cultures and populations of the pastoralist rulers and their agriculturalist subjects blended together.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202147_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202147-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern Uyghurs are the result of admixture between the Tocharians and the Orkhon Uyghurs from the 8th century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Uyghurs converted to the Tocharian Buddhism or Nestorian Christianity,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202163_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202163-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and adopted the agricultural lifestyle and many of the customs of the oasis-dwellers.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Tocharian language gradually disappeared as the urban population switched to the <a href="/wiki/Old_Uyghur_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Uyghur language">Old Uyghur language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000273_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000273-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epigraphy">Epigraphy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Epigraphy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most of the texts known from the Tocharians are religious, except for one known love poem in <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Tocharian B">Tocharian B</a> (manuscript B-496, found in <a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil</a>):<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable centre"> <caption>Tocharian B manuscript B-496 </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" align="left">Translation<br /><small>(English)</small></th> <th>Transliteration</th> <th>Inscription<br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">Tocharian script</a>)</small> </th></tr> <tr> <td align="center"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>I.<br /> ... for a thousand years however, Thou wilt tell the story Thy (...) I announce,<br /> Heretofore there was no human being dearer to me than thee; likewise hereafter there will be no one dearer to me than thee.<br /> Love for thee, affection for thee—breath of all that is life—and they shall not come to an end so long as there lasts life.<br /> III.<br /> Thus did I always think: "I will live well, the whole of my life, with one lover: no force, no deceit."<br /> The god Karma alone knew this thought of mine; so he provoked quarrel; he ripped out my heart from thee;<br /> He led thee afar; tore me apart; made me partake in all sorrows and took away the consolation thou wast.<br /> </p><p> ... mi life, spirit, and heart day-by-day...<sup id="cite_ref-DQA_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DQA-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GJP_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GJP-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> </td> <td align="left"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> <p>II.<br /><br /> <i>(...) Yaltse pikwala (...) watäṃ weṃt no</i><br /><br /> <i>Mā ñi cisa noṣ śomo ñem wnolme lāre tāka mā ra postaṃ cisa lāre mäsketär-ñ.</i><br /><br /> <i>Ciṣṣe laraumñe ciṣṣe ārtañye pelke kalttarr śolämpa ṣṣe mā te stālle śol-wärñai.</i><br /><br /> III.<br /><br /> <i>Taiysu pälskanoym sanai ṣaryompa śāyau karttse-śaulu-wärñai snai tserekwa snai nāte.</i><br /><br /> <i>Yāmor-ñīkte ṣe cau ñi palskāne śarsa tusa ysaly ersate ciṣy araś ñi sälkāte,</i><br /><br /> <i>Wāya ci lauke tsyāra ñiś wetke klyautka-ñ pāke po läklentas ciṣe tsārwo, sampāte.</i><br /><br /> <i>(...) Śaul palsk araśñi, kom kom</i><sup id="cite_ref-DQA_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DQA-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GJP_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GJP-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </div></blockquote> </td> <td align="center"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tocharian_B_Love_Poem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Tocharian_B_Love_Poem.jpg/250px-Tocharian_B_Love_Poem.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Tocharian_B_Love_Poem.jpg/375px-Tocharian_B_Love_Poem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Tocharian_B_Love_Poem.jpg/500px-Tocharian_B_Love_Poem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="812" data-file-height="934" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Tocharian B">Tocharian B</a> Love Poem, manuscript B496 (one of two fragments).</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tocharians_DNA.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Tocharians_DNA.png/250px-Tocharians_DNA.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Tocharians_DNA.png/375px-Tocharians_DNA.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Tocharians_DNA.png/500px-Tocharians_DNA.png 2x" data-file-width="890" data-file-height="133" /></a><figcaption>Autosomal dna Tocharians. <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Hunter_Gatherer" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Hunter Gatherer">Eastern Hunter Gatherer</a> (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#0bda51"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#0BDA51;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small> EHG), <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_hunter-gatherer" title="Caucasus hunter-gatherer">Caucasian Hunter-Gatherer</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ganj_Dareh" title="Ganj Dareh">Iran Neolithic Farmer</a> (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#ff2400"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#FF2400;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small> CHG/INF), <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Neolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatolian Neolithic">Anatolian Neolithic</a> (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#9966cc"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#9966CC;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small>), <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Northeast_Asian" title="Ancient Northeast Asian">East Asian hunter gatherer</a> (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#ffff00"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#FFFF00;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small> ANA), Yellow River Neolithic Farmer (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#ed760e"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#ED760E;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small> YRNF) and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Ancestral_South_Indians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Ancestral South Indians">Ancient Ancestral South Indians</a> (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#1560bd"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#1560BD;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small> AASI)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Haplogroups">Haplogroups</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Haplogroups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to genetic studies, the Tocharians had haplogroup R1b and C2a.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Known_rulers">Known rulers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Known rulers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Names of the rulers of Kucha are known mainly from Chinese sources. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prince_Tottika_of_Kucha_with_his_wife_Svayamprabh%C4%81,_accompanied_by_two_monks,_Maya_Cave_205,_Kizil_Caves.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Prince_Tottika_of_Kucha_with_his_wife_Svayamprabh%C4%81%2C_accompanied_by_two_monks%2C_Maya_Cave_205%2C_Kizil_Caves.jpg/170px-Prince_Tottika_of_Kucha_with_his_wife_Svayamprabh%C4%81%2C_accompanied_by_two_monks%2C_Maya_Cave_205%2C_Kizil_Caves.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Prince_Tottika_of_Kucha_with_his_wife_Svayamprabh%C4%81%2C_accompanied_by_two_monks%2C_Maya_Cave_205%2C_Kizil_Caves.jpg/255px-Prince_Tottika_of_Kucha_with_his_wife_Svayamprabh%C4%81%2C_accompanied_by_two_monks%2C_Maya_Cave_205%2C_Kizil_Caves.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Prince_Tottika_of_Kucha_with_his_wife_Svayamprabh%C4%81%2C_accompanied_by_two_monks%2C_Maya_Cave_205%2C_Kizil_Caves.jpg/340px-Prince_Tottika_of_Kucha_with_his_wife_Svayamprabh%C4%81%2C_accompanied_by_two_monks%2C_Maya_Cave_205%2C_Kizil_Caves.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1940" data-file-height="2702" /></a><figcaption>Prince <a href="/wiki/Tottika" title="Tottika">Tottika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Cave</a> 205.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Hong (洪, 弘), circa 16 AD</li> <li>Chengde (丞德), circa 36 AD</li> <li>Zeluo (则罗), circa 46 AD</li> <li>Shen Du (身毒), circa 50 AD</li> <li>Bin (宾), circa 72 AD</li> <li>Jian (建), circa 73 AD</li> <li>Youliduo 尤利多, circa 76 AD</li> <li>Bai Ba (白霸), circa 91 AD</li> <li>Bai Ying(白英), circa 110-127 AD</li> <li>Bai Shan (白山), circa 280 AD</li> <li>Long Hui (龙会), circa 326 AD</li> <li>Bai Chun <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 白纯 <i>Baichun</i>, ruled circa 383 AD</li> <li>Bai Zhen <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 白震 <i>Baizhen</i>, ruled circa 383 AD</li> <li>Niruimo Zhunasheng <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 尼瑞摩珠那胜 <i> Niruimo Zhunasheng</i>, ruled circa 520 AD</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tottika" title="Tottika">Tottika</a> (ruled in Kucha in the end of the 6th century), <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 托提卡 <i>Tuotika</i></li> <li>Bai Sunidie <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 白苏尼咥 <i>Bai Sunidie</i>, circa 562 AD</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suvarnapuspa" class="mw-redirect" title="Suvarnapuspa">Suvarnapuspa</a> (ruled in <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a>, 600-625 AD), <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 白苏伐勃𫘝 <i>Bai Sufaboshi</i></li> <li>Suvarnadeva (ruled in <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> before 647), <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 白蘇伐疊 <i>Bai Sufadie</i></li> <li>Haripushpa (ruled in <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> from 647), <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 白訶黎布失畢 <i>Bai Helibushibi</i></li> <li>Bai Yehu (白叶护)(648)</li> <li>Bai Helibushibi(白诃黎布失毕)650</li> <li>Bai Suji 白素稽 (659)</li> <li>Yan Tiandie 延田跌(678)</li> <li>Bai Mobi 白莫苾(708)</li> <li>Bai Xiaojie 白孝节(719)</li> <li>Bai Huan (ruled 731–789) <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 白环, last ruler to be mentioned by Chinese sources.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000272_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000272-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Xinjiang" title="Category:History of Xinjiang">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Xinjiang" title="History of Xinjiang">History of <span class="fn org label">Xinjiang</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Museum_f%C3%BCr_Indische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_063.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Museum_f%C3%BCr_Indische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_063.jpg/100px-Museum_f%C3%BCr_Indische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_063.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Museum_f%C3%BCr_Indische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_063.jpg/150px-Museum_f%C3%BCr_Indische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_063.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Museum_f%C3%BCr_Indische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_063.jpg/200px-Museum_f%C3%BCr_Indische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_063.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1731" data-file-height="1774" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#000000; background: #eeeeee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Ancient period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tocharians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">Western Regions</a> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Protectorate_of_the_Western_Regions" title="Protectorate of the Western Regions">Han Protectorate</a>; <a href="/wiki/Chief_Official_of_the_Western_Regions" title="Chief Official of the Western Regions">Chief Officials</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Khotan" title="Kingdom of Khotan">Kingdom of Khotan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_Liang" title="Former Liang">Former Liang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_Qin" title="Former Qin">Former Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Later Liang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Western Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Western Liang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaochang" title="Gaochang">Gaochang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rouran" class="mw-redirect" title="Rouran">Rouran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First Turkic Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern Turkic Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second Turkic Khaganate</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#000000; background: #eeeeee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Medieval and early modern period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Tang dynasty in Inner Asia">Tang Protectorates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West" title="Protectorate General to Pacify the West">West</a>; <a href="/wiki/Beiting_Protectorate" title="Beiting Protectorate">Beiting</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghur Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Kara-Khanid Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Qocho" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Qocho">Kingdom of Qocho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia">Yuan</a>; <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moghulistan" title="Moghulistan">Moghulistan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turpan_Khanate" title="Turpan Khanate">Turpan</a>; <a href="/wiki/Yarkent_Khanate" title="Yarkent Khanate">Yarkent</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kara_Del" title="Kara Del">Ming ruled Kara Del</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumul_Khanate" title="Kumul Khanate">Kumul Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yettishar" title="Yettishar">Yettishar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Qing rule</a> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Dzungar_genocide" title="Dzungar genocide">Dzungar genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_reconquest_of_Xinjiang" title="Qing