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id="toc-Pre-Proto-Indo-European" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Proto-Indo-European"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.2.2 Pre-Proto-Indo-European </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Proto-Indo-European-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uralic,_Caucasian_and_Semitic_borrowings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uralic,_Caucasian_and_Semitic_borrowings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.2.3 Uralic, Caucasian and Semitic borrowings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uralic,_Caucasian_and_Semitic_borrowings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phases_of_Proto-Indo-European" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phases_of_Proto-Indo-European"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.2.4 Phases of Proto-Indo-European </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phases_of_Proto-Indo-European-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phylogenetic_analysis_of_Indo-European_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phylogenetic_analysis_of_Indo-European_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.2.5 Phylogenetic analysis of Indo-European languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phylogenetic_analysis_of_Indo-European_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeology:_migrations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeology:_migrations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Archaeology: migrations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeology:_migrations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anthropology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthropology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Anthropology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anthropology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecological_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecological_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Ecological studies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecological_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins_of_the_Indo-Europeans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_the_Indo-Europeans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Origins of the Indo-Europeans </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origins_of_the_Indo-Europeans-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Origins of the Indo-Europeans subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_the_Indo-Europeans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Urheimat_(original_homeland)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urheimat_(original_homeland)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Urheimat (original homeland) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urheimat_(original_homeland)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Kurgan_hypothesis_and_the_"revised_steppe_hypothesis"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Kurgan_hypothesis_and_the_"revised_steppe_hypothesis""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 The Kurgan hypothesis and the "revised steppe hypothesis" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Kurgan_hypothesis_and_the_"revised_steppe_hypothesis"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anatolian_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anatolian_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Anatolian hypothesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anatolian_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armenian_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armenian_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.3 Armenian hypothesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armenian_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proto-Indo-Europeans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proto-Indo-Europeans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Proto-Indo-Europeans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proto-Indo-Europeans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Characteristics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins_of_Proto-Indo-Europeans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_Proto-Indo-Europeans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Origins of Proto-Indo-Europeans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_Proto-Indo-Europeans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins_of_archaic_PIE" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_archaic_PIE"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Origins of archaic PIE </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_archaic_PIE-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Caucasus_origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caucasus_origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Caucasus origins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caucasus_origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indo-Uralic_Urheimat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indo-Uralic_Urheimat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Indo-Uralic Urheimat </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indo-Uralic_Urheimat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Steppe_origins_with_south_Caspian_CHG-influences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Steppe_origins_with_south_Caspian_CHG-influences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 Steppe origins with south Caspian CHG-influences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Steppe_origins_with_south_Caspian_CHG-influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaic_Proto-Indo-European" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaic_Proto-Indo-European"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Archaic Proto-Indo-European </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Archaic_Proto-Indo-European-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Archaic Proto-Indo-European subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Archaic_Proto-Indo-European-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-Yamnaya_steppe_cultures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Yamnaya_steppe_cultures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Pre-Yamnaya steppe cultures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Yamnaya_steppe_cultures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe:_migration_into_the_Danube_Valley_(4200_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe:_migration_into_the_Danube_Valley_(4200_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Europe: migration into the Danube Valley (4200 BCE) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe:_migration_into_the_Danube_Valley_(4200_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anatolia:_Archaic_Proto-Indo-European_(Hittites;_4500–3500_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anatolia:_Archaic_Proto-Indo-European_(Hittites;_4500–3500_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Anatolia: Archaic Proto-Indo-European (Hittites; 4500–3500 BCE) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anatolia:_Archaic_Proto-Indo-European_(Hittites;_4500–3500_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Origins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Time-frame" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Time-frame"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Time-frame </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Time-frame-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hittite_civilisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hittite_civilisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.3 Hittite civilisation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hittite_civilisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northern_Caucasus:_The_Maykop_culture_(3700–3000_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_Caucasus:_The_Maykop_culture_(3700–3000_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Northern Caucasus: The Maykop culture (3700–3000 BCE) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_Caucasus:_The_Maykop_culture_(3700–3000_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Proto-Indo-European" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Proto-Indo-European"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Early Proto-Indo-European </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_Proto-Indo-European-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Early Proto-Indo-European subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Early_Proto-Indo-European-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Afanasevo_culture_(3500–2500_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Afanasevo_culture_(3500–2500_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Afanasevo culture (3500–2500 BCE) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Afanasevo_culture_(3500–2500_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Tocharians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Tocharians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 The Tocharians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Tocharians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Yuezhi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Yuezhi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 The Yuezhi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Yuezhi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Proto-Indo-European" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Proto-Indo-European"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Late Proto-Indo-European </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Late_Proto-Indo-European-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Late Proto-Indo-European subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Late_Proto-Indo-European-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Yamnaya-culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yamnaya-culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Yamnaya-culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yamnaya-culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Yamnaya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Yamnaya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Post-Yamnaya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Yamnaya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Europe </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Europe-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Europe subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decline_of_Neolithic_populations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_of_Neolithic_populations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Decline of Neolithic populations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_of_Neolithic_populations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins_of_the_European_IE_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_the_European_IE_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Origins of the European IE languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_the_European_IE_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Relations_between_the_branches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_between_the_branches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Relations between the branches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_between_the_branches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Balkan-Danubian_complex_and_the_east-Carpathian_contact-zone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Balkan-Danubian_complex_and_the_east-Carpathian_contact-zone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 The Balkan-Danubian complex and the east-Carpathian contact-zone </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Balkan-Danubian_complex_and_the_east-Carpathian_contact-zone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Corded_Ware_culture_(3000–2400_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corded_Ware_culture_(3000–2400_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.3 Corded Ware culture (3000–2400 BCE) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Corded_Ware_culture_(3000–2400_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bell_Beaker_culture_(2900–1800_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bell_Beaker_culture_(2900–1800_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.4 Bell Beaker culture (2900–1800 BCE) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bell_Beaker_culture_(2900–1800_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germanic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germanic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Germanic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germanic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italo-Celtic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italo-Celtic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Italo-Celtic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italo-Celtic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Italic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.1 Italic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Celtic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Celtic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.2 Celtic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Celtic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Balto-Slavic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balto-Slavic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Balto-Slavic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Balto-Slavic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Balts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.1 Balts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Balts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.2 Slavs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Balkan_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balkan_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Balkan languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Balkan_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thracian_and_Dacian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thracian_and_Dacian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6.1 Thracian and Dacian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thracian_and_Dacian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thracian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thracian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6.1.1 Thracian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thracian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dacian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dacian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6.1.2 Dacian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dacian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Illyrian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Illyrian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6.2 Illyrian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Illyrian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Albanian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Albanian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6.3 Albanian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Albanian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armenian,_Greek_and_Phrygian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armenian,_Greek_and_Phrygian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Armenian, Greek and Phrygian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armenian,_Greek_and_Phrygian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Armenian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armenian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7.1 Armenian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armenian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenic_Greek" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenic_Greek"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7.2 Hellenic Greek </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenic_Greek-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phrygian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phrygian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7.3 Phrygian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phrygian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indo-Iranian_migrations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indo-Iranian_migrations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Indo-Iranian migrations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Indo-Iranian_migrations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Indo-Iranian migrations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Indo-Iranian_migrations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sintashta-Petrovka_and_Andronovo_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sintashta-Petrovka_and_Andronovo_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Sintashta-Petrovka and Andronovo culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sintashta-Petrovka_and_Andronovo_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sintashta-Petrovka_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sintashta-Petrovka_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Sintashta-Petrovka culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sintashta-Petrovka_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Andronovo_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Andronovo_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.2 Andronovo culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Andronovo_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bactria-Margiana_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bactria-Margiana_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Bactria-Margiana culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bactria-Margiana_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indo-Aryan_migrations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indo-Aryan_migrations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Indo-Aryan migrations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indo-Aryan_migrations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Syria:_Mitanni" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syria:_Mitanni"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.1 Syria: Mitanni </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syria:_Mitanni-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India:_Indo-Aryans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India:_Indo-Aryans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.2 India: Indo-Aryans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India:_Indo-Aryans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inner_Asia:_Wusun" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inner_Asia:_Wusun"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.3 Inner Asia: Wusun </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inner_Asia:_Wusun-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesopotamia_–_Kassites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesopotamia_–_Kassites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.4 Mesopotamia – Kassites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesopotamia_–_Kassites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iranians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iranians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Iranians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iranians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Iranian_plateau" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iranian_plateau"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.1 Iranian plateau </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iranian_plateau-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scythians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scythians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.2 Scythians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scythians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline_in_central_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_in_central_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.3 Decline in central Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_in_central_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_hypotheses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_hypotheses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Alternative hypotheses </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Alternative_hypotheses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Alternative hypotheses subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Alternative_hypotheses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paleolithic_Continuity_Paradigm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleolithic_Continuity_Paradigm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Paleolithic Continuity Paradigm </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleolithic_Continuity_Paradigm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Indian origins </div> 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id="toc-Genetics_and_archaeology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics_and_archaeology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.4 Genetics and archaeology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics_and_archaeology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.5 Maps </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_centers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_centers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.6 Research centers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_centers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" 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Available in 13 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-13" aria-hidden="true" > 13 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الهجرات الهندية الأوروبية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الهجرات الهندية الأوروبية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8B-%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3" title="ইন্দো-ইউরোপীয় অভিপ্রয়াণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইন্দো-ইউরোপীয় অভিপ্রয়াণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migracions_indoeuropees" title="Migracions indoeuropees – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Migracions indoeuropees" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migraciones_indoeuropeas" title="Migraciones indoeuropeas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Migraciones indoeuropeas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مهاجرت‌های هندواروپاییان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مهاجرت‌های هندواروپاییان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migrasi_Indo-Eropa" title="Migrasi Indo-Eropa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Migrasi Indo-Eropa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migrasi_Indo-Eropa" title="Migrasi Indo-Eropa – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Migrasi Indo-Eropa" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D9%86%D8%AF-%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%BE%DB%8C_%DB%81%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="ہند-یورپی ہجرتاں – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ہند-یورپی ہجرتاں" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migra%C3%A7%C3%B5es_indo-europeias" title="Migrações indo-europeias – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Migrações indo-europeias" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migra%C8%9Biile_indo-europene" title="Migrațiile indo-europene – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Migrațiile indo-europene" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5" title="Индоевропске сеобе – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Индоевропске сеобе" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%97_%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%94%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B2" title="Міграції індоєвропейців – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Міграції індоєвропейців" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D9%86%D8%AF-%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%BE%DB%8C_%DB%81%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%BA" title="ہند-یورپی ہجرتیں – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ہند-یورپی ہجرتیں" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q28445743#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Indo-European_expansions1.jpg/220px-Indo-European_expansions1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Indo-European_expansions1.jpg/330px-Indo-European_expansions1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Indo-European_expansions1.jpg/440px-Indo-European_expansions1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2094" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Scheme of Indo-European language dispersals from c. 4000 to 1000 BCE according to the widely held <a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a>. – Center: Steppe cultures 1 (black): Anatolian languages (archaic PIE) 2 (black): Afanasievo culture (early PIE) 3 (black): Yamnaya culture expansion (Pontic-Caspian steppe, Danube Valley) (late PIE) 4A (black): Western Corded Ware 4B-C (blue & dark blue): Bell Beaker; adopted by Indo-European speakers 5A-B (red): Eastern Corded ware 5C (red): Sintashta (proto-Indo-Iranian) 6 (magenta): Andronovo 7A (purple): Indo-Aryans (Mittani) 7B (purple): Indo-Aryans (India) [NN] (dark yellow): proto-Balto-Slavic 8 (grey): Greek 9 (yellow): Iranians – [not drawn]: Armenian, expanding from <a href="/wiki/Catacomb_culture" title="Catacomb culture">Catacomb culture</a> into the South Caucasus</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Indo-European" title="Category:Indo-European">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;background:rgb(220,245,220);"><a href="/wiki/Category:Indo-European" title="Category:Indo-European">Indo-European topics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-European_migrations.gif" title="File:Indo-European migrations.gif"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/140px-Indo-European_migrations.gif" decoding="async" width="140" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/210px-Indo-European_migrations.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/280px-Indo-European_migrations.gif 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="598" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indo-European_languages" title="List of Indo-European languages">List of Indo-European languages</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Extant</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanoid" title="Albanoid">Albanoid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languages" title="Balto-Slavic languages">Balto-Slavic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuristani_languages" title="Nuristani languages">Nuristani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt>Extinct</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_language" title="Dacian language">Dacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_language" title="Illyrian language">Illyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liburnian_language" title="Liburnian language">Liburnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapic_language" title="Messapic language">Messapic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysian_language" title="Mysian language">Mysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paeonian_language" title="Paeonian language">Paeonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_language" title="Thracian language">Thracian</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Reconstructed</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Phonology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_sound_laws" title="Indo-European sound laws">Sound laws</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_accent" title="Proto-Indo-European accent">Accent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Ablaut</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Hypothetical</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Balkanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daco-Thracian" class="mw-redirect" title="Daco-Thracian">Daco-Thracian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Albanian" title="Graeco-Albanian">Graeco-Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Armenian" title="Graeco-Armenian">Graeco-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Aryan" title="Graeco-Aryan">Graeco-Aryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Phrygian" title="Graeco-Phrygian">Graeco-Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Hittite" title="Indo-Hittite">Indo-Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Celtic" title="Italo-Celtic">Italo-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thraco-Illyrian" title="Thraco-Illyrian">Thraco-Illyrian</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Grammar</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_vocabulary" title="Indo-European vocabulary">Vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_root" title="Proto-Indo-European root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verbs" title="Proto-Indo-European verbs">Verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_nominals" title="Proto-Indo-European nominals">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_pronouns" title="Proto-Indo-European pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_numerals" title="Proto-Indo-European numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_particles" title="Proto-Indo-European particles">Particles</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Other</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Albanian_language" title="Proto-Albanian language">Proto-Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Anatolian_language" title="Proto-Anatolian language">Proto-Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Italo-Celtic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Italo-Celtic language">Proto-Italo-Celtic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a> · <a href="/wiki/Proto-Italic_language" title="Proto-Italic language">Proto-Italic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic language">Proto-Balto-Slavic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Slavic language">Proto-Slavic</a> · <a href="/wiki/Proto-Baltic_language" title="Proto-Baltic language">Proto-Baltic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Iranian language">Proto-Iranian</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Philology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_inscriptions" title="Hittite inscriptions">Hittite inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphic_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphic Luwian">Hieroglyphic Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_inscriptions" title="Greek inscriptions">Greek epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language#Inscriptions" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapic_language#Inscriptions" title="Messapic language">Messapic epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin#Corpus" title="Old Latin">Latin epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaulish#Corpus" title="Gaulish">Gaulish epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runic_inscriptions" title="Runic inscriptions">Runic epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Bible" title="Gothic Bible">Gothic Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Armenian" title="Bible translations into Armenian">Bible translations into Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">Tocharian script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish#Sources" title="Old Irish">Old Irish glosses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanun_(Albania)" title="Kanun (Albania)">Albanian Kanun</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Origins</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_society" title="Proto-Indo-European society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Religion</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Mainstream </dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indo-European migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_nomads" title="Eurasian nomads">Eurasian nomads</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Alternative and fringe </dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_hypothesis" title="Armenian hypothesis">Armenian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beech_argument" title="Beech argument">Beech argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland#Baltic_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Baltic homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_continuity_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleolithic continuity theory">Paleolithic continuity theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Archaeology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic (Copper Age)</a> </dt></dl> Pontic Steppe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_horse" title="Domestication of the horse">Domestication of the horse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan" title="Kurgan">Kurgan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_stelae" title="Kurgan stelae">Kurgan stelae</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurgan culture">Kurgan culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Horse,_the_Wheel,_and_Language" title="The Horse, the Wheel, and Language">Steppe cultures</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bug%E2%80%93Dniester_culture" title="Bug–Dniester culture">Bug–Dniester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sredny_Stog_culture" title="Sredny Stog culture">Sredny Stog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dnieper%E2%80%93Donets_culture" title="Dnieper–Donets culture">Dnieper–Donets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samara_culture" title="Samara culture">Samara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khvalynsk_culture" title="Khvalynsk culture">Khvalynsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhaylovka_culture" title="Mikhaylovka culture">Mikhaylovka culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novotitarovskaya_culture" title="Novotitarovskaya culture">Novotitarovskaya culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> Caucasus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maykop_culture" title="Maykop culture">Maykop</a></li></ul> East Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo</a></li></ul> Eastern Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Usatovo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Usatovo culture">Usatovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cernavod%C4%83_culture" title="Cernavodă culture">Cernavodă</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cucuteni%E2%80%93Trypillia_culture" title="Cucuteni–Trypillia culture">Cucuteni</a></li></ul> Northern Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded ware</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baden_culture" title="Baden culture">Baden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dnieper_culture" title="Middle Dnieper culture">Middle Dnieper</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> </dt></dl> Pontic Steppe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">Chariot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacomb_culture" title="Catacomb culture">Catacomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-cordoned_ware_culture" title="Multi-cordoned ware culture">Multi-cordoned ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poltavka_culture" title="Poltavka culture">Poltavka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srubnaya_culture" title="Srubnaya culture">Srubnaya</a></li></ul> Northern/Eastern Steppe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abashevo_culture" title="Abashevo culture">Abashevo culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta</a></li></ul> Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Globular_Amphora_culture" title="Globular Amphora culture">Globular Amphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture" title="Bell Beaker culture">Bell Beaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9An%C4%9Btice_culture" title="Únětice culture">Únětice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trzciniec_culture" title="Trzciniec culture">Trzciniec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terramare_culture" title="Terramare culture">Terramare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus_culture" title="Tumulus culture">Tumulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_culture" title="Lusatian culture">Lusatian</a></li></ul> South Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaz_culture" title="Yaz culture">Yaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Gandhara grave</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></dt></dl> Steppe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernoles_culture" title="Chernoles culture">Chernoles</a></li></ul> Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thraco-Cimmerian" title="Thraco-Cimmerian">Thraco-Cimmerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jastorf_culture" title="Jastorf culture">Jastorf</a></li></ul> Caucasus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colchian_culture" title="Colchian culture">Colchian</a></li></ul> India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Peoples and societies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_peoples" title="Anatolian peoples">Anatolian peoples</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a>) </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></dt></dl> Indo-Aryans <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryans</a></li></ul> Iranians <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranians</a></li></ul> East Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li></ul> Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Celts" title="Insular Celts">Insular Celts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Hellenic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age Anatolia">Anatolia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacians" title="Dacians">Dacians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paeonians" title="Paeonians">Paeonians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygians" title="Phrygians">Phrygians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></dt></dl> East Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a></li></ul> Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Albanians" title="Origin of the Albanians">Albanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Balts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a>/<a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_peoples" title="North Germanic peoples">Medieval Scandinavians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li></ul> Indo-Aryan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval India</a></li></ul> Iranian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Religion and mythology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt>Reconstructed</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Proto-Indo-European mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_paganism" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism">Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Ancient Iranian religion</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Historical</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indo-Aryan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_mythology" title="Kurdish mythology">Kurdish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_mythology" title="Ossetian mythology">Ossetian</a></li></ul></li></ul> Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/European_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="European paganism">European</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Albanian_paganism" title="Albanian paganism">Albanian</a> · <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a> · <a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a> · <a href="/wiki/Dacian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian religion">Dacian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_mythology" title="Scottish mythology">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_mythology" title="Breton mythology">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_mythology" title="Welsh mythology">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_mythology" title="Cornish mythology">Cornish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Practices</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship#Indo-European_religions" title="Fire worship">Fire rituals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_sacrifice" title="Horse sacrifice">Horse sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_solstice" title="Winter solstice">Winter solstice</a>/<a href="/wiki/Yule" title="Yule">Yule</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European studies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt>Scholars</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marija_Gimbutas" title="Marija Gimbutas">Marija Gimbutas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">J. P. Mallory</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Institutes</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_Studies_in_Indo-European" title="Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European">Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Publications</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Horse,_the_Wheel,_and_Language" title="The Horse, the Wheel, and Language">The Horse, the Wheel, and Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Indo-European_Studies" title="Journal of Indo-European Studies">Journal of Indo-European Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indogermanisches_etymologisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch">Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary" title="Indo-European Etymological Dictionary">Indo-European Etymological Dictionary</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indo-European_topics" title="Template:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indo-European_topics" title="Template talk:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indo-European_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Indo-European migrations are hypothesized migrations of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">peoples</a> who spoke <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> (PIE) and the derived <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>, which took place from around 4000 to 1000 BCE, potentially explaining how these related languages came to be spoken across a large area of Eurasia spanning from the Indian subcontinent and <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a> to <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Europe" title="Atlantic Europe">Atlantic Europe</a>, in a process of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_diffusion" title="Cultural diffusion">cultural diffusion</a>. While these early languages and their speakers are <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric</a> (lacking documentary evidence), a synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> has established the existence of Proto-Indo-European and the spread of its daughter dialects through migrations of large populations of its speakers, as well as the recruitment of new speakers through emulation of conquering elites. <a href="/wiki/Comparative_linguistics" title="Comparative linguistics">Comparative linguistics</a> describes the similarities between various languages governed by laws of systematic <a href="/wiki/Language_change" title="Language change">change</a>, which allow the reconstruction of ancestral speech (see <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European studies</a>). Archaeology traces the spread of artifacts, habitations, and burial sites presumed to be created by speakers of Proto-Indo-European in several stages, from their hypothesized <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Proto-Indo-European homeland</a> to their <a href="/wiki/Diaspora" title="Diaspora">diaspora</a> throughout Western Europe, Central Asian, and South Asia, with incursions into East Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009-2">[2]</a> Recent genetic research, including <a href="/wiki/Paleogenetics" title="Paleogenetics">paleogenetics</a>, has increasingly delineated the kinship groups involved in this movement. According to the widely held <a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a>, or renewed Steppe hypothesis, the oldest Indo-European migration split from the earliest proto-Indo-European speech community (archaic PIE) inhabiting the Volga basin, and produced the <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian languages</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a>). The second-oldest branch, <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a>, was spoken in the Tarim Basin (now western <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>), after splitting from early PIE spoken on the eastern Pontic steppe. The late PIE culture, within the <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Yamnaya">Yamnaya</a> horizon on the <a href="/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe" title="Pontic–Caspian steppe">Pontic–Caspian steppe</a> around 3000 BCE, then branched to produce the bulk of the Indo-European languages through migrations to the west and southeast. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fundamentals">Fundamentals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Fundamentals">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IndoEuropeanTree.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/IndoEuropeanTree.svg/300px-IndoEuropeanTree.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/IndoEuropeanTree.svg/450px-IndoEuropeanTree.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/IndoEuropeanTree.svg/600px-IndoEuropeanTree.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1665" data-file-height="1535" /></a><figcaption>Classification of Indo-European languages. Red: Extinct languages. White: Categories or unattested proto-languages. Left half: <a href="/wiki/Centum" class="mw-redirect" title="Centum">Centum</a> languages. Right half: <a href="/wiki/Satem" class="mw-redirect" title="Satem">Satem</a> languages.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linguistics">Linguistics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Linguistics">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparative method (linguistics)">Comparative method (linguistics)</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan languages</a> had their formative core in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> after the Indo-European migrations in the region.<a href="#cite_note-Friedman-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lazaridis_et_al.-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Celtic">Proto-Celtic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Italic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Italic">Proto-Italic</a> may have developed from Indo-European languages coming from <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a> to <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> after the 3rd millennium BCE Yamnaya migrations into the Danube Valley,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999108_f.-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007345,_361–367-6">[6]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic">Proto-Balto-Slavic</a> may have developed east of the <a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains" title="Carpathian Mountains">Carpathian Mountains</a>, in present-day <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007368,_380-7">[7]</a> moving north and spreading with the <a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded Ware culture</a> in Middle Europe (third millennium BCE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999108,_244–250-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007360-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Baldia06-10">[web 1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaak2015-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-MPG_mass_migration-12">[web 2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nature_EC-13">[11]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian language</a> and culture probably emerged within the <a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2100–1800 BCE), at the eastern border of the <a href="/wiki/Abashevo_culture" title="Abashevo culture">Abashevo culture</a>, which in turn developed from the Corded Ware-related <a href="/wiki/Fatyanovo%E2%80%93Balanovo_culture" title="Fatyanovo–Balanovo culture">Fatyanovo–Balanovo culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1998-14">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2003-15">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuzmina2007-16">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola2015-17">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarasimhan_et_al.2018-18">[16]</a> The Sintashta culture grew into the <a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1998-14">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2003-15">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuzmina2007-16">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola2015-17">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarasimhan_et_al.2018-18">[16]</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1900<a href="#cite_note-Parpola,_Asko_2017_p._250-19">[17]</a>–800 BCE), the two first phases being the Fedorovo Andronovo culture (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1900–1400 BCE)<a href="#cite_note-Parpola,_Asko_2017_p._250-19">[17]</a> and Alakul Andronovo culture (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1800–1500 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-Parpola,_Asko_2017_p._249-20">[18]</a> Indo-Aryans moved into the <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2400–1600 BCE) and spread to the Levant (<a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a>), <a href="/wiki/Northern_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern India">northern India</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vedic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic people">Vedic people</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1700 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009-2">[2]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a> spread back throughout the steppes with the <a href="/wiki/Scyths" class="mw-redirect" title="Scyths">Scyths</a>, and into <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Iran">Ancient Iran</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a> from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 800 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009-2">[2]</a> A number of alternative theories have been proposed. <a href="/wiki/Colin_Renfrew" title="Colin Renfrew">Colin Renfrew</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a> suggests a much earlier date for the Indo-European languages, proposing an origin in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and an initial spread with the earliest farmers who migrated to Europe. It has been the only serious alternative for the steppe-theory, but suffers from a lack of explanatory power. Also, the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_hypothesis" title="Armenian hypothesis">Armenian hypothesis</a> proposes that the <a href="/wiki/Urheimat" class="mw-redirect" title="Urheimat">Urheimat</a> of the Indo-European language was south of the Caucasus. While the Armenian hypothesis has been criticized on archeological and chronological grounds, recent genetic research has revived debate. