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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> Christianity <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">began as a movement</a> within <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a>, but the two religions gradually <a href="/wiki/Split_of_early_Christianity_and_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Split of early Christianity and Judaism">diverged over the first few centuries</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian era">Christian era</a>. Today, differences of opinion vary between denominations in both religions, but the most important distinction is Christian acceptance and Jewish non-acceptance of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a> prophesied in the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> and Jewish tradition. <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> distinguished itself by determining that observance of <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">halakha</a> (Jewish law) was not necessary for non-Jewish converts to Christianity (see <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Christianity" title="Pauline Christianity">Pauline Christianity</a>). Another major difference is the two religions' conceptions of God. Depending on the denomination followed, the Christian God is either believed to <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">consist of three persons of one essence</a> (Father, Son and Holy Spirit), with the doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Incarnation_(Christianity)" title="Incarnation (Christianity)">incarnation</a> of the Son in Jesus being of special importance, or like Judaism, believes in and emphasizes the <a href="/wiki/Shema_Yisrael" class="mw-redirect" title="Shema Yisrael">Oneness of God</a>. Judaism, however, rejects the Christian concept of <a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">God in human form</a>. While Christianity recognizes the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> (called the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> by Christians) as part of its scriptural canon, Judaism does not recognize the Christian <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>. The relative importance of belief and practice constitute an important area of difference. Most forms of <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant Christianity</a> emphasize correct belief (or <a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">orthodoxy</a>), focusing on the <a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a> as <a href="/wiki/Mediator_(Christ_as_Mediator)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediator (Christ as Mediator)">mediated</a> through <a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Jesus</a> <a href="/wiki/Christ_(title)" title="Christ (title)">Christ</a>,<a href="#cite_note-bibleverse%7C%7CHebrews%7C8:6%7CNIV-1">[1]</a> as recorded in the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>. Judaism places emphasis on correct conduct (or <a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy#Judaism" title="Orthopraxy">orthopraxy</a>),<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> focusing on the <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_covenant" title="Mosaic covenant">Mosaic covenant</a>, as recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a>. Mainstream <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a> occupies a middle position, stating that both faith and works are factors in a person's salvation. Some schools of thought within Catholicism, such as <a href="/wiki/Franciscanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscanism">Franciscanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">liberation theology</a>, explicitly favor orthopraxy over orthodoxy. <a href="/wiki/Praxis_(Byzantine_Rite)" title="Praxis (Byzantine Rite)">Praxis</a> is of central importance to <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a> as well, with Saint <a href="/wiki/Maximus_the_Confessor" title="Maximus the Confessor">Maximus the Confessor</a> going as far as to say that "theology without action is the theology of demons."<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Christian conceptions of right practice vary (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Preferential_option_for_the_poor" class="mw-redirect" title="Preferential option for the poor">preferential option for the poor</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>'s practices of <a href="/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">fasting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hesychasm" title="Hesychasm">hesychasm</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">asceticism</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a> of <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinists</a> and others), but differ from Judaism in that they are not based on following halakha or any other interpretation of the Mosaic covenant. While more <a href="/wiki/World_Union_for_Progressive_Judaism" title="World Union for Progressive Judaism">liberal Jewish denominations</a> may not require observance of halakha, Jewish life remains centred on individual and collective participation in an eternal dialogue with God through tradition, rituals, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">prayers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">ethical actions</a>. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Jewish_self-identification">1 Jewish self-identification</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Sacred_texts">2 Sacred texts</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Covenant_theology">3 Covenant theology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Law">4 Law</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Concepts_of_God">5 Concepts of God</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Shituf">5.1 Shituf</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Right_action">6 Right action</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Faith_versus_good_deeds">6.1 Faith versus good deeds</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Sin">6.2 Sin</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Love">6.3 Love</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Abortion">6.4 Abortion</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#War,_violence_and_pacifism">6.5 War, violence and pacifism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Capital_punishment">6.6 Capital punishment</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Taboo_food_and_drink">6.7 Taboo food and drink</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Salvation">7 Salvation</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Forgiveness">7.1 Forgiveness</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Judgment">7.2 Judgment</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Heaven_and_Hell">7.3 Heaven and Hell</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#The_Messiah">7.4 The Messiah</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Catholic_views">7.4.1 Catholic views</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Eastern_Orthodox_views">7.4.2 Eastern Orthodox views</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Proselytizing">7.5 Proselytizing</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Mutual_views">8 Mutual views</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Common_Jewish_views_of_Christianity">8.1 Common Jewish views of Christianity</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Common_Christian_views_of_Judaism">8.2 Common Christian views of Judaism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Messianic_Judaism">8.3 Messianic Judaism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Jewish_Christians">8.4 Jewish Christians</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Inter-faith_relationship">9 Inter-faith relationship</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Orthodox_Rabbinic_Statement_on_Christianity">9.1 Orthodox Rabbinic Statement on Christianity</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Between_Jerusalem_and_Rome">9.2 Between Jerusalem and Rome</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#See_also">10 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Notes">11 