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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_reaction_and_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_reaction_and_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>French reaction and debate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_reaction_and_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fascism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fascism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Fascism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fascism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Awards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Awards-sublist" 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id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Robert Paxton</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 14 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-14" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">14 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86" title="روبرت باكستون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="روبرت باكستون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Robert Paxton" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D9%BE%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86" title="رابرت پاکتون – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="رابرت پاکتون" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Robert Paxton" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Robert Paxton" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_O._Paxton" title="Robert O. Paxton – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Robert O. Paxton" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Robert Paxton" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D9%BE%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86" title="رابرت پکستون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رابرت پکستون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Robert Paxton" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robertus_Paxton" title="Robertus Paxton – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Robertus Paxton" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86" title="روبرت باكستون – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="روبرت باكستون" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paxton_(historicus)" title="Robert Paxton (historicus) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Robert Paxton (historicus)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Robert Paxton" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Robert Paxton" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American political scientist and historian (born 1932)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the figure skater, see <a href="/wiki/Robert_Paxton_(figure_skater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Paxton (figure skater)">Robert Paxton (figure skater)</a>. For the British bowler, see <a href="/wiki/Robert_Paxton_(bowls)" title="Robert Paxton (bowls)">Robert Paxton (bowls)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Robert Paxton</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Robert Owen Paxton</div><br /><span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday">1932-06-15</span>) </span>June 15, 1932<span class="noprint ForceAgeToShow"> (age 92)</span><br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Lexington,_Virginia" title="Lexington, Virginia">Lexington, Virginia</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Political_scientist" class="mw-redirect" title="Political scientist">Political scientist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">historian</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sharon_Traweek" title="Sharon Traweek">Sharon Traweek</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p> <b>Robert Owen Paxton</b> (born June 15, 1932) is an American <a href="/wiki/Political_scientist" class="mw-redirect" title="Political scientist">political scientist</a> and historian specializing in <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>, and Europe during the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> era. He is Mellon Professor Emeritus of Social Science in the Department of History at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>. He is best known for his 1972 book <i>Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order</i>, which precipitated intense debate in France, and led to a paradigm shift in how the events of the <a href="/wiki/Vichy_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Vichy regime">Vichy regime</a> are interpreted. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Paxton&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Paxton was born on June 15, 1932, in <a href="/wiki/Lexington,_Virginia" title="Lexington, Virginia">Lexington, Virginia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He attended <a href="/wiki/Phillips_Exeter_Academy" title="Phillips Exeter Academy">Phillips Exeter Academy</a> in New Hampshire for his secondary education.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Exeter, he received a B.A. from <a href="/wiki/Washington_and_Lee_University" title="Washington and Lee University">Washington and Lee University</a> in 1954. Later, he won a <a href="/wiki/Rhodes_Scholarship" title="Rhodes Scholarship">Rhodes Scholarship</a> and spent two years earning an M.A. at <a href="/wiki/Merton_College,_Oxford" title="Merton College, Oxford">Merton College, Oxford</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevens1964459_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevens1964459-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where he studied under historians including <a href="/wiki/James_Joll" title="James Joll">James Joll</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Roberts_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Roberts (historian)">John Roberts</a>. He earned a Ph.D. from <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> in 1963.