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indo-European_languages">Indo-European languages</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Indo-European languages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-European_branches_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Indo-European_branches_map.svg/220px-Indo-European_branches_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Indo-European_branches_map.svg/330px-Indo-European_branches_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Indo-European_branches_map.svg/440px-Indo-European_branches_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>The approximate present-day distribution of <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> branches in their homelands of Europe and Asia. In chronological order of the earliest surviving written attestations of each branch, they are: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a>)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Non-Indo-European languages</div> </div> Dotted and striped areas indicate where <a href="/wiki/Multilingualism" title="Multilingualism">multilingualism</a> is common (more visible upon full enlargement of the map).</figcaption></figure> The Dutch scholar <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Zuerius_van_Boxhorn" title="Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn">Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn</a> (1612–1653) noted extensive similarities between various <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">European languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>. Over a century later, after learning Sanskrit in India, Sir <a href="/wiki/William_Jones_(philologist)" title="William Jones (philologist)">William Jones</a> detected systematic correspondences; he described them in his Third Anniversary Discourse to the <a href="/wiki/Asiatic_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Asiatic Society">Asiatic Society</a> in 1786, concluding that all these languages originated from the same source.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony20077-21">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[web 3]</a> From his initial intuitions there developed the hypothesis of an Indo-European <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language family</a> consisting of several hundred related <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indo-European_languages" title="List of Indo-European languages">languages and dialects</a>. The 2009 <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> estimates a total of about 439 Indo-European languages and dialects, about half of these (221) belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a> sub-branch based in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Asian" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Asian">Southern Asian</a> subregion.<a href="#cite_note-23">[web 4]</a> The Indo-European family includes most of the major current <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">languages of Europe</a>, of the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a>, of the northern half of the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_Asia" title="Languages of South Asia">Indian Subcontinent</a>, and of <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, with kindred languages also formerly spoken in parts of ancient <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and Central Asia. With written attestations appearing from the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek">Mycenaean Greek</a>, the Indo-European family is significant in <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a> as possessing the second-longest <a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">recorded history</a>, after the <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic family</a>. Almost 3 billion native speakers use Indo-European languages,<a href="#cite_note-24">[web 5]</a> making them by far the largest language family. Of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers" title="List of languages by number of native speakers">20 world languages with the largest numbers of native speakers</a>, twelve are Indo-European – <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Hindi" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Standard Hindi">Hindi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Standard_Urdu" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Urdu">Urdu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> – accounting for over 1.7 billion native speakers.<a href="#cite_note-25">[web 6]</a> [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="for such a dynamic and changing list as one of most spoken languages or other things to do with population figures etc. a reliable source that is more recent, say 2017~18~19 or later, is needed to confirm these numbers to be at least approximately accurate. The current citation says that its reference is 11 years old! In fact, we could probably even list the same source, except in its more updated version, i.e. the "Ethnologue list of languages by number of speakers" from 2020 or 2021. (April 2021)">needs update</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Development_of_the_Indo-European_languages">Development of the Indo-European languages</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Development of the Indo-European languages">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Proto-Indo-European_language">Proto-Indo-European language</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Proto-Indo-European language">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a></div> The (late) Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">linguistic reconstruction</a> of a common ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>, as spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a> after the split-off of Anatolian and Tocharian. PIE was the first proposed <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-language</a> to be widely accepted by linguists. Far more work has gone into reconstructing it than any other proto-language and it is by far the most well-understood of all proto-languages of its age. During the 19th century, the vast majority of linguistic work was devoted to reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European or its <a href="/wiki/Daughter_language" title="Daughter language">daughter</a> proto-languages such as <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a>, and most of the current techniques of <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a> (e. g. the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a> and the method of <a href="/wiki/Internal_reconstruction" title="Internal reconstruction">internal reconstruction</a>) were developed as a result. Scholars estimate that PIE may have been spoken as a single language (before divergence began) around 3500 BCE, though estimates by different authorities can vary by more than a millennium. The most popular hypothesis for the origin and spread of the language is the <a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a>, which postulates an origin in the <a href="/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe" title="Pontic–Caspian steppe">Pontic–Caspian steppe</a> of Eastern Europe. The existence of PIE was first postulated in the 18th century by Sir <a href="/wiki/William_Jones_(philologist)" title="William Jones (philologist)">William Jones</a>, who observed the similarities between <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>. By the early 20th century, well-defined descriptions of PIE had been developed that are still accepted today (with some refinements). The largest developments of the 20th century have been the discovery of Anatolian and <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian languages</a> and the acceptance of the <a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_theory" title="Laryngeal theory">laryngeal theory</a>. The Anatolian languages have also spurred a major re-evaluation of theories concerning the development of various shared Indo-European language features and the extent to which these features were present in PIE itself. PIE is thought to have had a complex system of <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> that included <a href="/wiki/Fusional_language" title="Fusional language">inflections</a> (suffixing of roots, as in who, whom, whose), and <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">ablaut</a> (vowel alterations, as in sing, sang, sung). Nouns used a sophisticated system of <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">declension</a> and verbs used a similarly sophisticated system of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">conjugation</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pre-Proto-Indo-European">Pre-Proto-Indo-European</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Pre-Proto-Indo-European">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Indo-European_river_names.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Early_Indo-European_river_names.jpg/220px-Early_Indo-European_river_names.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Early_Indo-European_river_names.jpg/330px-Early_Indo-European_river_names.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Early_Indo-European_river_names.jpg/440px-Early_Indo-European_river_names.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1677" data-file-height="1167" /></a><figcaption>Area of distribution of the earliest Indo-European <a href="/wiki/River_name" class="mw-redirect" title="River name">river names</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997294-26">[20]</a></figcaption></figure> Relationships to other language families, including the <a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic languages</a>, have been proposed but remain controversial. There is no written evidence of Proto-Indo-European, so all knowledge of the language is derived by reconstruction from later languages using linguistic techniques such as the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a> and the method of <a href="/wiki/Internal_reconstruction" title="Internal reconstruction">internal reconstruction</a>. Most linguists recognize there is a limit to linguistic reconstruction, and that reconstructing an ancestral language to Proto-Indo-European might not be possible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Indo-Hittite" title="Indo-Hittite">Indo-Hittite</a> hypothesis postulates a common predecessor which both the Anatolian languages and the other Indo-European languages came from, called Proto-Indo-Hittite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> Although PIE logically had predecessors,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthonyRinge2015-27">[21]</a> the Indo-Hittite hypothesis is not widely accepted, and there is little to suggest that it is possible to reconstruct a Proto-Indo-Hittite stage that differs substantially from what is already reconstructed for PIE.<a href="#cite_note-28">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Frederik_Kortlandt" title="Frederik Kortlandt">Frederik Kortlandt</a> postulates a shared common ancestor of Indo-European and Uralic, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Uralic" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Uralic">Proto-Indo-Uralic</a>, as a possible pre-PIE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKortlandt2010-29">[23]</a> According to Kortlandt, "Indo-European is a branch of Indo-Uralic which was radically transformed under the influence of a North Caucasian substratum when its speakers moved from the area north of the Caspian Sea to the area north of the Black Sea."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKortlandt2010-29">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[subnote 1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Uralic,_Caucasian_and_Semitic_borrowings">Uralic, Caucasian and Semitic borrowings</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Uralic, Caucasian and Semitic borrowings">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Finno-Ugric_languages" title="Finno-Ugric languages">Proto-Finno-Ugric</a> and PIE have a lexicon in common, generally related to trade, such as words for "price" and "draw, lead". Similarly, "sell" and "wash" were borrowed in <a href="/wiki/Ugric_languages" title="Ugric languages">Proto-Ugric</a>. Although some have proposed a common ancestor (the hypothetical <a href="/wiki/Nostratic_languages" title="Nostratic languages">Nostratic</a> <a href="/wiki/Macrofamily" title="Macrofamily">macrofamily</a>), this is generally regarded as the result of intensive borrowing, which suggests that their homelands were located near each other. Proto-Indo-European also exhibits lexical loans to or from <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasian languages">Caucasian languages</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Proto-Northwest_Caucasian_language" title="Proto-Northwest Caucasian language">Proto-Northwest Caucasian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Kartvelian_language" title="Proto-Kartvelian language">Proto-Kartvelian</a>, which suggests a location close to the Caucasus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthonyRinge2015-27">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBomhard20192-31">[24]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tamaz_V._Gamkrelidze" title="Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze">Gramkelidze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Ivanov_(philologist)" title="Vyacheslav Ivanov (philologist)">Ivanov</a>, using the now largely unsupported <a href="/wiki/Glottalic_theory" title="Glottalic theory">glottalic theory</a> of Indo-European phonology, also proposed <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a> borrowings into Proto-Indo-European, suggesting a more southern homeland to explain these borrowings. According to Mallory and Adams, some of these borrowings may be too speculative or from a later date, but they consider the proposed Semitic loans <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/t%C3%A1wros" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/táwros">*táwros</a> 'bull' and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/w%C3%A9yh%E2%82%81%C5%8D" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/wéyh₁ō">*wéyh₁on-</a> 'wine; vine' to be more likely.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams2006249-32">[25]</a> Anthony notes that those Semitic borrowings may also have occurred through the advancement of Anatolian farmer cultures via the Danube valley into the steppe zone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Phases_of_Proto-Indo-European">Phases of Proto-Indo-European</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Phases of Proto-Indo-European">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right; border:#bbb; margin:.46em 0 0 .2em;"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="float:right; border:#bbb; margin:.46em 0 0 .2em;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Spread of IE-languages I </th></tr> <tr> <td> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IE5500BP.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/IE5500BP.png/307px-IE5500BP.png" decoding="async" width="307" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/IE5500BP.png 1.5x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="169" /></a><figcaption>3500 BCE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IE4500BP.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/IE4500BP.png/307px-IE4500BP.png" decoding="async" width="307" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/IE4500BP.png 1.5x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="169" /></a><figcaption>2500 BCE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IE3500BP.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/IE3500BP.png/307px-IE3500BP.png" decoding="async" width="307" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/IE3500BP.png 1.5x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="169" /></a><figcaption>1500 BCE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IE2500BP.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/IE2500BP.png/307px-IE2500BP.png" decoding="async" width="307" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/IE2500BP.png 1.5x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="169" /></a><figcaption>500 BCE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IE1500BP.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/IE1500BP.png/307px-IE1500BP.png" decoding="async" width="307" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/IE1500BP.png 1.5x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="169" /></a><figcaption>500 CE</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <table class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="float:right; border:#bbb; margin:.46em 0 0 .2em;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Spread of IE-languages II </th></tr> <tr> <td> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-european_-_kurgan_-_4000_BC_-_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Indo-european_-_kurgan_-_4000_BC_-_map.jpg/257px-Indo-european_-_kurgan_-_4000_BC_-_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="257" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Indo-european_-_kurgan_-_4000_BC_-_map.jpg/385px-Indo-european_-_kurgan_-_4000_BC_-_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Indo-european_-_kurgan_-_4000_BC_-_map.jpg/513px-Indo-european_-_kurgan_-_4000_BC_-_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="404" /></a><figcaption>4000 BCE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-european_language_-_yamna-culture_-_3000_BC_-_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Indo-european_language_-_yamna-culture_-_3000_BC_-_map.jpg/257px-Indo-european_language_-_yamna-culture_-_3000_BC_-_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="257" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Indo-european_language_-_yamna-culture_-_3000_BC_-_map.jpg/385px-Indo-european_language_-_yamna-culture_-_3000_BC_-_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Indo-european_language_-_yamna-culture_-_3000_BC_-_map.jpg/513px-Indo-european_language_-_yamna-culture_-_3000_BC_-_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="404" /></a><figcaption>3000 BCE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-european_languages_-_expansion_2000_BC_-_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Indo-european_languages_-_expansion_2000_BC_-_map.jpg/257px-Indo-european_languages_-_expansion_2000_BC_-_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="257" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Indo-european_languages_-_expansion_2000_BC_-_map.jpg/385px-Indo-european_languages_-_expansion_2000_BC_-_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Indo-european_languages_-_expansion_2000_BC_-_map.jpg/513px-Indo-european_languages_-_expansion_2000_BC_-_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="404" /></a><figcaption>2000 BCE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-european_-_languages_-_evolution_-_500_BC_-_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Indo-european_-_languages_-_evolution_-_500_BC_-_map.jpg/257px-Indo-european_-_languages_-_evolution_-_500_BC_-_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="257" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Indo-european_-_languages_-_evolution_-_500_BC_-_map.jpg/385px-Indo-european_-_languages_-_evolution_-_500_BC_-_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Indo-european_-_languages_-_evolution_-_500_BC_-_map.jpg/513px-Indo-european_-_languages_-_evolution_-_500_BC_-_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="410" /></a><figcaption>500 BCE</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> According to Anthony, the following terminology may be used:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> <ul><li>Archaic PIE for "the last common ancestor of the Anatolian and non-Anatolian IE branches";</li> <li>Early, core, or Post-Anatolian, PIE for "the last common ancestor of the non-Anatolian PIE languages, including Tocharian";</li> <li>Late PIE for "the common ancestor of all other IE branches".</li></ul> The Anatolian languages are the first Indo-European language family to have split off from the main group. Due to the archaic elements preserved in the now extinct Anatolian languages, they may be a "cousin" of Proto-Indo-European, instead of a "daughter", but Anatolian is generally regarded as an early offshoot of the Indo-European language group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Phylogenetic_analysis_of_Indo-European_languages">Phylogenetic analysis of Indo-European languages</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Phylogenetic analysis of Indo-European languages">edit</a>]</div> Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology, but basing their work on comparative vocabulary, a number of researchers have attempted to estimate the dates of the splitting up of the various Indo-European languages. According to the latest study by Kassian et al. (2021), Hittite was the earliest language to split off from the rest, around 4139–3450 BC, followed by Tocharian around 3727–2262 BC. Subsequently Indo-European split into four branches ca. 3357–2162 BC: (1) Greek-Armenian, (2) Albanian, (3) Italic-Germanic-Celtic, (4) Balto-Slavic–Indo-Iranian. Balto-Slavic split from Indo-Iranian around 2723–1790 BC, Italic-Germanic-Celtic broke up around 2655–1537 BC, and Indo-Iranian split up around 2044–1458 BC. The position of Albanian is not completely clear, from an insufficiency of evidence. The authors point out that these dates, which are only approximate, are not inconsistent with the dates established by other methods for the various archaeological cultures which are thought to be associated with Indo-European languages. For example, the date for the Tocharian break-off corresponds to the migration that gave rise to the Afanasievo culture; the date for the Balto-Slavic–Indo-Iranian break-up may be correlated with the end of Corded Ware culture around 2100 or 2000 BC; and the date for Indo-Iranian corresponds to that of the Sintashta archaeological culture, frequently associated with Proto-Indo-Iranian speakers. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeology:_migrations">Archaeology: migrations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Archaeology: migrations">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable collapsible collapsed floatright"> <tbody><tr> <th>Origins of Yamnaya culture </th></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sredny_Stog_culture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Sredny_Stog_culture.jpg/220px-Sredny_Stog_culture.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Sredny_Stog_culture.jpg/330px-Sredny_Stog_culture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Sredny_Stog_culture.jpg/440px-Sredny_Stog_culture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="739" /></a><figcaption>Sredny Stog culture (v.4500–3500 BCE)</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Usatovo_culture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Usatovo_culture.jpg/220px-Usatovo_culture.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Usatovo_culture.jpg/330px-Usatovo_culture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Usatovo_culture.jpg/440px-Usatovo_culture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="787" data-file-height="615" /></a><figcaption>Usatovo culture (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3500–3000 BCE)</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khvalynsk_culture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Khvalynsk_culture.jpg/220px-Khvalynsk_culture.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Khvalynsk_culture.jpg/330px-Khvalynsk_culture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Khvalynsk_culture.jpg/440px-Khvalynsk_culture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="681" data-file-height="649" /></a><figcaption>Khvalynsk culture (c. 4900–3500 BCE)</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Yamna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Early_Yamna.jpg/220px-Early_Yamna.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Early_Yamna.jpg/330px-Early_Yamna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Early_Yamna.jpg/440px-Early_Yamna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="624" data-file-height="385" /></a><figcaption>Location of early Yamnaya culture (3400 BCE), according to <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%AF%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/%D0%AF%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0.jpg/220px-%D0%AF%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/%D0%AF%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0.jpg/330px-%D0%AF%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/%D0%AF%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0.jpg/440px-%D0%AF%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0.jpg 2x" data-file-width="803" data-file-height="559" /></a><figcaption>Largest expansion of the Yamnaya culture. Ca. 3500 origins of Usatovo culture; 3400 origins of Yamnaya; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3400-3200 expansion of Yamnaya across the Pontic-Caspian steppe; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3000 end of Cucuteni–Trypillia culture, and transformation of Yamnaya into Corded Ware in the contact zone east of the Carpathian mountains; 3100-2600 Yamnaya-expansion into the Danube Valley.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007300–370-33">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENordqvistHeyd2020-34">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999-35">[28]</a></figcaption></figure> Archaeological research has unearthed a broad range of historical cultures that can be related to the spread of the Indo-European languages. Various steppe-cultures show strong similarities with the Yamna-horizon at the Pontic steppe, while the time-range of several Asian cultures also coincides with the proposed trajectory and time-range of the Indo-European migrations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999-35">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> According to the widely accepted <a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a> or Steppe theory, the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Indo-European language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European culture">culture</a> spread in several stages from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-European</a> <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_Urheimat_hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European Urheimat hypotheses">Urheimat</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasian</a> <a href="/wiki/Pontic_steppes" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontic steppes">Pontic steppes</a> into <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, through folk migrations and so-called elite recruitment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009-2">[2]</a> This process started with the introduction of cattle at the Eurasian steppes around 5200 BCE, and the mobilisation of the steppe herder cultures with the introduction of wheeled wagons and horse-back riding, which led to a new kind of culture. Between 4500 and 2500 BCE, this "<a href="/wiki/Horizon_(archaeology)" title="Horizon (archaeology)">horizon</a>", which includes several distinctive cultures culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a>, spread out over the Pontic steppes, and outside into Europe and Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> Anthony regards the <a href="/wiki/Khvalynsk_culture" title="Khvalynsk culture">Khvalynsk culture</a> as the culture that established the roots of Early Proto-Indo-European around 4500 BCE in the lower and middle Volga.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony201913-36">[29]</a> Early migrations at ca. 4200 BCE brought steppe herders into the <a href="/wiki/Cucuteni-Trypillian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Cucuteni-Trypillian culture">lower Danube valley</a>, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of <a href="/wiki/Old_Europe_(archaeology)" title="Old Europe (archaeology)">Old Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007133-37">[30]</a> According to Anthony, the Anatolian branch,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony200743-38">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard2018-39">[32]</a> to which the <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a> belong,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony200743–46-40">[33]</a> probably arrived in Anatolia from the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> valley.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007262-41">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola201537–38-42">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-EB_AnatLang-43">[web 7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESerangeli20204–5-44">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathieson2018line_363–382-45">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReich2018120-46">[38]</a> Migrations eastward from the Repin culture founded the <a href="/wiki/Afanasevo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Afanasevo culture">Afanasevo culture</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams19974-47">[39]</a> which developed into the <a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007101,_264–265-48">[40]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tarim_mummies" title="Tarim mummies">Tarim mummies</a> were thought to represent a migration of Tocharian speakers from the Afanasevo culture into the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoeweShaughnessy199983–88-49">[41]</a> yet a 2021 study demonstrates that the mummies are remains of locals descending from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Eurasian" title="Ancient North Eurasian">Ancient North Eurasians</a> and ancient <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian peoples">Northeast Asians</a>; meanwhile, the study suggests instead that Afanasevo migrants might have introduced Proto-Tocharian into <a href="/wiki/Dzungaria" title="Dzungaria">Dzungaria</a> during the Early Bronze Age before Tocharian languages were recorded in Buddhist texts dating to 500–1000 CE in the Tarim basin.<a href="#cite_note-The_genomic_origins_of_the_Bronze_A-50">[42]</a> Migrations southward may have founded the <a href="/wiki/Maykop_culture" title="Maykop culture">Maykop culture</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997372-51">[43]</a> but the Maykop origins could also have been in the Caucasus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIvanova2012-52">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Excav_Soyu_Kurgans-53">[web 8]</a> Late PIE is related to the Yamnaya culture. Proposals for its origins point to both the eastern Khvalynsk and the western Sredny Stog culture;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999215-54">[45]</a> according to Anthony it originated in the Don-Volga area at ca. 3400 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007321-55">[46]</a> The western Indo-European languages (<a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a>) probably spread into Europe from the Balkan-Danubian complex, a set of cultures in <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern Europe">Southeastern Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999108_f.-5">[5]</a> At ca. 3000 BCE a migration of Proto-Indo-European speakers from the Yamna-culture took place toward the west along the Danube river,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007345,_361–367-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a> developed a little later at the middle <a href="/wiki/Dniepr" class="mw-redirect" title="Dniepr">Dniepr</a> (present-day Ukraine),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007368,_380-7">[7]</a> moving north toward the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic coast</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007101-56">[47]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded Ware culture</a> in Middle Europe (third millennium BCE),<a href="#cite_note-Baldia06-10">[web 1]</a> which arose in the contact zone east of the Carpathian mountains, materialized with a massive migration from the Eurasian steppes to <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaak2015-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-MPG_mass_migration-12">[web 2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nature_EC-13">[11]</a> probably played a central role in the spread of the pre-Germanic and pre-Balto-Slavic dialects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999108,_244–250-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007360-9">[9]</a> The eastern part of the Corded Ware culture contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2100–1800 BCE), where the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian language</a> and culture emerged, and where the <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariot</a> was invented.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> The Indo-Iranian language and culture was further developed in the <a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1800–800 BCE), and influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2400–1600 BCE). The <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryans">Indo-Aryans</a> split off around 1800–1600 BCE from the Iranians,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007408-57">[48]</a> whereafter Indo-Aryan groups moved to the Levant (<a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a>), northern India (<a href="/wiki/Vedic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic people">Vedic people</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500 BCE), and China (<a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009-2">[2]</a> The Iranian languages spread throughout the steppes with the <a href="/wiki/Scyths" class="mw-redirect" title="Scyths">Scyths</a> and into Iran with the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a> from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 800 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anthropology">Anthropology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Anthropology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Language_shift" title="Language shift">Language shift</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migration#Anthropology:_elite_recruitment_and_language_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryan migration">Elite recruitment and language change</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture#Indo-Europeanization_and_language_shift" title="Corded Ware culture">Indo-Europeanization and language shift</a></div> According to <a href="/wiki/Marija_Gimbutas" title="Marija Gimbutas">Marija Gimbutas</a>, the process of "Indo-Europeanization" of Europe was essentially a cultural, not a physical transformation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGimbutas1997-58">[49]</a> It is understood as a migration of <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a> people to Europe, as military victors, successfully imposing a new administrative system, language and religion upon the indigenous groups, who are referred to by Gimbutas as Old Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGimbutas1997240-59">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gimbutas-60">[note 1]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Yamnaya">Yamnaya</a> people's social organization, especially a <a href="/wiki/Patrilinear" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrilinear">patrilinear</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patriarchal" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarchal">patriarchal</a> structure, greatly facilitated their effectiveness in war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGimbutas1997361-61">[51]</a> According to Gimbutas, the social structure of Old Europe "contrasted with the Indo-European Kurgans who were mobile and non-egalitarian" and who had a hierarchically organised <a href="/wiki/Trifunctional_hypothesis" title="Trifunctional hypothesis">tripartite social structure</a>; the IE were warlike, lived in smaller villages at times, and had an ideology that centered on the virile male, reflected also in their pantheon. In contrast, the indigenous groups of Old Europe had neither a warrior class nor horses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGimbutas1997241,_316-62">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Old_Europe-63">[note 2]</a> Indo-European languages probably spread through language shifts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola201567-64">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory2002-65">[54]</a> Small groups can change a larger cultural area,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2003347-66">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> and elite male dominance by small groups may have led to a language shift in northern India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasuMukherjeeRoySengupta20032287-67">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007117–118-68">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPereltsvaigLewis2015208–215-69">[58]</a> It is thought that when Indo-Europeans expanded into Europe from the Pontic-Caspian steppe, they encountered existing populations that spoke dissimilar, unrelated languages. Based on evidence from presumably non-Indo-European lexicon in the European branches of Indo-European, Iversen and Kroonen (2017) postulate a group of "Early European Neolithic" languages that is associated with the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic</a> spread of agriculturalists into Europe. Early European Neolithic languages were supplanted with the arrival of Indo-Europeans, but according to Iversen and Kroonen left their trace in a layer of mostly agricultural vocabulary in the Indo-European languages of Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIversenKroonen2017517-70">[59]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Charles_Polom%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar Charles Polomé">Edgar Polomé</a>, 30% of modern German derives from a non-Indo-European sub-stratum language spoken by people of the <a href="/wiki/Funnelbeaker_culture" title="Funnelbeaker culture">Funnelbeaker culture</a> indigenous to southern Scandinavia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarlene1996-71">[60]</a> When <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Yamnaya">Yamnaya</a> Indo-European speakers came into contact with the indigenous peoples during the third millennium BCE, they came to dominate the local populations, yet parts of the indigenous <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a> persisted in the formation of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a>, thus lending to the Germanic languages the status of Indo-Europeanized languages.<a href="#cite_note-72">[61]</a> Similarly, according to <a href="/wiki/Marija_Gimbutas" title="Marija Gimbutas">Marija Gimbutas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded Ware culture</a>, after migrating to Scandinavia, synthesized with the <a href="/wiki/Funnelbeaker_culture" title="Funnelbeaker culture">Funnelbeaker culture</a>, giving birth to the Proto-Germanic language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGimbutas1997-58">[49]</a> David Anthony, in his "revised Steppe hypothesis",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPereltsvaigLewis2015205-73">[62]</a> conjectures that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through "chain-type folk migrations", but by the introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which were emulated by large groups of people,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007117-74">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Anthony_Language_shift-76">[note 3]</a> a process which he calls "elite recruitment".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007118-77">[65]</a> According to Parpola, local elites joined "small but powerful groups" of Indo-European-speaking migrants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola201567-64">[53]</a> These migrants had an attractive social system and good weapons, and luxury goods which marked their status and power. Joining these groups was attractive for local leaders, since it strengthened their position, and gave them additional advantages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola201567–68-78">[66]</a> These new members were further incorporated by <a href="/wiki/Matrimonial" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrimonial">matrimonial</a> alliances.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola201568-79">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory2002-65">[54]</a> According to Joseph Salmons, language shift is facilitated by "dislocation" of language communities, in which the elite is taken over.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalmons2015118-80">[68]</a> He observes that this change is facilitated by "systematic changes in community structure", in which a local community becomes incorporated in a larger social structure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalmons2015118-80">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-dislocation-85">[note 4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics">Genetics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Genetics">edit</a>]</div> Since the 2000s, genetic studies have been assuming a prominent role in the research on Indo-European migrations. Whole-genome studies reveal relations between the people associated with various cultures and the time-range in which those relations were established. Research by Haak et al. (2015) showed that ~75% of the ancestry of Corded Ware-related people came from Yamna-related populations,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaak2015-11">[10]</a> while Allentoft et al. (2015) shows that the people of the Sintashta culture are genetically related to those of the Corded Ware culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllentoft_et_al.2015-86">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecological_studies">Ecological studies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ecological studies">edit</a>]</div> Climate change and drought may have triggered both the initial dispersal of Indo-European speakers, and the migration of Indo-Europeans from the steppes in south central Asia and India. Around 4200–4100 BCE <a href="/wiki/Piora_Oscillation" title="Piora Oscillation">a climate change occurred</a>, manifesting in colder winters in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007227-87">[73]</a> Steppe herders, archaic Proto-Indo-European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley about 4200–4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of <a href="/wiki/Old_Europe_(archaeology)" title="Old Europe (archaeology)">Old Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007133-37">[30]</a> The Yamnaya horizon was an adaptation to a climate change that occurred between 3500 and 3000 BCE, in which the steppes became drier and cooler. Herds needed to be moved frequently to feed them sufficiently, and the use of wagons and horse riding made this possible, leading to "a new, more mobile form of pastoralism".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007300,_336-88">[74]</a> In the second millennium BCE widespread aridization led to water shortages and ecological changes in both the Eurasian steppes and south Asia.<a href="#cite_note-Kochhar2017-89">[web 10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemkina2017-90">[75]</a> At the steppes, humidization led to a change of vegetation, triggering "higher mobility and transition to the nomadic cattle breeding".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemkina2017-90">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[note 5]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[note 6]</a> Water shortage also had a strong impact in south Asia, "causing the collapse of sedentary urban cultures in south central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, and India, and triggering large-scale migrations".<a href="#cite_note-Kochhar2017-89">[web 10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_of_the_Indo-Europeans">Origins of the Indo-Europeans</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Origins of the Indo-Europeans">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-European_steppe_homeland_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Indo-European_steppe_homeland_map.svg/220px-Indo-European_steppe_homeland_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Indo-European_steppe_homeland_map.svg/330px-Indo-European_steppe_homeland_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Indo-European_steppe_homeland_map.svg/440px-Indo-European_steppe_homeland_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="535" /></a><figcaption>The Proto-Indo-European homeland according to the <a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a> (dark green) and the present-day distribution of Indo-European languages in Eurasia (light green)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kurgan_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Kurgan_map.png/220px-Kurgan_map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Kurgan_map.png/330px-Kurgan_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Kurgan_map.png/440px-Kurgan_map.png 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="374" /></a><figcaption>The development of the Kurgan culture according to Marija Gimbutas' <a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urheimat_(original_homeland)">Urheimat (original homeland)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Urheimat (original homeland)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Proto-Indo-European homeland</a></div> The Proto-Indo-European Urheimat hypotheses are tentative identifications of the <a href="/wiki/Urheimat" class="mw-redirect" title="Urheimat">Urheimat</a>, or primary homeland, of the hypothetical <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a>. Such identifications attempt to be consistent with the <a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">glottochronology</a> of the language tree and with the archaeology of those places and times. Identifications are made on the basis of how well, if at all, the projected migration routes and times of migration fit the distribution of Indo-European languages, and how closely the sociological model of the original society reconstructed from Proto-Indo-European lexical items fits the archaeological profile. All hypotheses assume a significant period (at least 1500–2000 years) between the time of the Proto-Indo-European language and the earliest attested texts, at <a href="/wiki/K%C3%BCltepe" title="Kültepe">Kültepe</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 19th century BCE. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Kurgan_hypothesis_and_the_"revised_steppe_hypothesis"">The Kurgan hypothesis and the "revised steppe hypothesis"</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The Kurgan hypothesis and the "revised steppe hypothesis"">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Revised_Steppe_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Revised Steppe theory">Revised Steppe theory</a></div> Since the early 1980s,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBojtár199957-93">[76]</a> the mainstream consensus among Indo-Europeanists favors Marija Gimbutas's "<a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a>",&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-94">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory2013-95">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola2015-17">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthonyRinge2015-27">[21]</a> or, more lately, David Anthony's "revised Steppe hypothesis", derived from Gimbutas's pioneering work,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> placing the Indo-European homeland in the <a href="/wiki/Pontic_steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontic steppe">Pontic steppe</a>, more specifically, between the Dniepr (Ukraine) and the Ural river (Russia), of the <a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a> period (4th to 5th millennia BCE),&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-94">[77]</a> where various related cultures developed.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-94">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> The Pontic steppe is a large area of <a href="/wiki/Grassland" title="Grassland">grasslands</a> in far <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>, located north of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus Mountains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> and including parts of eastern <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> and northwest <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>. This is the time and place of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_horse" title="Domestication of the horse">domestication of the horse</a>, which according to this hypothesis was the work of early Indo-Europeans, allowing them to expand outwards and assimilate or conquer many other cultures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> The Kurgan hypothesis (also called a theory or model) argues that the people of an archaeological "Kurgan culture" (a term grouping the <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Yamnaya">Yamnaya</a> or Pit Grave culture and its predecessors and successor in the <a href="/wiki/Pontic_steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontic steppe">Pontic steppe</a> from the 6th to late 4th millennia BCE) were the most likely speakers of the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a>. The term is derived from <a href="/wiki/Kurgan" title="Kurgan">kurgan</a> (курган), a <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a> loanword in Russian for a <a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">tumulus</a> or burial mound. An origin at the Pontic-Caspian steppes is the most widely accepted <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_Urheimat_hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European Urheimat hypotheses">scenario of Indo-European origins</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1989185-96">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrazny2000163-97">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola2015-17">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthonyRinge2015-27">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[note 7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Marija_Gimbutas" title="Marija Gimbutas">Marija Gimbutas</a> formulated her <a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a> in the 1950s, grouping together a number of related cultures at the Pontic steppes. She defined the "Kurgan culture" as composed of four successive periods, with the earliest (Kurgan I) including the <a href="/wiki/Samara_culture" title="Samara culture">Samara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seroglazovo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Seroglazovo culture">Seroglazovo</a> cultures of the <a href="/wiki/Dnieper" title="Dnieper">Dnieper</a>/<a href="/wiki/Volga" title="Volga">Volga</a> region in the <a href="/wiki/Copper_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper Age">Copper Age</a> (early 4th millennium BCE). The bearers of these cultures were <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_nomads" title="Eurasian nomads">nomadic pastoralists</a>, who, according to the model, by the early 3rd millennium expanded throughout the <a href="/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe" title="Pontic–Caspian steppe">Pontic–Caspian steppe</a> and into <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[81]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IE_expansion.