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#Further_reading">12 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#External_links">13 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Jewish_self-identification">Jewish self-identification</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Jewish self-identification" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">Jewish Christian</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Cleanup_rewrite plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit">You can help</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Talk:Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Talk:Christianity and Judaism">talk page</a> may contain suggestions. (June 2018)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Judaism's purpose is to carry out what it holds to be the <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_covenant" title="Mosaic covenant">covenant</a> between <a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish people">Jewish people</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'teaching'), both <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">written</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oral_Torah" title="Oral Torah">oral</a>, tells the story of this covenant, and provides Jews with the terms of the covenant. The Oral Torah is the primary guide for Jews to abide by these terms, as expressed in tractate Gittin 60b ("the Holy One, Blessed be He, did not make His covenant with Israel except by virtue of the Oral Law")<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> to help them learn how to live a holy life, and to bring holiness, peace and love into the world and into every part of life, so that life may be elevated to a high level of <a href="/wiki/Kedusha" title="Kedusha">kedusha</a>, originally through study and practice of the Torah, and since the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a>, through prayer as expressed in tractate Sotah 49a "Since the destruction of the Temple, every day is more cursed than the preceding one; and the existence of the world is assured only by the kedusha...and the words spoken after the study of Torah."<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Since the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Amidah" title="Amidah">Amidah</a>, the acknowledgement of God through the declaration from Isaiah 6:3 "Kadosh [holy], kadosh, kadosh, is HaShem, Master of Legions; the whole world is filled with His glory".<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> as a replacement for the study of Torah, which is a daily obligation for Jews,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> and sanctifies God in itself. This continuous maintenance of relationship between the individual Jew and God through either study, or <a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">prayer</a> repeated three times daily, is the confirmation of the original covenant. This allows the Jewish people as a community to strive and fulfill the prophecy "I, the Lord, have called you in righteousness, and will hold your hand and keep you. And I will establish you as a covenant of the people, for a light unto the nations."<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> (i.e., a <a href="/wiki/Role_model" title="Role model">role model</a>) over the course of history, and a part of the divine intent of bringing about an <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_God#Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of God">age of peace and sanctity</a> where ideally a faithful life and good deeds should be ends in themselves, not means (see also <a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Jewish principles of faith</a>). According to <a href="/wiki/Christian_theologian" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian theologian">Christian theologian</a> <a href="/wiki/Alister_McGrath" title="Alister McGrath">Alister McGrath</a>, the Jewish Christians affirmed every aspect of then contemporary <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a> with the addition of the belief that Jesus was the messiah,<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> with Isaiah 49:6, "an explicit parallel to 42:6" quoted by <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a> in Acts 13:47<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> and reinterpreted by <a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> According to Christian writers, most notably Paul, the Bible teaches that people are, in their current state, <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sinful</a>,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> reveals that Jesus is both the <a href="/wiki/Son_of_man" title="Son of man">Son of man</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Son_of_God" title="Son of God">Son of God</a>, united in the <a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_union" title="Hypostatic union">hypostatic union</a>, <a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">God the Son</a>, <a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> made <a href="/wiki/Incarnate" class="mw-redirect" title="Incarnate">incarnate</a>;<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> that <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Jesus' death by crucifixion</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Atonement_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Atonement in Christianity">sacrifice to atone</a> for all of humanity's sins, and that acceptance of Jesus as <a href="/wiki/Christian_soteriology" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian soteriology">Savior</a> and <a href="/wiki/H%C3%A6land" class="mw-redirect" title="Hæland">Lord</a> saves one from <a href="/wiki/Divine_Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine Judgment">Divine Judgment</a>,<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> giving <a href="/wiki/Eternal_life_(Christianity)" title="Eternal life (Christianity)">Eternal life</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Jesus is the mediator of the New Covenant.<a href="#cite_note-bibleverse%7C%7CHebrews%7C8:6%7CNIV-1">[1]</a> His famous <a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a> is considered by some Christian scholars<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> to be the proclamation of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">New Covenant ethics</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Typology_(theology)" title="Typology (theology)">contrast</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Covenant" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Covenant">Mosaic Covenant</a> of <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> from <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Mount_Sinai" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical Mount Sinai">Mount Sinai</a>. But some scholars, like <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Barker" title="Margaret Barker">Margaret Barker</a>, propose that early Christianity has roots in <a href="/wiki/First_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="First Temple">First Temple</a> <a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Israelite religion</a>, which is dubbed as the "Temple Theology".<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Baker's works have been criticized for engaging in <a href="/wiki/Parallelomania" title="Parallelomania">parallelomania</a> and failing to engage in the broader scholarly literature[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] but it has gained some religious and academic support.