<sup id="cite_ref-evans-2001_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evans-2001-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career">Career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Paxton&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Paxton taught at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevens1964459_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevens1964459-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_at_Stony_Brook" class="mw-redirect" title="State University of New York at Stony Brook">State University of New York at Stony Brook</a> before joining the faculty of <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> in 1969. He served there for the remainder of his career, retiring in 1997. He remains a <a href="/wiki/Professor_emeritus" class="mw-redirect" title="Professor emeritus">professor emeritus</a>. He has contributed more than twenty reviews to <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>,</i> beginning in 1978 and continuing through 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-nybooks-bio_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nybooks-bio-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vichy">Vichy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Paxton&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Vichy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Paxton is best known for his 1972 book <i>Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940–1944.</i> In opposition to the traditional view pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Aron" title="Robert Aron">Robert Aron</a>, he argued that the <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy government</a> was eager to collaborate with <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and did not practice "passive resistance" to German rule.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousso1991253_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousso1991253-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike Aron and <a href="/wiki/Henri_Michel_(historian)" title="Henri Michel (historian)">Henri Michel</a>, Paxton did not play down Vichy's achievements in his explanation of its domestic agenda. He argued that the reforms undertaken by the Vichy government prefigured the reforms of the 1950s and 1960s and derived from Vichy's aim to transform French society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousso1991253_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousso1991253-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Upon the book's publication in French translation in 1973, Paxton became the subject of intense vitriol from <a href="/wiki/French_historians" class="mw-redirect" title="French historians">French historians</a> and commentators. During a televised debate with Paxton in 1976, the Vichy naval leader <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Auphan" title="Gabriel Auphan">Gabriel Auphan</a> called him a liar. However, the translation sold thousands of copies, particularly to the young generation shaped by the <a href="/wiki/May_1968_events_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="May 1968 events in France">civil unrest of May 1968</a> and who were uninterested in the "cozy mythologies" of Vichy apologists.<sup id="cite_ref-evans-2001_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evans-2001-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paxtonian_revolution">Paxtonian revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Paxton&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Paxtonian revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For decades prior to the 1970s modern period, French historiography was dominated by conservative or pro-Communist thinking, neither of them very inclined to consider the grass-roots pro-democracy developments at liberation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorn2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2EfWDwAAQBAJpgPA256_255–256]_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorn2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2EfWDwAAQBAJpgPA256_255–256]-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was little recognition in French scholarship on the active participation of the Vichy regime in the deportation of French Jews, until Paxton's 1972 book appeared. The book received a French translation within a year and sold thousands of copies in France. In the words of French historian <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Noiriel" title="Gérard Noiriel">Gérard Noiriel</a>, the book "had the effect of a bombshell, because it showed, with supporting evidence, that the French state had participated in the deportation of Jews to the Nazi concentration camps, a fact that had been concealed by historians until then."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The "Paxtonian revolution", as the French called it, had a profound effect on French historiography. In 1997, Paxton was called as an expert witness to testify about collaboration during the Vichy period, at the trial in France of <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Papon" title="Maurice Papon">Maurice Papon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lagarde-2018_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lagarde-2018-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_reaction_and_debate">French reaction and debate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Paxton&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: French reaction and debate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Marc_Ferro" title="Marc Ferro">Marc Ferro</a>, a French historian, wrote that <i>Vichy France</i> would make the left feel uneasy by its contradiction of their belief that only the élite had betrayed France in 1940, "whereas in reality heroic resistance to the last man from Bayonne to Africa made no sense for anyone".