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/IE_expansion.png/260px-IE_expansion.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/IE_expansion.png/390px-IE_expansion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/IE_expansion.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="275" /></a><figcaption>Scheme of Indo-European migrations from c. 4000 to 1000 BCE according to the Kurgan hypothesis. These migrations are thought to have spread <a href="/wiki/Western_Steppe_Herders" title="Western Steppe Herders">WSH</a> ancestry and Indo-European languages throughout large parts of Eurasia.<a href="#cite_note-ScienceDaily-100">[82]</a></figcaption></figure> Gimbutas's grouping is nowadays considered to have been too broad. According to Anthony, it is better to speak of the <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a> or of a "Yamnaya horizon", which included several related cultures, as the defining Proto-Indo-European culture at the Pontic steppe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> David Anthony has incorporated recent developments in his "revised steppe hypothesis", which also supports a steppe origin of the Indo-European languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPereltsvaigLewis2015-101">[83]</a> Anthony emphasizes the <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a> (3300–2500 BCE),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> which according to him started on the middle Don and Volga, as the origin of the Indo-European dispersal,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPereltsvaigLewis2015-101">[83]</a> but regards Khvalynsk archaeological culture since around 4500 BCE as the oldest phase of Proto-Indo-European in the lower and middle Volga, a culture that kept domesticated sheep, goats, cattle and maybe horses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony201913-36">[29]</a> Recent research by Haak et al. (2015) confirms the migration of Yamnaya-people into western Europe, forming the Corded Ware culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaak2015-11">[10]</a> A recent analysis by Anthony (2019) also suggests a genetic origin of proto-Indo-Europeans (of the Yamnaya culture) in the Eastern European steppe north of the Caucasus, deriving from a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_hunter-gatherer" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern European hunter-gatherer">Eastern European hunter-gatherers</a> (EHGs) and <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_hunter-gatherers" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasus hunter-gatherers">Caucasus hunter-gatherers</a> (CHGs). Anthony additionally suggests that the Proto-Indo-European language formed mainly from a base of languages spoken by EHGs with influences from languages of northern CHGs, in addition to a possible later, and minor, influence from the language of the <a href="/wiki/Maykop_culture" title="Maykop culture">Maykop culture</a> to the south (which is hypothesized to have belonged to the <a href="/wiki/North_Caucasian_languages" title="North Caucasian languages">North Caucasian</a> family) in the later Neolithic or Bronze Age involving little genetic impact.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2019-102">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anatolian_hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Anatolian hypothesis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a></div> The primary competitor is the <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a> advanced by <a href="/wiki/Colin_Renfrew" title="Colin Renfrew">Colin Renfrew</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory2013-95">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthonyRinge2015-27">[21]</a> which states that the Indo-European languages began to spread peacefully into Europe from <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>) from around 7000 BCE with the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a>'s advance of farming by <a href="/wiki/Demic_diffusion" title="Demic diffusion">demic diffusion</a> (spread via migration).&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_94-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-94">[77]</a> Accordingly, most of the inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a> would have spoken Indo-European languages, and later migrations would at best have replaced these Indo-European varieties with other Indo-European varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenfrew1990-103">[85]</a> The main strength of the farming hypothesis lies in its linking of the spread of Indo-European languages with an archaeologically known event (the spread of farming) that is often assumed as involving significant population shifts. Nevertheless, these days the Anatolian hypothesis is generally rejected, since it is incompatible with the growing data on the genetic history of the Yamnaya people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthonyRinge2015-27">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Armenian_hypothesis">Armenian hypothesis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Armenian hypothesis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Armenian_hypothesis" title="Armenian hypothesis">Armenian hypothesis</a></div> Another hypothesis which has drawn considerable, and <a href="#Caucasus_origins">renewed, attention</a> is the Armenian plateau hypothesis of Gamkrelidze and Ivanov, who have argued that the Urheimat was south of the Caucasus, specifically, "within eastern Anatolia, the southern Caucasus and northern Mesopotamia" in the fifth to fourth millennia BCE.<a href="#cite_note-104">[86]</a>&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_94-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-94">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory2013-95">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthonyRinge2015-27">[21]</a> Their proposal was based on a disputed <a href="/wiki/Glottalic_theory" title="Glottalic theory">hypothesis of glottal consonants</a> in PIE. According to Gamkrelidze and Ivanov, PIE words for <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material-culture</a> objects imply contact with more advanced peoples to the south, the existence of <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a> loan-words in PIE, <a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a> borrowings from PIE, and some contact with <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a>, and others. However, given that the glottalic hypothesis never caught on and there was little archaeological support for it, the Gamkrelidze and Ivanov hypothesis did not gain support until Renfrew's Anatolian hypothesis revived aspects of their proposal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthonyRinge2015-27">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Proto-Indo-Europeans">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a></div> The Proto-Indo-Europeans were the speakers of the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a> (PIE), a <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">reconstructed</a> <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric</a> language of <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>. Knowledge of them comes chiefly from the linguistic reconstruction, along with material evidence from <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">archaeogenetics</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Characteristics">edit</a>]</div> According to some archaeologists, PIE speakers cannot be assumed to have been a single, identifiable people or tribe, but were a group of loosely related populations ancestral to the later, still partially prehistoric, <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> Indo-Europeans. This view is held especially by those archaeologists who posit an original homeland of vast extent and immense time depth. However, this view is not shared by linguists, as proto-languages generally occupy small geographical areas over a very limited time span, and are generally spoken by close-knit communities such as a single small tribe.<a href="#cite_note-105">[87]</a> The Proto-Indo-Europeans were likely to have lived during the late <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a>, or roughly the 4th millennium BCE. Mainstream scholarship places them in the forest-steppe zone immediately to the north of the western end of the <a href="/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe" title="Pontic–Caspian steppe">Pontic–Caspian steppe</a> in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>. Some archaeologists would extend the time depth of PIE to the middle Neolithic (5500 to 4500 BCE) or even the early Neolithic (7500 to 5500 BCE), and suggest <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_Urheimat_hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European Urheimat hypotheses">alternative Proto-Indo-European original homelands</a>. By the late third millennium BCE, offshoots of the Proto-Indo-Europeans had reached <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greece</a>), <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, and southern <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Afanasevo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Afanasevo culture">Afanasevo culture</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams19974_and_6_(Afanasevo),_13_and_16_(Anatolia),_243_(Greece),_127–128_(Corded_Ware),_and_653_(Yamna)-106">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Origins_of_Proto-Indo-Europeans">Origins of Proto-Indo-Europeans</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Origins of Proto-Indo-Europeans">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture#Origins" title="Yamnaya culture">Origins of Yamnaya culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe#Yamnaya_component" title="Genetic history of Europe">Yamnaya component in European genes</a></div> The proto-Indo-Europeans, i.e. the Yamnaya people and the related cultures, seem to have been a mix from Eastern European hunter-gatherers; and people related to the Near East,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaak20153-107">[89]</a> i.e. <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_hunter-gatherers" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasus hunter-gatherers">Caucasus hunter-gatherers</a> (CHG)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2016-108">[90]</a> i.e. Iran Chalcolithic people with a Caucasian hunter-gatherer component.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazaridis_et_al20168-109">[91]</a> Where this CHG-component came from is unknown; the mix of EHG and CHG may result from "an existing natural genetic gradient running from EHG far to the north to CHG/Iran in the south,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangReinholdKalmykovWissgott20199-110">[92]</a> or it may be explained as "the result of Iranian/CHG-related ancestry reaching the steppe zone independently and prior to a stream of AF [Anatolian Farmer] ancestry,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangReinholdKalmykovWissgott20199-110">[92]</a> reaching the steppes with people who migrated northwards into the steppes between 5,000 and 3,000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard2018-39">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2019-102">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[note 9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_of_archaic_PIE">Origins of archaic PIE</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Origins of archaic PIE">edit</a>]</div> Different possibilities exist regarding the genesis of archaic PIE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESerangeli20204–5-44">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2019-102">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKortlandt2010-29">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReich2018120,_177-114">[93]</a> While the consensus is that early and late PIE languages originated on the Pontic steppes, the location of the origin of archaic PIE has become the focus of renewed attention, due to the question where the CHG-component came from, and if they were the carriers of archaic PIE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESerangeli20204–5-44">[36]</a> Some suggest an origin of Archaic PIE from languages of the (EHG) hunter-gatherers of the Eastern European/Eurasian Steppe, some suggest an origin in or south of the Caucasus, and others suggest a mixed origin from the languages of both aforementioned regions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caucasus_origins">Caucasus origins</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Caucasus origins">edit</a>]</div> Some recent DNA-research has led to renewed suggestions, most notably by David Reich, of a Caucasian homeland for archaic or 'proto-proto-Indo-European', from where archaic PIE speaking people migrated into Anatolia, where the Anatolian languages developed, while at the steppes archaic PIE developed into early and late PIE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaak2015-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReich2018120,_177-114">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2018-115">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrolle2018108-116">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESerangeli20204–5-44">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathieson2018line_363–382-45">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReich2018120-46">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKristiansen2020-117">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[note 11]</a> Anthony (2019, 2020) criticizes the Southern/Caucasian origin proposals of Reich and Kristiansen, and rejects the possibility that the Bronze Age Maykop people of the Caucasus were a southern source of language and genetics of Indo-European. According to Anthony, referring to Wang et al. (2018),<a href="#cite_note-126">[note 12]</a> the Maykop-culture had little genetic impact on the Yamnaya, whose paternal lineages were found to differ from those found in Maykop remains, but were instead related to those of earlier Eastern European hunter-gatherers. Also, the Maykop (and other contemporary Caucasus samples), along with CHG from this date, had significant Anatolian Farmer ancestry "which had spread into the Caucasus from the west after about 5000 BC", while the Yamnaya had a lower percentage which does not fit with a Maykop origin. Partly for these reasons, Anthony concludes that Bronze Age Caucasus groups such as the Maykop "played only a minor role, if any, in the formation of Yamnaya ancestry." According to Anthony, the roots of Proto-Indo-European (archaic or proto-proto-Indo-European) were mainly in the steppe rather than the south. Anthony considers it likely that the Maykop spoke a Northern Caucasian language not ancestral to Indo-European.<a href="#cite_note-Anthony2020-127">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2019-102">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indo-Uralic_Urheimat">Indo-Uralic Urheimat</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Indo-Uralic Urheimat">edit</a>]</div> Bomhard's alternative Caucasian substrate hypothesis proposes a "north-Caspian <a href="/wiki/Indo-Uralic_languages" title="Indo-Uralic languages">Indo-Uralic</a>" Urheimat, involving an origin of PIE from the contact of two languages; a Eurasian steppe language from the north Caspian (related to <a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a>) which acquired a substratal influence from a northwest Caucasian language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBomhard2019-128">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[note 13]</a> According to Anthony (2019), a genetic relationship to Uralic is unlikely and cannot be reliably proven; similarities between Uralic and Indo-European would be explained by early borrowings and influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2019-102">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Steppe_origins_with_south_Caspian_CHG-influences">Steppe origins with south Caspian CHG-influences</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Steppe origins with south Caspian CHG-influences">edit</a>]</div> Anthony argues that proto-Indo European formed mainly from the languages of Eastern European hunter-gatherers with influences from those of Caucasus hunter-gatherers,<a href="#cite_note-Anthony2020-127">[101]</a> and suggests that the archaic proto-Indo-European language formed in the Volga Basin (in the Eastern European Steppe).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2019-102">[84]</a> It developed from a base of languages spoken by Eastern European hunter-gatherers at the Volga steppe plains, with some influences from languages of northern Caucasus hunter-gatherers who migrated from the Caucasus to the lower Volga. Additionally, there is possible later influence, involving little genetic impact, in the later Neolithic or Bronze Age from the language of the <a href="/wiki/Maykop_culture" title="Maykop culture">Maykop culture</a> to the south, which is hypothesized to have belonged to the <a href="/wiki/North_Caucasian_languages" title="North Caucasian languages">North Caucasian</a> family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2019-102">[84]</a> According to Anthony, hunting-fishing camps from the lower Volga, dated 6200–4500 BCE, could be the remains of people who contributed the CHG-component, similar to the Hotu cave, migrating from northwestern Iran or Azerbaijan via the western Caspian coast. They mixed with EHG-people from the northern Volga steppes, forming the <a href="/wiki/Khvalynsk_culture" title="Khvalynsk culture">Khvalynsk culture</a>, which "might represent the oldest phase of PIE.".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2019-102">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESerangeli20204–5-44">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-East_Caspian-138">[note 14]</a> The resulting culture contributed to the Sredny Stog culture,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007244–245-139">[111]</a> a predecessor of the Yamnaya culture. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archaic_Proto-Indo-European">Archaic Proto-Indo-European</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Archaic Proto-Indo-European">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Yamnaya_steppe_cultures">Pre-Yamnaya steppe cultures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Pre-Yamnaya steppe cultures">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ukraine_rivers.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ukraine_rivers.png/220px-Ukraine_rivers.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ukraine_rivers.png/330px-Ukraine_rivers.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ukraine_rivers.png/440px-Ukraine_rivers.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="547" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> rivers</figcaption></figure> According to Anthony, the development of the Proto-Indo-European cultures started with the introduction of cattle at the Pontic-Caspian steppes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007132-140">[112]</a> Until ca. 5200–5000 BCE the Pontic-Caspian steppes were populated by hunter-gatherers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007135-141">[113]</a> According to Anthony, the first cattle herders arrived from the Danube Valley at ca. 5800–5700 BCE, descendants from the <a href="/wiki/First_European_farmers" class="mw-redirect" title="First European farmers">first European farmers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007138-142">[114]</a> They formed the <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6r%C3%B6s_culture" title="Körös culture">Criş culture</a> (5800–5300 BCE), creating a cultural frontier at the Prut-Dniestr watershed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007132,_145-143">[115]</a> The adjacent <a href="/wiki/Bug%E2%80%93Dniester_culture" title="Bug–Dniester culture">Bug–Dniester culture</a> (6300–5500 BCE) was a local culture, from where cattle breeding spread to the steppe peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007145,_147-144">[116]</a> The Dniepr Rapids area was the next part of the Pontic-Caspian steppes to shift to cattle-herding. It was the densely populated area of the Pontic-Caspian steppes at the time, and had been inhabited by various hunter-gatherer populations since the end of the Ice Age. From ca.5800–5200 it was inhabited by the first phase of the <a href="/wiki/Dnieper%E2%80%93Donets_culture" title="Dnieper–Donets culture">Dnieper–Donets culture</a>, a hunter-gatherer culture contemporaneous with the Bug-Dniestr culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007155–157-145">[117]</a> At ca. 5200–5000 BCE the <a href="/wiki/Cucuteni%E2%80%93Trypillia_culture" title="Cucuteni–Trypillia culture">Cucuteni–Trypillia culture</a> (6000–3500 BCE) (aka Tripolye culture), presumed to be non-Indo-European speaking, appears east of the Carpathian mountains, <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007164-146">[118]</a> moving the cultural frontier to the Southern Bug valley,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007173-147">[119]</a> while the foragers at the Dniepr Rapids shifted to cattle herding, marking the shift to Dniepr-Donets II (5200/5000 – 4400/4200 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007175-148">[120]</a> The Dniepr-Donets culture kept cattle not only for ritual sacrifices, but also for their daily diet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007182-149">[121]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Khvalynsk_culture" title="Khvalynsk culture">Khvalynsk culture</a> (4700–3800 BCE),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007182-149">[121]</a> located at the middle Volga, which was connected with the Danube Valley by trade networks,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007185,_190-150">[122]</a> also had cattle and sheep, but they were "more important in ritual sacrifices than in the diet".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007186-151">[123]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Samara_culture" title="Samara culture">Samara culture</a> (early 5th millennium BCE),<a href="#cite_note-dating-152">[note 15]</a> north of the Khvalynsk culture, interacted with the Khvalynsk culture,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007189-153">[124]</a> while the archaeological findings seem related to those of the <a href="/wiki/Dnieper%E2%80%93Donets_culture" title="Dnieper–Donets culture">Dniepr–Donets II culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007189-153">[124]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sredny_Stog_culture" title="Sredny Stog culture">Sredny Stog culture</a> (4400–3300 BCE)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007244-154">[125]</a> appears at the same location as the Dniepr-Donets culture, but shows influences from people who came from the Volga river region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007244–245-139">[111]</a> According to Vasiliev, the Khvalynsk and Sredny Stog cultures show strong similarities, suggesting "a broad Sredny Stog-Khvalynsk horizon embracing the entire Pontic-Caspian during the Eneolithic."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999210-155">[126]</a> From this horizon arose the Yamnaya culture, which also spread over the entire Pontic-Caspian steppe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999210-155">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe:_migration_into_the_Danube_Valley_(4200_BCE)">Europe: migration into the Danube Valley (4200 BCE)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Europe: migration into the Danube Valley (4200 BCE)">edit</a>]</div> According to Anthony, the Pre-Yamnaya steppe herders, archaic Proto-Indo-European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley about 4200–4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of <a href="/wiki/Old_Europe_(archaeology)" title="Old Europe (archaeology)">Old Europe</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007133-37">[30]</a> their languages "probably included archaic Proto-Indo-European dialects of the kind partly preserved later in Anatolian."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007229-156">[127]</a> See <a href="/wiki/Suvorovo_culture" title="Suvorovo culture">Suvorovo culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ezero_culture" title="Ezero culture">Ezero culture</a> for details. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anatolia:_Archaic_Proto-Indo-European_(Hittites;_4500–3500_BCE)">Anatolia: Archaic Proto-Indo-European (Hittites; 4500–3500 BCE)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Anatolia: Archaic Proto-Indo-European (Hittites; 4500–3500 BCE)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Hittite_rule_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Map_Hittite_rule_en.svg/220px-Map_Hittite_rule_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Map_Hittite_rule_en.svg/330px-Map_Hittite_rule_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Map_Hittite_rule_en.svg/440px-Map_Hittite_rule_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1890" data-file-height="1194" /></a><figcaption>The Hittite Empire at its greatest extent under <a href="/wiki/Suppiluliuma_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppiluliuma I">Suppiluliuma I</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1350–1322 BCE) and <a href="/wiki/Mursili_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Mursili II">Mursili II</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1321–1295 BCE)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anatolian_03.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Anatolian_03.png/220px-Anatolian_03.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Anatolian_03.png/330px-Anatolian_03.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Anatolian_03.png/440px-Anatolian_03.png 2x" data-file-width="840" data-file-height="832" /></a><figcaption>Anatolian languages attested in the mid-first millennium BCE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Luwian_language_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Luwian_language_en.svg/220px-Luwian_language_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Luwian_language_en.svg/330px-Luwian_language_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Luwian_language_en.svg/440px-Luwian_language_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Area where the second millennium BCE Luwian language was spoken</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Anatolians" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatolians">Anatolians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Anatolians" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatolians">Anatolians</a> were a group of distinct <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Indo-European peoples</a> who spoke the <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian languages</a> and shared a common culture.<a href="#cite_note-Beckwith37-157">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-MalloryAdams12-161">[132]</a> The Anatolians' earliest linguistic and historical attestation are as names mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Empire">Assyrian</a> mercantile texts from 19th-century BCE <a href="/wiki/Kanesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanesh">Kanesh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Beckwith37-157">[128]</a> The Anatolian languages were a branch of the larger <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_language_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European language family">Indo-European language family</a>. The archaeological discovery of the archives of the <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a> and the classification of the <a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite language</a> to a separate <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian</a> branch of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a> caused a sensation among historians, forcing a re-evaluation of Near Eastern history and <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European linguistics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MalloryAdams12-161">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Origins">Origins</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Origins">edit</a>]</div> Damgaard et al. (2018) note that "[a]mong comparative linguists, a Balkan route for the introduction of Anatolian IE is generally considered more likely than a passage through the Caucasus, due, for example, to greater Anatolian IE presence and language diversity in the west."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard2018-39">[32]</a> Mathieson et al. note the absence of "large amounts" of steppe-ancestry in the Balkan peninsula and Anatolia, which may indicate that archaic PIE originated in the Caucasus or Iran, but also state that "it remains possible that Indo-European languages were spread through southeastern Europe into Anatolia without large-scale population movement or admixture."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathieson2018line_380–382-120">[98]</a> Damgaard et al. (2018), found "no correlation between genetic ancestry and exclusive ethnic or political identities among the populations of Bronze Age Central Anatolia, as has previously been hypothesized."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard2018-39">[32]</a> According to them, the Hittites lacked steppe-ancestry, arguing that "the Anatolian clade of IE languages did not derive from a large-scale Copper Age/Early Bronze Age population movement from the steppe," contrary Anthony's proposal of a large-scale migration via the Balkan as proposed in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard2018-39">[32]</a> The first IE-speakers may have reached Anatolia "by way of commercial contacts and small-scale movement during the Bronze Age."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard2018-39">[32]</a> They further state that their findings are "consistent with historical models of cultural hybridity and 'middle ground' in a multicultural and multilingual but genetically homogeneous Bronze Age Anatolia," as proposed by other researchers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard2018-39">[32]</a> According to Kroonen et al. (2018), in the linguistic supplement to Damgaard et al. (2018), <a href="/wiki/Ancient_DNA" title="Ancient DNA">aDNA</a> studies in Anatolia "show no indication of a large-scale intrusion of a steppe population", but do "fit the recently developed consensus among linguists and historians that the speakers of the Anatolian languages established themselves in Anatolia by gradual infiltration and cultural assimilation."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKroonenBarjamovicPeyrot20187-162">[133]</a> They further note that this lends support to the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Hittite" title="Indo-Hittite">Indo-Hittite</a> hypothesis, according to which both proto-Anatolian and proto-Indo-European split-off from a common mother language "no later than the 4th millennium BCE."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKroonenBarjamovicPeyrot20189-163">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Time-frame">Time-frame</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Time-frame">edit</a>]</div> Although the Hittites are first attested in the 2nd millennium BCE,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony200743–46-40">[33]</a> the Anatolian branch seems to have separated at a very early stage from Proto-Indo-European, or may have developed from an older <a href="/wiki/Indo-Hittite" title="Indo-Hittite">Pre-Proto-Indo-European</a> ancestor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony200747–48-164">[135]</a> Considering a steppe origin for archaic PIE, together with the <a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a> the Anatolians constituted the first known dispersal of Indo-European out of the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurasian steppe">Eurasian steppe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932-165">[136]</a> Although those archaic PIE-speakers had wagons, they probably reached Anatolia before Indo-Europeans had learned to use <a href="/wiki/Chariots" class="mw-redirect" title="Chariots">chariots</a> for war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932-165">[136]</a> It is likely that their arrival was one of gradual settlement and not as an invading army.<a href="#cite_note-Beckwith37-157">[128]</a> According to Mallory, it is likely that the Anatolians reached the Near East from the north, either via the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> in the 3rd millennium BCE.<a href="#cite_note-MalloryAdams12-161">[132]</a> According to Anthony, if it separated from Proto-Indo-European, it likely did so between 4500 and 3500 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony200748-166">[137]</a> According to Anthony, descendants of archaic Proto-Indo-European steppe herders, who moved into the lower Danube valley about 4200–4000 BCE, later moved into Anatolia, at an unknown time, but maybe as early as 3,000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007133,_262-167">[138]</a> According to Parpola, the appearance of Indo-European speakers from Europe into Anatolia, and the appearance of Hittite, is related to later migrations of Proto-Indo-European speakers from the Yamna-culture into the Danube Valley at <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2800 BCE,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola201537–38-42">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007345,_361–367-6">[6]</a> which is in line with the "customary" assumption that the Anatolian Indo-European language was introduced into Anatolia somewhere in the third millennium BCE.<a href="#cite_note-EB_AnatLang-43">[web 7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hittite_civilisation">Hittite civilisation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Hittite civilisation">edit</a>]</div> The Hittites, who established an extensive empire in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> in the 2nd millennium BCE, are by far the best-known members of the Anatolian group. The history of the Hittite civilization is known mostly from <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_(script)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform (script)">cuneiform</a> texts found in the area of their kingdom, and from diplomatic and commercial correspondence found in various archives in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. Despite the use of Hatti for their core territory, the Hittites should be distinguished from the <a href="/wiki/Hattians" title="Hattians">Hattians</a>, an earlier people who inhabited the same region (until the beginning of the 2nd millennium). The Hittite military made successful use of <a href="/wiki/Chariot#Hittites" title="Chariot">chariots</a>. Although belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, they were the forerunners of the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, developing the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Iron_(material)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron (material)">iron</a> artifacts from as early as the 14th century BCE, when letters to foreign rulers reveal the latter's demand for iron goods. The Hittite empire reached its height during the mid-14th century BCE under <a href="/wiki/Suppiluliuma_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppiluliuma I">Suppiluliuma I</a>, when it encompassed an area that included most of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> as well as parts of the northern <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a>. After 1180 BCE, amid the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Collapse">Bronze Age Collapse</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> associated with the sudden arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a>, the kingdom disintegrated into several independent "<a href="/wiki/Neo-Hittite" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Hittite">Neo-Hittite</a>" city-states, some of which survived until as late as the 8th century BCE. The lands of the Anatolian peoples were successively invaded by a number of peoples and empires at high frequency: the <a href="/wiki/Phrygians" title="Phrygians">Phrygians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bithynians" class="mw-redirect" title="Bithynians">Bithynians</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Galatians_(People)" class="mw-redirect" title="Galatians (People)">Galatian Celts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">Oghuz Turks</a>. Many of these invaders settled in Anatolia, in some cases causing the extinction of the Anatolian languages. By the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, all the Anatolian languages (and the cultures accompanying them) were extinct, although there may be lingering influences on the modern inhabitants of Anatolia, most notably <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-168">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Northern_Caucasus:_The_Maykop_culture_(3700–3000_BCE)">Northern Caucasus: The Maykop culture (3700–3000 BCE)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Northern Caucasus: The Maykop culture (3700–3000 BCE)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maykop_culture" title="Maykop culture">Maykop culture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maykop_culture-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Maykop_culture-en.svg/220px-Maykop_culture-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Maykop_culture-en.svg/330px-Maykop_culture-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Maykop_culture-en.svg/440px-Maykop_culture-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="605" data-file-height="399" /></a><figcaption>Geographic extent of the Maykop culture</figcaption></figure> The Maykop culture, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3700–3000 BCE,<a href="#cite_note-169">[140]</a> was a major <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> archaeological culture in the Western <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> region of Southern Russia. It extends along the area from the <a href="/wiki/Taman_Peninsula" title="Taman Peninsula">Taman Peninsula</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Kerch_Strait" title="Kerch Strait">Kerch Strait</a> to near the modern border of <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Dagestan" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Dagestan">Dagestan</a> and southwards to the <a href="/wiki/Kura_(Caspian_Sea)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kura (Caspian Sea)">Kura River</a>. The culture takes its name from a royal burial found in <a href="/wiki/Maykop_kurgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Maykop kurgan">Maykop kurgan</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Kuban_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuban River">Kuban River</a> valley. According to Mallory and Adams, migrations southward founded the <a href="/wiki/Maykop_culture" title="Maykop culture">Maykop culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3500–2500 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997372-51">[43]</a> Yet, according to Mariya Ivanova the Maykop origins were on the Iranian Plateau,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIvanova2012-52">[44]</a> while kurgans from the beginning of the 4th millennium at <a href="/wiki/Soyuqbulaq,_Agstafa" title="Soyuqbulaq, Agstafa">Soyuqbulaq</a> in <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, which belong to the <a href="/wiki/Leyla-Tepe_culture" title="Leyla-Tepe culture">Leyla-Tepe culture</a>, show parallels with the Maykop kurgans. According to Museyibli, "the Leylatepe Culture tribes migrated to the north in the mid-fourth millennium and played an important part in the rise of the Maykop Culture of the North Caucasus."<a href="#cite_note-Excav_Soyu_Kurgans-53">[web 8]</a> This model was confirmed by a genetic study published in 2018, which attributed the origin of Maykop individuals to a migration of Eneolithic farmers from western Georgia towards the north side of the Caucasus.<a href="#cite_note-170">[141]</a> It has been suggested that the Maykop people spoke a <a href="/wiki/North_Caucasian_languages" title="North Caucasian languages">North Caucasian</a>, rather than an Indo-European, language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2019-102">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Proto-Indo-European">Early Proto-Indo-European</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Early Proto-Indo-European">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Afanasevo_culture_(3500–2500_BCE)">Afanasevo culture (3500–2500 BCE)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Afanasevo culture (3500–2500 BCE)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="noresize thumb tright" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:412px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:0px; top:0px; width:410px; position:absolute;"> <a href="/wiki/File:Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bronze Age spread of Yamnaya Steppe pastoralist ancestry into two subcontinents—Europe and South Asia, and location of the Afanasievo culture, which has the same genetic characteristics as the Yamnayas.[143]"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg/410px-Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg" decoding="async" width="410" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg/615px-Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg/820px-Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3326" data-file-height="1372" /></a></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:transparent; line-height:110%;"> <div id="annotation_205x116" style="position:absolute; left:205px; top:116px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryans"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Indo-Aryans</div></a></div> <div id="annotation_144x25" style="position:absolute; left:144px; top:25px; font-size:9px; font-weight:bold; font-size:9; line-height:11px;"><a href="/wiki/Repin_culture" title="Repin culture"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Repin culture</div></a></div> <div id="annotation_275x24" style="position:absolute; left:275px; top:24px; font-size:9px; font-weight:bold; font-size:9; line-height:11px;"><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Afanasievo culture</div></a></div> <div id="annotation_179x92" style="position:absolute; left:179px; top:92px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px;"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Iranians</div></a></div> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg/410px-Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg" decoding="async" width="410" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg/615px-Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg/820px-Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3326" data-file-height="1372" /></a></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg" title="File:Yamnaya Steppe Pastoralists.jpg"> </a></div>Bronze Age spread of <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a> Steppe pastoralist ancestry into two subcontinents—Europe and South Asia, and location of the Afanasievo culture, which has the same genetic characteristics as the Yamnayas.<a href="#cite_note-172">[143]</a></div> </div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Afanasevo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Afanasevo culture">Afanasevo culture</a></div> The Afanasievo culture (3300 to 2500 BCE) is the earliest <a href="/wiki/Eneolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eneolithic">Eneolithic</a> <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">archaeological culture</a> found until now in south <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, occupying the <a href="/wiki/Minusinsk_Hollow" title="Minusinsk Hollow">Minusinsk Basin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Altai_Krai" title="Altai Krai">Altay</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Kazakhstan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="East Kazakhstan Province">Eastern Kazakhstan</a>. It originated with a migration of people from the pre-Yamnaya <a href="/wiki/Repin_culture" title="Repin culture">Repin culture</a>, at the Don river,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007275-173">[144]</a> and is related to the Tocharians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007264–265-174">[145]</a> <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">Radiocarbon</a> gives dates as early as 3705 BCE on wooden tools and 2874 BCE on human remains for the Afanasievo culture.<a href="#cite_note-Svyatko09-175">[146]</a> The earliest of these dates has now been rejected, giving a date of around 3300 BCE for the start of the culture.<a href="#cite_note-176">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Tocharians">The Tocharians</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: The Tocharians">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian languages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kucha_ambassador_to_the_Southern_Liang_court_516-520_CE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Kucha_ambassador_to_the_Southern_Liang_court_516-520_CE.jpg/290px-Kucha_ambassador_to_the_Southern_Liang_court_516-520_CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Kucha_ambassador_to_the_Southern_Liang_court_516-520_CE.jpg/435px-Kucha_ambassador_to_the_Southern_Liang_court_516-520_CE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Kucha_ambassador_to_the_Southern_Liang_court_516-520_CE.jpg/580px-Kucha_ambassador_to_the_Southern_Liang_court_516-520_CE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="2096" /></a><figcaption>Ambassador from <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> (龜茲國 Qiuci-guo), one of the main Tocharian cities, visiting the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Liang_dynasty" title="Liang dynasty">Southern Liang</a> court in <a href="/wiki/Jingzhou" title="Jingzhou">Jingzhou</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 516–520 CE, with explanatory text. <a href="/wiki/Portraits_of_Periodical_Offering_of_Liang" class="mw-redirect" title="Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang">Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang</a>, 11th century Song copy.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:24%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> These movements of both Tocharians and Iranians into East Central Asia were not a mere footnote in the history of China but... were part of a much wider picture involving the very foundations of the world's oldest surviving civilization."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2008318-177">[148]</a> </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">— <a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">J. P. Mallory</a> & <a href="/wiki/Victor_H._Mair" title="Victor H. Mair">Victor H. Mair</a></cite> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a>, or "Tokharians" (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/təˈkɛəriənz/</a> or <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/təˈkɑːriənz/</a>) were inhabitants of medieval oasis city-states on the northern edge of the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>). Their <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian languages</a> (a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European family">Indo-European family</a>) are known from manuscripts from the 6th to 8th centuries CE, after which they were supplanted by the <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic languages</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Uyghur people">Uyghur</a> tribes. These people were called "Tocharian" by late 19th-century scholars who identified them with the Tókharoi described by ancient Greek sources as inhabiting <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a>. Although this identification is now generally considered mistaken, the name has become customary. The Tocharians are thought to have developed from the <a href="/wiki/Afanasevo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Afanasevo culture">Afanasevo culture</a> of Siberia (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3500–2500 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007264–265-174">[145]</a> It is believed that the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_mummies" title="Tarim mummies">Tarim mummies</a>, dated from 1800 BCE, represent a migration of Tocharian speakers from the Afanasevo culture in the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> in the early 2nd millennium BCE;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoeweShaughnessy199983–88-49">[41]</a> however, a 2021 genetic study demonstrated the Tarim Mummies are remains of locals descending from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Eurasian" title="Ancient North Eurasian">Ancient North Eurasians</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_people" title="East Asian people">Northeast Asians</a>, and instead suggested that "<a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a> may have been plausibly introduced to the Dzungarian Basin by Afanasievo migrants" -i.e. "the Afanasievo herders of the Altai–Sayan region in southern Siberia (3150–2750 BC), who in turn have close genetic ties with the Yamnaya (3500–2500 BC) of the Pontic–Caspian steppe located 3,000 km to the west"- before being recorded in 500–1000 CE's <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist scriptures">Buddhist scriptures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_genomic_origins_of_the_Bronze_A-50">[42]</a> The Indo-European eastward expansion in the 2nd millennium BCE left an influence on Chinese culture, introducing <a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">wheeled vehicles</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Domesticated_horse" class="mw-redirect" title="Domesticated horse">domesticated horse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Beckwith396-178">[149]</a> Although much less certain, it may also have introduced <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">iron technology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Beckwith43-179">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-EB_China_bronze_casting-180">[web 12]</a> fighting styles, head-and-hoof rituals, art motifs and myths.<a href="#cite_note-KrechSteinicke-181">[151]</a> By the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, the dominant people as far east as the <a href="/wiki/Altai_Mountains" title="Altai Mountains">Altai Mountains</a> southward to the northern outlets of the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau" title="Tibetan Plateau">Tibetan Plateau</a> were anthropologically <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_race" title="Caucasian race">Caucasian</a>, with the northern part speaking <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a> <a href="/wiki/Scythian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Scythian language">Scythian</a> languages and the southern parts Tocharian languages, having <a href="/wiki/Mongoloid_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongoloid race">Mongoloid</a> populations as their northeastern neighbors.