<a href="#cite_note-Bench_2015-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sch%C3%A4fer_2020-24">[24]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Sacred_texts">Sacred texts</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Sacred texts" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Hebrew_Bible_canon" title="Development of the Hebrew Bible canon">Development of the Hebrew Bible canon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Christian_Biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of the Christian Biblical canon">Development of the Christian Biblical canon</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Hebrew Bible</a> is composed of three parts; the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> (Instruction, the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> translated the Hebrew to nomos or Law), the <a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a> (Prophets) and the <a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a> (Writings). Collectively, these are known as the <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Tanakh</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a> the Torah was revealed by God to Moses; within it, Jews find <a href="/wiki/613_Mitzvot" class="mw-redirect" title="613 Mitzvot">613 Mitzvot</a> (commandments). Rabbinic tradition asserts that God revealed two Torahs to Moses, one that was written down, and one that was transmitted orally. Whereas the written Torah has a fixed form, the <a href="/wiki/Oral_Torah" title="Oral Torah">Oral Torah</a> is a living tradition that includes not only specific supplements to the written Torah (for instance, what is the proper manner of <a href="/wiki/Shechita" title="Shechita">shechita</a> and what is meant by "Frontlets" in the <a href="/wiki/Shema" title="Shema">Shema</a>), but also procedures for understanding and talking about the written Torah (thus, the Oral Torah revealed at Sinai includes debates among rabbis who lived long after Moses). The Oral Law elaborations of narratives in the Bible and stories about the rabbis are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Aggadah" title="Aggadah">aggadah</a>. It also includes elaboration of the 613 commandments in the form of laws referred to as <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">halakha</a>. Elements of the Oral Torah were committed to writing and edited by <a href="/wiki/Judah_HaNasi" class="mw-redirect" title="Judah HaNasi">Judah HaNasi</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> in 200 CE; much more of the Oral Torah were committed to writing in the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Talmud" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian Talmud">Babylonian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud" title="Jerusalem Talmud">Jerusalem Talmuds</a>, which were edited around 600 CE and 450 CE, respectively. The Talmuds are notable for the way they combine law and lore, for their explication of the <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">midrashic</a> method of interpreting texts, and for their accounts of debates among rabbis, which preserve divergent and conflicting interpretations of the Bible and legal rulings. Since the transcription of the Talmud, notable rabbis have compiled law codes that are generally held in high regard: the <a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim" title="Arba'ah Turim">Tur</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a>. The latter, which was based on earlier codes and supplemented by the commentary by <a href="/wiki/Moshe_Isserles" class="mw-redirect" title="Moshe Isserles">Moshe Isserles</a> that notes other practices and customs practiced by Jews in different communities, especially among Ashkenazim, is generally held to be authoritative by Orthodox Jews. The <a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a>, which was written in the 13th century, is generally held as the most important esoteric treatise of the Jews. All contemporary Jewish movements consider the Tanakh, and the Oral Torah in the form of the Mishnah and Talmuds as sacred, although movements are divided as to claims concerning their divine revelation, and also their authority. For Jews, the Torah—written and oral—is the primary guide to the relationship between God and man, a living document that has unfolded and will continue to unfold whole new insights over the generations and millennia. A saying that captures this goes, "Turn it [the Torah's words] over and over again, for everything is in it." Christians accept the Written Torah and other books of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> (alternatively called <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a>) as <a href="/wiki/Scripture" class="mw-redirect" title="Scripture">Scripture</a>, although they generally give readings from the <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> translation instead of the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a>/<a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical Aramaic</a> <a href="/wiki/Masoretic_Text" title="Masoretic Text">Masoretic Text</a>. Two notable examples are: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_7:14" title="Isaiah 7:14">Isaiah 7:14</a> – "virgin" instead of "young woman"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/They_have_pierced_my_hands_and_my_feet" title="They have pierced my hands and my feet">Psalm 22:16</a> – "they have pierced my hands and feet" instead of "like a lion, (they are at) my hands and feet"</li></ul> Instead of the traditional Jewish order and names for the books, Christians organize and name the books closer to that found in the Septuagint. Some Christian denominations (such as Anglican, Roman Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox), include a number of books that are not in the Hebrew Bible (the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha" title="Biblical apocrypha">biblical apocrypha</a> or <a href="/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books" title="Deuterocanonical books">deuterocanonical books</a> or <a href="/wiki/Anagignoskomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Anagignoskomena">Anagignoskomena</a>, see <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Old_Testament_canon" title="Development of the Old Testament canon">Development of the Old Testament canon</a>) in their <a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">biblical canon</a> that are not in today's Jewish canon, although they were included in the Septuagint. Christians reject the Jewish Oral Torah, which was still in oral, and therefore unwritten, form in the time of Jesus.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg/300px-Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="337" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1377" data-file-height="1545"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 337px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg/300px-Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="337" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg/450px-Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg/600px-Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Jesus depicted delivering the <a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a> which included <a href="/wiki/Matthew_5#Antitheses" title="Matthew 5">commentary on the Old Covenant</a>. Some scholars consider this to be an <a href="/wiki/Typology_(theology)" title="Typology (theology)">antitype</a> of the proclamation of the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Covenant" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Covenant">Mosaic Covenant</a> by <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Mount_Sinai" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical Mount Sinai">Biblical Mount Sinai</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ODCC_self-26">[26]</a></figcaption></figure> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Covenant_theology">Covenant theology</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Covenant theology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Special:EditPage/Christianity and Judaism">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2018) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Christians believe that God has established a New Covenant with people through Jesus, as recorded in the Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, Epistles, and other books collectively called the New Testament (the word testament attributed to <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> is commonly interchanged with the word covenant).