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousso1991253_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousso1991253-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also noted that the <a href="/wiki/Gaullism" title="Gaullism">Gaullists</a> would object to Paxton's portrayal of them as "heirs of the regime they fought against" and that it would disturb all those who believed that Pétain had played a "double game" between the Axis and the Allies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousso1991253_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousso1991253-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Communists welcomed the book for buttressing their belief that Vichy had been the product of state monopoly capitalism, and it was also applauded by Jewish groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousso1991253–254_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousso1991253–254-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reaction among Resistance groups was mixed due to Paxton's argument that there was no serious Resistance until well into 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousso1991254_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousso1991254-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the preface to the 1982 edition of <i>Vichy France</i>, Paxton disagreed with the assertion of his opponents that he had written in "easy moral superiority" from the perspective of a "victor": "In fact [it] was written in the shadow of the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">war in Vietnam</a>, which sharpened my animosity against nationalist conformism of all kinds. Writing in the late 1960s, what concerned me was not the comparison with defeated France but the confident swagger of the Germans in the summer of 1940."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousso1991263_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousso1991263-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today, the book is considered a historical classic and one of the best studies on France in the Vichy era.<sup id="cite_ref-evans-2001_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evans-2001-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is so influential that <a href="/wiki/Richard_Vinen" title="Richard Vinen">Richard Vinen</a> said that his </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>interpretation is completely orthodox, perhaps excessively orthodox, in France. In a funny way, <a href="/wiki/Eric_Zemmour" class="mw-redirect" title="Eric Zemmour">Eric Zemmour</a>'s right to say that Paxton has become a pillar of the French establishment ... Historians will one day move beyond Paxton. In some ways, it's been hard for French people to do that because it seems as if you're making an apology for the Vichy government ... But even when people do turn against Paxton, they'll still say that this is a wonderful book, a classic example of how you might do a certain kind of history.<sup id="cite_ref-fivebookskingvinen_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fivebookskingvinen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>It was published at a time when French historians and filmmakers were also exploring history under the Vichy regime, as in <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Oph%C3%BCls" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcel Ophüls">Marcel Ophüls</a>' influential two-part documentary <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sorrow_and_the_Pity" title="The Sorrow and the Pity">The Sorrow and the Pity</a></i> (1969). </p><p>In 1981, Paxton and historian Michael R. Marrus co-published the book, <i>Vichy France and the Jews</i>, which examined the <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy</a> regime's policy towards the Jews during World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>The New York Times</i> review of the book was written by <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Hoffmann" title="Stanley Hoffmann">Stanley Hoffmann</a>, a Harvard professor and scholar on France.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As an expert on the Vichy era, Paxton co-wrote <a href="/wiki/Claude_Chabrol" title="Claude Chabrol">Claude Chabrol</a>'s 1993 documentary <i><a href="/wiki/The_Eye_of_Vichy" title="The Eye of Vichy">The Eye of Vichy</a>.</i> In 1997 he testified at the trial of Vichy bureaucrat <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Papon" title="Maurice Papon">Maurice Papon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fascism">Fascism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Paxton&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fascism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Paxton has focused his work on exploring <a href="/wiki/Definition_of_fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Definition of fascism">models and definition of fascism</a>. </p><p>In his 1998 paper "The Five Stages of Fascism," he suggests that fascism cannot be defined solely by <a href="/wiki/Fascism_and_ideology" title="Fascism and ideology">its ideology</a>, since fascism is a complex political phenomenon rather than a relatively coherent body of doctrine like <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>. Instead, he focuses on fascism's political context and functional development. The article identifies five paradigmatic stages of a fascist movement, although he notes that only <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Fascism">Fascist Italy</a> progressed through all five: </p> <ol><li>Intellectual exploration, where disillusionment with popular democracy manifests itself in discussions of lost national vigor</li> <li>Rooting, where a fascist movement, aided by political deadlock and polarization, becomes a player on the national stage</li> <li>Arrival to power, where conservatives seeking to control rising leftist opposition invite fascists to share power</li> <li>Exercise of power, where the movement and its charismatic leader control the state in balance with state institutions such as the police and traditional elites such as the <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Business_magnate" title="Business magnate">business magnates</a>.</li> <li>Radicalization or entropy, where the state either becomes increasingly radical, as did Nazi Germany, or slips into traditional <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian</a> rule, as did Fascist Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>In his 2004 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Anatomy_of_Fascism" title="The Anatomy of Fascism">The Anatomy of Fascism</a></i>, Paxton refines his five-stage model and puts forward the following definition for fascism: </p> <blockquote><p>Fascism may be defined as a form of <a href="/wiki/Political" class="mw-redirect" title="Political">political</a> behavior marked by obsessive preoccupation with community decline, <a href="/wiki/Humiliation" title="Humiliation">humiliation</a>, or victim-hood and by compensatory <a href="/wiki/Cult" title="Cult">cults</a> of unity, energy, and <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">purity</a>, in which a mass-based party of committed <a