<a href="#cite_note-Beckwith70-182">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-EB_Stone_Age-183">[web 13]</a> These two groups were in competition with each other until the latter overcame the former.<a href="#cite_note-EB_Stone_Age-183">[web 13]</a> The turning point occurred around the 5th to 4th centuries BCE with a gradual Mongolization of Siberia, while Eastern Central Asia (East Turkistan) remained Caucasian and Indo-European-speaking until well into the 1st millennium CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200959-184">[153]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The political history of the Indo-Europeans of Inner Asia from the 2nd century B.C. to the 5th century A.D. is indeed a glorious period. It is their movement which brought China into contact with the Western world as well as with India. These Indo-Europeans held the key to world trade for a long period... In the process of their own transformation, these Indo-Europeans influenced the world around them more than any other people before the rise of Islam."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarain1990176-185">[154]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/A._K._Narain" title="A. K. Narain">A. K. Narain</a></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Yuezhi">The Yuezhi</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: The Yuezhi">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuezhi_Empire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Yuezhi_Empire.jpg/220px-Yuezhi_Empire.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Yuezhi_Empire.jpg/330px-Yuezhi_Empire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Yuezhi_Empire.jpg/440px-Yuezhi_Empire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1609" data-file-height="1081" /></a><figcaption>Approximate extent of the Yuezhi Empire, as described in the History of Civilizations of Central Asia by <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994166–171-186">[155]</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Sinology" title="Sinology">Sinologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Edwin_G._Pulleyblank" title="Edwin G. Pulleyblank">Edwin G. Pulleyblank</a> has suggested that the <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dayuan" title="Dayuan">Dayuan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kangju" title="Kangju">Kangju</a> and the people of <a href="/wiki/Karasahr" title="Karasahr">Yanqi</a>, could have been Tocharian-speaking.<a href="#cite_note-Pulleyblank-187">[156]</a> Of these the Yuezhi are generally held to have been Tocharians.<a href="#cite_note-188">[157]</a> The Yuezhi were originally settled in the arid grasslands of the eastern <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> area, in what is today <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> and western <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>, in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. At the peak of their power in the 3rd century BC, the Yuezhi are believed to have dominated the areas north of the <a href="/wiki/Qilian_Mountains" title="Qilian Mountains">Qilian Mountains</a> (including the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dzungaria" title="Dzungaria">Dzungaria</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Altai_Mountains" title="Altai Mountains">Altai region</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994171-189">[158]</a> the greater part of <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Plateau" title="Mongolian Plateau">Mongolia</a>, and the upper waters of the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994166-190">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994168-191">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994170-192">[161]</a> This territory has been referred to as the Yuezhi Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994169-193">[162]</a> Their eastern neighbors were the <a href="/wiki/Donghu_people" title="Donghu people">Donghu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994168-191">[160]</a> While the Yuezhi were pressuring the <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a> from the west, the Donghu were doing the same from the east.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994168-191">[160]</a> A large number of peoples, including the <a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a>, the states of the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a>, and possibly the <a href="/wiki/Qiang_(historical_people)" title="Qiang (historical people)">Qiang</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994170-192">[161]</a> were under the control of the Yuezhi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994168-191">[160]</a> They were considered the predominant power in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994170-192">[161]</a> Evidence from Chinese records indicate the peoples of Central Asia as far west as the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> were under the sway of the Yuezhi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994170-192">[161]</a> This means that the territory of the Yuezhi Empire roughly corresponded to that of the later <a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First Turkic Khaganate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994170-192">[161]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pazyryk_burials" title="Pazyryk burials">Pazyryk burials</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ukok_Plateau" title="Ukok Plateau">Ukok Plateau</a> coincide with the apex of power of the Yuezhi, and the burials have therefore been attributed to them, which means that the Altai region was part of the Yuezhi Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994171-189">[158]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuezhi_migrations.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Yuezhi_migrations.jpg/220px-Yuezhi_migrations.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Yuezhi_migrations.jpg/330px-Yuezhi_migrations.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Yuezhi_migrations.jpg/440px-Yuezhi_migrations.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1539" /></a><figcaption>The migrations of the Yuezhi through Central Asia, from around 176 BCE to 30 CE</figcaption></figure> After the Yuezhi were defeated by the <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a>, in the 2nd century BCE, a small group, known as the Little Yuezhi, fled to the south, later spawning the <a href="/wiki/Jie_people" title="Jie people">Jie people</a>. During the early 4th century CE, the Jie dominated northern China under the <a href="/wiki/Later_Zhao" title="Later Zhao">Later Zhao (319–351 CE)</a> until their complete extermination by <a href="/wiki/Ran_Min" title="Ran Min">Ran Min's</a> culling order and the wars amidst their state's collapse. The majority of the Yuezhi however migrated west to the <a href="/wiki/Ili_River" title="Ili River">Ili Valley</a>, where they displaced the <a href="/wiki/Sakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakas">Sakas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a>). Driven from the Ili Valley shortly afterwards by the Wusun, the Yuezhi migrated to <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a>, where they are often identified with the Tókharoi (Τοχάριοι) and <a href="/wiki/Asioi" class="mw-redirect" title="Asioi">Asioi</a> of Classical sources. They then expanded into northern <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, where one branch of the Yuezhi founded the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a>. The Kushan empire stretched from <a href="/wiki/Turfan" class="mw-redirect" title="Turfan">Turfan</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> to <a href="/wiki/Pataliputra" title="Pataliputra">Pataliputra</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Gangetic_plain" class="mw-redirect" title="Gangetic plain">Gangetic plain</a> at its greatest extent, and played an important role in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">transmission of Buddhism</a> to <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. Tocharian languages continued to be spoken in the city-states of the Tarim Basin, only becoming extinct in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_Proto-Indo-European">Late Proto-Indo-European</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Late Proto-Indo-European">edit</a>]</div> Late PIE is related to the Yamnaya culture and expansion, from which all IE-languages except the Anatolian languages and Tocharian descend. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yamnaya-culture">Yamnaya-culture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Yamnaya-culture">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable collapsible collapsed floatright"> <tbody><tr> <th>Origins of <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sredny_Stog_culture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Sredny_Stog_culture.jpg/220px-Sredny_Stog_culture.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Sredny_Stog_culture.jpg/330px-Sredny_Stog_culture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Sredny_Stog_culture.jpg/440px-Sredny_Stog_culture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="739" /></a><figcaption>Sredny Stog culture (v.4500–3500 BCE)</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Usatovo_culture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Usatovo_culture.jpg/220px-Usatovo_culture.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Usatovo_culture.jpg/330px-Usatovo_culture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Usatovo_culture.jpg/440px-Usatovo_culture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="787" data-file-height="615" /></a><figcaption>Usatovo culture (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3500–3000 BCE)</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khvalynsk_culture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Khvalynsk_culture.jpg/220px-Khvalynsk_culture.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Khvalynsk_culture.jpg/330px-Khvalynsk_culture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Khvalynsk_culture.jpg/440px-Khvalynsk_culture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="681" data-file-height="649" /></a><figcaption>Khvalynsk culture (c. 4900–3500 BCE)</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Yamna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Early_Yamna.jpg/220px-Early_Yamna.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Early_Yamna.jpg/330px-Early_Yamna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Early_Yamna.jpg/440px-Early_Yamna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="624" data-file-height="385" /></a><figcaption>Location of early Yamnaya culture (3400 BCE), according to <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>.</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%AF%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/%D0%AF%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0.jpg/220px-%D0%AF%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/%D0%AF%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0.jpg/330px-%D0%AF%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/%D0%AF%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0.jpg/440px-%D0%AF%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0.jpg 2x" data-file-width="803" data-file-height="559" /></a><figcaption>Largest expansion of the Yamnaya culture. Ca. 3500 origins of Usatovo culture; 3400 origins of Yamnaya; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3400–3200 expansion of Yamnaya across the Pontic-Caspian steppe; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3000 end of Tripolye culture, and transformation of Yamnaya into Corded Ware in the contact zone east of the Carpathian mountains; 3100–2600 Yamnaya-expansion into the Danube Valley.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007300–370-33">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENordqvistHeyd2020-34">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999-35">[28]</a></figcaption></figure> According to Mallory, "The origin of the Yamnaya culture is still a topic of debate," with proposals for its origins pointing to both Khvalynsk and Sredny Stog.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999215-54">[45]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Khvalynsk_culture" title="Khvalynsk culture">Khvalynsk culture</a> (4700–3800 BCE)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007182-149">[121]</a> (middle Volga) and the Don-based Repin culture (ca.3950–3300 BCE)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007275-173">[144]</a> in the eastern Pontic-Caspian steppe, and the closely related <a href="/wiki/Sredny_Stog_culture" title="Sredny Stog culture">Sredny Stog culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 4500–3500 BCE) in the western Pontic-Caspian steppe, preceded the <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a> (3300–2500 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007300-194">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999210–211-195">[164]</a> According to Anthony, the Yamnaya culture originated in the Don-Volga area at ca. 3400 BCE,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007321-55">[46]</a> arguing that late pottery from these two cultures can barely be distinguished from early Yamnaya pottery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007274–277,_317–320-196">[165]</a> The Yamnaya <a href="/wiki/Horizon_(archaeology)" title="Horizon (archaeology)">horizon</a> (a.k.a. Pit Grave culture) spread quickly across the Pontic-Caspian steppes between ca. 3400 and 3200 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007321-55">[46]</a> It was an adaptation to a climate change that occurred between 3500 and 3000 BCE, in which the steppes became drier and cooler. Herds needed to be moved frequently to feed them sufficiently, and the use of wagons and horse-back riding made this possible, leading to "a new, more mobile form of pastoralism".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007300,_336-88">[74]</a> It was accompanied by new social rules and institutions, to regulate the local migrations in the steppes, creating a new social awareness of a distinct culture, and of "cultural Others" who did not participate in these new institutions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007300-194">[163]</a> According to Anthony, "the spread of the Yamnaya horizon was the material expression of the spread of late Proto-Indo-European across the Pontic-Caspian steppes."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007301–302-197">[166]</a> Anthony further notes that "the Yamnaya horizon is the visible archaeological expression of a social adjustment to high mobility – the invention of the political infrastructure to manage larger herds from mobile homes based in the steppes."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007303-198">[167]</a> The Yamnaya horizon represents the classical reconstructed <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_society" title="Proto-Indo-European society">Proto-Indo-European society</a> with <a href="/wiki/Kurgan_stelae" title="Kurgan stelae">stone idols</a>, predominantly practising <a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">animal husbandry</a> in permanent settlements protected by <a href="/wiki/Hillfort" title="Hillfort">hillforts</a>, subsisting on agriculture, and fishing along rivers. According to Gimbutas, contact of the Yamnaya horizon with late <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a> cultures results in the "kurganized" <a href="/wiki/Globular_Amphora_culture" title="Globular Amphora culture">Globular Amphora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baden_culture" title="Baden culture">Baden</a> cultures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtzU3RIV2BWICpgPA339_339]-199">[168]</a> Anthony excludes the Globular Amphora culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Maykop_culture" title="Maykop culture">Maykop culture</a> (3700–3000) emerges somewhat earlier in the northern <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>. Although considered by Gimbutas as an outgrowth of the steppe cultures, it is related to the development of Mesopotamia, and Anthony does not consider it to be a Proto-Indo-European culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> The Maykop culture shows the earliest evidence of the beginning <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, and bronze weapons and artifacts are introduced to the Yamnaya horizon. Between 3100 and 2600 BCE the Yamnaya people spread into the Danube Valley as far as Hungary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007345,_361–362,_367-200">[169]</a> According to Anthony, this migration probably gave rise to Proto-Celtic<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007367-201">[170]</a> and Pre-Italic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007367-201">[170]</a> Pre-Germanic dialects may have developed between the <a href="/wiki/Dniestr" class="mw-redirect" title="Dniestr">Dniestr</a> (west Ukraine) and the <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a> (Poland) at <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3100–2800 BCE, and spread with the Corded Ware culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007360,_368-202">[171]</a> Slavic and Baltic developed at the middle <a href="/wiki/Dniepr" class="mw-redirect" title="Dniepr">Dniepr</a> (present-day Ukraine)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007368,_380-7">[7]</a> at <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2800 BCE, also spreading with the Corded Ware horizon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007101-56">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Yamnaya">Post-Yamnaya</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Post-Yamnaya">edit</a>]</div> In the northern Don-Volga area the Yamnaya horizon was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Poltavka_culture" title="Poltavka culture">Poltavka culture</a> (2700–2100 BCE), while the Corded Ware culture extended eastwards, giving rise to the <a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta culture</a> (2100–1800). The Sintashta culture extended the Indo-European culture zone east of the Ural mountains, giving rise to Proto-Indo-Iranian and the subsequent spread of the Indo-Iranian languages toward India and the Iranian plateau.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Europe">Europe</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline_of_Neolithic_populations">Decline of Neolithic populations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Decline of Neolithic populations">edit</a>]</div> Between ca. 4000 and 3000 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_decline" title="Neolithic decline">Neolithic populations in western Europe declined</a>, probably due to the plague and other viral hemorrhagic fevers. This decline was followed by the migrations of Indo-European-speaking populations into western Europe, transforming the genetic make-up of the western populations.<a href="#cite_note-203">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[note 16]</a> Haak et al. (2015), Allentoft et al. (2015), and Mathieson et al. (2015) concluded that subclades of Y-DNA haplogroups <a href="/wiki/R1b" class="mw-redirect" title="R1b">R1b</a> and <a href="/wiki/R1a" class="mw-redirect" title="R1a">R1a</a> and an autosomal component present in modern Europeans which was not present in <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europeans</a> were introduced by Yamnaya-related populations from the West Eurasian Steppe, along with the Indo-European languages.<a href="#cite_note-205">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllentoft_et_al.2015-86">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[174]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, the cultures of Europe derived from <a href="/wiki/Early_European_Farmers" title="Early European Farmers">Early European Farmers</a> (EEF) were overwhelmed by successive invasions of <a href="/wiki/Western_Steppe_Herders" title="Western Steppe Herders">Western Steppe Herders</a> (WSHs) from the <a href="/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe" title="Pontic–Caspian steppe">Pontic–Caspian steppe</a>, who carried about 60% <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Hunter-Gatherer" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Hunter-Gatherer">Eastern Hunter-Gatherer</a> (EHG) and 40% <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Hunter-Gatherer" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasus Hunter-Gatherer">Caucasus Hunter-Gatherer</a> (CHG) admixture. These invasions led to EEF <a href="/wiki/Paternal" class="mw-redirect" title="Paternal">paternal</a> DNA lineages in Europe being almost entirely replaced with EHG/WSH paternal DNA (mainly <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R1b" title="Haplogroup R1b">R1b</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R1a" title="Haplogroup R1a">R1a</a>). EEF <a href="/wiki/Maternal" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternal">maternal</a> DNA (mainly haplogroup N) also heavily declined, being supplanted by steppe lineages,<a href="#cite_note-207">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[176]</a> suggesting the migrations involved both males and females from the steppe. The study argues that more than 90% of <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_British_Isles" title="Neolithic British Isles">Britain</a>'s Neolithic gene pool was replaced with the coming of the <a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture" title="Bell Beaker culture">Beaker</a> people,<a href="#cite_note-209">[177]</a> who were around 50% WSH ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-210">[178]</a> Danish archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Kristian_Kristiansen_(archaeologist)" title="Kristian Kristiansen (archaeologist)">Kristian Kristiansen</a> said he is "increasingly convinced there must have been a kind of genocide."<a href="#cite_note-211">[179]</a> According to evolutionary geneticist <a href="/wiki/Eske_Willerslev" title="Eske Willerslev">Eske Willerslev</a>, "There was a heavy reduction of Neolithic DNA in temperate Europe, and a dramatic increase of the new Yamnaya genomic component that was only marginally present in Europe prior to 3000 BC."<a href="#cite_note-ScienceDaily-100">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_of_the_European_IE_languages">Origins of the European IE languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Origins of the European IE languages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R1a#Origins" title="Haplogroup R1a">Origin and dispersal of R1a</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R1b#Origin_and_dispersal" title="Haplogroup R1b">Origin and dispersal of R1b</a></div> The origins of Italo-Celtic, Germanic and Balto-Slavic have often been associated with the spread of the Corded Ware horizon and the Bell Beakers, but the specifics remain unsolved. A complicating factor is the association of haplogroup R1b with the Yamnaya horizon and the Bell Beakers, while the Corded Ware horizon is strongly associated with haplogroup R1a. Ancestors of Germanic and Balto-Slavic may have spread with the Corded Ware, originating east of the Carpathians, while the Danube Valley was ancestral to Italo-Celtic. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relations_between_the_branches">Relations between the branches</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Relations between the branches">edit</a>]</div> According to David Anthony, pre-<a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a> split off earliest (3300 BCE), followed by pre-Italic and pre-Celtic (3000 BCE), pre-Armenian (2800 BCE), pre-Balto-Slavic (2800 BCE) and pre-Greek (2500 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007100-212">[180]</a> Mallory notes that the Italic, Celtic and Germanic languages are closely related, which accords with their historic distribution. The Germanic languages are also related to the Baltic and Slavic languages, which in turn share similarities with the Indo-Iranic languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999155-213">[181]</a> The Greek, Armenian and Indo-Iranian languages are also related, which suggests "a chain of central Indo-European dialects stretching from the Balkans across the Black sea to the east Caspian".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999155-213">[181]</a> And the Celtic, Italic, Anatolian and Tocharian languages preserve archaisms which are preserved only in those languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999155-213">[181]</a> Although Corded Ware is presumed to be largely derived from the Yamnaya culture, most Corded Ware males carried R1a Y-DNA, while males of the Yamnaya primarily carried R1b-M269.<a href="#cite_note-CW_R1b-216">[note 17]</a> According to Sjögren et al. (2020), R1b-M269 "is the major lineage associated with the arrival of Steppe ancestry in western Europe after 2500 BC[E],"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESjögren2020-217">[184]</a> and is strongly related to the Bell Beaker expansion. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Balkan-Danubian_complex_and_the_east-Carpathian_contact-zone">The Balkan-Danubian complex and the east-Carpathian contact-zone</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: The Balkan-Danubian complex and the east-Carpathian contact-zone">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:European_IE-migrations.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/European_IE-migrations.jpeg/220px-European_IE-migrations.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/European_IE-migrations.jpeg/330px-European_IE-migrations.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/European_IE-migrations.jpeg/440px-European_IE-migrations.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="4666" data-file-height="2814" /></a><figcaption>IE migrations north and south of the Carpathian Mountains, and the subsequent development of Celtic, Germanic, and Balto-Slavic, according to Anthony (2007)</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable collapsible collapsed floatright"> <tbody><tr> <th>Dniestr, Vistula, Dniepr </th></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dniester_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Dniester_map.png/170px-Dniester_map.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Dniester_map.png/255px-Dniester_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Dniester_map.png/340px-Dniester_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1006" /></a><figcaption>Dniester river</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vistula_river_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Vistula_river_map.png/170px-Vistula_river_map.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Vistula_river_map.png/255px-Vistula_river_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Vistula_river_map.png/340px-Vistula_river_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Vistula river</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dnipro_Basin_River_Town_International.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Dnipro_Basin_River_Town_International.png/170px-Dnipro_Basin_River_Town_International.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Dnipro_Basin_River_Town_International.png/255px-Dnipro_Basin_River_Town_International.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Dnipro_Basin_River_Town_International.png/340px-Dnipro_Basin_River_Town_International.png 2x" data-file-width="1316" data-file-height="1352" /></a><figcaption>Dniepr river</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Danubemap.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Danubemap.png/220px-Danubemap.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Danubemap.png/330px-Danubemap.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Danubemap.png/440px-Danubemap.png 2x" data-file-width="747" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Course of the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>, marked in red</figcaption></figure> The Balkan-Danubian complex is a set of cultures in Southeast Europe, east and west of the Carpathian mountains, from which the western Indo-European languages probably spread into western Europe from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3500 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999108_f.-5">[5]</a> The area east of the Carpathian mountains formed a contact zone between the expanding Yamnaya culture and the northern European farmer cultures. According to Anthony, Pre-Italic and Pre-Celtic (related by Anthony to the Danube valley), and Pre-Germanic and Balto-Slavic (related by Anthony to the east-Carpathian contact zone) may have split off here from Proto-Indo-European.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007344-218">[185]</a> Anthony (2007) postulates the <a href="/wiki/Usatovo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Usatovo culture">Usatovo culture</a> as the origin of the pre-<a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a> branch.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007360–368-219">[186]</a> It developed east of the Carpathian mountains, south-eastern Central Europe, at around 3300–3200 BCE at the Dniestr river.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007349-220">[187]</a> Although closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Tripolye_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripolye culture">Tripolye culture</a>, it is contemporary with the Yamnaya culture, and resembles it in significant ways.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007359-221">[188]</a> According to Anthony, it may have originated with "steppe clans related to the Yamnaya horizon who were able to impose a patron-client relationship on Tripolye farming villages".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007359–360-222">[189]</a> According to Anthony, the Pre-Germanic dialects may have developed in this culture between the <a href="/wiki/Dniestr" class="mw-redirect" title="Dniestr">Dniestr</a> (west Ukraine) and the <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a> (Poland) at <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3100–2800 BCE, and spread with the Corded Ware culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007360,_368-202">[171]</a> Slavic and Baltic developed at the middle <a href="/wiki/Dniepr" class="mw-redirect" title="Dniepr">Dniepr</a> (present-day Ukraine)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007368,_380-7">[7]</a> at <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2800 BCE, spreading north from there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007101-56">[47]</a> Anthony (2017) relates the origins of the Corded Ware to the Yamnaya migrations into Hungary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2017-223">[190]</a> Between 3100 and 2800/2600 BCE, when the Yamnaya horizon spread fast across the Pontic Steppe, a real folk migration of Proto-Indo-European speakers from the Yamna-culture took place into the Danube Valley,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007345,_361–367-6">[6]</a> moving along Usatovo territory toward specific destinations, reaching as far as Hungary,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007361–362,_367-224">[191]</a> where as many as 3,000 kurgans may have been raised.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007362-225">[192]</a> According to Anthony (2007), <a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Beaker">Bell Beaker</a> sites at Budapest, dated <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2800–2600 BCE, may have aided in spreading Yamnaya dialects into Austria and southern Germany at their west, where Proto-Celtic may have developed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007367-201">[170]</a> Pre-Italic may have developed in Hungary, and spread toward Italy via the <a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007367-201">[170]</a> According to Parpola, this migration into the Danube Valley is related to the appearance of Indo-European speakers from Europe into Anatolia, and the appearance of Hittite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola201537–38-42">[35]</a> According to Lazaridis et al. (2022), the speakers of <a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan languages</a>, go back directly to the migration of <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a> steppe pastoralists into the Balkans about 5000 to 4500 years ago, admixting with the local populations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazaridisAlpaslan-Roodenberg20221,_10-226">[193]</a> Latin expanded after the Roman conquest of the Balkans, and in the early Middle Ages the territory was occupied by migrating Slavic people, and by east Asian steppe peoples. After the spread of Latin and Slavic, Albanian is the only surviving representative of the poorly attested ancient Balkan languages.<a href="#cite_note-Lazaridis_et_al.-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Corded_Ware_culture_(3000–2400_BCE)">Corded Ware culture (3000–2400 BCE)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Corded Ware culture (3000–2400 BCE)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware" class="mw-redirect" title="Corded Ware">Corded Ware</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TRB_culture_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/TRB_culture_map.png/220px-TRB_culture_map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/TRB_culture_map.png/330px-TRB_culture_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/TRB_culture_map.png/440px-TRB_culture_map.png 2x" data-file-width="491" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption>Extent of the Funnelbeaker culture (Trichterbecherkultur, TRB) <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 4300–2800 BCE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Corded_Ware_culture-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Map_Corded_Ware_culture-en.svg/220px-Map_Corded_Ware_culture-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Map_Corded_Ware_culture-en.svg/330px-Map_Corded_Ware_culture-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Map_Corded_Ware_culture-en.svg/440px-Map_Corded_Ware_culture-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1015" data-file-height="598" /></a><figcaption>Approximate extent of the Corded Ware horizon with adjacent third-millennium cultures (<a href="/wiki/Baden_culture" title="Baden culture">Baden culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Globular_Amphora_culture" title="Globular Amphora culture">Globular Amphora culture</a>; after <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">EIEC</a>)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded Ware culture</a> in Middle Europe (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3200<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997127-227">[194]</a> or 2,900<a href="#cite_note-Baldia06-10">[web 1]</a>–2450 or 2350 <a href="/wiki/Calibrated_years" class="mw-redirect" title="Calibrated years">cal.</a><a href="#cite_note-Baldia06-10">[web 1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997127-227">[194]</a> BCE) probably played an essential role in the origin and spread of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a> in Europe during the Copper and Bronze Ages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999108,_244–250-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007360-9">[9]</a> David Anthony states that "Childe (1953:133-38) and Gimbutas (1963) speculated that migrants from the steppe Yamnaya horizon (3300–2600 BCE) might have been the creators of the Corded Ware culture and carried IE languages into Europe from the steppes."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony201754-228">[195]</a> According to <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony (2007)</a>, the Corded Ware originated north-east of the Carpathian mountains, and spread across northern Europe after 3000 BCE, with an "initial rapid spread" between 2900 and 2700 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007367-201">[170]</a> While Anthony (2007) situates the development of pre-Germanic dialects east of the Carpathians, arguing for a migration up the Dniestr,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007360,_368-202">[171]</a> Anthony (2017) relates the origins of the Corded Ware to the early third century Yamna-migrations into the Danube-valley, stating that "[t]he migration stream that created these intrusive cemeteries now can be seen to have continued from eastern Hungary across the Carpathians into southern Poland, where the earliest material traits of the Corded ware horizon appeared."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony201758-229">[196]</a> In southern Poland, interaction between Scandinavian and Global Amphora resulted in a new culture, absorbed by the incoming Yamnaya pastoralists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony200758-230">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-231">[note 18]</a><a href="#cite_note-234">[note 19]</a> According to Mallory (1999), the Corded Ware culture may be postulated as "the common prehistoric ancestor of the later Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, and possibly some of the Indo-European languages of Italy". Yet, Mallory also notes that the Corded Ware can not account for Greek, Illyrian, Thracian and East Italic, which may be derived from Southeast Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999108-235">[200]</a> According to Anthony, the Corded Ware horizon may have introduced Germanic, Baltic and Slavic into northern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007367-201">[170]</a> According to Gimbutas, the Corded Ware culture was preceded by the <a href="/wiki/Globular_Amphora_culture" title="Globular Amphora culture">Globular Amphora culture</a> (3400–2800 BCE), which she also regarded to be an Indo-European culture. The Globular Amphora culture stretched from central Europe to the Baltic sea, and emerged from the <a href="/wiki/Funnelbeaker_culture" title="Funnelbeaker culture">Funnelbeaker culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1999250-236">[201]</a> According to Mallory, around 2400 BCE the people of the Corded Ware replaced their predecessors and expanded to Danubian and northern areas of western Germany. A related branch invaded the territories of present-day <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> and southern <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>. In places a continuity between Funnelbeaker and Corded Ware can be demonstrated, whereas in other areas Corded Ware heralds a new culture and physical type.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_94-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-94">[77]</a> According to Cunliffe, most of the expansion was clearly intrusive.<a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe-237">[202]</a> Yet, according to Furholt, the Corded Ware culture was an indigenous development,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony201754-228">[195]</a> connecting local developments into a larger network.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony201758-229">[196]</a> Recent research by Haak et al. found that four late Corded Ware people (2500–2300 BCE) buried at Esperstadt, Germany, were genetically very close to the Yamna-people, suggesting that a massive migration took place from the Eurasian steppes to Central Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaak2015-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-MPG_mass_migration-12">[web 2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nature_EC-13">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony201754_f.-238">[203]</a> According to Haak et al. (2015), German Corded Ware "trace ~75% of their ancestry to the Yamna."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaak20151-239">[204]</a> In supplementary information to Haak et al. (2015) Anthony, together with Lazaridis, Haak, Patterson, and Reich, notes that the mass migration of Yamnaya people to northern Europe shows that "the languages could have been introduced simply by strength of numbers: via major migration in which both sexes participated."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazaridisHaakPattersonAnthony2015136-240">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[note 20]</a> Volker Heyd has cautioned to be careful with drawing too strong conclusions from those genetic similarities between Corded Ware and Yamna, noting the small number of samples; the late dates of the Esperstadt graves, which could also have undergone Bell Beaker admixture; the presence of Yamna-ancestry in western Europe before the Danube-expansion; and the risks of extrapolating "the results from a handful of individual burials to whole ethnically interpreted populations."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeyd2017350-242">[206]</a> Heyd confirms the close connection between Corded Ware and Yamna, but also states that "neither a one-to-one translation from Yamnaya to CWC, nor even the 75:25 ratio as claimed (Haak et al. 2015:211) fits the archaeological record."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeyd2017350-242">[206]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bell_Beaker_culture_(2900–1800_BCE)">Bell Beaker culture (2900–1800 BCE)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Bell Beaker culture (2900–1800 BCE)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Beaker_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Beaker culture">Beaker culture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bellbeaker_map_europe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Bellbeaker_map_europe.jpg/220px-Bellbeaker_map_europe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Bellbeaker_map_europe.jpg/330px-Bellbeaker_map_europe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Bellbeaker_map_europe.jpg/440px-Bellbeaker_map_europe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="597" /></a><figcaption>Extent of the Beaker-culture</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beaker_culture_diffusion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Beaker_culture_diffusion.svg/220px-Beaker_culture_diffusion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Beaker_culture_diffusion.svg/330px-Beaker_culture_diffusion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Beaker_culture_diffusion.svg/440px-Beaker_culture_diffusion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="383" data-file-height="339" /></a><figcaption>Generalised distribution and movements of Bell-Beaker cultures<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPiggot1965101-243">[207]</a></figcaption></figure> The Bell Beaker-culture (c. 2900–1800 BCE<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley2007144-244">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-cunliffebeaker-245">[209]</a>) may be ancestral to proto-Celtic,<a href="#cite_note-246">[210]</a> which spread westward from the Alpine regions and formed a "North-west Indo-European" Sprachbund with Italic, Germanic and Balto-Slavic.<a href="#cite_note-Mallory_(2013)-247">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[note 21]</a> The initial moves of the Bell Beakers from the <a href="/wiki/Tagus_Estuary_Natural_Reserve" title="Tagus Estuary Natural Reserve">Tagus estuary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> were maritime. A southern move led to the Mediterranean where 'enclaves' were established in southwestern <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and southern <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> around the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Lion" title="Gulf of Lion">Golfe du Lion</a> and into the <a href="/wiki/Po_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Po valley">Po valley</a> in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, probably via ancient western Alpine trade routes used to distribute <a href="/wiki/Jadeite" title="Jadeite">jadeite</a> axes. A northern move incorporated the southern coast of <a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorica</a>. The enclave established in southern <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a> was linked closely to the riverine and landward route, via the <a href="/wiki/Loire" title="Loire">Loire</a>, and across the <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A2tinais" title="Gâtinais">Gâtinais</a> valley to the <a href="/wiki/Seine" title="Seine">Seine</a> valley, and thence to the lower <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>. This was a long-established route reflected in early stone axe distributions and it was via this network that Maritime Bell Beakers first reached the Lower Rhine in about 2600 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-cunliffebeaker-245">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germanic">Germanic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Germanic">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable collapsible collapsed floatright"> <tbody><tr> <th>Germanic origins and dispersal </th></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pre-roman_iron_age_(map).PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Pre-roman_iron_age_%28map%29.PNG/220px-Pre-roman_iron_age_%28map%29.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Pre-roman_iron_age_%28map%29.PNG/330px-Pre-roman_iron_age_%28map%29.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Pre-roman_iron_age_%28map%29.PNG/440px-Pre-roman_iron_age_%28map%29.PNG 2x" data-file-width="657" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age_in_Northern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe">pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe</a> showing cultures associated with Proto-Germanic, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500 BC. The area of the preceding <a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a> in <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> is shown in red; magenta areas towards the south represent the <a href="/wiki/Jastorf_culture" title="Jastorf culture">Jastorf culture</a> of the <a href="/wiki/North_German_Plain" title="North German Plain">North German Plain</a>.</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Germanic_tribes_(750BC-1AD).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png/220px-Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png/330px-Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png/440px-Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png 2x" data-file-width="537" data-file-height="376" /></a><figcaption>The expansion of the Germanic tribes 750 BC – AD 1 (after <a href="/wiki/The_Penguin_Atlas_of_World_History" title="The Penguin Atlas of World History">The Penguin Atlas of World History</a>, 1988): <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">   Settlements before 750 BC </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">   New settlements 750–500 BC</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">   New settlements 500–250 BC </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">   New settlements 250 BC – AD 1 </div> Some sources also give a date of 750 BC for the earliest expansion out of southern Scandinavia along the North Sea coast towards the mouth of the Rhine.<a href="#cite_note-EB-250">[213]</a></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oksywie_Wielbark_Przeworsk.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Oksywie_Wielbark_Przeworsk.gif/220px-Oksywie_Wielbark_Przeworsk.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Oksywie_Wielbark_Przeworsk.gif/330px-Oksywie_Wielbark_Przeworsk.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Oksywie_Wielbark_Przeworsk.gif/440px-Oksywie_Wielbark_Przeworsk.gif 2x" data-file-width="830" data-file-height="626" /></a><figcaption>The early <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="East Germanic">East Germanic</a> expansion (1st and 2nd centuries AD): <a href="/wiki/Jastorf_culture" title="Jastorf culture">Jastorf culture</a> (blue), <a href="/wiki/Oksywie_culture" title="Oksywie culture">Oksywie culture</a> (red), <a href="/wiki/Przeworsk_culture" title="Przeworsk culture">Przeworsk culture</a> (yellow/orange); eastward expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Wielbark_culture" title="Wielbark culture">Wielbark culture</a> (light-red/orange).</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></div> The Germanic peoples (also called <a href="/wiki/Theodiscus" title="Theodiscus">Teutonic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gaut" title="Gaut">Gothic</a> in older literature)<a href="#cite_note-251">[214]</a> were an <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Indo-European</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">ethno-linguistic</a> group of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern European</a> origin, identified by their use of the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a> which diversified out of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> starting during the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman Iron Age">Pre-Roman Iron Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EB_Germanic_Peoples-252">[web 14]</a> According to Mallory, Germanicists "generally agree" that the <a href="/wiki/Urheimat" class="mw-redirect" title="Urheimat">Urheimat</a> ('original homeland') of the Proto-Germanic language, the ancestral idiom of all attested Germanic dialects, was primarily situated in an area corresponding to the extent of the <a href="/wiki/Jastorf_culture" title="Jastorf culture">Jastorf culture</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory198989-253">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolomé199251-254">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERinge200685-255">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-256">[note 22]</a> situated in Denmark and northern Germany.<a href="#cite_note-257">[218]</a> According to Herrin, the Germanic peoples are believed to have emerged about 1800 BCE with the <a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1700-500 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-EB_Aubin-258">[web 15]</a> The Nordic Bronze Age developed from the absorption of the hunter-gatherer <a href="/wiki/Pitted_Ware_culture" title="Pitted Ware culture">Pitted Ware culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3500-2300 BCE) into the agricultural <a href="/wiki/Battle_Axe_culture" title="Battle Axe culture">Battle Axe culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2800-2300 BCE),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil1997431–435-259">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas1992295-260">[220]</a> which in turn developed from the superimposition of the <a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded Ware culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3100-2350 BCE) upon the <a href="/wiki/Funnelbeaker_culture" title="Funnelbeaker culture">Funnelbeaker culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 4300-2800 BCE) on the <a href="/wiki/North_European_Plain" title="North European Plain">North European Plain</a>, adjacent to the north of the <a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture" title="Bell Beaker culture">Bell Beaker culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2800–2300 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-EB_Aubin-258">[web 15]</a> Pre-Germanic may have been related to the Slavo-Baltic and Indo-Iranian languages, but reoriented towards the Italo-Celtic languages.