<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> For some Christians, such as <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox Christians</a>, this New Covenant includes authoritative <a href="/wiki/Sacred_tradition" title="Sacred tradition">sacred traditions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a>. Others, especially <a href="/wiki/Protestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestants">Protestants</a>, reject the authority of such traditions and instead hold to the principle of <a href="/wiki/Sola_scriptura" title="Sola scriptura">sola scriptura</a>, which accepts only the Bible itself as the final rule of faith and practice. Anglicans do not believe in sola scriptura. For them scripture is the longest leg of a 3-legged stool: scripture, tradition and reason. Scripture cannot stand on its own since it must be interpreted in the light of the Church's patristic teaching and ecumenical creeds. Additionally, some denominations[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>] include the "oral teachings of Jesus to the Apostles", which they believe have been handed down to this day by <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_succession" title="Apostolic succession">apostolic succession</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Christians refer to the biblical books about Jesus as the New Testament, and to the canon of Hebrew books as the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a>. Judaism does not accept the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/retronym" class="extiw" title="wikt:retronym">retronymic</a> labeling of its <a href="/wiki/Scripture" class="mw-redirect" title="Scripture">sacred texts</a> as the "Old Testament", and some Jews[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] refer to the New Testament as the Christian Testament or Christian Bible. Judaism rejects all claims that the Christian New Covenant <a href="/wiki/Supersessionism" title="Supersessionism">supersedes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abrogation_of_Old_Covenant_laws" title="Abrogation of Old Covenant laws">abrogates</a>, fulfills, or is the unfolding or consummation of the covenant expressed in the Written and Oral Torahs. Therefore, just as Christianity does not accept that Mosaic law has any authority over Christians, Judaism does not accept that the New Testament has any religious authority over Jews. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Law">Law</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Law" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Antinomianism" title="Antinomianism">Antinomianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biblical_law_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical law in Christianity">Biblical law in Christianity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Christian anarchism</a></div> Many Jews view Christians as having quite an ambivalent view of the Torah, or Mosaic law: on one hand Christians speak of it as God's absolute word, but on the other, they apply its commandments with a certain selectivity. Some Jews[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] contend that Christians cite commandments from the Old Testament to support one point of view but then ignore other commandments of a similar class and of equal weight. Examples of this are certain commandments that God states explicitly be a "lasting covenant."<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Some translate the Hebrew as a "perpetual covenant."<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Christians explain that such selectivity is based on rulings made by early Jewish Christians in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Acts">Book of Acts</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a>, that, while believing gentiles did not need to fully convert to Judaism, they should follow some aspects of Torah like avoiding <a href="/wiki/Idolatry" title="Idolatry">idolatry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fornication" title="Fornication">fornication</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taboo_food_and_drink#Blood" class="mw-redirect" title="Taboo food and drink">blood</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> This view is also reflected by modern Judaism, in that <a href="/wiki/Ger_toshav" title="Ger toshav">Righteous gentiles</a> need not convert to Judaism and need to observe only the Noahide Laws, which also contain prohibitions against idolatry and fornication and blood.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Some Christians[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] agree that Jews who accept Jesus should still observe all of Torah, see for example <a href="/wiki/Dual-covenant_theology" title="Dual-covenant theology">Dual-covenant theology</a>, based on warnings by Jesus to Jews not to use him as an excuse to disregard it,<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> and they support efforts of those such as Messianic Jews (<a href="/wiki/Messianic_Judaism" title="Messianic Judaism">Messianic Judaism</a> is considered by most Christians and Jews to be a form of Christianity)<a href="#cite_note-Denominations-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Berman-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Christians-35">[35]</a> to do that, but some Protestant forms of Christianity[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>] oppose all observance to the Mosaic law, even by Jews, which <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther#Antinomian_controversy" title="Martin Luther">criticised as Antinomianism</a>. A minority view in Christianity, known as <a href="/wiki/Christian_Torah-submission" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Torah-submission">Christian Torah-submission</a>, holds that the Mosaic law as it is written is binding on all followers of God under the New Covenant, even for gentiles, because it views God's commands as "everlasting"<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> and "good."<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Concepts_of_God">Concepts of God</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Concepts of God" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God in Judaism</a> and <a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God in Christianity</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Special:EditPage/Christianity and Judaism">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (November 2018) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Traditionally, both Judaism and Christianity believe in the God of <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacob" title="Jacob">Jacob</a>, for Jews the God of the <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Tanakh</a>, for Christians the God of the Old Testament, the <a href="/wiki/Creator_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Creator God">creator of the universe</a>. Judaism and major sects of Christianity reject the view that God is entirely <a href="/wiki/Immanence" title="Immanence">immanent</a> and within the world as a physical presence (although Christians believe in the <a href="/wiki/Incarnation" title="Incarnation">incarnation</a> of God). Both religions reject the view that God is entirely <a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">transcendent</a>, and thus separate from the world, as the pre-Christian Greek <a href="/wiki/Unknown_God" title="Unknown God">Unknown God</a>. Both religions reject <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a> on one hand and <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheism</a> on the other. Both religions agree that God shares both transcendent and immanent qualities. How these religions resolve this issue is where the religions differ. Christianity posits that God exists as a <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a>; in this view God exists as three distinct persons who share a single divine <a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">essence</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Consubstantiality" title="Consubstantiality">substance</a>. In those three there is one, and in that one there are three; the one God is indivisible, while the three persons are distinct and unconfused, <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">God the Father</a>, <a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">God the Son</a>, and <a href="/wiki/God_the_Holy_Spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="God the Holy Spirit">God the Holy Spirit</a>. It teaches that God became especially immanent in physical form through the <a href="/wiki/Incarnation_(Christianity)" title="Incarnation (Christianity)">Incarnation</a> of God