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Available in 30 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-30" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">30 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="إهاب النبات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إهاب النبات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutikula" title="Kutikula – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kutikula" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2" title="উদ্ভিদ কিউটিকল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উদ্ভিদ কিউটিকল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biljna_kutikula" title="Biljna kutikula – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Biljna kutikula" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cut%C3%ADcula" title="Cutícula – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cutícula" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuticula_(Pflanzen)" title="Cuticula (Pflanzen) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Cuticula (Pflanzen)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutiikula_(botaanika)" title="Kutiikula (botaanika) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kutiikula (botaanika)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cut%C3%ADcula_(bot%C3%A1nica)" title="Cutícula (botánica) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cutícula (botánica)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutikula_(botanika)" title="Kutikula (botanika) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kutikula (botanika)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84_%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C" title="کوتیکول گیاهی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کوتیکول گیاهی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuticule_(botanique)" title="Cuticule (botanique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cuticule (botanique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cut%C3%ADcula_vexetal" title="Cutícula vexetal – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cutícula vexetal" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9D%EB%AC%BC_%ED%81%90%ED%8B%B0%ED%81%B4" title="식물 큐티클 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="식물 큐티클" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutikula_tumbuhan" title="Kutikula tumbuhan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kutikula tumbuhan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuticola_(botanica)" title="Cuticola (botanica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cuticola (botanica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutikula_tanduran" title="Kutikula tanduran – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kutikula tanduran" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BB" title="ക്യൂട്ടിൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ക്യൂട്ടിൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuticula_(planten)" title="Cuticula (planten) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Cuticula (planten)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutykula" title="Kutykula – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kutykula" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cut%C3%ADcula_vegetal" title="Cutícula vegetal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cutícula vegetal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Кутикула растений – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кутикула растений" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Plant cuticle" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutikula_(rastlina)" title="Kutikula (rastlina) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kutikula (rastlina)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biljna_kutikula" title="Biljna kutikula – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Biljna kutikula" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutikula_(kasvitiede)" title="Kutikula (kasvitiede) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kutikula (kasvitiede)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutikula" title="Kutikula – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kutikula" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BCtikula" title="Kütikula – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kütikula" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Waterproof covering of aerial plant organs</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kale2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Kale2.jpg/250px-Kale2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Kale2.jpg/375px-Kale2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Kale2.jpg/500px-Kale2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>Water beads on the waxy cuticle of <a href="/wiki/Kale" title="Kale">kale</a> leaves</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>plant cuticle</b> is a protecting film covering the outermost skin layer (<a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">epidermis</a>) of <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaves</a>, young shoots and other aerial plant organs (aerial here meaning all plant parts not embedded in soil or other substrate) that have no <i><a href="/wiki/Bark_(botany)#Periderm" title="Bark (botany)">periderm</a></i>. The film consists of lipid and hydrocarbon polymers infused with wax, and is synthesized exclusively by the epidermal cells. <sup id="cite_ref-Kolattukudy-1996_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolattukudy-1996-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_cuticle&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leaf_Tissue_Structure.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Leaf_Tissue_Structure.svg/500px-Leaf_Tissue_Structure.svg.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Leaf_Tissue_Structure.svg/750px-Leaf_Tissue_Structure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Leaf_Tissue_Structure.svg/1000px-Leaf_Tissue_Structure.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Anatomy of a <a href="/wiki/Eudicots" title="Eudicots">eudicot</a> leaf</figcaption></figure> <p>The plant cuticle is a layer of lipid polymers impregnated with waxes that is present on the outer surfaces of the primary organs of all vascular land plants. It is also present in the <a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">sporophyte</a> generation of <a href="/wiki/Hornwort" title="Hornwort">hornworts</a>, and in both sporophyte and <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a> generations of <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">mosses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Budke-2013_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budke-2013-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plant cuticle forms a coherent outer covering of the plant that can be isolated intact by treating plant tissue with enzymes such as <a href="/wiki/Pectinase" title="Pectinase">pectinase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cellulase" title="Cellulase">cellulase</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Composition">Composition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_cuticle&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The cuticle is composed of an insoluble cuticular membrane impregnated by and covered with soluble <a href="/wiki/Wax" title="Wax">waxes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cutin" title="Cutin">Cutin</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Polyester" title="Polyester">polyester</a> <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a> composed of inter-esterified <a href="/wiki/Omega_hydroxy_acid" title="Omega hydroxy acid">omega hydroxy acids</a> which are cross-linked by <a href="/wiki/Ester" title="Ester">ester</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epoxide" title="Epoxide">epoxide</a> bonds, is the best-known structural component of the cuticular membrane.<sup id="cite_ref-Holloway-1982_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holloway-1982-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stark-2006_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stark-2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cuticle can also contain a non-saponifiable <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> polymer known as <a href="/wiki/Cutan_(polymer)" title="Cutan (polymer)">cutan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cuticular membrane is impregnated with cuticular waxes<sup id="cite_ref-Jetter-2006_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jetter-2006-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and covered with <a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">epicuticular waxes</a>, which are mixtures of <a href="/wiki/Hydrophobic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrophobic">hydrophobic</a> <a href="/wiki/Aliphatic_compound" title="Aliphatic compound">aliphatic compounds</a>, hydrocarbons with chain lengths typically in the range C16 to C36.