<a href="#cite_note-Koch_2018-261">[web 16]</a> By the early 1st millennium BC, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> is believed to have been spoken in the areas of present-day <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Germany" title="Northern Germany">Northern Germany</a>. Over time this area was expanded to include and a strip of land on the North European plain stretching from <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a>. Around 28% of the Germanic vocabulary is of non-Indo-European origin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997218–223-262">[221]</a> By the 3rd century BC, the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman Iron Age">Pre-Roman Iron Age</a> arose among the Germanic peoples, who were at the time expanding southwards at the expense of the <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EB_Germanic-263">[web 17]</a> During the subsequent centuries, migrating Germanic peoples reached the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> border, and also expanded into the territories of Iranian peoples north of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EB_Rome-264">[web 18]</a> In the late 4th century, the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a> invaded the Germanic territories from the east, forcing many Germanic tribes to migrate into the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EB_Germany-265">[web 19]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a>, which began in the 8th century, the North Germanic peoples of <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> migrated throughout Europe, establishing settlements as far as <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>. The migrations of the Germanic peoples in the 1st millennium were a formative element in the distribution of peoples in modern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-EB_Aubin-258">[web 15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italo-Celtic">Italo-Celtic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Italo-Celtic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Italo-Celtic" title="Italo-Celtic">Italo-Celtic</a></div> Italic and Celtic languages are commonly grouped together on the basis of features shared by these two branches and no others. This could imply that they are descended from a common ancestor and/or Proto-Celtic and Proto-Italic developed in close proximity over a long period of time. The Italic languages, like Celtic ones, are split into <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages#Continental/Insular_Celtic_and_P/Q-Celtic_hypotheses" title="Celtic languages">P and Q forms</a>: P-Italic includes <a href="/wiki/Oscan_language" title="Oscan language">Oscan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umbrian_language" title="Umbrian language">Umbrian</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Faliscan_language" title="Faliscan language">Faliscan</a> are included in the Q-Italic branch.<a href="#cite_note-266">[222]</a> The link to the Yamnaya-culture, in the contact zone of western and central Europe between Rhine and <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a> (Poland),<a href="#cite_note-267">[223]</a> is as follows: Yamnaya culture (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3300–2600 BC) – <a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded Ware culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3100–2350 BCE) – <a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture" title="Bell Beaker culture">Bell Beaker culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2800–1800 BC) – <a href="/wiki/Unetice_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Unetice culture">Unetice culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2300–1680 BCE) – <a href="/wiki/Tumulus_culture" title="Tumulus culture">Tumulus culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1600–1200 BCE) – <a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1300–750 BCE). At the Balkan, the <a href="/wiki/Vu%C4%8Dedol_culture" title="Vučedol culture">Vučedol culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3000–2200 BCE) formed a contact zone between post-Yamnaya and Bell Beaker culture. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italic">Italic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Italic">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Latin_Europe.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Latin_Europe.png/220px-Latin_Europe.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Latin_Europe.png/330px-Latin_Europe.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Latin_Europe.png/440px-Latin_Europe.png 2x" data-file-width="1187" data-file-height="1103" /></a><figcaption>Romance languages in Europe</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a></div> The Italic languages are a subfamily of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> language family originally spoken by <a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a>. They include the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> derived from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sardinian_language" title="Sardinian language">Sardinian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan</a>, etc.); a number of <a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">extinct languages</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian Peninsula</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Umbrian_language" title="Umbrian language">Umbrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oscan_language" title="Oscan language">Oscan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faliscan_language" title="Faliscan language">Faliscan</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Picene_language" title="South Picene language">South Picene</a>; and Latin itself. At present, Latin and its daughter Romance languages are the only surviving languages of the Italic language family. The most widely accepted theory suggests that Latins and other proto-Italic tribes first entered in Italy with the late Bronze Age <a href="/wiki/Proto-Villanovan_culture" title="Proto-Villanovan culture">Proto-Villanovan culture</a> (12th–10th cent. BCE), then part of the central European <a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture</a> system (1300–750 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-Cornell_1995_44-268">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-269">[225]</a> In particular various authors, like <a href="/wiki/Marija_Gimbutas" title="Marija Gimbutas">Marija Gimbutas</a>, had noted important similarities between Proto-Villanova, the <a href="/wiki/South-German_Urnfield_culture" title="South-German Urnfield culture">South-German Urnfield culture</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>-<a href="/wiki/Upper_Austria" title="Upper Austria">Upper Austria</a><a href="#cite_note-Gimbutas-270">[226]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle-Danube_Urnfield_culture" title="Middle-Danube Urnfield culture">Middle-Danube Urnfield culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gimbutas-270">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-272">[228]</a> According to David W. Anthony, proto-Latins originated in today's eastern <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>, kurganized around 3100 BCE by the <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Anthony-273">[229]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Kristian_Kristiansen_(archaeologist)" title="Kristian Kristiansen (archaeologist)">Kristian Kristiansen</a> associated the Proto-Villanovans with the Velatice-Baierdorf culture of <a href="/wiki/Moravia" title="Moravia">Moravia</a> and Austria.<a href="#cite_note-274">[230]</a> Today the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, which comprise all languages that descended from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, are spoken by more than 800 million native speakers worldwide, mainly in the Americas, Europe, and Africa. Romance languages are either official, co-official, or significantly used in 72 countries around the globe.<a href="#cite_note-275">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-276">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-277">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-278">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-279">[235]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Celtic">Celtic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Celtic">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Celts_in_Europe.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Celts_in_Europe.png/220px-Celts_in_Europe.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Celts_in_Europe.png/330px-Celts_in_Europe.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Celts_in_Europe.png/440px-Celts_in_Europe.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="314" /></a><figcaption>Diachronic distribution of Celtic peoples: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  core <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt</a> territory, by the 6th century BCE</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  maximal Celtic expansion, by 275 BCE</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Lusitanians" title="Lusitanians">Lusitanian</a> area of Iberia where Celtic presence is uncertain</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  the six <a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Celtic nations</a> which retained significant numbers of Celtic speakers into the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early Modern period</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  areas where <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a> remain widely spoken today</div></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Beaker_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Beaker culture">Beaker culture</a></div> The Celts (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈkɛlts/</a>, occasionally <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈsɛlts/</a>, see <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pronunciation of Celtic">pronunciation of Celtic</a>) or Kelts were an <a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">ethnolinguistic</a> group of <a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribal</a> societies in <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Medieval</a> Europe who spoke <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a> and had a similar culture,<a href="#cite_note-280">[236]</a> although the relationship between the ethnic, linguistic and cultural elements remains uncertain and controversial. The earliest archaeological culture that may justifiably be considered <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Celtic">Proto-Celtic</a> is the Late Bronze Age <a href="/wiki/Urnfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Urnfield">Urnfield</a> culture of Central Europe, which flourished from around 1200 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-ChadCorc-281">[237]</a> Their fully Celtic<a href="#cite_note-ChadCorc-281">[237]</a> descendants in central Europe were the people of the Iron Age <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 800–450 BCE) named for the rich grave finds in <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt" title="Hallstatt">Hallstatt</a>, Austria.<a href="#cite_note-282">[238]</a> By the later <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène</a> period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 450 BCE up to the Roman conquest), this Celtic culture had expanded by <a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">diffusion</a> or <a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">migration</a> to the British Isles (<a href="/wiki/Insular_Celts" title="Insular Celts">Insular Celts</a>), France and <a href="/wiki/The_Low_Countries" class="mw-redirect" title="The Low Countries">The Low Countries</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a>), <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, Poland and much of Central Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> (<a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celtici" title="Celtici">Celtici</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gallaeci" title="Gallaeci">Gallaeci</a>) and Italy (<a href="/wiki/Golasecca_culture" title="Golasecca culture">Golaseccans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lepontii" title="Lepontii">Lepontii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ligures" title="Ligures">Ligures</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gauls</a>)<a href="#cite_note-koch2010_core-283">[239]</a> and, following the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_invasion_of_the_Balkans" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallic invasion of the Balkans">Gallic invasion of the Balkans</a> in 279 BCE, as far east as central <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatians</a>).<a href="#cite_note-koch2010_expansion-284">[240]</a> The Celtic languages (usually <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pronunciation of Celtic">pronounced</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈkɛltɪk/</a> but sometimes <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈsɛltɪk/</a>)<a href="#cite_note-285">[241]</a> are descended from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a>, or "Common Celtic"; a branch of the greater <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language family</a>. The term "Celtic" was first used to describe this language group by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Lhuyd" title="Edward Lhuyd">Edward Lhuyd</a> in 1707.<a href="#cite_note-286">[242]</a> Modern Celtic languages are mostly spoken on the northwestern edge of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, notably in <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a>, and can be found spoken on <a href="/wiki/Cape_Breton_Island" title="Cape Breton Island">Cape Breton Island</a>. There are also a substantial number of <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> speakers in the Patagonia area of Argentina. Some people speak Celtic languages in the other <a href="/wiki/Celtic_diaspora_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Celtic diaspora (disambiguation)">Celtic diaspora</a> areas of the United States,<a href="#cite_note-mla-287">[243]</a> Canada, Australia,<a href="#cite_note-288">[244]</a> and New Zealand.<a href="#cite_note-289">[245]</a> In all these areas, the Celtic languages are now only spoken by minorities though there are continuing efforts at <a href="/wiki/Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">revitalization</a>. Welsh is the only Celtic language not classified as "endangered" by <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>. During the 1st millennium BCE, they were spoken across much of Europe, in the Iberian Peninsula, from the Atlantic and <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> coastlines, up to the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> valley and down the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> valley to the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">northern Balkan Peninsula</a> and in central <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>. The spread to Cape Breton and Patagonia occurred in modern times. Celtic languages, particularly Irish, were spoken in Australia before federation in 1901 and are still used there to some extent.<a href="#cite_note-290">[246]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Balto-Slavic">Balto-Slavic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Balto-Slavic">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Balto-Slavic_lng.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Balto-Slavic_lng.png/220px-Balto-Slavic_lng.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Balto-Slavic_lng.png/330px-Balto-Slavic_lng.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Balto-Slavic_lng.png/440px-Balto-Slavic_lng.png 2x" data-file-width="1031" data-file-height="783" /></a><figcaption>Area of Balto-Slavic dialectic continuum (purple) with proposed material cultures correlating to speakers Balto-Slavic in Bronze Age (white). Red dots indicate archaic Slavic hydronyms.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Slavic">Proto-Slavic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languages" title="Balto-Slavic languages">Balto-Slavic languages</a></div> The Balto-Slavic language group traditionally comprises the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a>, belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European family</a> of languages. Baltic and Slavic languages share several linguistic traits not found in any other Indo-European branch, which points to a period of common development. Most Indo-Europeanists classify Baltic and Slavic languages into a single branch, even though some details of the nature of their relationship remain in dispute<a href="#cite_note-291">[note 23]</a> in some circles, usually due to political controversies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson,_IV2011414-292">[247]</a> As an alternative to the model of a binary split into Slavic and Baltic, some linguists suggest that Balto-Slavic should be split into three equidistant nodes: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Baltic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Baltic languages">Eastern Baltic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Baltic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Baltic languages">Western Baltic</a> and Slavic.<a href="#cite_note-293">[note 24]</a><a href="#cite_note-294">[note 25]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic language">Proto-Balto-Slavic language</a> is reconstructable by the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a>, descending from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> by means of well-defined <a href="/wiki/Sound_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound law">sound laws</a>, and out of which modern Slavic and Baltic languages descended. One particularly innovative dialect separated from the Balto-Slavic dialect continuum and became ancestral to the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Slavic">Proto-Slavic</a> language, from which all Slavic languages descended.<a href="#cite_note-enc-295">[248]</a> Some linguists, however, reject the Balto-Slavic theory, believing that Baltic and Slavic languages evolved independently from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Baltic_language" title="Proto-Baltic language">Proto-Baltic</a> and Proto-Slavic respectively.<a href="#cite_note-:0-296">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-297">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-298">[251]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:East_europe_3-4cc.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/East_europe_3-4cc.png/220px-East_europe_3-4cc.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/East_europe_3-4cc.png/330px-East_europe_3-4cc.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/East_europe_3-4cc.png/440px-East_europe_3-4cc.png 2x" data-file-width="3935" data-file-height="3033" /></a><figcaption>Eastern Europe in 3rd–4th century CE with archaeological cultures identified as Baltic-speaking in purple. Their area extended from the Baltic Sea to modern Moscow.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Balts">Balts</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Balts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Balts</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baltic_river_names.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Baltic_river_names.jpg/220px-Baltic_river_names.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Baltic_river_names.jpg/330px-Baltic_river_names.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Baltic_river_names.jpg/440px-Baltic_river_names.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1677" data-file-height="1177" /></a><figcaption>Map of the area of distribution of <a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a> <a href="/wiki/Hydronyms" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydronyms">hydronyms</a>. This area is considered the <a href="/wiki/Urheimat" class="mw-redirect" title="Urheimat">Urheimat</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Balts</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Balts or Baltic peoples (<a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>: baltai, <a href="/wiki/Latvian_language" title="Latvian language">Latvian</a>: balti) are an <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Indo-European</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">ethno-linguistic</a> group who speak the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic languages</a>, a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European language</a> family, which was originally spoken by tribes living in the area east of the <a href="/wiki/Jutland" title="Jutland">Jutland</a> peninsula in the west and west of <a href="/wiki/Moscow_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow River">Moscow</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Oka_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Oka River">Oka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volga" title="Volga">Volga</a> rivers basins in the east. One of the features of Baltic languages is the number of conservative or archaic features retained.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBojtár199918-299">[252]</a> Among the Baltic peoples are modern <a href="/wiki/Lithuanians" title="Lithuanians">Lithuanians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvians" title="Latvians">Latvians</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Latgalians_(modern)" title="Latgalians (modern)">Latgalians</a>) – all Eastern Balts – as well as the <a href="/wiki/Old_Prussians" title="Old Prussians">Old Prussians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yotvingians" title="Yotvingians">Yotvingians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galindians" title="Galindians">Galindians</a> – the Western Balts – whose people also survived, but their languages and cultures are now extinct, and are now being assimilated into the Eastern Baltic community.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness">vague</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Slavs">Slavs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Slavs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a></div> The Slavs are an <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Indo-European</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">ethno-linguistic</a> group living in <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">Southeast Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, who speak the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a>, and share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds. From the early 6th century they spread to inhabit most of <a href="/wiki/Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Central and Eastern Europe">Central and Eastern Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">Southeast Europe</a>. Slavic groups also ventured as far as Scandinavia, constituting elements amongst the Vikings;<a href="#cite_note-300">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-301">[note 26]</a> whilst at the other geographic extreme, Slavic mercenaries fighting for the Byzantines and Arabs settled Asia Minor and even as far as Syria.<a href="#cite_note-302">[254]</a> Later, <a href="/wiki/East_Slavs" title="East Slavs">East Slavs</a> (specifically, Russians and Ukrainians) colonized <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a><a href="#cite_note-theglobalist-303">[255]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bbc-304">[256]</a> Every Slavic ethnicity has emigrated to other parts of the world.<a href="#cite_note-independent-305">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-newadvent-306">[258]</a> Over half of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>'s territory is inhabited by Slavic-speaking communities.<a href="#cite_note-barford-307">[259]</a> Modern nations and ethnic groups called by the <a href="/wiki/Ethnonym" title="Ethnonym">ethnonym</a> Slavs are considerably diverse both genetically and culturally, and relations between them – even within the individual ethnic groups themselves – are varied, ranging from a sense of connection to mutual feelings of hostility.<a href="#cite_note-Bideleux-308">[260]</a> Present-day Slavic people are classified into <a href="/wiki/East_Slavs" title="East Slavs">East Slavic</a> (chiefly <a href="/wiki/Belarusians" title="Belarusians">Belarusians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainians</a>), <a href="/wiki/West_Slavs" title="West Slavs">West Slavic</a> (chiefly <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Poles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czechs" title="Czechs">Czechs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovaks" title="Slovaks">Slovaks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wends" title="Wends">Wends</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sorbs" title="Sorbs">Sorbs</a>), and <a href="/wiki/South_Slavs" title="South Slavs">South Slavic</a> (chiefly <a href="/wiki/Bosniaks" title="Bosniaks">Bosniaks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgarians" title="Bulgarians">Bulgarians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Croats" title="Croats">Croats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gorani_people" title="Gorani people">Goranis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macedonians_(ethnic_group)" title="Macedonians (ethnic group)">Macedonians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montenegrins_(ethnic_group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Montenegrins (ethnic group)">Montenegrins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbs" title="Serbs">Serbs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slovenes" title="Slovenes">Slovenes</a>).<a href="#cite_note-EB_Slav-309">[web 20]</a> For a more comprehensive list, see the <a href="#Ethnocultural_subdivisions">ethnocultural subdivisions</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Balkan_languages">Balkan languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Balkan languages">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thracian_and_Dacian">Thracian and Dacian</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Thracian and Dacian">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Thracian">Thracian</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Thracian">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thracian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Thracian languages">Thracian languages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dacia_82_BC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Dacia_82_BC.png/220px-Dacia_82_BC.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Dacia_82_BC.png 1.5x" data-file-width="306" data-file-height="246" /></a><figcaption>Dacia during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Burebista" title="Burebista">Burebista</a></figcaption></figure> The Thracian language was the Indo-European language spoken in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">Southeast Europe</a> by the Thracians, the northern neighbors of the Greeks. Some authors group Thracian and <a href="/wiki/Dacian_language" title="Dacian language">Dacian</a> into a southern <a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a> linguistic family.<a href="#cite_note-310">[261]</a> The Thracians inhabited a large area in <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern Europe">southeastern Europe</a>,<a href="#cite_note-311">[262]</a> including parts of the ancient provinces of <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moesia" title="Moesia">Moesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)" title="Macedonia (Roman province)">Macedonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dacia" title="Dacia">Dacia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scythia_Minor_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Scythia Minor (Roman province)">Scythia Minor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarmatia" title="Sarmatia">Sarmatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mysia" title="Mysia">Mysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pannonia" title="Pannonia">Pannonia</a>, and other regions of the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>. This area extended over most of the Balkans region, and the <a href="/wiki/Getae" title="Getae">Getae</a> north of the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> as far as beyond the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Bug" title="Southern Bug">Bug</a> and including Panonia in the west.<a href="#cite_note-312">[263]</a> The origins of the Thracians remain obscure, in the absence of written historical records. Evidence of proto-Thracians in the prehistoric period depends on artifacts of <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a>. <a href="/wiki/Leo_Klejn" title="Leo Klejn">Leo Klejn</a> identifies proto-Thracians with the <a href="/wiki/Multi-cordoned_ware_culture" title="Multi-cordoned ware culture">multi-cordoned ware culture</a> that was pushed away from Ukraine by the advancing <a href="/wiki/Timber_grave_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber grave culture">timber grave culture</a>. It is generally proposed that a proto-Thracian people developed from a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">indigenous peoples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Indo-Europeans</a> from the time of Proto-Indo-European expansion in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Bronze Age">Early Bronze Age</a><a href="#cite_note-Hoddinott,_p._27-313">[264]</a> when the latter, around 1500 BCE, mixed with indigenous peoples.<a href="#cite_note-Casson,_p._3-314">[265]</a> We speak of proto-Thracians from which during the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a><a href="#cite_note-315">[266]</a> (about 1000 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Dacians" title="Dacians">Dacians</a> and Thracians begin developing. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Dacian">Dacian</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Dacian">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dacians" title="Dacians">Dacians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dacian_language" title="Dacian language">Dacian language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dacia_around_60-44_BC_during_Burebista,_including_campaigns_-_French.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dacia_around_60-44_BC_during_Burebista%2C_including_campaigns_-_French.png/220px-Dacia_around_60-44_BC_during_Burebista%2C_including_campaigns_-_French.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dacia_around_60-44_BC_during_Burebista%2C_including_campaigns_-_French.png/330px-Dacia_around_60-44_BC_during_Burebista%2C_including_campaigns_-_French.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dacia_around_60-44_BC_during_Burebista%2C_including_campaigns_-_French.png/440px-Dacia_around_60-44_BC_during_Burebista%2C_including_campaigns_-_French.png 2x" data-file-width="2901" data-file-height="1866" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Dacia" title="Dacia">Dacia</a>, 1st century BCE</figcaption></figure> The Dacians (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈdeɪʃənz/</a>; <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Daci, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: Δάκοι,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrabo2014VII_3,12-316">[267]</a> Δάοι,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrabo2014VII_3,12-316">[267]</a> Δάκαι<a href="#cite_note-317">[268]</a>) were an <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European people">Indo-European people</a>, part of or related to the <a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a>. Dacians were the ancient inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Dacia" title="Dacia">Dacia</a>, located in the area in and around the <a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains" title="Carpathian Mountains">Carpathian Mountains</a> and west of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>. This area includes the present-day countries of <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moldova" title="Moldova">Moldova</a>, as well as parts of <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENandris1976731-318">[269]</a> <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Banovina" class="mw-redirect" title="Moravian Banovina">Eastern Serbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Bulgaria" title="Northern Bulgaria">Northern Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHusovská1998187-319">[270]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> and Southern <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENandris1976731-318">[269]</a> The Dacians spoke the <a href="/wiki/Dacian_language" title="Dacian language">Dacian language</a>, believed to have been closely related to <a href="/wiki/Thracian_language" title="Thracian language">Thracian</a>, but were somewhat culturally influenced by the neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a> and by the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_invasion_of_the_Balkans" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic invasion of the Balkans">Celtic invaders of the 4th century BCE</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EB_Dacia-320">[web 21]</a> The Dacians and Getae were always considered as Thracians by the ancients (Dio Cassius, Trogus Pompeius, <a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a>, Strabo and Pliny the Elder), and were both said to speak the same Thracian language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreptow199610-321">[271]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis186170-322">[272]</a> Evidence of proto-Thracians or proto-Dacians in the prehistoric period depends on the remains of <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a>. It is generally proposed that a proto-Dacian or proto-Thracian people developed from a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">indigenous peoples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Indo-Europeans</a> from the time of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-European</a> expansion in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Bronze Age">Early Bronze Age</a> (3,300–3,000 BCE)<a href="#cite_note-Hoddinott,_p._27-313">[264]</a> when the latter, around 1500 BCE, conquered the indigenous peoples.<a href="#cite_note-Casson,_p._3-314">[265]</a> The indigenous people were Danubian farmers, and the invading people of the 3rd millennium BCE were Kurgan warrior-herders from the Ukrainian and Russian steppes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMountain199858-323">[273]</a> Indo-Europeanization was complete by the beginning of the Bronze Age. The people of that time are best described as proto-Thracians, which later developed in the Iron Age into Danubian-Carpathian Geto-Dacians as well as Thracians of the eastern Balkan Peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDumitrescuBoardmanHammondKollberger198253-324">[274]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Illyrian">Illyrian</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Illyrian">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Illyrian languages">Illyrian languages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illyrians_Ethnogenesis_Theories_(English).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Illyrians_Ethnogenesis_Theories_%28English%29.jpg/220px-Illyrians_Ethnogenesis_Theories_%28English%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Illyrians_Ethnogenesis_Theories_%28English%29.jpg/330px-Illyrians_Ethnogenesis_Theories_%28English%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Illyrians_Ethnogenesis_Theories_%28English%29.jpg/440px-Illyrians_Ethnogenesis_Theories_%28English%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1586" data-file-height="1584" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ethnogenesis" title="Ethnogenesis">Ethnogenesis</a> of the Illyrians</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illyrian_colonies_in_Italy_550_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Illyrian_colonies_in_Italy_550_BCE.jpg/220px-Illyrian_colonies_in_Italy_550_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Illyrian_colonies_in_Italy_550_BCE.jpg/330px-Illyrian_colonies_in_Italy_550_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Illyrian_colonies_in_Italy_550_BCE.jpg/440px-Illyrian_colonies_in_Italy_550_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="579" /></a><figcaption>Illyrian colonisation of Italy, 9th century BCE<a href="#cite_note-325">[275]</a></figcaption></figure> The Illyrians (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: Ἰλλυριοί, Illyrioi; <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Illyrii or Illyri) were a group of Indo-European tribes in <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">antiquity</a>, who inhabited part of the western <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> and the southeastern coasts of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_peninsula" title="Italian peninsula">Italian peninsula</a> (<a href="/wiki/Messapii" class="mw-redirect" title="Messapii">Messapia</a>).<a href="#cite_note-326">[276]</a> The territory the Illyrians inhabited came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman</a> authors, who identified a territory that corresponds to the <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a>, part of <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> and most of <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a>, between the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic Sea</a> in the west, the <a href="/wiki/Drava" title="Drava">Drava</a> river in the north, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Morava" title="Great Morava">Morava</a> river in the east and the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Aoos" class="mw-redirect" title="Aoos">Aoos</a> river in the south.<a href="#cite_note-327">[277]</a> The first account of Illyrian peoples comes from the <a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_Pseudo-Scylax" title="Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax">Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax</a>, an ancient Greek text of the middle of the 4th century BCE that describes coastal passages in the Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-328">[278]</a> These tribes, or at least a <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_tribes_in_Illyria" title="List of ancient tribes in Illyria">number of tribes</a> considered "Illyrians proper", of which only small fragments are attested enough to classify as branches of <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a>.<a href="#cite_note-329">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-330">[280]</a> The name "Illyrians", as applied by the ancient <a href="/wiki/Greek_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek people">Greeks</a> to their northern neighbors, may have referred to a broad, ill-defined group of peoples, and it is today unclear to what extent they were linguistically and culturally homogeneous. The Illyrian tribes never collectively regarded themselves as 'Illyrians', and it is unlikely that they used any collective nomenclature for themselves.<a href="#cite_note-331">[281]</a> The name Illyrians seems to be the name applied to a specific Illyrian tribe, which was the first to come in contact with the ancient Greeks during the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Boardman629-332">[282]</a> causing the name Illyrians to be applied to all people of similar language and customs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkes199592-333">[283]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Albanian">Albanian</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Albanian">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian language</a></div> Albanian (shqip <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Albanian" title="Help:IPA/Albanian">[ʃcip]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gjuha_shqipe" class="mw-redirect" title="Gjuha shqipe">gjuha shqipe</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Albanian" title="Help:IPA/Albanian">[ˈɟuha ˈʃcipɛ]</a>, meaning Albanian language) is an <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European language</a> spoken by approximately 7.4 million people, primarily in <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kosovo" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Macedonia" title="North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, but also in other areas of the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> in which there is an Albanian population, including <a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presevo_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Presevo Valley">Presevo Valley</a>). Centuries-old communities speaking Albanian-based dialects can be found scattered in <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-334">[284]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-335">[285]</a> As a result of a modern <a href="/wiki/Diaspora" title="Diaspora">diaspora</a>, there are also Albanian speakers elsewhere in those countries and in other parts of the world, including <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. The earliest written document that mentions the Albanian language is a late 13th-century crime report from <a href="/wiki/Dubrovnik" title="Dubrovnik">Dubrovnik</a>. The first audio recording of the Albanian language was made by <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Jokl" title="Norbert Jokl">Norbert Jokl</a> on 4 April 1914 in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Elsie2010-336">[286]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Armenian,_Greek_and_Phrygian">Armenian, Greek and Phrygian</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Armenian, Greek and Phrygian">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Armenian">Armenian</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Armenian">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a></div> The Armenian language was first put into writing in 406 or 407AD when a priest known as <a href="/wiki/Mesrop_Mashtots" title="Mesrop Mashtots">Mesrop</a> developed an Armenian alphabet. There are three views amongst scholars about how speakers of Armenian came to be in what is now Armenia. One is that they came with the Phrygians from the west, and took over from the non-Indo-European speaking <a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartians</a>, who were previously dominant in this area. Another view is that the Armenian people came to speak an Indo-European language after originally speaking a Caucasian language. The third, and most prominent view is that the ancestor of the Armenian language was already spoken in the area during the time when it was politically dominated first by the <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a>, and later by the Urartians,<a href="#cite_note-337">[287]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hayasa-Azzi" title="Hayasa-Azzi">Hayasa-Azzi</a> confederation is considered by some to have spoken <a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Petrosyan2007-338">[288]</a> A minority view also suggests that the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_origins" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European origins">Indo-European homeland</a> may have been located in the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Highland" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian Highland">Armenian Highland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-339">[289]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hellenic_Greek">Hellenic Greek</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Hellenic Greek">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proto_Greek_Area_reconstruction.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Proto_Greek_Area_reconstruction.png/220px-Proto_Greek_Area_reconstruction.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Proto_Greek_Area_reconstruction.png/330px-Proto_Greek_Area_reconstruction.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Proto_Greek_Area_reconstruction.png/440px-Proto_Greek_Area_reconstruction.png 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="380" /></a><figcaption>A reconstruction of the third-millennium BCE "Proto-Greek area", according to Bulgarian linguist <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_I._Georgiev" title="Vladimir I. Georgiev">Vladimir Georgiev</a>.<a href="#cite_note-340">[290]</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek">Mycenaean Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Greek">Proto-Greek</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a></div> Hellenic is the branch of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_language_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European language family">Indo-European language family</a> that includes the different varieties of <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>.<a href="#cite_note-341">[291]</a> In traditional classifications, Hellenic consists of Greek alone,<a href="#cite_note-Browning-342">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-JosephPhilippaki-343">[293]</a> but some linguists group Greek together with various ancient languages thought to have been closely related or distinguish varieties of Greek that are distinct enough to be considered separate languages.<a href="#cite_note-BJoseph-344">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-345">[295]</a> The Proto-Greeks, who spoke the predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek">Mycenaean language</a>, are mostly placed in the <a href="/wiki/Helladic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Helladic period">Early Helladic</a> period in Greece (early 3rd millennium BCE; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3200 BCE) towards the end of the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic</a> in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Southern Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-346">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-347">[297]</a> In the late Neolithic, speakers of this dialect, which would become Proto-Greek, migrated from their homeland northeast of the Black Sea to the Balkans and into the Greek peninsula. The evolution of Proto-Greek could be considered within the context of an early <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan</a> <a href="/wiki/Sprachbund" title="Sprachbund">sprachbund</a> that makes it difficult to delineate exact boundaries between individual languages.<a href="#cite_note-348">[298]</a> The characteristically Greek representation of word-initial <a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_theory" title="Laryngeal theory">laryngeals</a> by <a href="/wiki/Prothesis_(linguistics)" title="Prothesis (linguistics)">prothetic vowels</a> is shared, for one, by the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian language</a>, which also seems to share some other phonological and morphological peculiarities of Greek; this has led some linguists to propose a <a href="/wiki/Graeco-Armenian" title="Graeco-Armenian">hypothetically closer relationship between Greek and Armenian</a>, although evidence remains scant.<a href="#cite_note-349">[299]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phrygian">Phrygian</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Phrygian">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Phrygians" title="Phrygians">Phrygians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Anatolia_ancient_regions-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Map_Anatolia_ancient_regions-en.svg/220px-Map_Anatolia_ancient_regions-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Map_Anatolia_ancient_regions-en.svg/330px-Map_Anatolia_ancient_regions-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Map_Anatolia_ancient_regions-en.svg/440px-Map_Anatolia_ancient_regions-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="921" data-file-height="596" /></a><figcaption>Location of Phrygia in Anatolia</figcaption></figure> The Phrygians (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">gr.</a> Φρύγες, Phrúges or Phrýges) were an ancient Indo-European people, who established their kingdom with a capital eventually at <a href="/wiki/Gordium" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordium">Gordium</a>. It is presently unknown whether the Phrygians were actively involved in the collapse of the Hittite capital <a href="/wiki/Hattusa" title="Hattusa">Hattusa</a> or whether they simply moved into the vacuum left by the collapse of Hittite hegemony after the <a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a>. The Phrygian language <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈfrɪdʒiən/</a> was the language spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Phrygians" title="Phrygians">Phrygians</a> in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> during <a href="/wiki/Classical_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 8th century BCE to 5th century CE). Phrygian is considered by some linguists to have been <a href="/wiki/Graeco-Phrygian" title="Graeco-Phrygian">closely related</a> to <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brixhe_pp._165-178-350">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-351">[301]</a> The similarity of some Phrygian words to Greek ones was observed by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a> (410a). However, <a href="/wiki/Eric_P._Hamp" title="Eric P. Hamp">Eric P. Hamp</a> suggests that Phrygian was related to <a href="/wiki/Italo-Celtic" title="Italo-Celtic">Italo-Celtic</a> in a hypothetical "Northwest Indo-European" group.<a href="#cite_note-Hamp-352">[302]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, the Phrygians were initially dwelling in the southern <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> under the name of <a href="/wiki/Bryges" title="Bryges">Bryges</a> (Briges), changing it to Phruges after their final migration to <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, via the <a href="/wiki/Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellespont">Hellespont</a>. Though the migration theory is still defended by many modern historians, most archaeologists have abandoned the migration hypothesis regarding the origin of the Phrygians due to a lack substantial archaeological evidence, with the migration theory resting only on the accounts of <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xanthus_(historian)" title="Xanthus (historian)">Xanthus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-353">[303]</a> From tribal and village beginnings, the state of <a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a> arose in the eighth century BCE with its capital at <a href="/wiki/Gordium" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordium">Gordium</a>. During this period, the Phrygians extended eastward and encroached upon the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a>, a former rival of the Hittites. Meanwhile, the Phrygian Kingdom was overwhelmed by <a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerian</a> invaders around 690 BCE, then briefly conquered by its neighbour <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a>, before it passed successively into the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian Empire</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">empire</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">successors</a>, was taken by the <a href="/wiki/Attalids" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalids">Attalids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a>, and eventually became part of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. The last mention of the <a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian language</a> in literature dates to the fifth century CE and it was likely extinct by the seventh century.