the Son who was born as <a href="/wiki/Jesus_of_Nazareth" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus of Nazareth">Jesus of Nazareth</a>, who is believed to be at once <a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_union" title="Hypostatic union">fully God and fully human</a>. There are denominations self-describing as Christian who question one or more of these doctrines, however, see <a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">Nontrinitarianism</a>. By contrast, Judaism sees God as a <a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">single entity</a>, and views trinitarianism as both incomprehensible and a violation of the Bible's teaching that God is one. It rejects the notion that Jesus or any other object or living being could be 'God', that God could have a literal 'son' in physical form or is divisible in any way, or that God could be made to be joined to the <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">material world</a> in such fashion. Although Judaism provides Jews with a word to label God's transcendence (<a href="/wiki/Ein_Sof" title="Ein Sof">Ein Sof</a>, without end) and immanence (<a href="/wiki/Shekhinah" title="Shekhinah">Shekhinah</a>, in-dwelling), these are merely human words to describe two ways of experiencing God; God is one and indivisible. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shituf">Shituf</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Shituf" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shituf" title="Shituf">Shituf</a></div> A minority Jewish view maintains that while Christian worship is polytheistic (due to the multiplicity of the Trinity), it is permissible for them to swear in God's name, since they are referring to the one God. This theology is referred to in <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> as <a href="/wiki/Shituf" title="Shituf">Shituf</a> (literally "partnership" or "association"). Although worship of a trinity is considered to be not different from any other form of idolatry for Jews, it may be an acceptable belief for non-Jews (according to the ruling of some Rabbinic authorities).<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Right_action">Right action</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Right action" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Faith_versus_good_deeds">Faith versus good deeds</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Faith versus good deeds" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Special:EditPage/Christianity and Judaism">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (November 2018) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Joint_Declaration_on_the_Doctrine_of_Justification" title="Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification">Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biblical_law_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical law in Christianity">Biblical law in Christianity</a></div> Judaism teaches that the purpose of the Torah is to teach us how to act correctly. God's existence is a given in Judaism, and not something that most authorities see as a matter of required belief. Although some authorities[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] see the Torah as commanding Jews to believe in God, Jews see belief in God as a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for a Jewish life. The quintessential verbal expression of Judaism is the <a href="/wiki/Shema_Yisrael" class="mw-redirect" title="Shema Yisrael">Shema Yisrael</a>, the statement that the God of the Bible is their God, and that this God is unique and one. The quintessential physical expression of Judaism is behaving in accordance with the 613 Mitzvot (the commandments specified in the Torah), and thus live one's life in God's ways. Thus fundamentally in Judaism, one is enjoined to bring holiness into life (with the guidance of God's laws), rather than removing oneself from life to be holy. Much of Christianity also teaches that God wants people to perform <a href="/wiki/Good_works" title="Good works">good works</a>, but all branches hold that good works alone will not lead to salvation, which is called <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(theology)" title="Legalism (theology)">Legalism</a>, the exception being <a href="/wiki/Dual-covenant_theology" title="Dual-covenant theology">dual-covenant theology</a>. Some Christian denominations[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>] hold that salvation depends upon transformational faith in Jesus, which expresses itself in good works as a testament (or witness) to ones faith for others to see (primarily Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Roman Catholicism), while others (including most Protestants) hold that <a href="/wiki/Sola_fide" title="Sola fide">faith alone</a> is necessary for salvation. Some[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] argue that the difference is not as great as it seems, because it really hinges on the <a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Christianity" title="Faith in Christianity">definition of "faith" used</a>. The first group generally uses the term "faith" to mean "intellectual and heartfelt assent and submission". Such a faith will not be salvific until a person has allowed it to effect a life transforming conversion (turning towards God) in their being (see <a href="/wiki/Ontotheology" title="Ontotheology">Ontotheology</a>). The Christians that hold to "salvation by faith alone" (also called by its Latin name "<a href="/wiki/Sola_fide" title="Sola fide">sola fide</a>") define faith as being implicitly <a href="/wiki/Ontological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological">ontological</a>—mere intellectual assent is not termed "faith" by these groups. Faith, then, is life-transforming by definition. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sin">Sin</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sin" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Special:EditPage/Christianity and Judaism">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (April 2009) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_of_sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish views of sin">Jewish views of sin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_sin" title="Christian views on sin">Christian views on sin</a></div> In both religions, offenses against the will of God are called <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a>. These sins can be thoughts, words, or deeds. Catholicism categorizes sins into various groups. A wounding of the relationship with God is often called <a href="/wiki/Venial_sin" title="Venial sin">venial sin</a>; a complete rupture of the relationship with God is often called <a href="/wiki/Mortal_sin" title="Mortal sin">mortal sin</a>. Without salvation from sin (see below), a person's separation from God is permanent, causing such a person to enter <a href="/wiki/Hell" title="Hell">Hell</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a>. Both the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church define sin more or less as a "macula", a spiritual stain or uncleanliness that constitutes damage to man's image and likeness of God. Hebrew has several words for sin, each with its own specific meaning. The word pesha, or "trespass", means a sin done out of rebelliousness. The word aveira means "transgression". And the word avone, or "iniquity", means a sin done out of moral failing. The word most commonly translated simply as "sin", het, literally means "to go astray". Just as Jewish law, halakha provides the proper "way" (or path) to live, sin involves straying from that path. Judaism teaches that humans are born with <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>, and morally neutral, with both a <a href="/wiki/Yetzer_hatov" class="mw-redirect" title="Yetzer hatov">yetzer hatov</a>, (literally, "the good inclination", in some views,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>] a tendency towards goodness, in others[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>], a tendency towards having a productive life and a tendency to be concerned with others) and a <a href="/wiki/Yetzer_hara" title="Yetzer hara">yetzer hara</a>, (literally "the evil inclination", in some views,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>] a