reconquest of Xinjiang">Qing reconquest</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#000000; background: #eeeeee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Modern period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Province,_Republic_of_China" title="Xinjiang Province, Republic of China">Xinjiang Province, Republic of China</a> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_clique" title="Xinjiang clique">Xinjiang clique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_East_Turkestan_Republic" title="First East Turkestan Republic">1st East Turkestan Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_East_Turkestan_Republic" title="Second East Turkestan Republic">2nd East Turkestan Republic</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_Xinjiang_into_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China">Xinjiang Province, People's Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region</a> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Production_and_Construction_Corps" title="Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps">Production and Construction Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_conflict" title="Xinjiang conflict">Xinjiang conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_internment_camps" title="Xinjiang internment camps">Xinjiang internment camps</a> / <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">Persecution of Uyghurs in China</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Xinjiang" title="Template:History of Xinjiang"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Xinjiang" title="Template talk:History of Xinjiang"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Xinjiang" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Xinjiang"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Tocharian_(Agnean-Kuchean)_peoples" title="List of Tocharian (Agnean-Kuchean) peoples">List of Tocharian (Agnean-Kuchean) peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_clothing" title="Tocharian clothing">Tocharian clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bezeklik_Thousand_Buddha_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves">Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takhar_Province" title="Takhar Province">Takhar Province</a> (<a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Most of the Scythians, beginning from the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>, are called <a href="/wiki/Dahae" title="Dahae">Dahae</a> Scythae, and those situated more towards the east <a href="/wiki/Massagetae" title="Massagetae">Massagetae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Sacae</a>; the rest have the common appellation of Scythians, but each separate tribe has its peculiar name. All, or the greatest part of them, are nomads. The best known tribes are those who deprived the Greeks of <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactriana</a>, the Asii, Pasiani, Tochari, and Sacarauli, who came from the country on the other side of the <a href="/wiki/Jaxartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaxartes">Iaxartes</a>, opposite the Sacae and <a href="/wiki/Sogdians" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdians">Sogdiani</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198%3Abook%3D11%3Achapter%3D8%3Asection%3D2">11-8-2</a>)</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-sohu.com-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sohu.com_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sohu.com_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">References BDce-888、889, MIK III 8875, now in the Hermitage Museum.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sohu.com/a/369632883_534369">"俄立艾爾米塔什博物館藏克孜爾石窟壁畫"</a>. <i>www.sohu.com</i> (in Chinese).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.sohu.com&rft.atitle=%E4%BF%84%E7%AB%8B%E8%89%BE%E7%88%BE%E7%B1%B3%E5%A1%94%E4%BB%80%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A4%A8%E8%97%8F%E5%85%8B%E5%AD%9C%E7%88%BE%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F%E5%A3%81%E7%95%AB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sohu.com%2Fa%2F369632883_534369&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Image 16 in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYaldiz1987" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Yaldiz, Marianne (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MAV83J8cA5MC&pg=PR15"><i>Archèaologie unFd Kunstgeschichte Chinesisch-Zentralasiens (Xinjiang)</i></a> (in German). BRILL. p. xv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07877-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07877-2"><bdi>978-90-04-07877-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arch%C3%A8aologie+unFd+Kunstgeschichte+Chinesisch-Zentralasiens+%28Xinjiang%29&rft.pages=xv&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07877-2&rft.aulast=Yaldiz&rft.aufirst=Marianne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMAV83J8cA5MC%26pg%3DPR15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The images of donors in Cave 17 are seen in two fragments with numbers MIK 8875 and MIK 8876. One of them with halo may be identified as king of Kucha." in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhose2008" class="citation book cs1">Ghose, Rajeshwari (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PBnRFQtP7sYC"><i>Kizil on the Silk Road: Crossroads of Commerce & Meeting of Minds</i></a>. Marg Publications. p. 127, note 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-85026-85-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-85026-85-5"><bdi>978-81-85026-85-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kizil+on+the+Silk+Road%3A+Crossroads+of+Commerce+%26+Meeting+of+Minds&rft.pages=127%2C+note+22&rft.pub=Marg+Publications&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-81-85026-85-5&rft.aulast=Ghose&rft.aufirst=Rajeshwari&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPBnRFQtP7sYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span> "The panel of Tocharian donors and Buddhist monks, which was at the MIK (MIK 8875) disappeared during World War II and was discovered by Yaldiz in 2002 in the Hermitage Museum" page 65,note 30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AVLC68-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AVLC68_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLe_CoqWaldschmidt1922" class="citation book cs1">Le Coq, Albert von; Waldschmidt, Ernst (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/diebuddhistische00leco_0/page/68/mode/2up"><i>Die buddhistische spätantike in Mittelasien, VI</i></a>. Berlin, D. Reimer [etc.] pp. 68–70.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+buddhistische+sp%C3%A4tantike+in+Mittelasien%2C+VI&rft.pages=68-70&rft.pub=Berlin%2C+D.+Reimer+%5Betc.%5D&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Le+Coq&rft.aufirst=Albert+von&rft.au=Waldschmidt%2C+Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdiebuddhistische00leco_0%2Fpage%2F68%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Tocharian">"Definition of TOCHARIAN"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+TOCHARIAN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2FTocharian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/tocharian">"Tocharian definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary"</a>. <i>www.collinsdictionary.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.collinsdictionary.com&rft.atitle=Tocharian+definition+and+meaning+%7C+Collins+English+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Ftocharian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JPM4-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JPM4_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMallory2015">Mallory (2015)</a>, p. 4. "Our knowledge of the Tocharian languages derives essentially from c. 7600 documents found across about thirty sites in the eastern half of the greater Tarim Basin (Fig. 1). The documents date from c. 400 to 1200 CE"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MNW-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MNW_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MNW_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MNW_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNamba_Walter1998" class="citation journal cs1">Namba Walter, Mariko (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp085_tokharian_buddhism_kucha.pdf">"Tokharian Buddhism in Kucha: Buddhism of Indo-European Centum Speakers in Chinese Turkestan before the 10th Century C.E."</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i>. <b>85</b>: 2, note 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Platonic+Papers&rft.atitle=Tokharian+Buddhism+in+Kucha%3A+Buddhism+of+Indo-European+Centum+Speakers+in+Chinese+Turkestan+before+the+10th+Century+C.E.&rft.volume=85&rft.pages=2%2C+note+4&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Namba+Walter&rft.aufirst=Mariko&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sino-platonic.org%2Fcomplete%2Fspp085_tokharian_buddhism_kucha.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhang-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zhang_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhang_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZhang2021">Zhang 2021</a><span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFZhang2021 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span>: "Our results do not support previous hypotheses for the origin of the Tarim mummies, who were argued to be Proto-Tocharian-speaking pastoralists descended from the Afanasievo, or to have originated among the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex or Inner Asian Mountain Corridor cultures. Instead, although Tocharian may have been plausibly introduced to the Dzungarian Basin by Afanasievo migrants during the Early Bronze Age, we find that the earliest Tarim Basin cultures appear to have arisen from a genetically isolated local population that adopted neighbouring pastoralist and agriculturalist practices, which allowed them to settle and thrive along the shifting riverine oases of the Taklamakan Desert."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5jG1eHe3y4ECpgPA381_380-381]-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5jG1eHe3y4ECpgPA381_380-381]_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5jG1eHe3y4ECpgPA381_380-381]_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5jG1eHe3y4ECpgPA381_380-381]_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2009">Beckwith (2009)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5jG1eHe3y4EC&pg=PA381">380-381</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/tokol">"Introduction to Tocharian"</a>. <i>lrc.la.utexas.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=lrc.la.utexas.edu&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Tocharian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flrc.la.utexas.edu%2Feieol%2Ftokol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tocharian_Online-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tocharian_Online_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tocharian_Online_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrauseSlocum" class="citation web cs1">Krause, Todd B.; Slocum, Jonathan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/tokol">"Tocharian Online: Series Introduction"</a>. University of Texas at Austin<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tocharian+Online%3A+Series+Introduction&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+at+Austin&rft.aulast=Krause&rft.aufirst=Todd+B.&rft.au=Slocum%2C+Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flrc.la.utexas.edu%2Feieol%2Ftokol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5jG1eHe3y4ECpgPA381_380-383]-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5jG1eHe3y4ECpgPA381_380-383]_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5jG1eHe3y4ECpgPA381_380-383]_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2009">Beckwith (2009)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5jG1eHe3y4EC&pg=PA381">380-383</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Also <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> VI, 11, 6, 2nd century AD</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000270–297-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000270–297_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, pp. 270–297.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200983–84-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200983–84_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2009">Beckwith (2009)</a>, pp. 83–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997509-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997509_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams1997">Mallory & Adams (1997)</a>, p. 509.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009381-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009381_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2009">Beckwith (2009)</a>, p. 381.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams2013198-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams2013198_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams2013">Adams (2013)</a>, p. 198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams20132–3-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams20132–3_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams2013">Adams (2013)</a>, pp. 2–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams201357-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams201357_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams2013">Adams (2013)</a>, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"According to linguists, the kings of Kucha called themselves "ñäktemts soy" (in Tocharian B), which is equivalent to Devaputra (an epithet commonly used by the Kuşāņa kings) meaning "Son of deva or God" in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPandeSharma2009" class="citation book cs1">Pande, Anupa; Sharma, Mandira (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vfZIAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Art of Central Asia and the Indian Subcontinent in Cross-cultural Perspective</i></a>. Aryan Books International. p. 133, note 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7305-347-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7305-347-4"><bdi>978-81-7305-347-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Central+Asia+and+the+Indian+Subcontinent+in+Cross-cultural+Perspective&rft.pages=133%2C+note+22&rft.pub=Aryan+Books+International&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-81-7305-347-4&rft.aulast=Pande&rft.aufirst=Anupa&rft.au=Sharma%2C+Mandira&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvfZIAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkalmowskiTongerloo1984" class="citation book cs1">Skalmowski, Wojciech; Tongerloo, Alois van (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=41SUliwjYmgC&pg=PA198"><i>Middle Iranian Studies: Proceedings of the International Symposium Organized by the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven from the 17th to the 20th of May 1982</i></a>. Peeters Publishers. pp. 197–198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-70192-14-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-70192-14-3"><bdi>978-90-70192-14-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+Iranian+Studies%3A+Proceedings+of+the+International+Symposium+Organized+by+the+Katholieke+Universiteit+Leuven+from+the+17th+to+the+20th+of+May+1982&rft.pages=197-198&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-90-70192-14-3&rft.aulast=Skalmowski&rft.aufirst=Wojciech&rft.au=Tongerloo%2C+Alois+van&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D41SUliwjYmgC%26pg%3DPA198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory20156–7-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory20156–7_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory20156–7_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMallory2015">Mallory (2015)</a>, pp. 6–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinter1998154-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinter1998154_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWinter1998">Winter (1998)</a>, p. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev201117-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKovalev201117_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKovalev201117_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKovalev201117_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKovalev201117_27-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKovalev2011">Kovalev 2011</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory20154-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory20154_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory20154_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMallory2015">Mallory (2015)</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim,_Ronald2012" class="citation web cs1">Kim, Ronald (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180716165640/http://enlil.ff.cuni.cz/system/files/tocharian.pdf">"Introduction to Tocharian"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 30. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://enlil.ff.cuni.cz/system/files/tocharian.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Tocharian&rft.pages=30&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Kim%2C+Ronald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenlil.ff.cuni.cz%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Ftocharian.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinter1998155-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinter1998155_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinter1998155_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWinter1998">Winter (1998)</a>, p. 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory20157-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory20157_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMallory2015">Mallory (2015)</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHärtelYaldizKunst_(Germany)N.Y.)1982" class="citation book cs1">Härtel, Herbert; Yaldiz, Marianne; Kunst (Germany), Museum für Indische; N.Y.), Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BLuaphht8XwC&pg=PA107"><i>Along the Ancient Silk Routes: Central Asian Art from the West Berlin State Museums : an Exhibition Lent by the Museum Für Indische Kunst, Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany</i></a>. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-300-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-300-8"><bdi>978-0-87099-300-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Along+the+Ancient+Silk+Routes%3A+Central+Asian+Art+from+the+West+Berlin+State+Museums+%3A+an+Exhibition+Lent+by+the+Museum+F%C3%BCr+Indische+Kunst%2C+Staatliche+Museen+Preussischer+Kulturbesitz%2C+Berlin%2C+Federal+Republic+of+Germany&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-87099-300-8&rft.aulast=H%C3%A4rtel&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rft.au=Yaldiz%2C+Marianne&rft.au=Kunst+%28Germany%29%2C+Museum+f%C3%BCr+Indische&rft.au=N.Y.%29%2C+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art+%28New+York&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBLuaphht8XwC%26pg%3DPA107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLe_Coq" class="citation book cs1">Le Coq, Albert von. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/LFB-2/V-5/page-hr/0014.html.en"><i>Die Buddhistische Spätantike in Mittelasien : vol.5</i></a>. p. 10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Buddhistische+Sp%C3%A4tantike+in+Mittelasien+%3A+vol.5&rft.pages=10&rft.aulast=Le+Coq&rft.aufirst=Albert+von&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdsr.nii.ac.jp%2Ftoyobunko%2FLFB-2%2FV-5%2Fpage-hr%2F0014.html.en&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaugh_(Historian,_University_of_Washington)" class="citation web cs1">Waugh (Historian, University of Washington), Daniel C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/museums/mia/kizil.html">"MIA Berlin: Turfan Collection: Kizil"</a>. <i>depts.washington.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=depts.washington.edu&rft.atitle=MIA+Berlin%3A+Turfan+Collection%3A+Kizil&rft.aulast=Waugh+%28Historian%2C+University+of+Washington%29&rft.aufirst=Daniel+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdepts.washington.edu%2Fsilkroad%2Fmuseums%2Fmia%2Fkizil.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory20157–8-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory20157–8_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMallory2015">Mallory (2015)</a>, pp. 7–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory201517–19-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory201517–19_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMallory2015">Mallory (2015)</a>, pp. 17–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000277–278-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000277–278_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, pp. 277–278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000278–279-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000278–279_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, pp. 278–279.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AVLC80-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AVLC80_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLe_CoqWaldschmidt1922" class="citation book cs1">Le Coq, Albert von; Waldschmidt, Ernst (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/diebuddhistische00leco_0/page/80/mode/2up"><i>Die buddhistische spätantike in Mittelasien, VI</i></a>. Berlin, D. Reimer [etc.] pp. 80–81.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+buddhistische+sp%C3%A4tantike+in+Mittelasien%2C+VI&rft.pages=80-81&rft.pub=Berlin%2C+D.+Reimer+%5Betc.%5D&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Le+Coq&rft.aufirst=Albert+von&rft.au=Waldschmidt%2C+Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdiebuddhistische00leco_0%2Fpage%2F80%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESnow2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnow2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSnow2002">Snow (2002)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory2015[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory2015[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMallory2015">Mallory (2015)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tokharian-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tokharian_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManko_Namba_Walter1998" class="citation journal cs1">Manko Namba Walter (October 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp085_tokharian_buddhism_kucha.pdf">"Tokharian Buddhism in Kucha: Buddhism of Indo-European Centum Speakers in Chinese Turkestan before the 10th Century C.E"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i> (85).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Platonic+Papers&rft.atitle=Tokharian+Buddhism+in+Kucha%3A+Buddhism+of+Indo-European+Centum+Speakers+in+Chinese+Turkestan+before+the+10th+Century+C.E&rft.issue=85&rft.date=1998-10&rft.au=Manko+Namba+Walter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sino-platonic.org%2Fcomplete%2Fspp085_tokharian_buddhism_kucha.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset197099-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197099_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197099_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, p. 99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DCW-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DCW_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DCW_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaugh" class="citation web cs1">Waugh, Daniel (Historian, University of Washington). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/exhibit/religion/buddhism/tarim/kizil.html">"Kizil"</a>. <i>depts.washington.edu</i>. 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(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.522..167A">2015Natur.522..167A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature14507">10.1038/nature14507</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26062507">26062507</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4399103">4399103</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Population+genomics+of+Bronze+Age+Eurasia&rft.volume=522&rft.issue=7555&rft.pages=167-172&rft.date=2015-06-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature14507&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4399103%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26062507&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Natur.522..167A&rft.aulast=Allentoft&rft.aufirst=ME&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdepot.ceon.pl%2Fbitstream%2F123456789%2F13155%2F2%2Fnature14507.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000314–318-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000314–318_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, pp. 314–318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000294–296,_317–318-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000294–296,_317–318_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, pp. 294–296, 317–318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peyrot, M. (2019). The deviant typological profile of the Tocharian branch of Indo-European may be due to Uralic substrate influence, Indo-European Linguistics, 7(1), 72-121. doi: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1163/22125892-00701007">https://doi.org/10.1163/22125892-00701007</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNingWangGaoYang2019" class="citation journal cs1">Ning, Chao; Wang, Chuan-Chao; Gao, Shizhu; Yang, Yang; Zhang, Xue; Wu, Xiyan; Zhang, Fan; Nie, Zhongzhi; Tang, Yunpeng; Robbeets, Martine; Ma, Jian; Krause, Johannes; Cui, Yinqiu (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2019.06.044">"Ancient Genomes Reveal Yamnaya-Related Ancestry and a Potential Source of Indo-European Speakers in Iron Age Tianshan"</a>. <i>Current Biology</i>. <b>29</b> (15): 2526–2532.e4. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019CBio...29E2526N">2019CBio...29E2526N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2019.06.044">10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.044</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31353181">31353181</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Biology&rft.atitle=Ancient+Genomes+Reveal+Yamnaya-Related+Ancestry+and+a+Potential+Source+of+Indo-European+Speakers+in+Iron+Age+Tianshan&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=2526-2532.e4&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31353181&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cub.2019.06.044&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019CBio...29E2526N&rft.aulast=Ning&rft.aufirst=Chao&rft.au=Wang%2C+Chuan-Chao&rft.au=Gao%2C+Shizhu&rft.au=Yang%2C+Yang&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Xue&rft.au=Wu%2C+Xiyan&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Fan&rft.au=Nie%2C+Zhongzhi&rft.au=Tang%2C+Yunpeng&rft.au=Robbeets%2C+Martine&rft.au=Ma%2C+Jian&rft.au=Krause%2C+Johannes&rft.au=Cui%2C+Yinqiu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.cub.2019.06.044&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995247-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995247_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995247_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995247_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChenHiebert1995">Chen & Hiebert (1995)</a>, p. 247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995248-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995248_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChenHiebert1995">Chen & Hiebert (1995)</a>, p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995250–272-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995250–272_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChenHiebert1995">Chen & Hiebert (1995)</a>, pp. 250–272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995245-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChenHiebert1995245_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChenHiebert1995">Chen & Hiebert (1995)</a>, p. 245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000262,_269-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000262,_269_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, pp. 262, 269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000269-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000269_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, p. 269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShuicheng2003" class="citation book cs1">Shuicheng, Li (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_kzrAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13"><i>Bulletin</i></a>. Stockholm: Fälth & Hässler. p. 13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bulletin&rft.place=Stockholm&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=F%C3%A4lth+%26+H%C3%A4ssler&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Shuicheng&rft.aufirst=Li&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_kzrAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span> "Biological anthropological research indicates that the physical characteristics of those buried at Gumugou cemetery along the Kongque River near Lop Nur in Xinjiang are very similar to those of the Andronovo culture and Afanasievo culture people from Siberia in Southern Russia. This suggests that all of these individuals belong to the Caucasian physical type.