<a href="#cite_note-354">[304]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indo-Iranian_migrations">Indo-Iranian migrations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Indo-Iranian migrations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranians" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranians">Proto-Indo-Iranians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Proto-Indo-Iranian religion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-Iranian_origins.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Indo-Iranian_origins.png/220px-Indo-Iranian_origins.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Indo-Iranian_origins.png/330px-Indo-Iranian_origins.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Indo-Iranian_origins.png/440px-Indo-Iranian_origins.png 2x" data-file-width="581" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>Archaeological cultures associated with the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Iranian migration">Indo-Iranian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryan migration">Indo-Aryan migration</a>: The <a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a> is regarded as the origin of the Indo-Iranians, who later interacted with the <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a>, from which they borrowed part of their distinctive religious beliefs. The <a href="/wiki/Yaz_culture" title="Yaz culture">Yaz culture</a> is also associated with Indo-Iranian migrations. The <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Gandhara grave</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Cemetery H</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper_Hoard_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper Hoard Culture">Copper Hoard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware cultures</a> are associated with Indo-Aryan migrations (according to <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">EIEC</a>).</figcaption></figure> Indo-Iranian peoples are a grouping of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic groups</a> consisting of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryans">Indo-Aryan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dard_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Dard people">Dardic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuristani_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuristani people">Nuristani peoples</a>; that is, speakers of <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian languages</a>, a major branch of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European language family</a>. The Proto-Indo-Iranians are commonly identified with the <a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta culture</a> and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a> within the broader Andronovo horizon, and their homeland with an area of the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurasian steppe">Eurasian steppe</a> that borders the <a href="/wiki/Ural_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ural River">Ural River</a> on the west, the <a href="/wiki/Tian_Shan" title="Tian Shan">Tian Shan</a> on the east. The Indo-Iranians interacted with the Bactria-Margiana culture, also called "<a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a>". Proto-Indo-Iranian arose due to this influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932-165">[136]</a> The Indo-Iranians also borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices from this culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932-165">[136]</a> The Indo-Iranian migrations took place in two waves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrow1973-355">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola1998-356">[306]</a> The first wave consisted of the Indo-Aryan migration into the Levant and a migration south-eastward of the Vedic people, over the Hindu Kush into northern India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009-2">[2]</a> The Indo-Aryans split-off around 1800–1600 BCE from the Iranians,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007408-57">[48]</a> where-after they were defeated and split into two groups by the Iranians,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200933_note_20,_p.&nbsp;35-357">[307]</a> who dominated the Central Eurasian steppe zone<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200933-358">[308]</a> and "chased [the Indo-Aryans] to the extremities of Central Eurasia".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200933-358">[308]</a> Supposedly one group were the Indo-Aryans who founded the <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> kingdom around northern <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454-359">[309]</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–1300 BCE) the other group were the Vedic people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200933_note_20-360">[310]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_I._Beckwith" title="Christopher I. Beckwith">Christopher I. Beckwith</a> suggests that the <a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Indo-European</a> <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_race" title="Caucasian race">Caucasian</a> people of <a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">antiquity</a>, were also of Indo-Aryan origin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009376–377-361">[311]</a> The second wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory198942–43-362">[312]</a> and took place in the third stage of the Indo-European migrations<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009-2">[2]</a> from 800 BCE onwards. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sintashta-Petrovka_and_Andronovo_culture">Sintashta-Petrovka and Andronovo culture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Sintashta-Petrovka and Andronovo culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sintashta-Petrovka_culture">Sintashta-Petrovka culture</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Sintashta-Petrovka culture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta culture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:From_Corded_Ware_to_Sintashta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/From_Corded_Ware_to_Sintashta.jpg/220px-From_Corded_Ware_to_Sintashta.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/From_Corded_Ware_to_Sintashta.jpg/330px-From_Corded_Ware_to_Sintashta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/From_Corded_Ware_to_Sintashta.jpg/440px-From_Corded_Ware_to_Sintashta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="437" /></a><figcaption>According to Allentoft (2015), the Sintashta culture probably derived from the Corded Ware Culture.</figcaption></figure> The Sintashta culture, also known as the Sintashta-Petrovka culture<a href="#cite_note-Koryakova_1998b-363">[313]</a> or Sintashta-Arkaim culture,<a href="#cite_note-Koryakova_1998a-364">[314]</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">archaeological culture</a> of the northern <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurasian steppe">Eurasian steppe</a> on the borders of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, dated to the period 2100–1800 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> It is probably the archaeological manifestation of the Indo-Iranian language group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007390_(fig._15.9),_405–411-365">[315]</a> The Sintashta culture emerged from the interaction of two antecedent cultures. Its immediate predecessor in the Ural-Tobol steppe was the <a href="/wiki/Poltavka_culture" title="Poltavka culture">Poltavka culture</a>, an offshoot of the cattle-herding <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya horizon</a> that moved east into the region between 2800 and 2600 BCE. Several Sintashta towns were built over older Poltavka settlements or close to Poltavka cemeteries, and Poltavka motifs are common on Sintashta pottery. Sintashta <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a> also shows the influence of the late <a href="/wiki/Abashevo_culture" title="Abashevo culture">Abashevo culture</a>, a collection of <a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware" class="mw-redirect" title="Corded Ware">Corded Ware</a> settlements in the <a href="/wiki/Forest_steppe" title="Forest steppe">forest steppe</a> zone north of the Sintashta region that were also predominantly <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoralist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007385–388-366">[316]</a> Allentoft et al. (2015) also found close <a href="/wiki/AuDNA" class="mw-redirect" title="AuDNA">autosomal</a> genetic relationship between peoples of <a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded Ware culture</a> and Sintashta culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllentoft_et_al.2015-86">[72]</a> The earliest known <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariots</a> have been found in Sintashta burials, and the culture is considered a strong candidate for the origin of the technology, which spread throughout the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a> and played an important role in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_warfare" title="Ancient warfare">ancient warfare</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kuznetsov_2006-367">[317]</a> Sintashta settlements are also remarkable for the intensity of <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> mining and <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a> <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a> carried out there, which is unusual for a steppe culture.<a href="#cite_note-Hanks_&_Linduff_2009-368">[318]</a> Because of the difficulty of identifying the remains of Sintashta sites beneath those of later settlements, the culture was only recently distinguished from the <a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Koryakova_1998a-364">[314]</a> It is now recognised as a separate entity forming part of the 'Andronovo horizon'.<a href="#cite_note-Koryakova_1998b-363">[313]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Andronovo_culture">Andronovo culture</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Andronovo culture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Andronovo_culture.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Andronovo_culture.png/220px-Andronovo_culture.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Andronovo_culture.png/330px-Andronovo_culture.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Andronovo_culture.png/440px-Andronovo_culture.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>Map of the approximate maximal extent of the Andronovo culture. The formative Sintashta-Petrovka culture is shown in darker red. The location of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Spoke" title="Spoke">spoke</a>-wheeled <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariot</a> finds is indicated in purple. Adjacent and overlapping cultures (<a href="/wiki/Afanasevo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Afanasevo culture">Afanasevo culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Srubna_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Srubna culture">Srubna culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a>) are shown in green.</figcaption></figure> The Andronovo culture is a collection of similar local <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranian</a> cultures that flourished <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1800–900 BCE in western <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> and the west <a href="/wiki/Asian_Steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Asian Steppe">Asiatic steppe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams199720–21-369">[319]</a> It is probably better termed an archaeological complex or <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_horizon" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological horizon">archaeological horizon</a>. The name derives from the village of Andronovo (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Indo-European_migrations&params=55_53_N_55_42_E_">55°53′N 55°42′E / 55.883°N 55.700°E / 55.883; 55.700</a>), where in 1914, several graves were discovered, with skeletons in crouched positions, buried with richly decorated pottery. The older <a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta culture</a> (2100–1800), formerly included within the Andronovo culture, is now considered separately, but regarded as its predecessor, and accepted as part of the wider Andronovo horizon. At least four sub-cultures of the Andronovo horizon have been distinguished, during which the culture expands towards the south and the east: <ul><li>Sintashta-Petrovka-Arkaim (Southern <a href="/wiki/Urals" class="mw-redirect" title="Urals">Urals</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, 2200–1600 BCE) <ul><li>the <a href="/wiki/Sintashta" title="Sintashta">Sintashta</a> fortification of <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1800 BCE in <a href="/wiki/Chelyabinsk_Oblast" title="Chelyabinsk Oblast">Chelyabinsk Oblast</a></li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Petrovka_settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrovka settlement">Petrovka settlement</a> fortified settlement in Kazakhstan</li> <li>the nearby <a href="/wiki/Arkaim" title="Arkaim">Arkaim</a> settlement dated to the 17th century</li></ul></li> <li>Alakul (1800–1400 BCE)<a href="#cite_note-Parpola,_Asko_2017_p._249-20">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007448-370">[320]</a> between <a href="/wiki/Oxus" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxus">Oxus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jaxartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaxartes">Jaxartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kyzylkum_desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyzylkum desert">Kyzylkum desert</a> <ul><li>Alekseyevka (1300–1100 BCE "final Bronze") in eastern Kazakhstan, contacts with <a href="/wiki/Namazga" class="mw-redirect" title="Namazga">Namazga</a> VI in Turkmenia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingala_Valley" title="Ingala Valley">Ingala Valley</a> in the south of the <a href="/wiki/Tyumen_Oblast" title="Tyumen Oblast">Tyumen Oblast</a></li></ul></li> <li>Fedorovo (1900–1400 BCE)<a href="#cite_note-Parpola,_Asko_2017_p._250-19">[17]</a> in southern Siberia (earliest evidence of <a href="/wiki/Cremation" title="Cremation">cremation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fire_worship" title="Fire worship">fire cult</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiakonoff1995473-371">[321]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beshkent_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Beshkent district">Beshkent</a>–<a href="/wiki/Vakhsh,_Tajikistan" title="Vakhsh, Tajikistan">Vakhsh</a> (1000–800 BCE)</li></ul></li></ul> The geographical extent of the culture is vast and difficult to delineate exactly. On its western fringes, it overlaps with the approximately contemporaneous, but distinct, <a href="/wiki/Srubna_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Srubna culture">Srubna culture</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Volga" title="Volga">Volga</a>-<a href="/wiki/Ural_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ural River">Ural</a> interfluvial. To the east, it reaches into the <a href="/wiki/Minusinsk" title="Minusinsk">Minusinsk</a> depression, with some sites as far west as the southern <a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a>,<a href="#cite_note-camhist-372">[322]</a> overlapping with the area of the earlier <a href="/wiki/Afanasevo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Afanasevo culture">Afanasevo culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-373">[323]</a> Additional sites are scattered as far south as the <a href="/wiki/Koppet_Dag" class="mw-redirect" title="Koppet Dag">Koppet Dag</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Pamir_Mountains" title="Pamir Mountains">Pamir</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Tian_Shan" title="Tian Shan">Tian Shan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a>). The northern boundary vaguely corresponds to the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">Taiga</a>.<a href="#cite_note-camhist-372">[322]</a> In the Volga basin, interaction with the Srubna culture was the most intense and prolonged, and Federovo style pottery is found as far west as <a href="/wiki/Volgograd" title="Volgograd">Volgograd</a>. Most researchers associate the Andronovo horizon with early <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian languages</a>, though it may have overlapped the early <a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a>-speaking area at its northern fringe. According to Narasimhan et al. (2018), the expansion of the Andronovo culture towards the BMAC took place via the <a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia_Mountain_Corridor" class="mw-redirect" title="Inner Asia Mountain Corridor">Inner Asia Mountain Corridor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarasimhan_et_al.2018-18">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bactria-Margiana_culture">Bactria-Margiana culture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Bactria-Margiana culture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BMAC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/BMAC.png/220px-BMAC.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/BMAC.png/330px-BMAC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/BMAC.png/440px-BMAC.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="335" /></a><figcaption>The extent of the BMAC (after <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">EIEC</a>)</figcaption></figure> The Bactria-Margiana culture, also called "Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex" (BMAC), was a non-Indo-European culture which influenced the Indo-European groups of the second stage of the Indo-European migrations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932-165">[136]</a> It was centered in what is nowadays northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932-165">[136]</a> and had an elaborate trade-network reachings as far as the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilization">Indus</a> civilisation, the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>.<a href="#cite_note-374">[324]</a> Finds within BMAC sites include an Elamite-type cylinder seal and a <a href="/wiki/Harappa" title="Harappa">Harappan</a> seal stamped with an elephant and Indus script found at Gonur-depe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohl2007196–199-375">[325]</a> Proto-Indo-Iranian arose due to this BMAC-influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932-165">[136]</a> The Indo-Iranians also borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices from this culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932-165">[136]</a> According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the <a href="/wiki/Zeravshan_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeravshan River">Zeravshan River</a> (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007462-376">[326]</a> It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007462-376">[326]</a> which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932-165">[136]</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932-165">[136]</a> At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a> and the ritual drink <a href="/wiki/Soma_(drink)" title="Soma (drink)">Soma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454_f.-377">[327]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indo-Aryan_migrations">Indo-Aryan migrations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Indo-Aryan migrations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryan migration">Indo-Aryan migration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryan peoples</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Syria:_Mitanni">Syria: Mitanni</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Syria: Mitanni">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mitanni#Indo-Aryan_linguistic_influences" title="Mitanni">Mitanni § Indo-Aryan linguistic influences</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_superstrate_in_Mitanni" title="Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni">Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Near_East_1400_BCE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Near_East_1400_BCE.png/220px-Near_East_1400_BCE.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Near_East_1400_BCE.png/330px-Near_East_1400_BCE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Near_East_1400_BCE.png/440px-Near_East_1400_BCE.png 2x" data-file-width="785" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Near East, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1400 BCE, showing the Kingdom of Mitanni at its greatest extent</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hittite_cuneiform" title="Hittite cuneiform">Hittite cuneiform</a> <a href="/wiki/KUR" class="mw-redirect" title="KUR">KUR</a><a href="/wiki/Cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Cities of the ancient Near East">URU</a>Mi-ta-an-ni), also Mittani (Mi-it-ta-ni) or Hanigalbat (<a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> Hanigalbat, Khanigalbat cuneiform Ḫa-ni-gal-bat) or Naharin in ancient Egyptian texts was a <a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a> (non-Indo-European)-speaking state in northern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and south-east <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–1300 BCE. Mitanni came to be a regional power after the Hittite destruction of <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Amorite</a><a href="#cite_note-378">[328]</a> <a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Dynasty">Babylon</a> and a series of ineffectual <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> kings created a power vacuum in Mesopotamia. The capital of Mittanni was <a href="/wiki/Washukanni" class="mw-redirect" title="Washukanni">Washukanni</a>, whose location has been determined by archaeologists to be on the headwaters of the <a href="/wiki/Khabur_(Euphrates)" title="Khabur (Euphrates)">Khabur River</a>. Although the Hurrian language is non-Indo-European, yet there are certain names and words found in the texts which suggest an Indo-Aryan influence. Among these are the names of gods (Indra, Mitra, Varuna, and Agni) and some personal names. There are also certain Indo-Aryan technical terms in a horse-training manual by a certain <a href="/wiki/Kikkuli" title="Kikkuli">Kikkuli</a>, dated to about 1400 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2001-379">[329]</a> Several Mitanni rulers, such as <a href="/wiki/Shattiwaza" title="Shattiwaza">Shattiwaza</a>, had names which could be interpreted as Indo-Aryan. One explanation for this is that a militarily powerful, nomadic Indo-Aryan elite settled in Mitanni, and came to politically dominate the indigenous population. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="India:_Indo-Aryans">India: Indo-Aryans</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: India: Indo-Aryans">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:South_Asian_Language_Families.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/South_Asian_Language_Families.jpg/170px-South_Asian_Language_Families.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/South_Asian_Language_Families.jpg/255px-South_Asian_Language_Families.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/South_Asian_Language_Families.jpg/340px-South_Asian_Language_Families.jpg 2x" data-file-width="637" data-file-height="695" /></a><figcaption>Language families in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></div> <table class="wikitable collapsible collapsed floatleft"> <tbody><tr> <th>Spread of Vedic culture </th></tr> <tr> <td> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Vedic_Culture_(1700-1100_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/170px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/255px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/340px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>Early Vedic Period</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Painted_Grey_Ware_Culture_(1200-600_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Painted_Grey_Ware_Culture_%281200-600_BCE%29.png/170px-Painted_Grey_Ware_Culture_%281200-600_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Painted_Grey_Ware_Culture_%281200-600_BCE%29.png/255px-Painted_Grey_Ware_Culture_%281200-600_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Painted_Grey_Ware_Culture_%281200-600_BCE%29.png/340px-Painted_Grey_Ware_Culture_%281200-600_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="950" data-file-height="702" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware culture</a> (1200–600 BCE)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Late_Vedic_Culture_(1100-500_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png/170px-Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png/255px-Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png/340px-Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="767" /></a><figcaption>Kingdoms, tribes and <a href="/wiki/Shakha" title="Shakha">theological schools</a> of the Late Vedic Period</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahajanapadas_(c._500_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png/170px-Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png/255px-Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png/340px-Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="771" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a> (c. 500 BCE)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_Polished_Black_Ware_Culture_(700-200_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Northern_Polished_Black_Ware_Culture_%28700-200_BCE%29.png/170px-Northern_Polished_Black_Ware_Culture_%28700-200_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Northern_Polished_Black_Ware_Culture_%28700-200_BCE%29.png/255px-Northern_Polished_Black_Ware_Culture_%28700-200_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Northern_Polished_Black_Ware_Culture_%28700-200_BCE%29.png/340px-Northern_Polished_Black_Ware_Culture_%28700-200_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="889" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware culture</a> (700–200 BCE)</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> The research on the Indo-Aryan migrations began with the study of the <a href="/wiki/Rig_Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Rig Veda">Rig Veda</a> in the mid-19th century by <a href="/wiki/Max_Muller" class="mw-redirect" title="Max Muller">Max Muller</a>, and gradually evolved from a theory of a large scale invasion of a racially and technologically superior people to being a slow diffusion of small numbers of nomadic people that had a disproportionate societal impact on a large urban population. Contemporary claims of Indo-Aryan migrations are drawn from linguistic,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryant2001-380">[330]</a> archaeological, literary and cultural sources. The Indo-Aryan migrations involved a number of tribes, who may have infiltrated northern India in series of "waves" of migration. Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Indo-Aryan culture include the <a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_Grave_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandhara Grave culture">Gandhara Grave culture</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Black_and_red_ware_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Black and red ware culture">Black and red ware culture</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1989-381">[331]</a> Parpola postulates a first wave of immigration from as early as 1900 BCE, corresponding to the <a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Cemetery H culture</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Copper_Hoard_culture" title="Copper Hoard culture">Copper Hoard culture</a>, c.q. <a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</a>, and an immigration to the Punjab <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1700–1400 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola1998-356">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola2020-382">[332]</a> According to Kochhar there were three waves of Indo-Aryan immigration that occurred after the mature Harappan phase:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKochhar2000185–186-383">[333]</a> <ol><li>the "Murghamu" (<a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria-Margiana culture</a>) related people who entered <a href="/wiki/Balochistan" title="Balochistan">Balochistan</a> at Pirak, Mehrgarh south cemetery, and other places, and later merged with the post-urban Harappans during the late Harappans Jhukar phase (2000–1800 BCE);</li> <li>the Swat IV that co-founded the Harappan Cemetery H phase in Punjab (2000–1800 BCE);</li> <li>and the Rigvedic Indo-Aryans of Swat V that later absorbed the Cemetery H people and gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware culture</a> (PGW) (to 1400 BCE).</li></ol> The Vedic <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryans">Indo-Aryans</a> started to migrate into northwestern India around 1500 BCE, as a slow diffusion during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Harappan" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Harappan">Late Harappan</a> period, establishing the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic religion</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–500 BCE). The associated culture was initially a tribal, <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoral</a> society centred in the northwestern parts of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>; it spread after 1200 BCE to the <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a> Plain, as it was shaped by increasing settled agriculture, a hierarchy of <a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">four social classes</a>, and the emergence of monarchical, state-level polities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19953–5-384">[334]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201049–52-385">[335]</a> The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapada" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahajanapada">large, urbanized states</a> as well as of <a href="/wiki/Sramana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sramana">shramana</a> movements (including <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>) which opposed and challenged the expanding Vedic orthodoxy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199682-386">[336]</a> Around the beginning of the Common Era, the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic tradition</a> formed one of the main constituents of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Hinduism#Roots_of_Hinduism" title="Hinduism">"Hindu synthesis"</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2002-387">[337]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inner_Asia:_Wusun">Inner Asia: Wusun</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Inner Asia: Wusun">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tarimrivermap.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Tarimrivermap.png/220px-Tarimrivermap.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Tarimrivermap.png/330px-Tarimrivermap.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Tarimrivermap.png/440px-Tarimrivermap.png 2x" data-file-width="1449" data-file-height="983" /></a><figcaption>The Tarim Basin, 2008</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wu-sun_Lage.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Wu-sun_Lage.png/220px-Wu-sun_Lage.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Wu-sun_Lage.png/330px-Wu-sun_Lage.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Wu-sun_Lage.png/440px-Wu-sun_Lage.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="467" /></a><figcaption>Wusun and their neighbours during the late 2nd century BCE, take note that the Yancai did not change their name to <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a> until the 1st century.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a></div> According to <a href="/wiki/Christopher_I._Beckwith" title="Christopher I. Beckwith">Christopher I. Beckwith</a> the <a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Indo-European</a> <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_race" title="Caucasian race">Caucasian</a> people of <a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">antiquity</a>, were also of Indo-Aryan origin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009376–377-361">[311]</a> From the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> term Wusun, Beckwith reconstructs the <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> *âswin, which he compares to the <a href="/wiki/Old_Indo-Aryan" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Indo-Aryan">Old Indo-Aryan</a> aśvin "the horsemen", the name of the <a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_deities" title="Rigvedic deities">Rigvedic</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashvins" title="Ashvins">twin equestrian gods</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009376–377-361">[311]</a> Beckwith suggests that the Wusun were an eastern remnant of the Indo-Aryans, who had been suddenly pushed to the extremities of the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe" title="Eurasian Steppe">Eurasian Steppe</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian peoples</a> in the 2nd millennium BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200929–38-388">[338]</a> The Wusun are first mentioned by <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a> sources as vassals in the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200984–85-389">[339]</a> another Indo-European Caucasian people of possible <a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharian</a> stock.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoeweShaughnessy199983–88-49">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-Beckwith380-390">[340]</a> Around 175 BCE, the Yuezhi were utterly defeated by the <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a>, also former vassals of the Yuezhi.<a href="#cite_note-Beckwith380-390">[340]</a><a href="#cite_note-ChineseHistory-391">[341]</a> The Yuezhi subsequently attacked the Wusun and killed their king (Kunmo <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 昆莫 or Kunmi <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 昆彌) Nandoumi (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 難兜靡), capturing the <a href="/wiki/Ili_River" title="Ili River">Ili Valley</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a> (<a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a>) shortly afterwards.<a href="#cite_note-ChineseHistory-391">[341]</a> In return the Wusun settled in the former territories of the Yuezhi as vassals of the Xiongnu.<a href="#cite_note-ChineseHistory-391">[341]</a><a href="#cite_note-Beckwith6-392">[342]</a> The son of Nandoumi was adopted by the Xiongnu king and made leader of the Wusun.<a href="#cite_note-Beckwith6-392">[342]</a> Around 130 BCE he attacked and utterly defeated the Yuezhi, settling the Wusun in the Ili Valley.<a href="#cite_note-Beckwith6-392">[342]</a> After the Yuezhi were defeated by the <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a>, in the 2nd century BCE, a small group, known as the Little Yuezhi, fled to the south, while the majority migrated west to the <a href="/wiki/Ili_River" title="Ili River">Ili Valley</a>, where they displaced the <a href="/wiki/Sakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakas">Sakas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a>). Driven from the Ili Valley shortly afterwards by the <a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a>, the Yuezhi migrated to <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a>, where they are often identified with the Tokhárioi (Τοχάριοι) and <a href="/wiki/Asioi" class="mw-redirect" title="Asioi">Asioi</a> of Classical sources. They then expanded into northern <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, where one branch of the Yuezhi founded the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a>. The Kushan empire stretched from <a href="/wiki/Turfan" class="mw-redirect" title="Turfan">Turfan</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> to <a href="/wiki/Pataliputra" title="Pataliputra">Pataliputra</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Gangetic_plain" class="mw-redirect" title="Gangetic plain">Gangetic plain</a> at its greatest extent, and played an important role in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">transmission of Buddhism</a> to <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. Soon after 130 BCE the Wusun became independent of the Xiongnu, becoming trusted vassals of the <a href="/wiki/Han_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Han Dynasty">Han Dynasty</a> and powerful force in the region for centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Beckwith6-392">[342]</a> With the emerging steppe federations of the <a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a>, the Wusun migrated into the <a href="/wiki/Pamir_Mountains" title="Pamir Mountains">Pamir Mountains</a> in the 5th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-ChineseHistory-391">[341]</a> They are last mentioned in 938 when a Wusun chieftain paid tribute to the <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ChineseHistory-391">[341]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mesopotamia_–_Kassites">Mesopotamia – Kassites</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: Mesopotamia – Kassites">edit</a>]</div> The Kassite language was not Indo-European. However, the appearance of the <a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> in the 18th century BCE has been connected to the contemporary <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Indo-European</a> expansion into the region at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHollar201162–63-393">[343]</a><a href="#cite_note-EB_Art-394">[web 22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Harmatta361-395">[344]</a> The Kassites gained control of <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a> sack of the city in 1595 BCE (i.e. 1531 BCE per the short chronology), and established a dynasty based in <a href="/wiki/Dur-Kurigalzu" title="Dur-Kurigalzu">Dur-Kurigalzu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EB_Kassite-396">[web 23]</a><a href="#cite_note-EB_Anatolia-397">[web 24]</a><a href="#cite_note-EB_Mesopotamia-398">[web 25]</a> The Kassites were members of a small military aristocracy but were efficient rulers and not locally unpopular.<a href="#cite_note-EB_Kassite-396">[web 23]</a> The horse, which the Kassites <a href="/wiki/Horse_worship" title="Horse worship">worshipped</a>, first came into use in Babylonia at this time.<a href="#cite_note-EB_Kassite-396">[web 23]</a> The Kassites were <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheistic</a>, and the name of some 30 gods are known.<a href="#cite_note-EB_Mesopotamia-398">[web 25]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kassite_language" title="Kassite language">Kassite language</a> has <a href="/wiki/Unclassified_language" title="Unclassified language">not been classified</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EB_Mesopotamia-398">[web 25]</a> Genetic relations of the Kassite language are unclear, although it is generally agreed that it was not <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a>; relation with <a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a> is doubtful. Relationship with or membership in the <a href="/wiki/Hurro-Urartian_languages" title="Hurro-Urartian languages">Hurro-Urartian</a> family has been suggested,<a href="#cite_note-Schneider-399">[345]</a> being possibly related to it,<a href="#cite_note-Schneider-399">[345]</a> based on a number of words. However, several Kassite leaders bore <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> names,<a href="#cite_note-EB_India-400">[web 26]</a> and the Kassites worshipped several <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryan</a> gods,<a href="#cite_note-Drews58-401">[346]</a><a href="#cite_note-IranicaKass-402">[347]</a> suggesting that the Kassites were under significant Indo-European influence.<a href="#cite_note-Drews58-401">[346]</a><a href="#cite_note-IranicaKass-402">[347]</a> The reign of the Kassites laid the essential groundwork for the development of <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">subsequent Babylonian culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EB_Mesopotamia-398">[web 25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iranians">Iranians</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Iranians">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iranian_plateau">Iranian plateau</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Iranian plateau">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian peoples</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_(Shaded_Relief_BG).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png/220px-Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png/330px-Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png/440px-Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1164" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of Iranic peoples in Central Asia and the Iranian plateau during the Iron Age period.</figcaption></figure> The Iranian peoples<a href="#cite_note-403">[note 27]</a> (also known as Iranic peoples to avoid confusion) are an <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Indo-European</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">ethno-linguistic group</a> that comprise the speakers of <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Harmatta357-404">[348]</a> Their historical areas of settlement were on the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> and Afghanistan) and certain neighbouring areas of Asia (such as parts of the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, Eastern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, Northeast <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, Northwestern and Western <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>) reflecting changing geopolitical range of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian empire">Persian empires</a> and the Iranian history.<a href="#cite_note-405">[349]</a><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-406">[350]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persians</a> begin to appear on the western <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a> from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 800 BCE, after which they remained under <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> rule for several centuries, as it was with the rest of the peoples in the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid">Achaemenids</a> replaced Median rule from 559 BCE. Around the first millennium <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kambojas" title="Kambojas">Kambojas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pashtuns" title="Pashtuns">Pashtuns</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Baloch_people" title="Baloch people">Baloch</a> began to settle on the eastern edge of the Iranian plateau, on the mountainous frontier of northwestern and western <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, displacing the earlier <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryans">Indo-Aryans</a> from the area. Their current distribution spreads across the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a>, and stretches from the <a href="/wiki/Ossetia" title="Ossetia">Caucasus</a> in the north to the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> in the south, and from the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a> in the east to eastern Turkey in the west – a region that is sometimes called the "Iranian cultural continent", or <a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a> by some scholars, and represents the extent of the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a> and significant influence of the Iranian peoples, through the geopolitical reach of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">Iranian empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-407">[351]</a> The Iranians comprise the present day <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lurs" title="Lurs">Lurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ossetians" title="Ossetians">Ossetians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pashtun_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashtun people">Pashtuns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baloch_people" title="Baloch people">Balochs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tajik_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tajik people">Tajiks</a> and their sub-groups of the historic <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massagetae" title="Massagetae">Massagetaes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bactrians" class="mw-redirect" title="Bactrians">Bactrians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Soghdians</a> and other people of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a>. Another possible group are the <a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerians</a> who are mostly supposed to have been related to either <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Thracian_language" title="Thracian language">Thracian</a> speaking groups, or at least to have been ruled by an Iranian elite. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scythians">Scythians</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Scythians">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IndoScythianKingdom.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/IndoScythianKingdom.svg/220px-IndoScythianKingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/IndoScythianKingdom.svg/330px-IndoScythianKingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/IndoScythianKingdom.svg/440px-IndoScythianKingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="970" data-file-height="981" /></a><figcaption>Territories (full line) and expansion (dotted line) of the Indo-Scythians Kingdom at its greatest extent</figcaption></figure> The first Iranians to reach the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> may have been the <a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerians</a> in the 8th century BCE, although their linguistic affiliation is uncertain. They were followed by the <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a>, who would dominate the area, at their height, from the <a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains" title="Carpathian Mountains">Carpathian Mountains</a> in the west, to the easternmost fringes of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> in the east, including the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Indo-Scythian Kingdom</a> in India. For most of their existence, they were based in what is modern-day Ukraine and southern European <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatian</a> tribes, of whom the best known are the <a href="/wiki/Roxolani" title="Roxolani">Roxolani</a> (Rhoxolani), <a href="/wiki/Iazyges" title="Iazyges">Iazyges</a> (Jazyges) and the <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alani</a> (Alans), followed the Scythians westwards into Europe in the late centuries BCE and the 1st and 2nd centuries of the Common Era (The <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Migrations" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Migrations">Age of Migrations</a>). The populous Sarmatian tribe of the <a href="/wiki/Massagetae" title="Massagetae">Massagetae</a>, dwelling near the Caspian Sea, were known to the early rulers of Persia in the Achaemenid Period. In the east, the Saka occupied several areas in Xinjiang, from Khotan to Tumshuq. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decline_in_central_Asia">Decline in central Asia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: Decline in central Asia">edit</a>]</div> In Central Asia, the <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic languages</a> have marginalized <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a> as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Turkic_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkic expansion">Turkic expansion</a> of the early centuries CE. In Eastern Europe, <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a> assimilated and absorbed the native Iranian languages (Scythian and Sarmatian) of the region. Extant major Iranian languages are <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pashto_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashto language">Pashto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Balochi_language" title="Balochi language">Balochi</a>, besides numerous smaller ones. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternative_hypotheses">Alternative hypotheses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: Alternative hypotheses">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paleolithic_Continuity_Paradigm">Paleolithic Continuity Paradigm</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: Paleolithic Continuity Paradigm">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_continuity_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleolithic continuity theory">Paleolithic continuity theory</a></div> The "Paleolithic Continuity Paradigm" is a <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> suggesting that the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a> (PIE) can be traced back to the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a>, several millennia earlier than the <a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a> or at the most <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> estimates in other scenarios of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_origins" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European origins">Proto-Indo-European origins</a>. Its main proponents are <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Otte" title="Marcel Otte">Marcel Otte</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_H%C3%A4usler_(archaeologist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexander Häusler (archaeologist) (page does not exist)">Alexander Häusler</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mario_Alinei" title="Mario Alinei">Mario Alinei</a>. The PCT posits that the advent of Indo-European languages should be linked to the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Archaic_humans" title="Archaic humans">Homo sapiens</a> in Europe and Asia from Africa in the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PCP_Alinei16-408">[web 27]</a> Employing "lexical periodization", Alinei arrives at a timeline deeper than even that of <a href="/wiki/Colin_Renfrew" title="Colin Renfrew">Colin Renfrew</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-409">[note 28]</a><a href="#cite_note-PCP_Alinei16-408">[web 27]</a> Since 2004, an informal workgroup of scholars who support the Paleolithic Continuity hypothesis has been held online.