tendency towards evil, and in others,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>] a tendency towards base or animal behavior and a tendency to be selfish). In Judaism all human beings are believed to have free will and can choose the path in life that they will take. It does not teach that choosing good is impossible—only at times more difficult. There is almost always a "way back" if a person wills it. (Although texts mention certain categories for whom the way back will be exceedingly hard, such as the slanderer, the habitual gossip, and the malicious person) The rabbis recognize a positive value to the yetzer hara: one tradition identifies it with the observation on the last day of creation that God's accomplishment was "very good" (God's work on the preceding days was just described as "good") and explain that without the yetzer ha'ra there would be no marriage, children, commerce or other fruits of human labor; the implication is that yetzer ha'tov and yetzer ha'ra are best understood not as moral categories of good and evil but as selfless versus selfish orientations, either of which used rightly can serve God's will. In contrast to the Jewish view of being morally balanced, <a href="/wiki/Original_Sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Original Sin">Original Sin</a> refers to the idea that the sin of <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a>'s disobedience (sin "at the origin") has passed on a spiritual heritage, so to speak. Christians teach that human beings inherit a corrupted or damaged human nature in which the tendency to do bad is greater than it would have been otherwise, so much so that human nature would not be capable now of participating in the afterlife with God. This is not a matter of being "guilty" of anything; each person is only personally guilty of their own actual sins. However, this understanding of original sin is what lies behind the Christian emphasis on the need for spiritual salvation from a spiritual Saviour, who can forgive and set aside sin even though humans are not inherently pure and worthy of such salvation. Paul the Apostle in Romans and I Corinthians placed special emphasis on this doctrine, and stressed that belief in Jesus would allow Christians to overcome death and attain salvation in the hereafter. Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and some Protestants[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] teach the Sacrament of <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a> is the means by which each person's damaged human nature is healed and <a href="/wiki/Sanctifying_grace" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctifying grace">sanctifying grace</a> (capacity to enjoy and participate in the spiritual life of God) is restored. This is referred to as "being born of water and the Spirit", following the terminology in the Gospel of St. John. Most Protestants believe this salvific grace comes about at the moment of personal decision to follow Jesus, and that baptism is a symbol of the grace already received. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Love">Love</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Love" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_theology_of_love" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish theology of love">Jewish theology of love</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Agape" title="Agape">Agape</a></div> The Hebrew word for "love", ahavah (אהבה), is used to describe intimate or romantic feelings or relationships, such as the love between parent and child in Genesis 22:2; 25: 28; 37:3; the love between close friends in I Samuel 18:2, 20:17; or the love between a young man and young woman in <a href="/wiki/Song_of_Songs" title="Song of Songs">Song of Songs</a>. Christians will often use the Greek of the Septuagint to make distinctions between the types of love: <a href="/wiki/Philia" title="Philia">philia</a> for brotherly, <a href="/wiki/Eros_(concept)" title="Eros (concept)">eros</a> for romantic and <a href="/wiki/Agape" title="Agape">agape</a> for self-sacrificing love.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Like many Jewish scholars and theologians, literary critic Harold Bloom understands Judaism as fundamentally a religion of love. But he argues that one can understand the Hebrew conception of love only by looking at one of the core commandments of Judaism, Leviticus 19:18, "Love your neighbor as yourself", also called the second <a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a>. Talmudic sages Hillel and <a href="/wiki/Rabbi_Akiva" title="Rabbi Akiva">Rabbi Akiva</a> commented that this is a major element of the Jewish religion. Also, this commandment is arguably at the center of the Jewish faith. As the third book of the Torah, Leviticus is literally the central book. Historically, Jews have considered it of central importance: traditionally, children began their study of the Torah with Leviticus, and the midrashic literature on Leviticus is among the longest and most detailed of midrashic literature.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Jacob_Bamberger" title="Bernard Jacob Bamberger">Bernard Jacob Bamberger</a> considers Leviticus 19, beginning with God's commandment in verse 3—"You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God, am holy"—to be "the climactic chapter of the book, the one most often read and quoted" (1981:889). Leviticus 19:18 is itself the climax of this chapter. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abortion">Abortion</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Abortion" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_abortion" title="Judaism and abortion">Judaism and abortion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_abortion" title="Christianity and abortion">Christianity and abortion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ensoulment#Judaism" title="Ensoulment">Ensoulment § Judaism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Special:EditPage/Christianity and Judaism">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2021) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The only statements in the Tanakh about the status of a fetus state that killing an unborn infant does not have the same status as killing a born human being, and mandates a much lesser penalty.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> (Although this interpretation is disputed,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">according to whom?</a>] the passage could refer to an injury to a woman that causes a premature, live birth).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Talmud states that the fetus is not yet a full human being until it has been born (either the head or the body is mostly outside of the woman), therefore killing a fetus is not murder, and abortion—in restricted circumstances—has always been legal under Jewish law. <a href="/wiki/Rashi" title="Rashi">Rashi</a>, the great 12th century commentator on the Bible and Talmud, states clearly of the fetus lav nefesh hu: "it is not a person". The Talmud contains the expression ubar yerech imo—the fetus is as the thigh of its mother,' i.e., the fetus is deemed to be part and parcel of the pregnant woman's body." The Babylonian Talmud <a href="/wiki/Yevamot" title="Yevamot">Yevamot</a> 69b states that: "the embryo is considered to be mere water until the fortieth day." Afterwards, it is considered subhuman until it is born. Christians who agree with these views may refer to this idea as abortion before the <a href="/wiki/Quickening" title="Quickening">quickening</a> of the fetus. Judaism unilaterally supports, in fact <a href="/wiki/Pikuach_nefesh" title="Pikuach nefesh">mandates</a>, abortion if doctors believe that it is necessary to save the life of the woman. Many rabbinic authorities allow abortions on the grounds of gross genetic imperfections of the fetus. They also allow abortion if the woman were suicidal because of such defects. However, Judaism holds that abortion is impermissible for family planning or convenience reasons. Each case must be decided individually, however, and the decision should lie with the pregnant woman, the man who impregnated her, and their Rabbi. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War,_violence_and_pacifism">War, violence and pacifism</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: War, violence and pacifism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Special:EditPage/Christianity and Judaism">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (April 2009) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Christian pacifism</a></div> Jews and Christians accept as valid and binding many of the same moral principles taught in the Torah. There is a great deal of overlap between the ethical systems of these two faiths. Nonetheless, there are some highly significant doctrinal differences. Judaism has many teachings about peace and compromise, and its teachings make physical violence the last possible option. Nonetheless, the Talmud teaches that "If someone comes with the intention to murder you, then one is obligated to kill in self-defense [rather than be killed]". The clear implication is that to bare one's throat would be tantamount to suicide (which Jewish law forbids) and it would also be considered helping a murderer kill someone and thus would "place an obstacle in front of a blind man" (i.e., makes it easier for another person to falter in their ways). The tension between the laws dealing with peace, and the obligation to self-defense, has led to a set of Jewish teachings that have been described as tactical-pacifism. This is the avoidance of force and violence whenever possible, but the use of force when necessary to save the lives of one's self and one's people. Although killing oneself is forbidden under normal Jewish law as being a denial of God's goodness in the world, under extreme circumstances when there has seemed no choice but to either be killed or forced to betray their religion, Jews have committed suicide or mass suicide (see <a href="/wiki/Masada" title="Masada">Masada</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France#First_persecution_of_the_Jews" title="History of the Jews in France">First French persecution of the Jews</a>, and <a href="/wiki/York_Castle" title="York Castle">York Castle</a> for examples). As a grim reminder of those times, there is even a prayer in the Jewish liturgy for "when the knife is at the throat", for those dying "to sanctify God's Name".<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> These acts have received mixed responses by Jewish authorities. Where some Jews regard them as examples of heroic martyrdom, but others saying that while Jews should always be willing to face martyrdom if necessary, it was wrong for them to take their own lives.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Because Judaism focuses on this life, many questions to do with survival and conflict (such as the classic <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a> <a href="/wiki/Dilemma" title="Dilemma">dilemma</a> of two people in a desert with only enough water for one to survive) were analysed in great depth by the rabbis within the Talmud, in the attempt to understand the principles a godly person should draw upon in such a circumstance. The Sermon on the Mount records that Jesus taught that if someone comes to harm you, then one must <a href="/wiki/Turn_the_other_cheek" class="mw-redirect" title="Turn the other cheek">turn the other cheek</a>. This has led four Protestant Christian denominations to develop a <a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">theology of pacifism</a>, the avoidance of force and violence at all times. They are known historically as the <a href="/wiki/Peace_churches" title="Peace churches">peace churches</a>, and have incorporated Christ's teachings on <a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">nonviolence</a> into their theology so as to apply it to participation in the use of violent force; those denominations are the <a href="/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friends" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious Society of Friends">Quakers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Brethren" title="Church of the Brethren">Church of the Brethren</a>. Many other churches have people who hold to the doctrine without making it a part of their doctrines, or who apply it to individuals but not to governments, see also <a href="/wiki/Evangelical_counsels" title="Evangelical counsels">Evangelical counsels</a>. The vast majority of Christian nations and groups have not adopted this theology, nor have they followed it in practice. See also <a href="/wiki/But_to_bring_a_sword" class="mw-redirect" title="But to bring a sword">But to bring a sword</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Capital_punishment">Capital punishment</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Capital punishment" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Special:EditPage/Christianity and Judaism">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (April 2009) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Religion_and_capital_punishment" title="Religion and capital punishment">Religion and capital punishment</a></div> Although the <a href="/wiki/List_of_capital_crimes_in_the_bible" class="mw-redirect" title="List of capital crimes in the bible">Hebrew Bible has many references to capital punishment</a>, the Jewish sages used their authority to make it nearly impossible for a <a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Jewish court</a> to impose a death sentence. Even when such a sentence might have been imposed, the <a href="/wiki/Cities_of_Refuge" title="Cities of Refuge">Cities of Refuge</a> and other sanctuaries, were at hand for those <a href="/wiki/Manslaughter" title="Manslaughter">unintentionally guilty</a> of capital offences. It was said in the Talmud about the death penalty in Judaism, that if a court killed more than one person in seventy years, it was a barbarous (or "bloody") court and should be condemned as such. Christianity usually reserved the death penalty for <a href="/wiki/Christian_heresy" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian heresy">heresy</a>, the denial of the orthodox view of God's view, and <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witchcraft</a> or similar non-Christian practices. For example, in Spain, unrepentant Jews were exiled, and it was only those <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">crypto-Jews</a> who had accepted baptism under pressure but retained Jewish customs in private, who were punished in this way. It is presently acknowledged by most of Christianity that these uses of capital punishment were deeply immoral. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taboo_food_and_drink">Taboo food and drink</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Taboo food and drink" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Taboo_food_and_drink" class="mw-redirect" title="Taboo food and drink">Taboo food and drink</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></div> Orthodox Jews, unlike most Christians, still practice a restrictive diet that has many rules. Most Christians believe that the kosher food laws have been <a href="/wiki/Supersessionism" title="Supersessionism">superseded</a>. For example, they cite what Jesus taught in <a href="/wiki/Mark_7" title="Mark 7">Mark 7</a>: what you eat doesn't make you unclean but what comes out of a man's heart makes him unclean—although Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy have their own set of dietary observances. <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy#Fasting" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy, in particular has very elaborate and strict rules of fasting</a>, and continues to observe the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a>'s apostolic decree of Act 15.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Some Christian denominations observe some biblical food laws, for example, the practice of <a href="/wiki/Ital" title="Ital">Ital</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a> do not eat blood products and are known for their refusal to accept <a href="/wiki/Blood_transfusion" title="Blood transfusion">blood transfusions</a> based on not "eating blood". </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Salvation">Salvation</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Salvation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">Salvation</a></div> Judaism does not see human beings as inherently flawed or sinful and needful of being saved from it, but rather capable with a free will of being righteous, and unlike Christianity does not closely associate ideas of "salvation" with a New Covenant delivered by a Jewish messiah, although in Judaism Jewish people will have a renewed national commitment of observing God's commandments under the New Covenant, and the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Messiah" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Messiah">Jewish Messiah</a> will also be ruling at a time of global peace and acceptance of God by all people.