<sup id="cite_ref-Baker-1982_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baker-1982-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cuticular_wax_biosynthesis">Cuticular wax biosynthesis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_cuticle&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cuticular wax biosynthesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cuticular wax is known to be largely composed of compounds which derive from <a href="/wiki/Very_long_chain_fatty_acid" title="Very long chain fatty acid">very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs)</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehydes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">alcohols</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alkane" title="Alkane">alkanes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ketone" title="Ketone">ketones</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ester" title="Ester">esters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Yeats-2013_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yeats-2013-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kunst-2003_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kunst-2003-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also present are other compounds in cuticular wax which are not VLCFA derivatives, such as <a href="/wiki/Terpenoid" title="Terpenoid">terpenoids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flavonoid" title="Flavonoid">flavonoids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sterol" title="Sterol">sterols</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Kunst-2003_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kunst-2003-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and thus have different synthetic pathways than those VLCFAs. </p><p>The first step of the biosynthesis pathway for the formation of cuticular VLCFAs, occurs with the de novo biosynthesis of C16 acyl chains (palmitate) by chloroplasts in the mesophyll,<sup id="cite_ref-Kolattukudy-1996_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolattukudy-1996-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and concludes with the extension of these chains in the <a href="/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum" title="Endoplasmic reticulum">endoplasmic reticulum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">epidermal cells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kunst-2003_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kunst-2003-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An important catalyzer thought to be in this process is the fatty acid elongase (FAE) complex.<sup id="cite_ref-Yeats-2013_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yeats-2013-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kunst-2003_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kunst-2003-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Suh-2014_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suh-2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To form cuticular wax components, VLCFAs are modified through either two identified pathways, an acyl reduction pathway or a <a href="/wiki/Decarbonylation" title="Decarbonylation">decarbonylation</a> pathway.<sup id="cite_ref-Kunst-2003_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kunst-2003-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the acyl reduction pathway, a <a href="/wiki/Reductase" class="mw-redirect" title="Reductase">reductase</a> converts VLCFAs into primary alcohols, which can then be converted to wax esters through a <a href="/wiki/Long-chain-alcohol_O-fatty-acyltransferase" title="Long-chain-alcohol O-fatty-acyltransferase">wax synthase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kunst-2003_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kunst-2003-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Suh-2014_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suh-2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the decarbonylation pathway, aldehydes are produced and decarbonylated to form alkanes, and can be subsequently oxidized to form secondary alcohols and ketones.<sup id="cite_ref-Yeats-2013_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yeats-2013-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kunst-2003_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kunst-2003-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Suh-2014_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suh-2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wax biosynthesis pathway ends with the transportation of the wax components from the endoplasmic reticulum to the epidermal surface.<sup id="cite_ref-Kunst-2003_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kunst-2003-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Functions">Functions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_cuticle&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Functions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The primary function of the plant cuticle is as a water permeability barrier that prevents evaporation of water from the epidermal surface, and also prevents external water and solutes from entering the tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-Raven-1977_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raven-1977-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to its function as a permeability barrier for water and other molecules (prevent water loss), the micro and nano-structure of the cuticle have specialised surface properties that prevent contamination of plant tissues with external water, dirt and microorganisms. Aerial organs of many plants, such as the leaves of the sacred lotus (<i><a href="/wiki/Nelumbo" title="Nelumbo">Nelumbo nucifera</a></i>) have ultra-hydrophobic and self-cleaning properties that have been described by Barthlott and Neinhuis (1997).<sup id="cite_ref-Barthlott-1997_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barthlott-1997-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Lotus_effect" title="Lotus effect">lotus effect</a> has applications in <a href="/wiki/Biomimetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomimetic">biomimetic</a> technical materials. </p><p>Dehydration protection provided by a maternal cuticle improves offspring fitness in the moss <i>Funaria hygrometrica</i><sup id="cite_ref-Budke-2013_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budke-2013-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the sporophytes of all <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plants</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">angiosperms</a> the cuticle tends to be thicker on the top of the leaf (<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms#adaxial" title="Glossary of botanical terms">adaxial surface</a>), but is not always thicker. The leaves of <a href="/wiki/Xerophyte" title="Xerophyte">xerophytic</a> plants adapted to drier climates have more equal cuticle thicknesses compared to those of <a href="/wiki/Mesophyte" title="Mesophyte">mesophytic</a> plants from wetter climates that do not have a high risk of dehydration from the under sides of their leaves. </p><p>"The waxy sheet of cuticle also functions in defense, forming a physical barrier that resists penetration by virus particles, bacterial cells, and the spores and growing filaments of fungi".<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman-2002_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman-2002-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_cuticle&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The plant cuticle is one of a series of <a href="/wiki/Apomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Apomorphy">innovations</a>, together with <a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">stomata</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">phloem</a> and intercellular spaces in <a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">stem</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaf</a> mesophyll tissue, that <a href="/wiki/Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">plants</a> evolved more than 450 million years ago during the transition between life in water and life on land.<sup id="cite_ref-Raven-1977_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raven-1977-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Together, these features enabled upright plant shoots exploring aerial environments to conserve water by internalising the gas exchange surfaces, enclosing them in a waterproof membrane and providing a variable-aperture control mechanism, the <a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">stomatal</a> guard cells, which regulate the rates of <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a> and CO<sub>2</sub> exchange. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_cuticle&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Kolattukudy-1996-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kolattukudy-1996_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kolattukudy-1996_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kolattukudy, PE (1996) Biosynthetic pathways of cutin and waxes, and their sensitivity to <a href="/wiki/Environmental_stresses" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental stresses">environmental stresses</a>. 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li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Botany" title="Template:Botany"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Botany" title="Template talk:Botany"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Botany" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Botany"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Botany862" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_botany" title="Outline of botany">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_botany" title="Branches of botany">Subdisciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_intelligence" title="Plant intelligence">Plant intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical 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title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div 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