¹² Additionally, excavations in 2002 by Xinjiang archaeologists at the site of Xiaohe cemetery, first discovered by the Swedish archaeologist Folke Bergman,¹³ uncovered mummies and wooden human effigies that clearly have Europoid features [Figure 6.1]. According to the preliminary excavation report, the cultural features and chronology of this site are said to be quite similar to those of Gumugou.¹⁴ Other sites in Xinjiang also contain both individuals with Caucasian features and ones with Mongolian features. For example, this pattern occurs at the Yanbulark cemetery in Xinjiang, but individuals with Mongoloid features are clearly dominant.¹³ The above evidence is enough to show that, starting around 2,000 B.C., some so-called primitive Caucasians expanded eastward to the Xinjiang area as far as the area around Hami and Lop Nur. By the end of the second millennium, another group of people from Central Asia started to move over the Pamirs and gradually dispersed in southern Xinjiang. These western groups mixed with local Mongoloids¹⁶ resulting in an amalgamation of culture and race in middle Xinjiang east to the Tianshan.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiLiCuiXie2010-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiLiCuiXie2010_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiLiCuiXie2010">Li et al. (2010)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fortson, Benjamin W. 2004. <i>Indo-European Language and Culture</i>. Blackwell Publishing. Page 352: "Adding to the various mysteries surrounding the Tocharians is the existence of extremely well-preserved mummies in the Takla Makan desert that have striking Europoid features and often red hair; some are nearly 4,000 years old. The mummies were found with tapestries woven in plaids that are similar in weaving style and pattern to tartans from the Hallstatt culture of central Europe, which was ancestral to the Celts... the wool used in weaving the tapestries comes from sheep of European ancestry..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhangNingScott2021" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, F; Ning, C; Scott, A; et al. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8580821">"The genomic origins of the Bronze Age Tarim Basin mummies"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>599</b> (7884): 256–261. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021Natur.599..256Z">2021Natur.599..256Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-021-04052-7">10.1038/s41586-021-04052-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8580821">8580821</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34707286">34707286</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+genomic+origins+of+the+Bronze+Age+Tarim+Basin+mummies&rft.volume=599&rft.issue=7884&rft.pages=256-261&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8580821%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34707286&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-021-04052-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021Natur.599..256Z&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Ning%2C+C&rft.au=Scott%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8580821&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000318-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000318_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000318_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, p. 318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_E._Hill2009" class="citation book cs1">John E. Hill (2009). <i>Through the Jade Gate to Rome</i>. Booksurge Publishing. p. 311. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4392-2134-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4392-2134-1"><bdi>978-1-4392-2134-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Through+the+Jade+Gate+to+Rome&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=Booksurge+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4392-2134-1&rft.au=John+E.+Hill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200984,_380–383-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200984,_380–383_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2009">Beckwith (2009)</a>, pp. 84, 380–383.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000268,_318-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000268,_318_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, pp. 268, 318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000310–311,_318-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000310–311,_318_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, pp. 310–311, 318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory201524-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory201524_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMallory2015">Mallory (2015)</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200066-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200066_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward20216-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward20216_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMillward2021">Millward (2021)</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200068,_72-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200068,_72_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, pp. 68, 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997591-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997591_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams1997">Mallory & Adams (1997)</a>, p. 591.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200072-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200072_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYü1986405,_407-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYü1986405,_407_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYü1986">Yü (1986)</a>, pp. 405, 407.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYü1986407-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYü1986407_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYü1986">Yü (1986)</a>, p. 407.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYü1986409–411-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYü1986409–411_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYü1986">Yü (1986)</a>, pp. 409–411.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe197949-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe197949_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoewe1979">Loewe (1979)</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset197040-47-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197040-47_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, p. 40-47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset197042-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197042_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset197045-46-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197045-46_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197045-46_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, p. 45-46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset197048-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197048_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset197047-48-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197047-48_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, p. 47-48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset197040,_48-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset197040,_48_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, p. 40, 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCHzGvqRbV_ICpgPA49_49_ff]-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCHzGvqRbV_ICpgPA49_49_ff]_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset (1970)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CHzGvqRbV_IC&pg=PA49">49 ff</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen201266-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen201266_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen201266_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHansen2012">Hansen (2012)</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202123-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202123_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMillward2021">Millward (2021)</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MMRB651-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MMRB651_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhie2019" class="citation book cs1">Rhie, Marylin Martin (15 July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ogD1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA651"><i>Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, Volume 2 The Eastern Chin and Sixteen Kingdoms Period in China and Tumshuk, Kucha and Karashahr in Central Asia (2 vols)</i></a>. BRILL. pp. 651 ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-39186-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-39186-4"><bdi>978-90-04-39186-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Buddhist+Art+of+China+and+Central+Asia%2C+Volume+2+The+Eastern+Chin+and+Sixteen+Kingdoms+Period+in+China+and+Tumshuk%2C+Kucha+and+Karashahr+in+Central+Asia+%282+vols%29&rft.pages=651+ff&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2019-07-15&rft.isbn=978-90-04-39186-4&rft.aulast=Rhie&rft.aufirst=Marylin+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DogD1DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA651&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200097-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200097_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000115-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000115_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalter19985–9-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalter19985–9_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWalter1998">Walter (1998)</a>, pp. 5–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202127–28-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202127–28_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMillward2021">Millward (2021)</a>, pp. 27–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen201268-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen201268_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHansen2012">Hansen (2012)</a>, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalter199821–17-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalter199821–17_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWalter1998">Walter (1998)</a>, pp. 21–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen201261–65-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen201261–65_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHansen2012">Hansen (2012)</a>, pp. 61–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202125–26-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202125–26_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMillward2021">Millward (2021)</a>, pp. 25–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen201266,_75-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen201266,_75_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHansen2012">Hansen (2012)</a>, pp. 66, 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPuri1987" class="citation book cs1">Puri, Baij Nath (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sluKZfTrr3oC&pg=PA79"><i>Buddhism in Central Asia</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0372-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0372-5"><bdi>978-81-208-0372-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism+in+Central+Asia&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0372-5&rft.aulast=Puri&rft.aufirst=Baij+Nath&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsluKZfTrr3oC%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2000398-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2000398_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDi_Cosmo2000">Di Cosmo (2000)</a>, p. 398.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202128-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202128_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMillward2021">Millward (2021)</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200073-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200073_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, p. 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200074-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200074_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200074_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, p. 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowland1975" class="citation book cs1">Rowland, Benjamin (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/artofcentralasia00rowl/page/154/mode/2up"><i>The art of Central Asia</i></a>. New York, Crown. p. 155.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+art+of+Central+Asia&rft.pages=155&rft.pub=New+York%2C+Crown&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Rowland&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fartofcentralasia00rowl%2Fpage%2F154%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202137-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202137_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMillward2021">Millward (2021)</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202130-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202130_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMillward2021">Millward (2021)</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202130,_408-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202130,_408_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMillward2021">Millward (2021)</a>, pp. 30, 408.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EK200-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EK200_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EK200_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EK200_107-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKageyama2016" class="citation journal cs1">Kageyama, Etsuko (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/209942/1/zinbun_46_199.pdf">"Change of suspension systems of daggers and swords in eastern Eurasia: Its relation to the Hephthalite occupation of Central Asia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>ZINBUN</i>. <b>46</b>: 200–202.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ZINBUN&rft.atitle=Change+of+suspension+systems+of+daggers+and+swords+in+eastern+Eurasia%3A+Its+relation+to+the+Hephthalite+occupation+of+Central+Asia&rft.volume=46&rft.pages=200-202&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Kageyama&rft.aufirst=Etsuko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp%2Fdspace%2Fbitstream%2F2433%2F209942%2F1%2Fzinbun_46_199.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIlyasov2001" class="citation journal cs1">Ilyasov, Jangar (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/24635305">"The Hephthalite Terracotta // Silk Road Art and Archaeology. Vol. 7. Kamakura, 2001, 187–200"</a>. <i>Silk Road Art and Archaeology</i>: 187–197.