<a href="#cite_note-PCP_workgroup-410">[web 28]</a> Apart from Alinei himself, its leading members (referred to as "Scientific Committee" in the website) are linguists <a href="/wiki/Xaverio_Ballester" title="Xaverio Ballester">Xaverio Ballester</a> (<a href="/wiki/University_of_Valencia" title="University of Valencia">University of Valencia</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Benozzo" title="Francesco Benozzo">Francesco Benozzo</a> (<a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a>). Also included are prehistorian <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Otte" title="Marcel Otte">Marcel Otte</a> (<a href="/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge" class="mw-redirect" title="Université de Liège">Université de Liège</a>) and anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Henry_Harpending" title="Henry Harpending">Henry Harpending</a> (<a href="/wiki/University_of_Utah" title="University of Utah">University of Utah</a>).<a href="#cite_note-PCP_Alinei16-408">[web 27]</a> It is not listed by Mallory among the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_Urheimat_hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European Urheimat hypotheses">proposals for the origins of the Indo-European languages</a> that are widely discussed and considered credible within academia.<a href="#cite_note-411">[352]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_origins">Indian origins</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=81" title="Edit section: Indian origins">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Aryans">Indigenous Aryans</a></div> The notion of "indigenous Aryans" posits that speakers of Indo-Aryan languages are "indigenous" to the Indian subcontinent. Scholars like <a href="/wiki/Jim_G._Shaffer" title="Jim G. Shaffer">Jim G. Shaffer</a> and B. B. Lal note the absence of archaeological remains of an Aryan "conquest", and the high degree of physical continuity between Harappan and Post-Harappan society.<a href="#cite_note-EB_IAS-412">[web 29]</a> They support the controversial<a href="#cite_note-EB_IAS-412">[web 29]</a> hypothesis that the Indo-Aryan civilization was not introduced by Aryan migrations, but originated in pre-Vedic India.<a href="#cite_note-EB_IAS-412">[web 29]</a> In recent years, the concept of "indigenous Aryans" has been increasingly conflated with an "Out of India" origin of the Indo-European language family. This contrasts with the model of Indo-Aryan migration which posits that Indo-Aryan tribes migrated to India from Central Asia. Some furthermore claim that all Indo-European languages originated in India.<a href="#cite_note-414">[note 29]</a> Support for the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Aryans">Out of India</a> theory IAT mostly exists among a subset of <a href="/wiki/Indian_people" title="Indian people">Indian</a> scholars,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryant2001-380">[330]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryantPatton2005-415">[354]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008186-416">[355]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBresnan20178-417">[356]</a><a href="#cite_note-Elst_2016-418">[357]</a> playing a significant role in <a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a> politics,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFosse2005435–437-419">[358]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERavinutala20136-420">[359]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200195-421">[360]</a><a href="#cite_note-Doniger_2017-422">[web 30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shahane_2019-423">[web 31]</a> but has no relevance, let alone support, in mainstream scholarship.<a href="#cite_note-no_support-424">[note 30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=82" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Steppe_Herders" title="Western Steppe Herders">Western Steppe Herders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R1a" title="Haplogroup R1a">Haplogroup R1a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R1b" title="Haplogroup R1b">Haplogroup R1b</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-modern_human_migration" title="Pre-modern human migration">Pre-modern human migration</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=83" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Gimbutas-60"><a href="#cite_ref-Gimbutas_60-0">^</a> According to Gimbutas, these indigenous groups existed for nearly three millennia (c. 6500–3500 BCE, during the Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Copper ages), consisting notably of the <a href="/wiki/Narva_culture" title="Narva culture">Narva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Funnelbeaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Funnelbeaker">Funnelbeaker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear Pottery">Linear Pottery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardium_pottery" title="Cardium pottery">Cardium pottery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vin%C4%8Da_culture" title="Vinča culture">Vinča</a>, early <a href="/wiki/Helladic_period#Early_Helladic" class="mw-redirect" title="Helladic period">Helladic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan</a> cultures etc. As a "truncation" of these cultures Gimbutas perceived (1) the "abrupt absences" of certain traditions of <a href="/wiki/Urbanism" title="Urbanism">urbanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">visual arts</a> as well as in "symbols and script" as well as (2) the "equally abrupt appearance of thrusting weapons and horses infiltrating the Danubian Valley and other major grasslands of the Balkans and Central Europe", initiating "a dramatic shift in the prehistory of Europe, a change in social structure and in residence patterns, in art and in religion" which was to be "a decisive factor in the formation of Europe's last 5,000 years." </li> <li id="cite_note-Old_Europe-63"><a href="#cite_ref-Old_Europe_63-0">^</a> Old Europeans were sedentary-horticulturalist, living in "large agglomerations" – probably part of theocratic monarchies presided over by a queen-priestess – and had an ideology which "focused on the eternal aspects of birth, death, and regeneration, symbolized by the feminine principle, a mother creatrix"; they buried their dead in communal <a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">megalith</a> graves and were generally peaceful. </li> <li id="cite_note-Anthony_Language_shift-76"><a href="#cite_ref-Anthony_Language_shift_76-0">^</a> David Anthony (1995): "Language shift can be understood best as a social strategy through which individuals and groups compete for positions of prestige, power, and domestic security [...] What is important, then, is not just dominance, but vertical social mobility and a linkage between language and access to positions of prestige and power [...] A relatively small immigrant elite population can encourage widespread language shift among numerically dominant indigenes in a non-state or pre-state context if the elite employs a specific combination of encouragements and punishments. Ethnohistorical cases [...] demonstrate that small elite groups have successfully imposed their languages in non-state situations."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200327-75">[64]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-dislocation-85"><a href="#cite_ref-dislocation_85-0">^</a> Note the dislocation of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a> prior to the start of the Indo-Aryan migrations into northern India, and the onset of <a href="/wiki/Sanskritisation" title="Sanskritisation">Sanskritisation</a> with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Kuru_kingdom" title="Kuru kingdom">Kuru kingdom</a>, as described by Michael Witzel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1995-81">[69]</a> The "Ancestral North Indians" and "Ancestral South Indians"<a href="#cite_note-Reich2009-82">[web 9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Metspalu2011-83">[70]</a> mixed between 4,200 and 1,900 years ago (2200 BCE – 100 CE), where after a shift to endogamy took place.<a href="#cite_note-Moorjani2013-84">[71]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Demkina et al. (2017): "In the second millennium BC, humidization of the climate led to the divergence of the soil cover with secondary formation of the complexes of chestnut soils and solonetzes. This paleoecological crisis had a significant effect on the economy of the tribes in the Late Catacomb and Post-Catacomb time stipulating their higher mobility and transition to the nomadic cattle breeding."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemkina2017-90">[75]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> See also Eurogenes Blog, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eurogenes.blogspot.nl/2017/07/the-crisis.html">The crisis</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Mallory: "The Kurgan solution is attractive and has been accepted by many archaeologists and linguists, in part or total. It is the solution one encounters in the Encyclopædia Britannica and the Grand Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Larousse."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1989185-96">[79]</a> Strazny: "The single most popular proposal is the Pontic steppes (see the Kurgan hypothesis) ...."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrazny2000163-97">[80]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Jones et al. (2016) further note that "Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG) belong to a distinct ancient clade that split from western hunter-gatherers ~45 kya, shortly after the expansion of anatomically modern humans into Europe and from the ancestors of Neolithic farmers ~25 kya, around the Last Glacial Maximum."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2016-108">[90]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> According to Haak et al. (2015), "the Yamnaya steppe herders of this time were descended not only from the preceding eastern European hunter-gatherers, but from a population of Near Eastern ancestry."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaak20153-107">[89]</a> According to Jones et al. (2016), Caucasus hunter-gatherers "genomes significantly contributed to the Yamnaya steppe herders who migrated into Europe ~3,000 BCE, supporting a formative Caucasus influence on this important Early Bronze Age culture. CHG left their imprint on modern populations from the Caucasus and also central and south Asia possibly marking the arrival of Indo-Aryan languages."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2016-108">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[note 8]</a> According to Lazaridis et al. (2016), "a population related to the people of the Iran Chalcolithic contributed ~ 43 % of the ancestry of early Bronze Age populations of the steppe."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazaridis_et_al20168-109">[91]</a> These Iranian Chacolithic people were a mixture of "the Neolithic people of western Iran, the Levant, and Caucasus Hunter Gatherers".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazaridis_et_al20168-109">[91]</a> Lazaridis et al. (2016), referring to Haak et al. (2015): "The spread of Near Eastern ancestry into the Eurasian steppe was previously inferred without access to ancient samples, by hypothesizing a population related to present-day Armenians as a source."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazaridis_et_al20168-109">[91]</a> Eurogenes Blog: "Lazaridis et al. show that Early to Middle Bronze Age steppe groups, including Yamnaya, tagged by them as Steppe EMBA, are best modeled with formal statistics as a mixture of Eastern European Hunter-Gatherers (EHG) and Chalcolithic farmers from western Iran. The mixture ratios are 56.8/43.2, respectively. However, they add that a model of Steppe EMBA as a three-way mixture between EHG, the Chalcolithic farmers and Caucasus Hunter-Gatherers (CHG) is also a good fit and plausible."<a href="#cite_note-112">[web 11]</a> See also: <ul><li>For what they were... we are (2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://forwhattheywereweare.blogspot.nl/2016/06/ancient-genomes-from-neolithic-west-asia.html">Ancient genomes from Neolithic West Asia</a></li> <li>Stephanie Dutchen (2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hms.harvard.edu/news/new-branch-added-european-family-tree">New Branch Added to European Family Tree. Genetic analysis reveals Europeans descended from at least three ancient groups</a>;</li> <li>Dieneke's Anthropology Blog, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dienekes.blogspot.nl/2015/11/westasian-in-flesh-hunter-gatherers.html">West Asian in the flesh (hunter-gatherers from Georgia) (Jones et al. 2016)</a>;</li> <li>For what they were... we are (2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://forwhattheywereweare.blogspot.nl/2016/01/caucasus-and-swiss-hunter-gatherer.html">Caucasus and Swiss hunter-gatherer genomes</a>.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> According to Haak et al. (2015), "both south-north and north-south genetic influence across the Caucasus is plausible."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaakLazaridisPattersonRohland2015a138-118">[97]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> The following suggestions have been made from 2015 to 2019: <ul><li>Haak et al. (2015) state that "the Armenian plateau hypothesis gains in plausibility" given the Near Eastern ancestry in Yamnaya, but also state that "the question of what languages were spoken" by the ancestral steppe hunter-gatherers and the southern ancestors "remains open."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaakLazaridisPattersonRohland2015a138-118">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[note 10]</a></li> <li>According to Damgaard et al. (2018), between 5,000 and 3,000 BCE, during the Copper Age, there was "extensive population contact between the Caucasus and the steppe,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard2018-39">[32]</a> The typical <a href="/wiki/Steppe_ancestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Steppe ancestry">steppe ancestry</a> probably developed during this time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard2018-39">[32]</a> Damgaard et al. (2018) notice that they "cannot at this point reject a scenario in which the introduction of the Anatolian IE languages into Anatolia was coupled with the CHG-derived admixture before 3700 BCE," but also state that "this is contrary to the standard view that PIE arose in the steppe north of the Caucasus and that CHG ancestry is also associated with several non-IE-speaking groups, historical and current."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard2018-39">[32]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kristian_Kristiansen_(archaeologist)" title="Kristian Kristiansen (archaeologist)">Kristian Kristiansen</a>, in an interview with Der Spiegel in May 2018, stated that the Yamnaya culture may have had a predecessor at the Caucasus, where "proto-proto-Indo-European" was spoken.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrolle2018108-116">[95]</a> In 2020 he argued that the Maykop-culture may have been the bearer op pre-PIE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKristiansen2020-117">[96]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Reich_(geneticist)" title="David Reich (geneticist)">David Reich</a> has repeatedly suggested the possibility of a Caucasian origin of archaic PIE,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathieson2018line_363–382-45">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReich2018120-46">[38]</a> but does not exclude the possibility of a steppe origin of the Anatolian languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathieson2018line_380–382-120">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[subnote 2]</a> According to Reich, between 5,000 and 3,000 BCE the CHG-carriers, people related to Armenians and Iranians, migrated from the south to the steppes and encountered local Eastern European hunter-gatherers (EHG peoples).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReich2018109–110-122">[99]</a></li> <li>Wang et al. (2018) note that the Caucasus served as a corridor for gene flow between the steppe and cultures south of the Caucasus during the Eneolithic and the Bronze Age, stating that this "opens up the possibility of a homeland of PIE south of the Caucasus." However, Wang et al. also acknowledge that the latest genetic evidence supports an origin of proto-Indo-Europeans in the steppe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang201815-123">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[subnote 3]</a></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> See also Bruce Bower (February 8, 2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/dna-mating-asian-herders-european-farmers">DNA reveals early mating between Asian herders and European farmers</a>, ScienceNews. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Allan_R._Bomhard" title="Allan R. Bomhard">Allan R. Bomhard</a> has elaborated upon Kortlandt's ideas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBomhard2019-128">[102]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Allan_R._Bomhard" title="Allan R. Bomhard">Allan R. Bomhard</a>, "Proto-Indo-European is the result of the imposition of a Eurasiatic language – to use Greenberg's term – on a population speaking one or more primordial Northwest Caucasian languages."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBomhard2019-128">[102]</a> Anthony states that the validity of such deep relationships cannot be reliably demonstrated due to the time-depth involved, and also notes that the similarities may be explained by borrowings from PIE into Proto-Uralic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthonyRinge2015-27">[21]</a> Yet, Anthony also notes that the North Caucasian communities "were southern participants in the steppe world".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-East_Caspian-138"><a href="#cite_ref-East_Caspian_138-0">^</a> Soviet and post-Soviet Russian archaeologists have proposed an East Caspian influence, via the eastern Caspian areas, on the formation of the Don-Volga cultures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVybornov2016164-130">[103]</a> See also Ancient DNA Era (11 January 2019), How did CHG get into Steppe_EMBA ? Part 2 : The Pottery Neolithic<a href="#cite_note-131">[104]</a> The "Sogdiana hypothesis" of <a href="/wiki/Johanna_Nichols" title="Johanna Nichols">Johanna Nichols</a> places the homeland in the fourth or fifth millennium BCE to the east of the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>, in the area of ancient <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a>-<a href="/wiki/Sogdiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdiana">Sogdiana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENichols1997-132">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENichols1999-133">[106]</a> From there, PIE spread north to the steppes, and south-west towards Anatolia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKozintsev2019337-134">[107]</a> Nichols eventually rejected her theory, finding it incompatible with the linguistic and archaeological data.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKozintsev2019337-134">[107]</a> Following Nichols' initial proposal, Kozintsev has argued for an Indo-Uralic homeland east of the Caspian Sea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKozintsev2019-135">[108]</a> From this homeland, Indo-Uralic PIE-speakers migrated south-west, and split in the southern Caucasus, forming the Anatolian and steppe languages at their respective locations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKozintsev2019-135">[108]</a> Bernard Sergent has elaborated on the idea of east Caspian influences on the formation of the Volga culture, arguing for a PIE homeland in the east Caspian territory, from where it migrated north. Sergent notes that the lithic assemblage of the first <a href="/wiki/Kurgan_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurgan culture">Kurgan culture</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> (Sredni Stog II), which originated from the <a href="/wiki/Volga_Delta" title="Volga Delta">Volga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ural_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Ural region">South Urals</a>, recalls that of the <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a>–<a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> sites to the east of the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Caspian sea">Caspian sea</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dam_Dam_Chesme_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dam Dam Chesme II (page does not exist)">Dam Dam Chesme II</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Dzhebel" title="Cave of Dzhebel">cave of Djebel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sergent-136">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[110]</a> Yet, Sergent places the earliest roots of Gimbutas' Kurgan cradle of Indo-Europeans in an even more southern cradle, and adds that the Djebel material is related to a <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> material of <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwestern Iran">Northwestern Iran</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian culture</a>, dated 10,000–8,500 BCE, and in the more ancient <a href="/wiki/Kebarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Kebarian">Kebarian</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>. He concludes that more than 10,000 years ago the Indo-Europeans were a small people grammatically, phonetically and lexically close to <a href="/wiki/Semitic_people" title="Semitic people">Semitic</a>–<a href="/wiki/Hamitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamitic">Hamitic</a> populations of the Near East.<a href="#cite_note-Sergent-136">[109]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-dating-152"><a href="#cite_ref-dating_152-0">^</a> There are several datings available: <ul><li>Gimbutas dated it to 5000 BCE.</li> <li>According to V.A.Dergachev (2007), О скипетрах, о лошадях, о войне: Этюды в защиту миграционной концепции М. Гимбутас, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-98187-173-3" title="Special:BookSources/5-98187-173-3">5-98187-173-3</a>, dates Samara culture at cal. C-14 5200–4500 BCE, with possible continuatation into first half of 5th millennium, while the <a href="/wiki/Khvalynsk_culture" title="Khvalynsk culture">Khvalynsk culture</a> is dated at ca. 4600–3900 BCE. These data are based on synchronisation, not radicarbon dating or dendrochronology of Samara culture sites itself.</li> <li>Mallory and Adams, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_culture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture (page does not exist)">Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture</a>, gives the bare date "fifth millennium BC", while the <a href="/wiki/Khvalynsk_culture" title="Khvalynsk culture">Khvalynsk culture</a>, its reported successor, is dated at 4900–3500 BCE.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> See also: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indo-european.eu/2018/12/spread-of-y-pestis-earlier-than-previously-thought-may-have-caused-neolithic-decline/">Spread of Y. pestis, earlier than previously thought, may have caused Neolithic decline</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eurogenes.blogspot.com/2018/12/europes-ancient-proto-cities-may-have.html">Europe's ancient proto-cities may have been ravaged by the plague</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnxp.com/WordPress/2018/12/06/of-plagues-and-prehistory/">Of Plagues and Prehistory</a></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-CW_R1b-216"><a href="#cite_ref-CW_R1b_216-0">^</a> Y-DNA: * <a href="#CITEREFMalmström2019">Malmström 2019</a>: "Individuals from the Pontic–Caspian steppe, associated with the Yamnaya Culture, carry mostly R1b and not R1a haplotypes." <a href="#CITEREFLinderholm2020">Linderholm 2020</a>: "The Y chromosome haplogroup lineage R1b-M269 or R-L11 are characteristic of Yamnaya and Bell Beaker individuals and they were particularly widespread throughout Eurasia in the Bronze Age and thereafter. Curiously, the haplogroup is uncommon among other published Corded Ware Complex individuals from Europe (Germany, Poland, Bohemia, Estonia, Lithuania) and is associated with the later Bell Beaker communities." <a href="#CITEREFSjögren2020">Sjögren (2020)</a>: "All the Bell Beaker male burials with sufficient data in our two cemeteries belong to a single Y-chromosome lineage, R1b-M269, which is the major lineage associated with the arrival of Steppe ancestry in western Europe after 2500 BC. In the preceding and partly contemporary Corded Ware populations of central Europe, another Y-haplogroup dominated, R1a, although R1b also occurs albeit in small numbers." Yet, Linderholm et al. (2020) found seven CW males with R1b-M269,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELinderholm2020-214">[182]</a> while Allentoft et al. (2015) report two CW males with R1b,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllentoft_et_al.2015-86">[72]</a> and Furtwängler et al. (2020) report three CW males with R1b.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFurtwängler_et_al.2020-215">[183]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> A major problem with Anthony's proposal is that those Yamna-migrants were R1b-carriers, which also appears in the Bell-Beaker people, while the Corded Ware people seem to have been R1a-carriers, which has not been found among Yamna-people. See: <ul><li>Eurogenes Blog (18 December 2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eurogenes.blogspot.nl/2017/12/corded-ware-as-offshoot-of-hungarian.html">Corded Ware as an offshoot of Hungarian Yamnaya (Anthony 2017)</a>;</li> <li>Indo-European.eu (17 December 2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indo-european.eu/2017/12/the-new-indo-european-corded-ware-theory-of-david-anthony/">The new "Indo-European Corded Ware Theory" of David Anthony</a>;</li> <li>Indo-European.eu (26 December 2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indo-european.eu/2017/12/the-great-hungarian-plain-in-a-time-of-change-in-the-balkans-neolithic-chalcolithic-and-bronze-age/">The Great Hungarian Plain in a time of change in the Balkans – Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Bronze Age</a>.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> Haak et al. (2015) envision a migration of both males and females from the Yamnaya horizon through western Ukraine and Poland into Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaak201511,_figure_4c-232">[198]</a> Allentoft et al. (2015) envision a migration from the Yamnaya horizon towards northern Europe, both via Central Europe and the territory of present-day Russia, toward the Baltic area and the eastern periphery of the Corded Ware culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllentoft_et_al.2015108,_topright_map-233">[199]</a> Nordqvist and Heyd (2020) envision that the Yamnaya culture spread northwards and transformed into the Corded Ware horizon east of the Carpathians, and from there spread to northwestern Europe and eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENordqvistHeyd2020-34">[27]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> They further note: <ul><li>"[...] the main argument in favor of the Anatolian hypothesis (that major language change requires major migration) can now also be applied to the Steppe hypothesis."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazaridisHaakPattersonAnthony2015136-240">[205]</a></li> <li>"[...] our results level the playing field between the two leading hypotheses [the Steppe hypotheses and the Anatolian hypothesis] of Indo-European origins, as we now know that both the Early Neolithic and the Late Neolithic were associated with major migrations."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazaridisHaakPattersonAnthony2015136-240">[205]</a></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> See also Indo-European.eu (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indo-european.eu/2017/06/heyd-mallory-prescott-were-right-about-bell-beakers/">Heyd, Mallory, and Prescott were right about Bell Beakers</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRinge2006">Ringe (2006)</a>, p. 85: "Early Jastorf, at the end of the 7th century BCE, is almost certainly too early for the last common ancestor of the attested languages; but later Jastorf culture and its successors occupy so much territory that their populations are most unlikely to have spoken a single dialect, even granting that the expansion of the culture was relatively rapid. It follows that our reconstructed PGmc was only one of the dialects spoken by peoples identified archeologically, or by the Romans, as 'Germans'; the remaining Germanic peoples spoke sister dialects of PGmc." <a href="#CITEREFPolomé1992">Polomé (1992)</a>, p. 51: "...if the Jastorf culture and, probably, the neighboring Harpstedt culture to the west constitute the Germanic homeland (Mallory 1989: 87), a spread of Proto-Germanic northwards and eastwards would have to be assumed, which might explain both the archaisms and the innovative features of North Germanic and East Germanic, and would fit nicely with recent views locating the homeland of the Goths in Poland." </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/51061/Balto-Slavic-languages">"Balto-Slavic languages"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 10 December 2012. <q>Those scholars who accept the Balto-Slavic hypothesis attribute the large number of close similarities in the vocabulary, grammar, and sound systems of the Baltic and Slavic languages to development from a common ancestral language after the breakup of Proto-Indo-European. Those scholars who reject the hypothesis believe that the similarities are the result of parallel development and of mutual influence during a long period of contact.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft.atitle=Balto-Slavic+languages&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F51061%2FBalto-Slavic-languages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKortlandt2009" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Frederik_Kortlandt" title="Frederik Kortlandt">Kortlandt, Frederik</a> (2009), Baltica & Balto-Slavica, p. 5, <q>Though Prussian is undoubtedly closer to the East Baltic languages than to Slavic, the characteristic features of the Baltic languages seem to be either retentions or results of parallel development and cultural interaction. Thus I assume that Balto-Slavic split into three identifiable branches, each of which followed its own course of development.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Baltica+%26+Balto-Slavica&rft.pages=5&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Kortlandt&rft.aufirst=Frederik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDerksen2008" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Rick_Derksen" title="Rick Derksen">Derksen, Rick</a> (2008), Etymological Dictionary of the Slavic Inherited Lexicon, p. 20, <q>"I am not convinced that it is justified to reconstruct a Proto-Baltic stage. The term Proto-Baltic is used for convenience's sake.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etymological+Dictionary+of+the+Slavic+Inherited+Lexicon&rft.pages=20&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Derksen&rft.aufirst=Rick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> The origin of Rus. O Pritsak; 1981; pp 14, 27–28. Pritsak argues that the eastern Vikings – the <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus</a> – were a social group of seafaring nomads which consisted of not only Scandinavians, but also Frisians, Balts, Slavs and Finns. </li> <li id="cite_note-403"><a href="#cite_ref-403">^</a> R.N Frye, "IRAN v. PEOPLE OF IRAN" in Encyclopedia Iranica. "In the following discussion of 'Iranian peoples', the term 'Iranian' may be understood in two ways. It is, first of all, a linguistic classification, intended to designate any society which inherited or adopted, and transmitted, an Iranian language. The set of Iranian-speaking peoples is thus considered a kind of unity, in spite of their distinct lineage identities plus all the factors which may have further differentiated any one group's sense of self." </li> <li id="cite_note-409"><a href="#cite_ref-409">^</a> Mario Alinei (with reference to Francisco Villar, Los indoeuropeos y los orígines de Europa. Lenguaje y historia, Gredos, Madrid 1991): "The sharp, and now at last admitted even by traditionalists (Villar 1991) differentiation of farming terminology in the different IE languages, while absolutely unexplainable in the context of <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Renfrew's NDT</a>, provides yet another fundamental proof that the differentiation of IE languages goes back to remote prehistory." </li> <li id="cite_note-414"><a href="#cite_ref-414">^</a> Bryant: "It must be stated immediately that there is an unavoidable corollary of an Indigenist position. If the Indo-Aryan languages did not come from outside South Asia, this necessarily entails that India was the original homeland of all the other Indo-European languages."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryant20016-413">[353]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-no_support-424"><a href="#cite_ref-no_support_424-0">^</a> No support in mainstream scholarship: <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFThapar2006">Thapar (2006)</a>: "there is no scholar at this time seriously arguing for the indigenous origin of Aryans."</li> <li>Wendy Doniger (2017): "The opposing argument, that speakers of Indo-European languages were indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, is not supported by any reliable scholarship. It is now championed primarily by Hindu nationalists, whose religious sentiments have led them to regard the theory of Aryan migration with some asperity."<a href="#cite_note-Doniger_2017-422">[web 30]</a></li> <li>Girish Shahane (Sep 14, 2019), in response to Narasimhan et al. (2019): "Hindutva activists, however, have kept the Aryan Invasion Theory alive, because it offers them the perfect strawman, “an intentionally misrepresented proposition that is set up because it is easier to defeat than an opponent’s real argument” [...] The Out of India hypothesis is a desperate attempt to reconcile linguistic, archaeological and genetic evidence with Hindutva sentiment and nationalistic pride, but it cannot reverse time’s arrow [...] The evidence keeps crushing Hindutva ideas of history."<a href="#cite_note-Shahane_2019-423">[web 31]</a></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFJamison2006">Jamison (2006)</a>: "...the Indo-Aryan "controversy" [...] is essentially a religio-nationalistic attack on a scholarly consensus.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFErdosy2012">Erdosy (2012</a>, p. x): "The indigenist position is part of a "lunatic fringe"."</li> <li>Koenraad Elst (May 10, 2016), Koenraad Elst: “I am not aware of any governmental interest in correcting distorted history”, Swarajya Magazine: "Of course it is a fringe theory, at least internationally, where the Aryan Invasion Theory (AIT) is still the official paradigm. In India, though, it has the support of most archaeologists, who fail to find a trace of this Aryan influx and instead find cultural continuity."<a href="#cite_note-Elst_2016-418">[357]</a></li></ul> </li> </ol></div> <dl><dt>Subnotes</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Kortlandt (2010) refers to Kortlandt, Frederik. 2007b. C. C. Uhlenbeck on Indo-European, Uralic and Caucasian. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Noting the absence in the Anatolian languages of the "full wagon and wheel vocabulary" found in all present-day IE-languages, and the absence of steppe-ancestry in Anatolian DNA from this time, Reich states that "this suggests to me that the most likely location of the population that first spoke an Indo-European language was south of the Caucasus Mountains, perhaps in present-day Iran or Armenia, because ancient DNA from people who lived there matches what we would expect for a source population both for the Yamnaya and for ancient Anatolians." Yet, Reich also notes that "...the evidence here is circumstantial as no ancient DNA from the Hittites themselves has yet been published,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReich2018120-46">[38]</a> and the possibility of a steppe origin of the Anatolian languages also cannot be excluded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathieson2018line_380–382-120">[98]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Wang et al. (2018): "but the latest ancient DNA results from South Asia also lend weight to a spread of Indo-European languages via the steppe belt. The spread of some or all of the proto-Indo-European branches would have been possible via the North Caucasus and Pontic region and from there, along with pastoralist expansions, to the heart of Europe. This scenario finds support from the well attested and now widely documented 'steppe ancestry' in European populations, the postulate of increasingly patrilinear societies in the wake of these expansions (exemplified by R1a/R1b), as attested in the latest study on the Bell Beaker phenomenon."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang201815-123">[100]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=84" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_1-25">z</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009_2-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009_2-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009_2-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2009">Beckwith 2009</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedman-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Friedman_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman2022" class="citation book cs1">Friedman, Victor (2022). 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"domesticated horses were introduced to the western pre-Chinese area by the Indo-Europeans." </li> <li id="cite_note-Beckwith43-179"><a href="#cite_ref-Beckwith43_179-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2009">Beckwith 2009</a>, pp. 43–48 </li> <li id="cite_note-KrechSteinicke-181"><a href="#cite_ref-KrechSteinicke_181-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKrechSteinicke2011">Krech & Steinicke 2011</a>, p. 100 </li> <li id="cite_note-Beckwith70-182"><a href="#cite_ref-Beckwith70_182-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2009">Beckwith 2009</a>, pp. 59, 70–71. 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Haidary 1994</a>, pp. 166–171. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pulleyblank-187"><a href="#cite_ref-Pulleyblank_187-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1966">Pulleyblank 1966</a>, pp. 9–39 </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMallory1989">Mallory 1989</a>, pp. 59–60 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994171-189">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994171_189-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994171_189-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994">Enoki, Koshelenko & Haidary 1994</a>, p. 171. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994166-190"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994166_190-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994">Enoki, Koshelenko & Haidary 1994</a>, p. 166. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994168-191">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994168_191-0">a</a> <a 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Rep Pract Oncol Radiother. 19 (4): 227–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.rpor.2013.06.004">10.1016/j.rpor.2013.06.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4104016">4104016</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25061515">25061515</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rep+Pract+Oncol+Radiother&rft.atitle=Radiation+oncology+in+Latin+speaking+countries%3A+A+link+between+Europe+and+Latin+America.&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=227-9&rft.date=2015-09-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4104016%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25061515&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.rpor.2013.06.004&rft.aulast=Lopez+Guerra&rft.aufirst=J.+L.&rft.au=Rivin%2C+E.&rft.au=Guedea%2C+F.&rft.au=Ortiz%2C+M.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4104016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_T._Koch" title="John T. Koch">Koch, John</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&q=peoples%20and%20countries">Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia</a>. Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio. pp. xx. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0"><bdi>978-1-85109-440-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 9 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Culture%3A+a+historical+encyclopedia&rft.place=Santa+Barbara&rft.pages=xx&rft.pub=ABC-Clio&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-440-0&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df899xH_quaMC%26q%3Dpeoples%2520and%2520countries&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChadCorc-281">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ChadCorc_281-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChadCorc_281-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChadwickCorcoran1970" class="citation book cs1">Chadwick, Nora; Corcoran, J. X. W. P. (1970). The Celts. Penguin Books. pp. 28–33.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celts&rft.pages=28-33&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=Nora&rft.au=Corcoran%2C+J.+X.+W.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffe,_Barry1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barry_Cunliffe" title="Barry Cunliffe">Cunliffe, Barry</a> (1997). The Ancient Celts. Penguin Books. pp. 39–67.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Celts&rft.pages=39-67&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.au=Cunliffe%2C+Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-koch2010_core-283"><a href="#cite_ref-koch2010_core_283-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_T._Koch2010" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_T._Koch" title="John T. Koch">John T. Koch</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210612041242/https://www.oxbowbooks.com/oxbow/celtic-from-the-west.html">"Paradigm Shift? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic"</a>. In J. T. Koch; B. Cunliffe (eds.). Celtic from the West. Oxford: Oxbow Books. p. 193. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxbowbooks.com/oxbow/celtic-from-the-west.html">the original</a> on 12 June 2021. Retrieved 12 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Paradigm+Shift%3F+Interpreting+Tartessian+as+Celtic&rft.btitle=Celtic+from+the+West&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=Oxbow+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.au=John+T.+Koch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxbowbooks.com%2Foxbow%2Fceltic-from-the-west.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> See especially map 9.3 The Ancient Celtic Languages c. 440/430 BCE (third map in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/ODonnell.pdf">online text (PDF)</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-koch2010_expansion-284"><a href="#cite_ref-koch2010_expansion_284-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_T._Koch2010" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_T._Koch" title="John T. Koch">John T. Koch</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210612041242/https://www.oxbowbooks.com/oxbow/celtic-from-the-west.html">"Paradigm Shift? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic"</a>. In J. T. Koch; B. Cunliffe (eds.). Celtic from the West. Oxford: Oxbow Books. p. 193. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxbowbooks.com/oxbow/celtic-from-the-west.html">the original</a> on 12 June 2021. Retrieved 12 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Paradigm+Shift%3F+Interpreting+Tartessian+as+Celtic&rft.btitle=Celtic+from+the+West&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=Oxbow+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.au=John+T.+Koch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxbowbooks.com%2Foxbow%2Fceltic-from-the-west.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> See especially map 9.2 Celtic expansion from Hallstatt/La Tene central Europe (second map in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/ODonnell.pdf">online text (PDF)</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/celtic">"American Heritage Dictionary. Celtic: kel-tik, sel"</a>. Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 19 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Heritage+Dictionary.+Celtic%3A+kel-tik%2C+sel&rft.pub=Dictionary.reference.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.reference.com%2Fbrowse%2Fceltic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> Cunliffe, Barry W. 2003. The Celts: a very short introduction. pg.48 </li> <li id="cite_note-mla-287"><a href="#cite_ref-mla_287-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mla.org/map_data_states&mode=lang_tops&lang_id=636">"Language by State – Scottish Gaelic"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120111133616/http://www.mla.org/map_data_states%26mode%3Dlang_tops%26lang_id%3D636">Archived</a> 2012-01-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> on Modern Language Association website. Retrieved 27 December 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omi.wa.gov.au/WAPeople%5CSect1%5CTable%201p04%20Aust.pdf">"Languages Spoken At Home"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090325123031/http://www.omi.wa.gov.au/WAPeople%5CSect1%5CTable%201p04%20Aust.pdf">Archived</a> March 25, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from Australian Government Office of Multicultural Interests website. Retrieved 27 December 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927232047/http://www.stats.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/1C81F07B-28C6-4DDD-8EBA-80C592E8022A/0/20languagespokentotalresponse.xls">Languages Spoken:Total Responses</a> from Statistics New Zealand website. Retrieved 5 August 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> G. Leitner, Australia's Many Voices: Australian English—The National Language, 2004, pg. 74 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson,_IV2011414-292"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson,_IV2011414_292-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFortson,_IV2011">Fortson, IV 2011</a>, p. 414. </li> <li id="cite_note-enc-295"><a href="#cite_ref-enc_295-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2009">Young (2009</a>:135–136) </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-296"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_296-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlimas" class="citation web cs1">Klimas, Antanas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211023205945/http://www.lituanus.org/1967/67_2_01Klimas.html">"Balto-slavic or Baltic and Slavic?"</a>. lituanus.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lituanus.org/1967/67_2_01Klimas.html">the original</a> on 23 October 2021. Retrieved 19 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=lituanus.org&rft.atitle=Balto-slavic+or+Baltic+and+Slavic%3F&rft.aulast=Klimas&rft.aufirst=Antanas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lituanus.org%2F1967%2F67_2_01Klimas.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-297"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_297-0">^</a> Dubasova, A. V. (2009). Особенности становления консонантных систем в балтийском и славянском // Индоевропейское языкознание и классическая филология XIII (чтения памяти И. М. Тронского) [Features of the formation of consonantal systems in the Baltic and Slavic // Indo-European Linguistics and Classical Philology 13 (readings in memory of I. M. Tronsky)] (in Russian). Edited by Bondarko, N. A., Kazansky, N. N. СПб.: Наука, p. 154 </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-298"><a href="#cite_ref-:3_298-0">^</a> Trubachev, O. N. (2003). Этногенез и культура древнейших славян: Лингвистические исследования [Ethnogenesis and Culture of the Ancient Slavs: Linguistic Studies] (in Russian). М.: Наука, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBojtár199918-299"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBojtár199918_299-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBojtár1999">Bojtár 1999</a>, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> Guests in the House; cultural transmission between Slavs and Scandinavians. Mats Roslund. 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> Peter Somogyi. New Remarks on the flow of Byzantine coins in wallachia and Avaria.. In : The Other Europe in the Middle Ages: Avars, Bulgars, Khazars and Cumans; 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-theglobalist-303"><a href="#cite_ref-theglobalist_303-0">^</a> Fiona Hill, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theglobalist.com/printStoryId.aspx?StoryId=3727">Russia — Coming In From the Cold?</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Globalist" title="The Globalist">The Globalist</a>, 23 February 2004 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130424175110/http://www.theglobalist.com/printStoryId.aspx?StoryId=3727">Archived</a> April 24, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-bbc-304"><a href="#cite_ref-bbc_304-0">^</a> Robert Greenall, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4420922.stm">Russians left behind in Central Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>, 23 November 2005 </li> <li id="cite_note-independent-305"><a href="#cite_ref-independent_305-0">^</a> Terry Kirby, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/this_britain/article344755.ece">750,000 and rising: how Polish workers have built a home in Britain</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071014191240/http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/this_britain/article344755.ece">Archived</a> 14 October 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a>, 11 February 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-newadvent-306"><a href="#cite_ref-newadvent_306-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12204c.htm">Poles in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-barford-307"><a href="#cite_ref-barford_307-0">^</a> Barford, P. M. 2001. The Early Slavs. Culture and Society in Early Medieval Europe. Cornell University Press. 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-3977-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-3977-9">0-8014-3977-9</a>, p. 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-Bideleux-308"><a href="#cite_ref-Bideleux_308-0">^</a> Bideleux, Robert. 1998. History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. Routledge. </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayer" class="citation journal cs1">Mayer, Harvey E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171216135638/http://www.lituanus.org/1992_2/92_2_02.htm">"Dacian and Thracian as Southern Baltoidic Lituanus"</a>. Lithuanian Quarterly Journal of Arts and Sciences. 38 (2 – Summer 1992). (Antanas Klimas ed.). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0024-5089">0024-5089</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lituanus.org/1992_2/92_2_02.htm">the original</a> on 16 December 2017. Retrieved 13 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lithuanian+Quarterly+Journal+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.atitle=Dacian+and+Thracian+as+Southern+Baltoidic+Lituanus&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=2+%E2%80%93+Summer+1992&rft.issn=0024-5089&rft.aulast=Mayer&rft.aufirst=Harvey+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lituanus.org%2F1992_2%2F92_2_02.