href="/wiki/Nationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalist">nationalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Militant_(word)" class="mw-redirect" title="Militant (word)">militants</a>, working in uneasy but effective collaboration with traditional elites, abandons <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic</a> <a href="/wiki/Liberties" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberties">liberties</a> and pursues with redemptive <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violence</a> and without <a href="/wiki/Ethic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethic">ethical</a> or <a href="/wiki/Legal" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal">legal</a> restraints goals of internal cleansing and external expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaxton2004[httpsarchiveorgdetailsanatomyoffascism00paxt_0page218_218]_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaxton2004[httpsarchiveorgdetailsanatomyoffascism00paxt_0page218_218]-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In 2021, Paxton wrote an op-ed for <i><a href="/wiki/Newsweek" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i> in which he stated that he now believed <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> was a fascist, after insisting for several years that he was instead a right-wing populist. Trump's incitement of the <a href="/wiki/2021_storming_of_the_United_States_Capitol" class="mw-redirect" title="2021 storming of the United States Capitol">2021 storming of the United States Capitol</a> was the deciding factor in him changing his view.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards">Awards</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Paxton&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Awards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2009, the French government awarded Paxton the <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9gion_d%27honneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Légion d'honneur">Légion d'honneur</a>, the highest French order of merit.<sup id="cite_ref-FrenchToday2009_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FrenchToday2009-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Paxton&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Personal life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Paxton is an avid <a href="/wiki/Birdwatching" title="Birdwatching">birdwatcher</a> and a former president of the <a href="/wiki/Linnaean_Society_of_New_York" title="Linnaean Society of New York">Linnaean Society of New York</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nybooks-bio_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nybooks-bio-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Paxton&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Parades and Politics at Vichy</i> (1966), <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691051420" title="Special:BookSources/9780691051420">9780691051420</a>. <ul><li><i>L'Armée de Vichy</i> (Paris: Tallandier Éditions, 2004), French translation.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940–1944</i> (1972), <a href="/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf" title="Alfred A. Knopf">Alfred A. Knopf</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780394473604" title="Special:BookSources/9780394473604">9780394473604</a>. <ul><li>A new introduction prefaced the Morningside Edition published by <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>, 1982, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0231054270" title="Special:BookSources/0231054270">0231054270</a></li> <li>Another new introduction prefaced the 2001 publication by Columbia University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0231124694" title="Special:BookSources/0231124694">0231124694</a>.</li></ul></li> <li>with W. J. Boyle Jr, and D. A. Cutler. "Hudson-Delaware region." <i>American Birds</i> 32 (1978): 326–331.</li> <li>"The German Opposition to Hitler: A Non-Germanist's View." <i>Central European History</i> 14.4 (1981): 362–368.</li> <li><i>Vichy France and the Jews</i> (1981), with <a href="/wiki/Michael_Marrus" title="Michael Marrus">Michael Marrus</a>. <ul><li>A new edition was published in 1995 by <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0804724997" title="Special:BookSources/0804724997">0804724997</a>.</li></ul></li> <li>"The Nazis and the Jews in Occupied Western Europe, 1940–1944" (1982), with <a href="/wiki/Michael_Marrus" title="Michael Marrus">Michael Marrus</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Modern_History" title="The Journal of Modern History">The Journal of Modern History</a></i> vol. 54, no. 4. pp 687–714. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ask-force.org/web/Fundamentalists/Marrus-Paxton-Nazis-Jews-Occupied-Europe-1982.pdf">online</a></li> <li>"Anti-Americanism in the Years of Collaboration and Resistance." in <i>The Rise and Fall of Anti-Americanism</i> ed. by Denis Lacorne et al. (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1990) pp. 55–66.</li> <li>With Mame Warren. "Oral History Interview with Robert O. Paxton, April 18, 1996." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.wlu.edu/bitstream/handle/11021/34499/WLUcoll0239_b188_PaxtonRobert_1996.pdf?sequence=1">online</a>.</li> <li><i>French Peasant Fascism: <a href="/wiki/Henry_Dorgere" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Dorgere">Henry Dorgere</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Comit%C3%A9s_de_d%C3%A9fense_paysanne" title="Comités de défense paysanne">Greenshirts</a> and the Crises of French Agriculture, 1929–1939</i> (1997).</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://w3.salemstate.edu/~cmauriello/pdfEuropean/Paxton_Five%20Stages%20of%20Fascism.pdf">The Five Stages of Fascism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180827105755/http://w3.salemstate.edu/~cmauriello/pdfEuropean/Paxton_Five%20Stages%20of%20Fascism.pdf">Archived</a> August 27, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" (1998), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Modern_History" title="The Journal of Modern History">The Journal of Modern History</a></i> vol. 70, no. 1.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPaxton2004" class="citation book cs1"><span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anatomyoffascism00paxt_0"><i>The Anatomy of Fascism</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf" title="Alfred A. Knopf">Alfred A. Knopf</a>. 