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Silk+Road+Art+and+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Hephthalite+Terracotta+%2F%2F+Silk+Road+Art+and+Archaeology.+Vol.+7.+Kamakura%2C+2001%2C+187%E2%80%93200&rft.pages=187-197&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Ilyasov&rft.aufirst=Jangar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F24635305&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/chinese-iranian-xiv">"CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS xiv. E. Iranian Art – Encyclopaedia Iranica"</a>. <i>www.iranicaonline.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.iranicaonline.org&rft.atitle=CHINESE-IRANIAN+RELATIONS+xiv.+E.+Iranian+Art+%E2%80%93+Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fchinese-iranian-xiv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurbanov2014" class="citation journal cs1">Kurbanov, Aydogdy (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oaji.net/articles/2017/4586-1488311404.pdf">"THE HEPHTHALITES: ICONOGRAPHICAL MATERIALS"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Tyragetia</i>. <b>8</b>: 329.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tyragetia&rft.atitle=THE+HEPHTHALITES%3A+ICONOGRAPHICAL+MATERIALS&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=329&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Kurbanov&rft.aufirst=Aydogdy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foaji.net%2Farticles%2F2017%2F4586-1488311404.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kageyama quoting the research of S. Hiyama, "Study on the first-style murals of Kucha: analysis of some motifs related to the Hephthalite's period", in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKageyama2016" class="citation journal cs1">Kageyama, Etsuko (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/209942/1/zinbun_46_199.pdf">"Change of suspension systems of daggers and swords in eastern Eurasia: Its relation to the Hephthalite occupation of Central Asia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>ZINBUN</i>. <b>46</b>: 200.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ZINBUN&rft.atitle=Change+of+suspension+systems+of+daggers+and+swords+in+eastern+Eurasia%3A+Its+relation+to+the+Hephthalite+occupation+of+Central+Asia&rft.volume=46&rft.pages=200&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Kageyama&rft.aufirst=Etsuko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp%2Fdspace%2Fbitstream%2F2433%2F209942%2F1%2Fzinbun_46_199.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHiyama2015" class="citation journal cs1">Hiyama, Satomi (September 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/18453844">"Reflection on the Geopolitical Context of the Silk Road in the First and Second Indo-Iranian Style Wall Paintings in Kucha"</a>. <i>Silk Road – Meditations: 2015 International Conference on the Kizil Cave Paintings, Collection of Research Papers</i>: 81.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Silk+Road+%E2%80%93+Meditations%3A+2015+International+Conference+on+the+Kizil+Cave+Paintings%2C+Collection+of+Research+Papers&rft.atitle=Reflection+on+the+Geopolitical+Context+of+the+Silk+Road+in+the+First+and+Second+Indo-Iranian+Style+Wall+Paintings+in+Kucha&rft.pages=81&rft.date=2015-09&rft.aulast=Hiyama&rft.aufirst=Satomi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F18453844&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2012[httpsarchiveorgdetailsisbn_9780195159318page75mode2up_75]-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2012[httpsarchiveorgdetailsisbn_9780195159318page75mode2up_75]_113-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2012[httpsarchiveorgdetailsisbn_9780195159318page75mode2up_75]_113-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHansen2012">Hansen (2012)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195159318/page/75/mode/2up">75</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen201276-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen201276_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHansen2012">Hansen (2012)</a>, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen201277-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen201277_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHansen2012">Hansen (2012)</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GV-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GV_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"On the lunette of the front wall is painted a scene of the preaching of the Buddha in the Deer Park. On the left of the Buddha are painted the king and his wife; on the halo of the king is inscribed the dedication, which was interpreted by Pinault in his paper of 1994, 'Temple Constructed for the Benefit of Suvarnapousa by His Son' (this material is referred to in Kezier shiku neirong zonglu p. 2). From Chinese historical records it is known that this king reigned between the years 600 and 625, and his three sons died before 647: to date, this is the most accurate dating for the cave" in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVignato2006" class="citation journal cs1">Vignato, Giuseppe (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757697">"Archaeological Survey of Kizil: Its Groups of Caves, Districts, Chronology and Buddhist Schools"</a>. <i>East and West</i>. <b>56</b> (4): 405, note 71. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-8376">0012-8376</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757697">29757697</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=East+and+West&rft.atitle=Archaeological+Survey+of+Kizil%3A+Its+Groups+of+Caves%2C+Districts%2C+Chronology+and+Buddhist+Schools&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=405%2C+note+71&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F29757697%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0012-8376&rft.aulast=Vignato&rft.aufirst=Giuseppe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F29757697&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"618年，汉名为苏伐勃駃（梵文Suvarna pushpa，意为金色的花朵）的库车王向隋场帝表示归顺。" in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrousset" class="citation book cs1">Grousset, René. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shijiemingzhuB/B0806%E8%8D%89%E5%8E%9F%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD/page/n149/mode/2up"><i>草原帝国 (L'Empire des Steppes)</i></a>. p. 138.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E8%8D%89%E5%8E%9F%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD+%28L%27Empire+des+Steppes%29&rft.pages=138&rft.aulast=Grousset&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FshijiemingzhuB%2FB0806%25E8%258D%2589%25E5%258E%259F%25E5%25B8%259D%25E5%259B%25BD%2Fpage%2Fn149%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowland1975" class="citation book cs1">Rowland, Benjamin (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/artofcentralasia00rowl/page/150/mode/2up"><i>The art of Central Asia</i></a>. New York, Crown. p. 151.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+art+of+Central+Asia&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=New+York%2C+Crown&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Rowland&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fartofcentralasia00rowl%2Fpage%2F150%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"王屈支种也" in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://zh.m.wikisource.org/zh-hans/%E5%A4%A7%E5%94%90%E8%A5%BF%E5%9F%9F%E8%A8%98/01">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"屈支国" in 大唐西域记/01 - 维基文库，自由的图书馆"</a>. <i>zh.m.wikisource.org</i>. Wikisource.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=zh.m.wikisource.org&rft.atitle=%22%E5%B1%88%E6%94%AF%E5%9B%BD%22+in+%E5%A4%A7%E5%94%90%E8%A5%BF%E5%9F%9F%E8%AE%B0%2F01+-+%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E6%96%87%E5%BA%93%EF%BC%8C%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1%E7%9A%84%E5%9B%BE%E4%B9%A6%E9%A6%86&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzh.m.wikisource.org%2Fzh-hans%2F%25E5%25A4%25A7%25E5%2594%2590%25E8%25A5%25BF%25E5%259F%259F%25E8%25A8%2598%2F01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979220-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979220_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWechsler1979">Wechsler (1979)</a>, p. 220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979225-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979225_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWechsler1979">Wechsler (1979)</a>, p. 225.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979226-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979226_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWechsler1979">Wechsler (1979)</a>, p. 226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979226,_228-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979226,_228_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWechsler1979">Wechsler (1979)</a>, pp. 226, 228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970100-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970100_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, p. 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979228-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWechsler1979228_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWechsler1979">Wechsler (1979)</a>, p. 228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen201280-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen201280_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHansen2012">Hansen (2012)</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000272-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000272_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000272_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, p. 272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000272–273-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000272–273_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, pp. 272–273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2012108-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2012108_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHansen2012">Hansen (2012)</a>, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202147-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202147_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMillward2021">Millward (2021)</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiChoKiddKidd2009" class="citation journal cs1">Li, Hui; Cho, Kelly; Kidd, Judith R.; Kidd, Kenneth K. (December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2790568">"Genetic Landscape of Eurasia and "Admixture" in Uyghurs"</a>. <i>The American Journal of Human Genetics</i>. <b>85</b> (6): 934–937. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2009.10.024">10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.10.024</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2790568">2790568</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20004770">20004770</a>. <q>Historical records indicate that the present Uyghurs were formed by admixture between Tocharians from the west and Orkhon Uyghurs (Wugusi-Huihu, according to present Chinese pronunciation) from the east in the 8th century CE</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=Genetic+Landscape+of+Eurasia+and+%22Admixture%22+in+Uyghurs&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=934-937&rft.date=2009-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2790568%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20004770&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2009.10.024&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Hui&rft.au=Cho%2C+Kelly&rft.au=Kidd%2C+Judith+R.&rft.au=Kidd%2C+Kenneth+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2790568&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward202163-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward202163_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMillward2021">Millward (2021)</a>, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHongWuKimNakagoshi2010" class="citation book cs1">Hong, Sun-Kee; Wu, Jianguo; Kim, Jae-Eun; Nakagoshi, Nobukazu (25 December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OenWCigfFBgC&pg=PA284"><i>Landscape Ecology in Asian Cultures</i></a>. Springer. p. 284. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-431-87799-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-431-87799-8"><bdi>978-4-431-87799-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Landscape+Ecology+in+Asian+Cultures&rft.pages=284&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010-12-25&rft.isbn=978-4-431-87799-8&rft.aulast=Hong&rft.aufirst=Sun-Kee&rft.au=Wu%2C+Jianguo&rft.au=Kim%2C+Jae-Eun&rft.au=Nakagoshi%2C+Nobukazu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOenWCigfFBgC%26pg%3DPA284&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span> p.284: "The Uyghurs mixed with the Tocharian people and adopted their religion and their culture of oasis agriculture (Scharlipp 1992; Soucek 2000)."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000273-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000273_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair (2000)</a>, p. 273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarling" class="citation web cs1">Carling, Gerd (Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spw.uni-goettingen.de/projects/aig/doc/TOC-INT-003.pdf">"Tocharian (p.16)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tocharian+%28p.16%29&rft.aulast=Carling&rft.aufirst=Gerd+%28Georg-August-Universit%C3%A4t%2C+G%C3%B6ttingen%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspw.uni-goettingen.de%2Fprojects%2Faig%2Fdoc%2FTOC-INT-003.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DQA-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DQA_136-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DQA_136-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsPeyrotPinaultOlander2013" class="citation book cs1">Adams, Douglas Q.; Peyrot, Michaël; Pinault, Georges-Jean; Olander, Thomas; Rasmussen, Jens Elmegård (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FEPjCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27"><i>"More Thoughts on Tocharian B Prosody" in "Tocharian and Indo-European Studies vol.14"</i></a>. Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 26–28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-635-4066-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-635-4066-7"><bdi>978-87-635-4066-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22More+Thoughts+on+Tocharian+B+Prosody%22+in+%22Tocharian+and+Indo-European+Studies+vol.14%22&rft.pages=26-28&rft.pub=Museum+Tusculanum+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-87-635-4066-7&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Douglas+Q.