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_Webber,_Angus_McBride2001" class="citation book cs1">Christopher Webber, Angus McBride (2001). The Thracians, 700 BC–AD 46. Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-329-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-329-3"><bdi>978-1-84176-329-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thracians%2C+700+BC%E2%80%93AD+46&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-84176-329-3&rft.au=Christopher+Webber%2C+Angus+McBride&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a> The catalogue of <a href="/wiki/Kimbell_Art_Museum" title="Kimbell Art Museum">Kimbell Art Museum</a>'s 1998 exhibition Ancient Gold: The Wealth of the Thracians indicates a historical extent of Thracian settlement including most of <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, all of <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kimbellart.org/exhibitions/past_gold.cfm">Kimbell Art – Exhibitions</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070826134526/http://www.kimbellart.org/exhibitions/past_gold.cfm">Archived</a> 2007-08-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoddinott,_p._27-313">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoddinott,_p._27_313-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoddinott,_p._27_313-1">b</a> Hoddinott, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-Casson,_p._3-314">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Casson,_p._3_314-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Casson,_p._3_314-1">b</a> Casson, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> John Boardman, I.E.S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N.G.L. Hammond. The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 3, Part 1: The Prehistory of the Balkans, the Middle East and the Aegean World, Tenth to Eighth Centuries BC. Cambridge University Press, 1982, p. 53. "Yet we cannot identify the Thracians at that remote period, because we do not know for certain whether the Thracian and Illyrian tribes had separated by then. It is safer to speak of Proto-Thracians from whom there developed in the Iron Age..." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrabo2014VII_3,12-316">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrabo2014VII_3,12_316-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrabo2014VII_3,12_316-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStrabo2014">Strabo 2014</a>, VII 3,12. </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_Periegetes" title="Dionysius Periegetes">Dionysius Periegetes</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fGg_AQAAMAAJ">Graece et Latine, Volume 1</a>, Libraria Weidannia, 1828, p. 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENandris1976731-318">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENandris1976731_318-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENandris1976731_318-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNandris1976">Nandris 1976</a>, p. 731. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHusovská1998187-319"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHusovská1998187_319-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHusovská1998">Husovská 1998</a>, p. 187. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreptow199610-321"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreptow199610_321-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTreptow1996">Treptow 1996</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis186170-322"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis186170_322-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEllis1861">Ellis 1861</a>, p. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMountain199858-323"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMountain199858_323-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMountain1998">Mountain 1998</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDumitrescuBoardmanHammondKollberger198253-324"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDumitrescuBoardmanHammondKollberger198253_324-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDumitrescuBoardmanHammondKollberger1982">Dumitrescu et al. 1982</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-325"><a href="#cite_ref-325">^</a> Maggiulli, Sull'origine dei Messapi, 1934; D'Andria, Messapi e Peuceti, 1988; I Messapi, Taranto 1991 </li> <li id="cite_note-326"><a href="#cite_ref-326">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrazee1997">Frazee 1997</a>, p. 89: "The Balkan peninsula had three groups of Indo-Europeans prior to 2000 BCE. Those on the west were the Illyrians; those on the east were the <a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a>; and advancing down the southern part of the Balkans, the Greeks." </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilkes1995">Wilkes 1995</a>, pp. 6, 92; <a href="#CITEREFBoardmanHammond1982">Boardman & Hammond 1982</a>, p. 261 </li> <li id="cite_note-328"><a href="#cite_ref-328">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilkes1995">Wilkes 1995</a>, p. 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-329"><a href="#cite_ref-329">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/LLDescription.cfm?code=xil">Eastern Michigan University Linguist List: The Illyrian Language</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120218071454/http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/LLDescription.cfm?code=xil">Archived</a> 18 February 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-330"><a href="#cite_ref-330">^</a> Fol 2002, p. 225: "Romanisation was total and complete by the end of the 4th century A.D. In the case of the Illyrian elements a Romance intermediary is inevitable as long as Illyrian was probably extinct in the 2nd century A.D." </li> <li id="cite_note-331"><a href="#cite_ref-331">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 280: "The Illyrians certainly never collectively called themselves Illyrians, and it is unlikely that they had any collective name for themselves." </li> <li id="cite_note-Boardman629-332"><a href="#cite_ref-Boardman629_332-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoardman1982">Boardman 1982</a>, p. 629. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkes199592-333"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkes199592_333-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilkes1995">Wilkes 1995</a>, p. 92. </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120121173237/http://www.minorityrights.org/1617/italy/albanians.html">"Albanians"</a>. World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. Minority Rights Group International. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.minorityrights.org/1617/italy/albanians.html">the original</a> on 21 January 2012. Retrieved 2 January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Directory+of+Minorities+and+Indigenous+Peoples&rft.atitle=Albanians&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.minorityrights.org%2F1617%2Fitaly%2Falbanians.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-335"><a href="#cite_ref-335">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.albanianlanguage.net/">"The Albanian Language | Robert Elsie"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Albanian+Language+%26%23124%3B+Robert+Elsie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.albanianlanguage.net%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Elsie2010-336"><a href="#cite_ref-Elsie2010_336-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Elsie2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Elsie" title="Robert Elsie">Robert Elsie</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6inIiCF_930C&pg=PA216">Historical Dictionary of Albania</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 216. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6188-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6188-6"><bdi>978-0-8108-6188-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 30 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Albania&rft.pages=216&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-6188-6&rft.au=Robert+Elsie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6inIiCF_930C%26pg%3DPA216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-337"><a href="#cite_ref-337">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrause_&_Slocum" class="citation web cs1">Krause & Slocum. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/armolr">"Classical Armenian Online- Romanized -Introduction"</a>. Linguistics Research Center. University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 4 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Linguistics+Research+Center&rft.atitle=Classical+Armenian+Online-+Romanized+-Introduction&rft.au=Krause+%26+Slocum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flrc.la.utexas.edu%2Feieol%2Farmolr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Petrosyan2007-338"><a href="#cite_ref-Petrosyan2007_338-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetrosyan2007" class="citation journal cs1">Petrosyan, Armen (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3657764">"The Problem Of Identification Of The Proto-Armenians: A Critical Review"</a>. Journal of the Society for Armenian Studies. 16: 55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Society+for+Armenian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Problem+Of+Identification+Of+The+Proto-Armenians%3A+A+Critical+Review&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=55&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Petrosyan&rft.aufirst=Armen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3657764&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-339"><a href="#cite_ref-339">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Gamkrelidze" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Gamkrelidze">Thomas Gamkrelidze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Ivanov_(philologist)" title="Vyacheslav Ivanov (philologist)">Vyacheslav Ivanov</a>, The Early History of Indo-European Languages, March 1990, p. 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-340"><a href="#cite_ref-340">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeorgiev1981">Georgiev 1981</a>, p. 156: "The Proto-Greek region included Epirus, approximately up to Αὐλών in the north including Paravaia, Tymphaia, Athamania, Dolopia, Amphilochia, and Acarnania), west and north Thessaly (Hestiaiotis, Perrhaibia, Tripolis, and Pieria), i.e. more or less the territory of contemporary northwestern Greece)." </li> <li id="cite_note-341"><a href="#cite_ref-341">^</a> In other contexts, "Hellenic" and "Greek" are generally synonyms. </li> <li id="cite_note-Browning-342"><a href="#cite_ref-Browning_342-0">^</a> Browning (1983), Medieval and Modern Greek, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-JosephPhilippaki-343"><a href="#cite_ref-JosephPhilippaki_343-0">^</a> Joseph, Brian D. and Irene Philippaki-Warburton (1987): Modern Greek. London: Routledge, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-BJoseph-344"><a href="#cite_ref-BJoseph_344-0">^</a> B. Joseph (2001): "Ancient Greek". In: J. Garry et al. (eds.) Facts about the World's Major Languages: An Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages, Past and Present. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~bjoseph/articles/gancient.htm">Online Paper</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-345"><a href="#cite_ref-345">^</a> Dalby, David. The Linguasphere Register of the World's Languages and Speech Communities (1999/2000, Linguasphere Press), pp. 449f. </li> <li id="cite_note-346"><a href="#cite_ref-346">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeorgiev1981">Georgiev 1981</a>, p. 192: "Late Neolithic Period: in northwestern Greece the Proto-Greek language had already been formed: this is the original home of the Greeks.") </li> <li id="cite_note-347"><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFColeman2000">Coleman 2000</a>, pp. 101–153. </li> <li id="cite_note-348"><a href="#cite_ref-348">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRenfrew2003">Renfrew 2003</a>, p. 35: "Greek The fragmentation of the Balkan Proto-Indo-European Sprachbund of phase II around 3000 BC led gradually in the succeeding centuries to the much clearer definition of the languages of the constituent sub-regions." </li> <li id="cite_note-349"><a href="#cite_ref-349">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClackson1995">Clackson 1995</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brixhe_pp._165-178-350"><a href="#cite_ref-Brixhe_pp._165-178_350-0">^</a> Brixhe, Cl. "Le Phrygien". In Fr. Bader (ed.), Langues indo-européennes, pp. 165–178, Paris: CNRS Editions. </li> <li id="cite_note-351"><a href="#cite_ref-351">^</a> Woodard, Roger D. The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. Cambridge University Press, 2008, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-68496-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-68496-X">0-521-68496-X</a>, p. 72. "Unquestionably, however, Phrygian is most closely linked with Greek." </li> <li id="cite_note-Hamp-352"><a href="#cite_ref-Hamp_352-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamp2013" class="citation journal cs1">Hamp, Eric P. 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(2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4908240">"An Archaeological Scenario for the 'Coming of the Greeks' ca. 3200 B.C."</a>, The Journal of Indo-European Studies, vol. 28, no. 1–2, pp. 101–153</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Indo-European+Studies&rft.atitle=An+Archaeological+Scenario+for+the+%27Coming+of+the+Greeks%27+ca.+3200+B.C.&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=101-153&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Coleman&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4908240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDamgaard2018" class="citation cs2">Damgaard, Peter de Barros (2018), "The First Horse herders and the Impact of Early Bronze Age Steppe expansions into Asia", Science, 360 (6396), <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aar7711">10.1126/science.aar7711</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6748862">6748862</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29743352">29743352</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+First+Horse+herders+and+the+Impact+of+Early+Bronze+Age+Steppe+expansions+into+Asia&rft.volume=360&rft.issue=6396&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6748862%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29743352&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aar7711&rft.aulast=Damgaard&rft.aufirst=Peter+de+Barros&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemkina2017" class="citation cs2">Demkina, T. S. (2017), "Paleoecological Crisis in the Steppes of the Lower Volga Region in the Middle of the Bronze Age (III–II centuries BC)", Eurasian Soil Science, 50 (7): 791–804, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017EurSS..50..791D">2017EurSS..50..791D</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1134%2FS1064229317070018">10.1134/S1064229317070018</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:133638705">133638705</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eurasian+Soil+Science&rft.atitle=Paleoecological+Crisis+in+the+Steppes+of+the+Lower+Volga+Region+in+the+Middle+of+the+Bronze+Age+%28III%E2%80%93II+centuries+BC%29&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=791-804&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A133638705%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1134%2FS1064229317070018&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017EurSS..50..791D&rft.aulast=Demkina&rft.aufirst=T.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiakonoff1995" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Igor_M._Diakonoff" title="Igor M. 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G. L; Kollberger, E (1982), "The prehistory of Romania from the earliest times to 1000 BC", The Prehistory of the Balkans, the Middle East and the Aegean World, Tenth to Eighth Centuries BC, The Cambridge Ancient History, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22496-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22496-3"><bdi>978-0-521-22496-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+prehistory+of+Romania+from+the+earliest+times+to+1000+BC&rft.btitle=The+Prehistory+of+the+Balkans%2C+the+Middle+East+and+the+Aegean+World%2C+Tenth+to+Eighth+Centuries+BC&rft.series=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22496-3&rft.aulast=Dumitrescu&rft.aufirst=Vlad&rft.au=Boardman%2C+John&rft.au=Hammond%2C+N.+G.+L&rft.au=Kollberger%2C+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis1861" class="citation cs2">Ellis, Robert (1861), The Armenian Origin of the Etruscans, Parker, Son and Bourn</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Armenian+Origin+of+the+Etruscans&rft.pub=Parker%2C+Son+and+Bourn&rft.date=1861&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name">Enoki, K.; <a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE,_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" class="extiw" title="ru:Кошеленко, Геннадий Андреевич">Koshelenko, G. A.</a> [in Russian]; Haidary, Z. (1994), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001057/105703eo.pdf">"The Yu'eh-chih and their migrations"</a> (PDF), in <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Harmatta" title="János Harmatta">Harmatta, János</a> (ed.), History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B. C. to A. 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(2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bSxHgej4tKMC">Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-444-35968-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-444-35968-8"><bdi>978-1-444-35968-8</bdi></a>, retrieved 30 October 2012</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+Language+and+Culture%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-444-35968-8&rft.aulast=Fortson%2C+IV&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbSxHgej4tKMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFosse2005" class="citation cs2">Fosse, Lars Martin (2005), "Aryan Past and Post-colonial Present: The Polemics and Politics of Indigenous Aryanism", in Bryant, Edwin; Patton, Laurie L. 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Roell, pp. 1–53, (Beihefte NF 19)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Home+of+the+Aryans&rft.btitle=Anusantatyi%3A+Festschrift+fuer+Johanna+Narten+zum+70.+Geburtstag&rft.place=Dettelbach&rft.series=M%C3%BCnchener+Studien+zur+Sprachwissenschaft&rft.pages=1-53&rft.pub=J.+H.+Roell&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.people.fas.harvard.edu%2F%257Ewitzel%2FAryanHome.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2003" class="citation cs2">Witzel, Michael (December 2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/%7Ewitzel/SPP129-IndoIranArch.pdf">"Linguistic Evidence for Cultural Exchange in Prehistoric Western Central Asia"</a> (PDF), Sino-Platonic Papers, vol. 129, pp. 1–70</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Platonic+Papers&rft.atitle=Linguistic+Evidence+for+Cultural+Exchange+in+Prehistoric+Western+Central+Asia&rft.volume=129&rft.pages=1-70&rft.date=2003-12&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.people.fas.harvard.edu%2F%257Ewitzel%2FSPP129-IndoIranArch.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung2009" class="citation cs2">Young, Steven (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PA135">"Balto-Slavic languages"</a>, Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World, pp. 135–136, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-080-87774-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-080-87774-7"><bdi>978-0-080-87774-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Balto-Slavic+languages&rft.btitle=Concise+Encyclopedia+of+Languages+of+the+World&rft.pages=135-136&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-080-87774-7&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF2SRqDzB50wC%26pg%3DPA135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZvelebil1997" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Marek_Zvelebil" title="Marek Zvelebil">Zvelebil, Marek</a> (1997), "Pitted Ware And Related Cultures Of Neolithic Northern Europe", in Bogucki, Peter I.; Crabtree, Pam J. 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(2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020131212107/http://www.comp-archaeology.org/CordedWare.htm">The Corded Ware/Single Grave Culture</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.comp-archaeology.org/CordedWare.htm">the original</a> on 31 January 2002</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Corded+Ware%2FSingle+Grave+Culture&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Baldia&rft.aufirst=Maximilian+O.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.comp-archaeology.org%2FCordedWare.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MPG_mass_migration-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MPG_mass_migration_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MPG_mass_migration_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MPG_mass_migration_12-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mpg.de/9005184/humans-migration-indo-european-languages">"A massive migration from the steppe brought Indo-European languages to Europe"</a>, Max Planck Gesellschaft</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Max+Planck+Gesellschaft&rft.atitle=A+massive+migration+from+the+steppe+brought+Indo-European+languages+to+Europe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mpg.de%2F9005184%2Fhumans-migration-indo-european-languages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/general/histling.html">Jonathan Slocum, What is Historical Linguistics? 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Wolpert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization">"The appearance of Indo-Aryan speakers"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+appearance+of+Indo-Aryan+speakers&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft.au=Stanley+A.+Wolpert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FIndia%2FThe-end-of-the-Indus-civilization&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Doniger_2017-422">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Doniger_2017_422-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doniger_2017_422-1">b</a> Wendy Doniger (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inference-review.com/article/another-great-story">"Another Great Story"</a>, review of Asko Parpola's The Roots of Hinduism; in: Inference, International Review of Science, Volume 3, Issue 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-Shahane_2019-423">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shahane_2019_423-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shahane_2019_423-1">b</a> Girish Shahane (Sep 14, 2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scroll.in/article/937043/why-hindutva-supporters-love-to-hate-the-discredited-aryan-invasion-theory">Why Hindutva supporters love to hate the discredited Aryan Invasion Theory</a>, Scroll.in </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=87" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Allentoft; Sikora; et al. (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://depot.ceon.pl/handle/123456789/13155">"Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>, 522 (7555): 167–172, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.522..167A">2015Natur.522..167A</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature14507">10.1038/nature14507</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26062507">26062507</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4399103">4399103</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Population+genomics+of+Bronze+Age+Eurasia&rft.volume=522&rft.issue=7555&rft.pages=167-172&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature14507&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4399103%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26062507&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Natur.522..167A&rft.au=Allentoft&rft.au=Sikora&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdepot.ceon.pl%2Fhandle%2F123456789%2F13155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Anthony, David W. (2007), <a href="/wiki/The_Horse,_the_Wheel,_and_Language" title="The Horse, the Wheel, and Language">The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World</a>, Princeton University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Horse+The+Wheel+And+Language.+How+Bronze-Age+Riders+From+the+Eurasian+Steppes+Shaped+The+Modern+World&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Anthony&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Anthony, David (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/35405459">"Archaeology and Language: Why Archaeologists Care About the Indo-European Problem"</a>, in Crabtree, P. J.; Bogucki, P. (eds.), European Archaeology as Anthropology: Essays in Memory of Bernard Wailes, University of Pennsylvania Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archaeology+and+Language%3A+Why+Archaeologists+Care+About+the+Indo-European+Problem&rft.btitle=European+Archaeology+as+Anthropology%3A+Essays+in+Memory+of+Bernard+Wailes&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Anthony&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F35405459&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Anthony, David; Ringe, Don (2015), "The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives", Annual Review of Linguistics, 1: 199–219, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-linguist-030514-124812">10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Linguistics&rft.atitle=The+Indo-European+Homeland+from+Linguistic+and+Archaeological+Perspectives&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=199-219&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-linguist-030514-124812&rft.aulast=Anthony&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Ringe%2C+Don&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">ArunKumar, GaneshPrasad; et al. 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(2017), "A genetic chronology for the Indian Subcontinent points to heavily sex-biased dispersals", BMC Evolutionary Biology, 17 (1): 88, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017BMCEE..17...88S">2017BMCEE..17...88S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12862-017-0936-9">10.1186/s12862-017-0936-9</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5364613">5364613</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28335724">28335724</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Evolutionary+Biology&rft.atitle=A+genetic+chronology+for+the+Indian+Subcontinent+points+to+heavily+sex-biased+dispersals&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=88&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5364613%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28335724&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12862-017-0936-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017BMCEE..17...88S&rft.aulast=Silva&rft.aufirst=Marina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Underhill, Peter A. (2014), "The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a", European Journal of Human Genetics, 23 (1): 124–31, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fejhg.2014.50">10.1038/ejhg.2014.50</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4266736">4266736</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24667786">24667786</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=The+phylogenetic+and+geographic+structure+of+Y-chromosome+haplogroup+R1a&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=124-31&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4266736%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24667786&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fejhg.2014.50&rft.aulast=Underhill&rft.aufirst=Peter+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+migrations" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=88" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview_of_steppe-theory">Overview of steppe-theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=89" title="Edit section: Overview of steppe-theory">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/38220415/Formation_of_the_Indo-European_Branches_in_the_light_of_the_Archaeogenetic_Revolution">Formation of the Indo-European Branches in the light of the Archaeogenetic Revolution</a>, John Koch (2018)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ukrainianweek.com/History/88577">The Ukrainian Week, The Cradle of Indo-Europeans. The dawn of Indo-Europeans on the Ukrainian steppes</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://homeland.sites.ku.dk/">The Indo-European homeland problem – part 1</a>, Mikkel Nørtoft</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics_2">Genetics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=90" title="Edit section: Genetics">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.edge.org/conversation/david_reich-the-genomic-ancient-dna-revolution">The Genomic Ancient DNA Revolution – Interview with David Reich</a></li> <li>Tony Joseph (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/how-genetics-is-settling-the-aryan-migration-debate/article19090301.ece">How genetics is settling the Aryan migration debate</a>, The Hindu</li> <li>Tony Joseph (2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thequint.com/voices/opinion/genomic-study-vedic-aryan-migration-dravidian-languages-sanskrit">How We, The Indians, Came to Be</a> summary of Narasimhan (2018)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linguistics_2">Linguistics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=91" title="Edit section: Linguistics">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/02/150218123429.htm">ScienceDaily, New Insights into Origins of World's Languages</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/286368/Indo-European-languages">Encyclopædia Britannica, Indo-European languages</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics_and_archaeology">Genetics and archaeology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=92" title="Edit section: Genetics and archaeology">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Ewen Callaway (2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-03773-6">Divided by DNA: The uneasy relationship between archaeology and ancient genomics</a>, Science</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maps">Maps</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=93" title="Edit section: Maps">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indo-european.eu/maps/">Maps of Indo-European migrations</a> (series of maps, from Paleolithic migrations to Medieval migrations)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181107004210/http://homeland.ku.dk/">Homeland time map</a>, University of Copenhagen</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_centers">Research centers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&action=edit&section=94" title="Edit section: Research centers">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rootsofeurope.ku.dk/english/research/homeland/">The Homeland</a>, University of Copenhagen</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Proto-Indo-European_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #c9ffd9"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Template:Proto-Indo-European language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Template talk:Proto-Indo-European language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Proto-Indo-European language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Proto-Indo-European_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Phonology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_accent" title="Proto-Indo-European accent">Accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centum_and_satem_languages" title="Centum and satem languages">Centum and satem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glottalic_theory" title="Glottalic theory">Glottalic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_theory" title="Laryngeal theory">Laryngeal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_s-mobile" title="Indo-European s-mobile">s-mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_sound_laws" title="Indo-European sound laws">Sound laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bouk%C3%B3los_rule" title="Boukólos rule">boukólos rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*k%CA%B7etw%C3%B3res_rule" title="*kʷetwóres rule">*kʷetwóres rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages" title="Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages">Glossary of sound laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brugmann%27s_law" title="Brugmann's law">Brugmann's </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartholomae%27s_law" title="Bartholomae's law">Bartholomae's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortunatov%27s_law" title="Fortunatov's law">Fortunatov's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grassmann%27s_law" title="Grassmann's law">Grassmann's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osthoff%27s_law" title="Osthoff's law">Osthoff's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinault%27s_law" title="Pinault's law">Pinault's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebs%27s_law" title="Siebs's law">Siebs's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law#Edgerton" title="Sievers's law">Edgerton's converse</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stang%27s_law" title="Stang's law">Stang's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Szemer%C3%A9nyi%27s_law" title="Szemerényi's law">Szemerényi's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weise%27s_law" title="Weise's law">Weise's</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Morphology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Ablaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caland_system" title="Caland system">Caland system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E2%82%82e-conjugation_theory" title="H₂e-conjugation theory">h₂e-conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narten_present" title="Narten present">Narten present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_infix" title="Nasal infix">Nasal infix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_root" title="Proto-Indo-European root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thematic_vowel" title="Thematic vowel">Thematic vowel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%E1%B9%9Bddhi" title="Vṛddhi">Vṛddhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Parts of speech</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_nominals" title="Proto-Indo-European nominals">Nominals</a> (nouns and adjectives)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_numerals" title="Proto-Indo-European numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_particles" title="Proto-Indo-European particles">Particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_pronouns" title="Proto-Indo-European pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verbs" title="Proto-Indo-European verbs">Verbs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_copula" title="Indo-European copula">copula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_vocabulary" title="Indo-European vocabulary">Vocabulary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Main sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indogermanisches_etymologisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch">Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch</a> (IEW)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexikon_der_indogermanischen_Verben" title="Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben">Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben</a> (LIV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexikon_der_indogermanischen_Partikeln_und_Pronominalst%C3%A4mme" title="Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme">Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme</a> (LIPP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomina_im_Indogermanischen_Lexikon" title="Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon">Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon</a> (NIL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary" title="Indo-European Etymological Dictionary">Indo-European Etymological Dictionary</a> (IEED)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Artificial compositions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schleicher%27s_fable" title="Schleicher's fable">Schleicher's fable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_king_and_the_god" title="The king and the god">The king and the god</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schleicher_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Schleicher theories">Schleicher theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_hypothesis" title="Armenian hypothesis">Armenian hypothesis</a></li> <li>Outdated theories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beech_argument" title="Beech argument">Beech argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_European_hypothesis" title="North European hypothesis">North European hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Proto-Indo-European mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_society" title="Proto-Indo-European society">Proto-Indo-European society</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indo-European migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Proto-Indo-European homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_problem" title="Salmon problem">Salmon problem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a> (EIE)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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Template:Cite_web"," 3.68% 164.455 20 Template:Cite_journal"," 3.07% 137.523 31 Template:R"," 3.07% 137.294 20 Template:Cite_book"," 3.06% 137.010 8 Template:Fix"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.984","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":28868351,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAikio2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlineiBenozzo2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllentoft_et_al.2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnthony2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnthony2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnthony2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnthony2020\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFAnthonyRinge2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAubin\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaldia2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarras2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarry_Cunliffe2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBasuMukherjeeRoySengupta2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeckwith2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeretta2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBianca_Preda2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoardman1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoardmanHammond1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBojtár1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBomhard2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBradley2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBresnan2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryant2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryantPatton2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurrow1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCavalli-Sforza2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChadwickCorcoran1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristopher_Webber,_Angus_McBride2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClackson1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColeman2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrabtreeBogucki2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCunliffe,_Barry1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCunliffe1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDamgaard2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDemkina2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDerksen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiakonoff1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrews1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDumitrescuBoardmanHammondKollberger1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllis1861\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnokiKoshelenkoHaidary1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErdosy2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEwen_Callaway2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlood1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFortson,_IV2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFosse2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrazee1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedman2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFurtwängler_et_al.2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFäcke2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGamkrelidzeIvanov1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeorgiev1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGimbutas1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrolle2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaak2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaakLazaridisPattersonRohland2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaakLazaridisPattersonRohland2015a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamp2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanks2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarmatta1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeather\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeyd2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHiltebeitel2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHockJoseph1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHollar2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHusovská1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIvanova2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIvanova2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIversenKroonen2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames_P._Mallory2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJamison2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_T._Koch2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJones2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarlene1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKidnerBucurMathisenMcKee2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlimas\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoch2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKochhar2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKohl2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKortlandt2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKortlandt2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoryakova1998a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoryakova1998b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKozintsev2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrause_\u0026amp;_Slocum\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrechSteinicke2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKristiansen2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKroonenBarjamovicPeyrot2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuzmina2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuznetsov2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLazaridisAlpaslan-Roodenberg2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLazaridisHaakPattersonAnthony2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLazaridis_et_al2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinderholm2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoeweShaughnessy1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLopez_GuerraRivinGuedeaOrtiz2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMait_Metspalu2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallory1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallory1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallory1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallory2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallory2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalloryAdams1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalloryAdams2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalloryMair2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalmström2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartínezSalanova2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathieson2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathiesonLazaridisRohlandMallick2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayer\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMelchert2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoorjaniThangarajPattersonLipson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMountain1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuseyibli2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNandris1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNarain1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNarasimhanPattersonMoorjaniRohland2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNarasimhan_et_al.2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNichols1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNichols1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNordqvistHeyd2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOkladnikov1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParpola1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParpola2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParpola2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParpola2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPereltsvaigLewis2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetitMacMullen\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetrosyan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiggot1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlotkin2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolomé1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoloméFeeLeeming2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPulleyblank1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRascovanSjögrenKristiansen2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRavinutala2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReich2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRenfrew1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRenfrew2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRinge2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Elsie2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRonald_Eric_Emmerick\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalmons2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchneider2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSerangeli2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSjögren2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkjærvø2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanley_A._Wolpert\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrabo2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrazny2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSvyatko,_Svetlana_V.Mallory,_James_P.Murphy,_Eileen_M.Polyakov,_Andrey_V.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwain,_SimonAdams,_J._MaxwellJanse,_Mark2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThapar2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTreptow1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrevor_Bryce2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnderhill2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnderhill2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVybornov2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaldmanMason2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangReinholdKalmykovWissgott2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWangReinholdKalmykovWissgott2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeber2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWellsRead2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhatmough1937\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkes1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoung2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZadok2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhangNingScott2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZvelebil1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÖverstiMajanderSalmelaSalo2019\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Annotated image\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotation\"] = 4,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Center\"] = 4,\n [\"Circa\"] = 61,\n [\"Citation\"] = 156,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 20,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 20,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 23,\n [\"Colbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Colend\"] = 1,\n [\"Coord\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvcolnb\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvcoltxt\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 36,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvtxt\"] = 5,\n [\"IPA-sq\"] = 2,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 8,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 4,\n [\"Indo-European topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 7,\n [\"Langx\"] = 6,\n [\"Legend\"] = 19,\n [\"Main\"] = 39,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 6,\n [\"Proto-Indo-European language\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 1,\n [\"R\"] = 31,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 4,\n [\"Refn\"] = 34,\n [\"See also\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 414,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 3,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 3,\n [\"Update inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Vague\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 7,\n [\"Zh\"] = 3,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","760","23.8"],["?","320","10.0"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","260","8.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","200","6.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","160","5.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","160","5.0"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","160","5.0"],["type","140","4.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","100","3.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","100","3.1"],["[others]","840","26.2"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6df7948d6c-hwk9n","timestamp":"20241127203116","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Indo-European migrations","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Indo-European_migrations","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q28445743","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q28445743","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2014-04-26T11:50:42Z","dateModified":"2024-11-21T03:16:28Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/22\/Indo-European_expansions1.jpg","headline":"migrations out of the Pontic-Caspian steppe"}</script> </body> </html>