2004. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4000-4094-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-4000-4094-9"><bdi>1-4000-4094-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anatomy+of+Fascism&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-4000-4094-9&rft.aulast=Paxton&rft.aufirst=Robert+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanatomyoffascism00paxt_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2008/mar/06/vichy-vs-the-nazis/">"Vichy vs. the Nazis"</a> (2008), <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a></i>.</li> <li>"Comparisons and definitions." <i>The Oxford Handbook of Fascism</i> ed <i>The Oxford Handbook of Fascism</i> ed by R.J.B. Bosworth (2010) pp 547–565.</li> <li><i>Europe in the Twentieth Century</i> with co-author Julie Hessler, (1st ed. 1975; 5th edition, Wadsworth/Cengage 2011)</li> <li>"Vichy Lives!—In a way." <i>The New York Review of Books</i> (April 25, 2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2013/04/25/vichy-lives-in-a-way/">online</a>.</li> <li>"American Duce: Is Donald Trump a Fascist or a Plutocrat?" <i>Harper's Magazine</i> (May 2017) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://harpers.org/archive/2017/05/american-duce/">online</a>.</li> <li>with Manuel Bragança, and Fransiska Louwagie. "Interview with Robert O. Paxton, on the Writing of History and Ego-history." in <i>Ego-histories of France and the Second World War</i> (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018. 19–22).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://issforum.org/essays/PDF/E242.pdf">"Entering the Profession at the End of the Cold War" (2004, revised for H-DIPLO 2020</a> autobiography</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Paxton&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vichy_syndrome" title="Vichy syndrome">Vichy syndrome</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Paxton&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOry2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ory, Pascal (October 17, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VXBJAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT1044"><i>Dictionnaire des étrangers qui ont fait la France</i></a> (in French). Groupe Robert Laffont. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782221140161" title="Special:BookSources/9782221140161"><bdi>9782221140161</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionnaire+des+%C3%A9trangers+qui+ont+fait+la+France&rft.pub=Groupe+Robert+Laffont&rft.date=2013-10-17&rft.isbn=9782221140161&rft.aulast=Ory&rft.aufirst=Pascal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVXBJAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT1044&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRobert_O._Paxton2020" class="citation web cs1">Robert O. Paxton (June 9, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdiplo.org/to/E242">"H-Diplo Essay 242 - Robert O. Paxton on Learning the Scholar's Craft: Reflections of Historians and International Relations Scholars"</a>. <i>H-Diplo</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 17,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=H-Diplo&rft.atitle=H-Diplo+Essay+242+-+Robert+O.+Paxton+on+Learning+the+Scholar%27s+Craft%3A+Reflections+of+Historians+and+International+Relations+Scholars&rft.date=2020-06-09&rft.au=Robert+O.+Paxton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhdiplo.org%2Fto%2FE242&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevens1964459-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevens1964459_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevens1964459_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLevens1964">Levens 1964</a>, p. 459.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-evans-2001-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-evans-2001_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-evans-2001_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-evans-2001_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEvans2001" class="citation journal cs1">Evans, Martin (September 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historytoday.com/martin-evans/robert-paxton-outsider">"Robert Paxton: The Outsider"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/History_Today" title="History Today">History Today</a></i>. <b>51</b> (9)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 25,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=Robert+Paxton%3A+The+Outsider&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=9&rft.date=2001-09&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Fmartin-evans%2Frobert-paxton-outsider&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nybooks-bio-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nybooks-bio_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nybooks-bio_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nybooks.com/contributors/robert-o-paxton/">"Robert O. Paxton"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 22,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Robert+O.+Paxton&rft.pub=The+New+York+Review+of+Books&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nybooks.com%2Fcontributors%2Frobert-o-paxton%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERousso1991253-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousso1991253_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousso1991253_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousso1991253_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousso1991253_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRousso1991">Rousso 1991</a>, p. 253.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorn2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2EfWDwAAQBAJpgPA256_255–256]-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorn2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2EfWDwAAQBAJpgPA256_255–256]_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHorn2020">Horn 2020</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2EfWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA256">255–256</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNoiriel2019" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Noiriel" class="extiw" title="fr:Gérard Noiriel">Noiriel, Gérard</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in French]</span> (November 19, 2019) [1st pub. 2018:Agone]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xXJvDwAAQBAJ"><i>Une histoire populaire de la France : De la guerre de Cent Ans à nos jours</i></a> [<i>A Popular History of France: from the 100 Years War to the Present Day</i>]. Mémoires sociales (in French). Agone. p. 547. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7489-0301-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7489-0301-0"><bdi>978-2-7489-0301-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1057326362">1057326362</a>. <q>[Le livre] fit l'effet d'une bombe, car il montrait, preuves à l'appui, que l'État français avait participé à la déportation des Juifs dans les camps de concentration nazis, ce qui avait été occulté par les historiens jusque-là.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Une+histoire+populaire+de+la+France+%3A+De+la+guerre+de+Cent+Ans+%C3%A0+nos+jours&rft.series=M%C3%A9moires+sociales&rft.pages=547&rft.pub=Agone&rft.date=2019-11-19&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1057326362&rft.isbn=978-2-7489-0301-0&rft.aulast=Noiriel&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A9rard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxXJvDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lagarde-2018-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lagarde-2018_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLagarde2018" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lagarde, Yann (July 2, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.franceculture.fr/histoire/comment-la-revolution-paxtonienne-a-bouleverse-notre-regard-sur-loccupation">"Quand l'histoire fait scandale : La France de Vichy"</a> [When History Becomes Scandal : Vichy France]. La Fabrique de l'histoire [Making History] (in French). <a href="/wiki/France_Culture" title="France Culture">France Culture</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Quand+l%27histoire+fait+scandale+%3A+La+France+de+Vichy&rft.series=La+Fabrique+de+l%27histoire+%5BMaking+History%5D&rft.pub=France+Culture&rft.date=2018-07-02&rft.aulast=Lagarde&rft.aufirst=Yann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.franceculture.fr%2Fhistoire%2Fcomment-la-revolution-paxtonienne-a-bouleverse-notre-regard-sur-loccupation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERousso1991253–254-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousso1991253–254_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRousso1991">Rousso 1991</a>, pp. 253–254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERousso1991254-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousso1991254_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRousso1991">Rousso 1991</a>, p. 254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERousso1991263-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousso1991263_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRousso1991">Rousso 1991</a>, p. 263.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fivebookskingvinen-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fivebookskingvinen_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVinen" class="citation interview cs1">Vinen, Richard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fivebooks.com/best-books/modern-french-history-richard-vinen/">"The best books on Modern French History"</a> (Interview). Interviewed by Benedict King.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+best+books+on+Modern+French+History&rft.aulast=Vinen&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffivebooks.com%2Fbest-books%2Fmodern-french-history-richard-vinen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFogg2020" class="citation web cs1">Fogg, Shannon (December 4, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/hgs/article-abstract/34/3/518/6020125?redirectedFrom=fulltext">"Vichy France and the Jews, Michael R Marrus and Robert O Paxton"</a>. <i>Oxford Academic</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Academic&rft.atitle=Vichy+France+and+the+Jews%2C+Michael+R+Marrus+and+Robert+O+Paxton&rft.date=2020-12-04&rft.aulast=Fogg&rft.aufirst=Shannon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fhgs%2Farticle-abstract%2F34%2F3%2F518%2F6020125%3FredirectedFrom%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoffmann1981" class="citation web cs1">Hoffmann, Stanley (November 1, 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1981/11/01/books/vichy-france-jews-michael-r-marrus-robert-o-paxton-432-pp-new-york-basic-books.html">"VICHY FRANCE AND THE JEWS By Michael R. Marrus and Robert O. Paxton. 432 pp. New York: Basic Books New York. $20.95"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=VICHY+FRANCE+AND+THE+JEWS+By+Michael+R.+Marrus+and+Robert+O.+Paxton.+432+pp.+New+York%3A+Basic+Books+New+York.+%2420.95.&rft.date=1981-11-01&rft.aulast=Hoffmann&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1981%2F11%2F01%2Fbooks%2Fvichy-france-jews-michael-r-marrus-robert-o-paxton-432-pp-new-york-basic-books.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPaxton1997" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Paxton, Robert (November 1, 1997). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.humanite.fr/node/169724.">"Robert Paxton donne une accablante leçon d'histoire"</a></span> [Robert Paxton gives a damning history lesson]. <i>L'Humanité</i> (in French)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 29,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=L%27Humanit%C3%A9&rft.atitle=Robert+Paxton+donne+une+accablante+le%C3%A7on+d%27histoire&rft.date=1997-11-01&rft.aulast=Paxton&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.humanite.fr%2Fnode%2F169724.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPaxton1998" class="citation journal cs1">Paxton, Robert O. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220212160725/http://w3.salemstate.edu/~cmauriello/pdfEuropean/Paxton_Five%20Stages%20of%20Fascism.pdf">"The Five Stages of Fascism"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Modern_History" title="The Journal of Modern History">The Journal of Modern History</a></i>. <b>70</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F235001">10.1086/235001</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2991418">2991418</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143862302">143862302</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.salemstate.edu/~cmauriello/pdfEuropean/Paxton_Five%20Stages%20of%20Fascism.