&rft.au=Peyrot%2C+Micha%C3%ABl&rft.au=Pinault%2C+Georges-Jean&rft.au=Olander%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Rasmussen%2C+Jens+Elmeg%C3%A5rd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFEPjCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GJP-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GJP_137-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GJP_137-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Chrestomathie tokharienne: Textes et grammaire, Georges-Jean Pinault. Peeters, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=46597">"Language Log » Tocharian love poem"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Language+Log+%C2%BB+Tocharian+love+poem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flanguagelog.ldc.upenn.edu%2Fnll%2F%3Fp%3D46597&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://littlebleenhat.github.io/xtb.html">World Atlas of Poetic Traditions: Tocharian</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKumarWangJieWang2022" class="citation journal cs1">Kumar, Vikas; Wang, Wenjun; Jie, Zhang; Wang, Yongqiang; Ruan, Qiurong; Yu, Jianjun; Wu, Xiaohong; Hu, Xingjun; Wu, Xinhua; Guo, Wu; Wang, Bo; Niyazi, Alipujiang; Lv, Enguo; Tang, Zihua; Cao, Peng; Liu, Feng; Dai, Qingyan; Yang, Ruowei; Feng, Xiaotian; Ping, Wanjing; Zhang, Lizhao; Zhang, Ming; Hou, Weihong; Yichen, Liu; E. Andrew, Bennett (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abk1534">"Bronze and Iron Age population movements underlie Xinjiang population history"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>376</b> (6588): 62–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.abm4247">10.1126/science.abm4247</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12684%2F12345">20.500.12684/12345</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35357918">35357918</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Bronze+and+Iron+Age+population+movements+underlie+Xinjiang+population+history&rft.volume=376&rft.issue=6588&rft.pages=62-69&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.12684%2F12345&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35357918&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abm4247&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Vikas&rft.au=Wang%2C+Wenjun&rft.au=Jie%2C+Zhang&rft.au=Wang%2C+Yongqiang&rft.au=Ruan%2C+Qiurong&rft.au=Yu%2C+Jianjun&rft.au=Wu%2C+Xiaohong&rft.au=Hu%2C+Xingjun&rft.au=Wu%2C+Xinhua&rft.au=Guo%2C+Wu&rft.au=Wang%2C+Bo&rft.au=Niyazi%2C+Alipujiang&rft.au=Lv%2C+Enguo&rft.au=Tang%2C+Zihua&rft.au=Cao%2C+Peng&rft.au=Liu%2C+Feng&rft.au=Dai%2C+Qingyan&rft.au=Yang%2C+Ruowei&rft.au=Feng%2C+Xiaotian&rft.au=Ping%2C+Wanjing&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Lizhao&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Ming&rft.au=Hou%2C+Weihong&rft.au=Yichen%2C+Liu&rft.au=E.+Andrew%2C+Bennett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abk1534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams2013" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Q._Adams" title="Douglas Q. Adams">Adams, Douglas Q.</a> (2013), <i>A Dictionary of Tocharian B</i> (2nd ed.), Rodopi, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-420-3671-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-420-3671-0"><bdi>978-90-420-3671-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Tocharian+B&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-90-420-3671-0&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Douglas+Q.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckwith2009" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_I._Beckwith" title="Christopher I. Beckwith">Beckwith, Christopher I.</a> (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/EmpieresOfTheSilkRoad"><i>Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Asia from the Bronze Age to the Present</i></a>, Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15034-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15034-5"><bdi>978-0-691-15034-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empires+of+the+Silk+Road%3A+A+History+of+Central+Asia+from+the+Bronze+Age+to+the+Present&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-691-15034-5&rft.aulast=Beckwith&rft.aufirst=Christopher+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FEmpieresOfTheSilkRoad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChenHiebert1995" class="citation cs2">Chen, Kwang-tzuu; Hiebert, Fredrik T. (1995), "The late prehistory of Xinjiang in relation to its neighbors", <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i>, <b>9</b> (2): 243–300, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf02221840">10.1007/bf02221840</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25801077">25801077</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161858422">161858422</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+Prehistory&rft.atitle=The+late+prehistory+of+Xinjiang+in+relation+to+its+neighbors&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=243-300&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161858422%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25801077%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf02221840&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Kwang-tzuu&rft.au=Hiebert%2C+Fredrik+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDi_Cosmo2000" class="citation cs2">Di Cosmo, Nicola (2000), "Ancient city-states of the Tarim Basin", in Hansen, Mogens Herman (ed.), <i>A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures</i>, Copenhagen: Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, pp. 393–407, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-7876-177-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-7876-177-4"><bdi>978-87-7876-177-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+city-states+of+the+Tarim+Basin&rft.btitle=A+Comparative+Study+of+Thirty+City-state+Cultures&rft.place=Copenhagen&rft.pages=393-407&rft.pub=Kongelige+Danske+Videnskabernes+Selskab&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-87-7876-177-4&rft.aulast=Di+Cosmo&rft.aufirst=Nicola&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrousset1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Grousset" title="René Grousset">Grousset, René</a> (1970). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppes00grou"><i>The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia</i></a></span>. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-1304-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-1304-1"><bdi>978-0-8135-1304-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Empire+of+the+Steppes%3A+A+History+of+Central+Asia&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-1304-1&rft.aulast=Grousset&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fempireofsteppes00grou&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansen2012" class="citation cs2">Hansen, Valerie (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195159318"><i>The Silk Road: a new history</i></a>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-195-15931-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-195-15931-8"><bdi>978-0-195-15931-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Silk+Road%3A+a+new+history&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-195-15931-8&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=Valerie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780195159318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHulsewé1979" class="citation cs2">Hulsewé, A.F.P. 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(1979), "T'ai-tsung (reign 624–49) the consolidator", in <a href="/wiki/Denis_Twitchett" title="Denis Twitchett">Twitchett, Dennis</a> (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=idu6-Ie1MhwC"><i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1</i></a>, Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, pp. 188–241, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21446-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21446-9"><bdi>978-0-521-21446-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=T%27ai-tsung+%28reign+624%E2%80%9349%29+the+consolidator&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%2C+Volume+3%3A+Sui+and+T%27ang+China%2C+589%E2%80%93906+AD%2C+Part+1&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=188-241&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-521-21446-9&rft.aulast=Wechsler&rft.aufirst=Howard+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Didu6-Ie1MhwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinter1998" class="citation cs2">Winter, Werner (1998), "Tocharian", in Ramat, Giacalone Anna; Ramat, Paolo (eds.), <i>The Indo-European languages</i>, London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, pp. 154–168, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-06449-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-06449-1"><bdi>978-0-415-06449-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tocharian&rft.btitle=The+Indo-European+languages&rft.place=London&rft.pages=154-168&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-06449-1&rft.aulast=Winter&rft.aufirst=Werner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYü1986" class="citation book cs2">Yü, Ying-shih (1986), "Han foreign relations", in <a href="/wiki/Denis_Twitchett" title="Denis Twitchett">Twitchett, Dennis</a>; <a href="/wiki/Michael_Loewe" title="Michael Loewe">Loewe, Michael</a> (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A2HKxK5N2sAC"><i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220</i></a>, Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, pp. 377–462, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24327-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24327-8"><bdi>978-0-521-24327-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Han+foreign+relations&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%2C+Volume+1%3A+The+Ch%27in+and+Han+Empires%2C+221+BC%E2%80%93AD+220&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=377-462&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24327-8&rft.aulast=Y%C3%BC&rft.aufirst=Ying-shih&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA2HKxK5N2sAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Note: Recent discoveries have rendered obsolete some of René Grousset's classic <i>The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia</i>, published in 1939, which, however, still provides a broad background against which to assess more modern detailed studies. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Baldi" title="Philip Baldi">Baldi, Philip</a>. 1983. <i>An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages.</i> Carbondale. Southern Illinois University Press.</li> <li>Barber, Elizabeth Wayland. 1999. <i>The Mummies of Ürümchi</i>. London. Pan Books.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Beekes" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Beekes">Beekes, Robert</a>. 1995. <i>Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction.</i> Philadelphia. John Benjamins.</li> <li>Hemphill, Brian E. and J.P. Mallory. 2004. "Horse-mounted invaders from the Russo-Kazakh steppe or agricultural colonists from Western Central Asia? A craniometric investigation of the Bronze Age settlement of Xinjiang" in <i>American Journal of Physical Anthropology</i> vol. 125 pp 199ff.</li> <li>Lane, George S. 1966. "On the Interrelationship of the Tocharian Dialects," in <i>Ancient Indo-European Dialects</i>, eds. Henrik Birnbaum and <a href="/wiki/Jaan_Puhvel" title="Jaan Puhvel">Jaan Puhvel</a>. Berkeley. University of California Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMairZhangAdamsBlažek2024" class="citation book cs1">Mair, Victor H.; Zhang, Shuheng; Adams, Douglas Q.; Blažek, Václav; Comsa, Alexandra; Haarmann, Harald; Joseph, Brian D.; Malzahn, Melanie; Poruciuc, Adrian; Ringe, Don; Wells, Peter S. (2024). <i>Tocharica et archeologica: A Festschrift in Honor of J. P. Mallory</i>. Washington DC: The Institute for the Study of Man, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9983669-6-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9983669-6-8"><bdi>978-0-9983669-6-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tocharica+et+archeologica%3A+A+Festschrift+in+Honor+of+J.+P.+Mallory&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pub=The+Institute+for+the+Study+of+Man%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-0-9983669-6-8&rft.aulast=Mair&rft.aufirst=Victor+H.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Shuheng&rft.au=Adams%2C+Douglas+Q.&rft.au=Bla%C5%BEek%2C+V%C3%A1clav&rft.au=Comsa%2C+Alexandra&rft.au=Haarmann%2C+Harald&rft.au=Joseph%2C+Brian+D.&rft.au=Malzahn%2C+Melanie&rft.au=Poruciuc%2C+Adrian&rft.au=Ringe%2C+Don&rft.au=Wells%2C+Peter+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATocharians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ning, Chao, Chuan-Chao Wang, Shizhu Gao, Y. Yang and Yinqiu Cui. "Ancient Genomes Reveal Yamnaya-Related Ancestry and a Potential Source of Indo-European Speakers in Iron Age Tianshan". In: <i>Current Biology</i> 29 (2019): 2526–2532.e4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.044">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.044</a></li> <li>Walter, Mariko Namba 1998 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp085_tokharian_buddhism_kucha.pdf">"Tocharian Buddhism in Kucha: Buddhism of Indo-European Centum Speakers in Chinese Turkestan before the 10th Century C.E."</a> <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i> <b>85</b>.</li> <li>Xu, Wenkan 1995 "The Discovery of the Xinjiang Mummies and Studies of the Origin of the Tocharians" <i>The Journal of Indo-European Studies</i>, Vol. 23, Number 3 & 4, Fall/Winter 1995, pp. 357–369.</li> <li>Xu, Wenkan 1996 "The Tokharians and Buddhism" In: <i>Studies in Central and East Asian Religions</i> 9, pp. 1–17. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://61.54.131.141:8010/Resource/Book/Edu/JXCKS/TS010057/0001_ts010057.htm">[1]</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tocharians&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tocharians" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Tocharians">Tocharians</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Tocharians" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Tocharians">Tocharians</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Tocharian" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Tocharian">Tocharian</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omniglot.com/writing/tocharian.htm">Tocharian alphabet</a> at omniglot.com</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/didact/idg/toch/tochbr.htm">Tocharian alphabet</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wordgumbo.com/ie/cmp/toch.htm">Modern studies are developing a Tocharian dictionary.</a></li> <li>A dictionary of Tocharian B by Douglas Q. Adams (Leiden Studies in Indo-European 10), xxxiv, 830 pp., Rodopi: Amsterdam – Atlanta, 1999. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://ieed.ullet.net/tochB.html">[2]</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Central_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Central_Asian_history" title="Template:Central Asian history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Central_Asian_history" title="Template talk:Central Asian history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Central_Asian_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Central Asian history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Central_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Central_Asia" title="History of Central Asia">History of Central Asia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Polities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mal%27ta%E2%80%93Buret%27_culture" title="Mal'ta–Buret' culture">Mal'ta–Buret' culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vakhsh_culture" title="Vakhsh culture">Vakhsh culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagar_culture" title="Tagar culture">Tagar culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyuk_culture" title="Uyuk culture">Uyuk culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pazyryk_culture" title="Pazyryk culture">Pazyryk culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massagetae" title="Massagetae">Massagetae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guiyi_Circuit" title="Guiyi Circuit">Guiyi Circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom" title="Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom">Kushano-Sasanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tocharians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Ushrusana" title="Principality of Ushrusana">Ustrushana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Khuttal" title="Principality of Khuttal">Khuttal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferghana_Kingdom" title="Ferghana Kingdom">Ferghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First Turkic Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (<a href="/wiki/Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West" title="Protectorate General to Pacify the West">Anxi Protectorate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhshids_of_Sogdia" title="Ikhshids of Sogdia">Ikhshids of Sogdia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokhara_Yabghus" title="Tokhara Yabghus">Tokhara Yabghus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Turk Shahis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Yabgu_State" title="Oghuz Yabgu State">Oghuz Yabgus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second Turkic Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghur Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanids">Samanids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%27munids" title="Ma'munids">Ma'munids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farighunids" title="Farighunids">Farighunids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Seljuq_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Seljuq Empire">Great Seljuq Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_dynasty" title="Sufi dynasty">Sufi dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kart_dynasty" title="Kart dynasty">Kart dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Fergana" title="Principality of Fergana">Principality of Fergana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Bukhara" title="Khanate of Bukhara">Khanate of Bukhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva" title="Khanate of Khiva">Khanate of Khiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Turkestan" title="Chinese Turkestan">Chinese Turkestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Turkestan" title="Russian Turkestan">Russian Turkestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Central_Asia" title="Soviet Central Asia">Soviet Central Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Central Asia">Chinese Central Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_art" title="Central Asian art">Central Asian art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_art" title="Silk Road transmission of art">Silk Road transmission of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serindian_art" title="Serindian art">Serindian art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Russia" title="Southern Russia">Southern Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sintashta" title="Sintashta">Sintashta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arzhan_culture" title="Arzhan culture">Arzhan kurgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pazyryk_burials" title="Pazyryk burials">Pazyryk burials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salbyk_kurgan" title="Salbyk kurgan">Salbyk kurgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filippovka_kurgans" title="Filippovka kurgans">Filippovka kurgans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_China" title="Western China">Western China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulay%C3%AFq" title="Bulayïq">Bulayïq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kizilgaha_caves" title="Kizilgaha caves">Kizilgaha caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumtura_Caves" title="Kumtura Caves">Kumtura Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subashi_Temple" title="Subashi Temple">Subashi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miran_(Xinjiang)" title="Miran (Xinjiang)">Miran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niya_ruins" title="Niya ruins">Niya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rawak_Stupa" title="Rawak Stupa">Rawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumxuk" title="Tumxuk">Tumshuq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bezeklik_Caves" title="Bezeklik Caves">Bezeklik Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunhuang_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Dunhuang Caves">Dunhuang Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loulan_Kingdom" title="Loulan Kingdom">Loulan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Khotan" title="Kingdom of Khotan">Khotan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beshbalik" title="Beshbalik">Beshbalik</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noin-Ula_burial_site" title="Noin-Ula burial site">Noin-Ula burial site</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Begash" title="Begash">Begash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issyk_kurgan" title="Issyk kurgan">Issyk kurgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jankent" title="Jankent">Jankent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karsakpay_inscription" title="Karsakpay inscription">Karsakpay inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerderi" title="Kerderi">Kerderi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krasnyi_Yar_(Kazakhstan)" title="Krasnyi Yar (Kazakhstan)">Krasnyi Yar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merke_Turkic_Sanctuaries" title="Merke Turkic Sanctuaries">Merke Turkic Sanctuaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otrar" title="Otrar">Otrar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroglyphs_of_Arpa-Uzen" title="Petroglyphs of Arpa-Uzen">Petroglyphs of Arpa-Uzen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrovka_settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrovka settlement">Petrovka settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boralday_(archaeological_site)" title="Boralday (archaeological site)">Boralday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawran_(Kazakhstan)" title="Sawran (Kazakhstan)">Sawran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shilikty" title="Shilikty">Shilikty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steppe_Geoglyphs" title="Steppe Geoglyphs">Steppe Geoglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumbe_(ancient_settlement)" title="Sumbe (ancient settlement)">Sumbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talapty_Settlement" title="Talapty Settlement">Talapty Settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkistan_(city)" title="Turkistan (city)">Turkistan (city)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urpek" title="Urpek">Urpek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Khoja_Ahmed_Yasawi" title="Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi">Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Araltobe_kurgan" title="Araltobe kurgan">Araltobe kurgan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aigyr-Zhal_2" title="Aigyr-Zhal 2">Aigyr-Zhal 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balasagun" title="Balasagun">Balasagun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burana_Tower" title="Burana Tower">Burana Tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issyk-Kul" title="Issyk-Kul">Issyk-Kul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koshoy_Korgon" title="Koshoy Korgon">Koshoy Korgon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manas_Ordo" title="Manas Ordo">Manas Ordo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navekat" title="Navekat">Navekat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96zg%C3%B6n" title="Özgön">Özgön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakh_Fazil" title="Shakh Fazil">Shakh Fazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suyab" title="Suyab">Suyab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tash_Rabat" title="Tash Rabat">Tash Rabat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrasiyab_(Samarkand)" title="Afrasiyab (Samarkand)">Afrasiyab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akchakhan-Kala" title="Akchakhan-Kala">Akchakhan-Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akhsikath" title="Akhsikath">Akhsikath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Pap" title="Ancient Pap">Ancient Pap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayaz-Kala" title="Ayaz-Kala">Ayaz-Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balalyk_Tepe" title="Balalyk Tepe">Balalyk Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burchmulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Burchmulla">Burchmulla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalverzin_Tepe" title="Dalverzin Tepe">Dalverzin Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_castles_of_ancient_Khorezm" title="Desert castles of ancient Khorezm">Desert castles of ancient Khorezm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayaz_Tepe" title="Fayaz Tepe">Fayaz Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guldursun-Kala" title="Guldursun-Kala">Guldursun-Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazorasp" title="Hazorasp">Hazorasp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itchan_Kala" title="Itchan Kala">Itchan Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafir-kala_(Uzbekistan)" title="Kafir-kala (Uzbekistan)">Kafir-kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kampir_Tepe" title="Kampir Tepe">Kampir Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kara_Tepe" title="Kara Tepe">Kara Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalchayan" title="Khalchayan">Khalchayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khiva" title="Khiva">Khiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koi_Krylgan_Kala" title="Koi Krylgan Kala">Koi Krylgan Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koktepe" title="Koktepe">Koktepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyzyl-Kala" title="Kyzyl-Kala">Kyzyl-Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obi-Rakhmat_Grotto" title="Obi-Rakhmat Grotto">Obi-Rakhmat Grotto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poykent" class="mw-redirect" title="Poykent">Poykent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmishsay" title="Sarmishsay">Sarmishsay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahrukhiya" title="Shahrukhiya">Shahrukhiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siypantosh_Rock_Paintings" title="Siypantosh Rock Paintings">Siypantosh Rock Paintings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tavka_Kurgan" title="Tavka Kurgan">Tavka Kurgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toprak-Kala" title="Toprak-Kala">Toprak-Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varakhsha" title="Varakhsha">Varakhsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarautsoy_Rock_Paintings" title="Zarautsoy Rock Paintings">Zarautsoy Rock Paintings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bunjikat_(archeological_site)" title="Bunjikat (archeological site)">Bunjikat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penjikent" class="mw-redirect" title="Penjikent">Penjikent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajina_tepe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajina tepe">Ajina tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyropolis" title="Cyropolis">Cyropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafir-kala_(Tajikistan)" title="Kafir-kala (Tajikistan)">Kafir-kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarazm" title="Sarazm">Sarazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takht-i_Kuwad" title="Takht-i Kuwad">Takht-i Kuwad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takht-i_Sangin" title="Takht-i Sangin">Takht-i Sangin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalai_Kafirnigan" title="Kalai Kafirnigan">Kalai Kafirnigan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Dzhebel" title="Cave of Dzhebel">Cave of Dzhebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiward" title="Abiward">Abiward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altyndepe" title="Altyndepe">Altyndepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anau_culture" title="Anau culture">Anau culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anau,_Turkmenistan" title="Anau, Turkmenistan">Anau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dev-Kesken" class="mw-redirect" title="Dev-Kesken">Dev-Kesken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonur_Depe" title="Gonur Depe">Gonur Depe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeitun" title="Jeitun">Jeitun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konye-Urgench" title="Konye-Urgench">Konye-Urgench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutlug_Timur_Minaret" title="Kutlug Timur Minaret">Kutlug Timur Minaret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monjukli_Depe" title="Monjukli Depe">Monjukli Depe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namazga-Tepe" title="Namazga-Tepe">Namazga-Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisa,_Turkmenistan" title="Nisa, Turkmenistan">Nisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togolok" title="Togolok">Togolok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulug_Depe" title="Ulug Depe">Ulug Depe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepe_Fullol" title="Tepe Fullol">Tepe Fullol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ai-Khanoum" title="Ai-Khanoum">Ai-Khanoum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilberjin_Tepe" title="Dilberjin Tepe">Dilberjin Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadda,_Afghanistan" title="Hadda, Afghanistan">Hadda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapa_Shotor" title="Tapa