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on February 12, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+Five+Stages+of+Fascism&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E23&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143862302%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2991418%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F235001&rft.aulast=Paxton&rft.aufirst=Robert+O.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.salemstate.edu%2F~cmauriello%2FpdfEuropean%2FPaxton_Five%2520Stages%2520of%2520Fascism.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaxton2004[httpsarchiveorgdetailsanatomyoffascism00paxt_0page218_218]-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaxton2004[httpsarchiveorgdetailsanatomyoffascism00paxt_0page218_218]_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPaxton2004">Paxton 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anatomyoffascism00paxt_0/page/218">218</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPaxton2021" class="citation web cs1">Paxton, Robert O. (January 11, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210312204123/https://www.newsweek.com/robert-paxton-trump-fascist-1560652">"I've Hesitated to Call Donald Trump a Fascist. Until Now"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Newsweek" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newsweek.com/robert-paxton-trump-fascist-1560652">the original</a> on March 12, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=I%27ve+Hesitated+to+Call+Donald+Trump+a+Fascist.+Until+Now&rft.date=2021-01-11&rft.aulast=Paxton&rft.aufirst=Robert+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsweek.com%2Frobert-paxton-trump-fascist-1560652&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FrenchToday2009-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FrenchToday2009_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHansen2009" class="citation news cs1">Hansen, Andrew (April 10, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.francetoday.com/articles/2009/04/10/the-french-american-foundation-weekly-brief-9.html">"The French-American Foundation Weekly Brief"</a>. <i>French Today</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 18,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=French+Today&rft.atitle=The+French-American+Foundation+Weekly+Brief&rft.date=2009-04-10&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.francetoday.com%2Farticles%2F2009%2F04%2F10%2Fthe-french-american-foundation-weekly-brief-9.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHorn2020" class="citation book cs1">Horn, Gerd-Rainer (March 19, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2EfWDwAAQBAJ"><i>The Moment of Liberation in Western Europe: Power Struggles and Rebellions, 1943–1948</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958791-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958791-9"><bdi>978-0-19-958791-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1160072047">1160072047</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Moment+of+Liberation+in+Western+Europe%3A+Power+Struggles+and+Rebellions%2C+1943%E2%80%931948&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020-03-19&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1160072047&rft.isbn=978-0-19-958791-9&rft.aulast=Horn&rft.aufirst=Gerd-Rainer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2EfWDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLevens1964" class="citation book cs1">Levens, R.G.C., ed. (1964). <i>Merton College Register 1900-1964</i>. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Merton+College+Register+1900-1964&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Basil+Blackwell&rft.date=1964&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRousso1991" class="citation book cs1">Rousso, Henry (1991). <i>The Vichy Syndrome. History and Memory in France since 1944</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vichy+Syndrome.+History+and+Memory+in+France+since+1944&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Rousso&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Paxton&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>J. Sweets, ′<i>Chaque livre un événement</i>: Robert Paxton and the French, from the <i>brisuer de glace</i> to <i>iconoclaste tranquille</i>′, in S. Fishman et al. (eds.), <i>France at War: Vichy and the Historians</i> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 21–34.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moshik_Temkin" title="Moshik Temkin">Moshik Temkin</a>, ′<i>Avec un certain malaise</i>: The Paxtonian Trauma in France, 1973-74′, <i>Journal of Contemporary History</i>, Vol. 38, No. 2 (Apr., 2003), pp. 291–306.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Paxton&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Robert_Paxton" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Robert Paxton">Robert Paxton</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170518143957/http://history.columbia.edu/faculty/Paxton.html">"Robert O. Paxton - Mellon Professor Emeritus of Social Sciences"</a>. Columbia University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.columbia.edu/faculty/Paxton.html">the original</a> on May 18, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 25,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Robert+O.+Paxton+-+Mellon+Professor+Emeritus+of+Social+Sciences&rft.pub=Columbia+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.columbia.edu%2Ffaculty%2FPaxton.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPaxton2016" class="citation web cs1">Paxton, Robert O. (January 7, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/is-fascism-back-by-robert-o--paxton-2016-01">"Is Fascism Back?"</a>. Project Syndicate<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 21,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Is+Fascism+Back%3F&rft.pub=Project+Syndicate&rft.date=2016-01-07&rft.aulast=Paxton&rft.aufirst=Robert+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.project-syndicate.org%2Fcommentary%2Fis-fascism-back-by-robert-o--paxton-2016-01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Paxton" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Paxton, Robert O. (11 January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newsweek.com/robert-paxton-trump-fascist-1560652">"I've Hesitated to Call Donald Trump a Fascist. Until Now."</a> Newsweek. 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