Shotor">Tapa Shotor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakhil-i-Ghoundi_Stupa" title="Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa">Chakhil-i-Ghoundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shotorak_monastery" title="Shotorak monastery">Shotorak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paitava" title="Paitava">Paitava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimaran" title="Bimaran">Bimaran</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tapa-i_Kafariha_Monastery" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Tapa-i Kafariha Monastery">Tapa-i Kafariha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mes_Aynak" title="Mes Aynak">Mes Aynak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fondukistan_monastery" title="Fondukistan monastery">Fondukistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khair_Khaneh" title="Khair Khaneh">Khair Khaneh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapa_Sardar" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapa Sardar">Tapa Sardar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tepe_Narenj" class="mw-redirect" title="Tepe Narenj">Tepe Narenj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takht-e_Rostam" title="Takht-e Rostam">Takht-e Rostam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tepe_Fullol" title="Tepe Fullol">Tepe Fullol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tillya_Tepe" title="Tillya Tepe">Tillya Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemshi_Tepe" title="Yemshi Tepe">Yemshi Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Prophthasia" title="Alexandria Prophthasia">Alexandria Prophthasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Kupruk" title="Aq Kupruk">Aq Kupruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asqalan,_Afghanistan" title="Asqalan, Afghanistan">Asqalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhas_of_Bamiyan" title="Buddhas of Bamiyan">Buddhas of Bamiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakhil-i-Ghoundi_Stupa" title="Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa">Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darra-e_Kur" title="Darra-e Kur">Darra-e Kur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasht-e_Nawar" title="Dasht-e Nawar">Dasht-e Nawar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan" title="Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan">Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firozkoh" title="Firozkoh">Firozkoh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gawhar_Shad_Mausoleum" title="Gawhar Shad Mausoleum">Gawhar Shad Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haji_Piyada" title="Haji Piyada">Haji Piyada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khair_Khaneh" title="Khair Khaneh">Khair Khaneh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundigak" title="Mundigak">Mundigak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musalla_Complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Musalla Complex">Musalla Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagara_(ancient_city)" title="Nagara (ancient city)">Nagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qala-i-Jangi" title="Qala-i-Jangi">Qala-i-Jangi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rag-i-Bibi" title="Rag-i-Bibi">Rag-i-Bibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surkh_Kotal" title="Surkh Kotal">Surkh Kotal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandian_complex" title="Bandian complex">Bandian complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Khajeh" title="Mount Khajeh">Mount Khajeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahr-e_Sukhteh" title="Shahr-e Sukhteh">Shahr-e Sukhteh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artifacts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sokh_snakes" title="Sokh snakes">Sokh snakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orlat_plaques" title="Orlat plaques">Orlat plaques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalite_silver_bowl" title="Hephthalite silver bowl">Hephthalite silver bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilek_silver_bowl" title="Chilek silver bowl">Chilek silver bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardez_Ganesha" title="Gardez Ganesha">Gardez Ganesha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogao_Christian_painting" title="Mogao Christian painting">Mogao Christian painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murals_from_the_Christian_temple_at_Qocho" title="Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho">Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penjikent_murals" title="Penjikent murals">Penjikent murals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampul_tapestry" title="Sampul tapestry">Sampul tapestry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_Da%C4%93n%C4%81s" title="Sogdian Daēnās">Sogdian Daēnās</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxus_Treasure" title="Oxus Treasure">Oxus Treasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimaran_Casket" class="mw-redirect" title="Bimaran Casket">Bimaran Casket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhas_of_Bamiyan" title="Buddhas of Bamiyan">Buddhas of Bamiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabul_hoard" title="Kabul hoard">Kabul hoard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_Inscription_of_Laghman" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic Inscription of Laghman">Aramaic Inscription of Laghman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandahar_Aramaic_inscription" title="Kandahar Aramaic inscription">Kandahar Aramaic inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pul-i-Darunteh_Aramaic_inscription" title="Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription">Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandahar_Bilingual_Rock_Inscription" title="Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription">Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandahar_Greek_Edicts_of_Ashoka" title="Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka">Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrasiab_murals" title="Afrasiab murals">Afrasiab murals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_seal_(BM_119999)" title="Stamp seal (BM 119999)">Stamp seal (BM 119999)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_of_Khingila" title="Seal of Khingila">Seal of Khingila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_Ice_Maiden" title="Siberian Ice Maiden">Siberian Ice Maiden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ai-Khanoum_plaque" title="Ai-Khanoum plaque">Ai-Khanoum plaque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saksanokhur_gold_buckle" title="Saksanokhur gold buckle">Saksanokhur gold buckle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boar_hunter_(Hermitage_Museum)" title="Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum)">Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_Collection_of_Peter_the_Great" title="Siberian Collection of Peter the Great">Siberian Collection of Peter the Great</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Historical_non-Han_peoples_in_China" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Historical_non-Han_peoples_in_China" title="Template:Historical non-Han peoples in China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Historical_non-Han_peoples_in_China" title="Template talk:Historical non-Han peoples in China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Historical_non-Han_peoples_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Historical non-Han peoples in China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Historical_non-Han_peoples_in_China" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Historical non-<a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> peoples in China</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dongyi" title="Dongyi">Dongyi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baiyue" title="Baiyue">Baiyue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%82u_L%E1%BA%A1c" title="Âu Lạc">Âu Lạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%82u_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Âu Việt">Âu Việt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dong%27ou" title="Dong'ou">Dong'ou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%E1%BA%A1c_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Lạc Việt">Lạc Việt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minyue" title="Minyue">Minyue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanyue" title="Nanyue">Nanyue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanyue" title="Shanyue">Shanyue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangyue" title="Yangyue">Yangyue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yue_(state)" title="Yue (state)">Yue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bo_people_(China)" title="Bo people (China)">Bo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Dian Kingdom">Dian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hmong_people" title="Hmong people">Hmong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanman" title="Nanman">Nanman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yelang" title="Yelang">Yelang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_people" title="Yi people">Yi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Di_(Five_Barbarians)" title="Di (Five Barbarians)">Di</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_(historical_people)" title="Qiang (historical people)">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumpa" title="Sumpa">Sumpa</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xirong" title="Xirong">Xirong</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quanrong" title="Quanrong">Quanrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianyun" title="Xianyun">Xianyun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunyu" title="Xunyu">Xunyu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beidi" title="Beidi">Beidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chunwei" title="Chunwei">Chunwei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donghu_people" title="Donghu people">Donghu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dingling" title="Dingling">Dingling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhuan" title="Wuhuan">Wuhuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guifang" title="Guifang">Guifang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jie_people" title="Jie people">Jie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanrong" title="Shanrong">Shanrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sushen" title="Sushen">Sushen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yilou" title="Yilou">Yilou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianyun" title="Xianyun">Xianyun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunyu" title="Xunyu">Xunyu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Huaxiasiyi.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Non-Hans peoples on the outskirts of the Zhou dynasty."><img alt="Non-Hans peoples on the outskirts of the Zhou dynasty." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Huaxiasiyi.svg/250px-Huaxiasiyi.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Huaxiasiyi.svg/375px-Huaxiasiyi.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Huaxiasiyi.svg/500px-Huaxiasiyi.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="672" data-file-height="456" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bai_people" title="Bai people">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bo_people_(China)" title="Bo people (China)">Bo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuanman" title="Cuanman">Cuanman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hlai_people" title="Hlai people">Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rau_peoples" title="Rau peoples">Rau</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bouyei_people" title="Bouyei people">Bouyei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_people" title="Zhuang people">Zhuang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_people" title="Yi people">Yi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karakhanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Karakhanid">Karakhanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karluks" title="Karluks">Karluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Khotan" title="Kingdom of Khotan">Khotanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan people">Tibetan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumo_Xi" title="Kumo Xi">Kumo Xi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohe_people" title="Mohe people">Mohe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiwei_people" title="Shiwei people">Shiwei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zubu" title="Zubu">Zubu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khamag_Mongol" title="Khamag Mongol">Khamag Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khereid" class="mw-redirect" title="Khereid">Khereid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naimans" title="Naimans">Naiman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_confederation" title="Tatar confederation">Tatar</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangut_people" title="Tangut people">Tangut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiele_people" title="Tiele people">Tiele</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueyantuo" title="Xueyantuo">Xueyantuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugur" class="mw-redirect" title="Yugur">Yugur</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tujue" class="mw-redirect" title="Tujue">Tujue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yueban" title="Yueban">Yueban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shatuo" title="Shatuo">Shatuo</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Early Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bo_people_(China)" title="Bo people (China)">Bo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shan_people" title="Shan people">Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She_people" title="She people">She</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_people" title="Yao people">Yao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khalkha_Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalkha Mongol">Khalkha Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nivkh_people" title="Nivkh people">Nivkh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirats" title="Oirats">Oirats</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_people" title="Dzungar people">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut" title="Khoshut">Khoshut</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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