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Judaism holds instead that proper living is accomplished through good works and heartfelt prayer, as well as a strong faith in God. Judaism also teaches that gentiles can receive a share in "<a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">the world to come</a>". This is codified in the Mishna <a href="/wiki/Pirkei_Avot" title="Pirkei Avot">Avot</a> 4:29, the Babylonian Talmud in tractates <a href="/wiki/Avodah_Zarah" title="Avodah Zarah">Avodah Zarah</a> 10b, and <a href="/wiki/Ketubot" class="mw-redirect" title="Ketubot">Ketubot</a> 111b, and in Maimonides's 12th century law code, the <a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a>, in Hilkhot Melachim (Laws of Kings) 8.11. <a href="/wiki/Sola_gratia" title="Sola gratia">The Protestant view</a> is that every human is a sinner, and being saved by God's grace, not simply by the merit of one's own actions, pardons a damnatory sentence to Hell.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forgiveness">Forgiveness</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Forgiveness" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Forgiveness#Judaism" title="Forgiveness">Forgiveness § Judaism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Forgiveness#Christianity" title="Forgiveness">Forgiveness § Christianity</a></div> In Judaism, one must go to those he has harmed to be entitled to forgiveness. This means that in Judaism a person cannot obtain forgiveness from God for wrongs the person has done to other people. This also means that, unless the victim forgave the perpetrator before he died, murder is unforgivable in Judaism, and they will answer to God for it, though the victims' family and friends can forgive the murderer for the grief they caused them. Thus the "reward" for forgiving others is not God's forgiveness for wrongs done to others, but rather help in obtaining forgiveness from the other person. Sir <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Sacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan Sacks">Jonathan Sacks</a>, Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth, summarized: "it is not that God forgives, while human beings do not. To the contrary, we believe that just as only God can forgive sins against God, so only human beings can forgive sins against human beings."<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judgment">Judgment</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Judgment" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Last_judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Last judgment">Last judgment</a></div> Both Christianity and Judaism believe in some form of judgment. Most Christians (the exception is <a href="/wiki/Full_Preterism" class="mw-redirect" title="Full Preterism">Full Preterism</a>) believe in the future <a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Second Coming</a> of Jesus, which includes the <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_the_Dead" class="mw-redirect" title="Resurrection of the Dead">Resurrection of the Dead</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Last Judgment</a>. Those who have accepted Jesus as their personal saviour will be saved and live in God's presence in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of God">Kingdom of Heaven</a>, those who have not accepted Jesus as their saviour, will be cast into the <a href="/wiki/Lake_of_fire" title="Lake of fire">Lake of fire</a> (eternal torment, finite torment, or simply annihilated), see for example <a href="/wiki/The_Sheep_and_the_Goats" title="The Sheep and the Goats">The Sheep and the Goats</a>. In Jewish liturgy there is significant prayer and talk of a "book of life" that one is written into, indicating that God judges each person each year even after death. This annual judgment process begins on <a href="/wiki/Rosh_Hashanah" title="Rosh Hashanah">Rosh Hashanah</a> and ends with <a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur" title="Yom Kippur">Yom Kippur</a>. Additionally, God sits daily in judgment concerning a person's daily activities. Upon the anticipated arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a>, God will judge the nations for their persecution of Israel during the exile. Later, God will also judge the Jews over their observance of the Torah. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heaven_and_Hell">Heaven and Hell</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Heaven and Hell" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">Heaven</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hell" title="Hell">Hell</a></div> There is little Jewish literature on heaven or hell as actual places, and there are few references to the afterlife in the Hebrew Bible. One is the ghostly apparition of Samuel, called up by the <a href="/wiki/Witch_of_Endor" title="Witch of Endor">Witch of Endor</a> at King Saul's command. Another is a mention by the <a href="/wiki/Prophet_Daniel" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophet Daniel">Prophet Daniel</a> of those who sleep in the earth rising to either everlasting life or everlasting abhorrence.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Early Hebrew views were more concerned with the fate of the nation of Israel as a whole, rather than with individual immortality.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> A stronger belief in an afterlife for each person developed during the Second Temple period but was contested by various Jewish sects. <a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a> believed that in death, people rest in their graves until they are physically resurrected with the coming of the Messiah, and within that resurrected body the soul would exist eternally.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Maimonides also included the concept of resurrection in his <a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Thirteen Principles of Faith</a>. Judaism's view is summed up by a biblical observation about the Torah: in the beginning God clothes the naked (Adam), and at the end God buries the dead (Moses). The Children of Israel mourned for 40 days, then got on with their lives. In Judaism, <a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">Heaven</a> is sometimes described as a place where God debates <a href="/wiki/Talmuds" class="mw-redirect" title="Talmuds">Talmudic law</a> with the angels, and where Jews spend eternity studying the Written and Oral Torah. Jews do not believe in "Hell" as a place of eternal torment. <a href="/wiki/Gehenna" title="Gehenna">Gehenna</a> is a place or condition of <a href="/wiki/Purgatory" title="Purgatory">purgatory</a> where Jews spend up to twelve months purifying to get into heaven,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] depending on how sinful they have been, although some suggest that certain types of sinners can never be purified enough to go to heaven and rather than facing eternal torment, simply cease to exist. Therefore, some violations like suicide would be punished by separation from the community, such as not being buried in a Jewish cemetery (in practice, rabbis often rule suicides to be mentally incompetent and thus not responsible for their actions). Judaism also does not have a notion of hell as a place ruled by <a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a> since God's dominion is total and Satan is only one of God's angels. Catholics also believe in a <a href="/wiki/Purgatory" title="Purgatory">purgatory</a> for those who are going to heaven, but Christians in general believe that Hell is a fiery place of torment that never ceases, called the <a href="/wiki/Lake_of_Fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake of Fire">Lake of Fire</a>. A small minority believe this is not permanent, and that those who go there will eventually either be saved or cease to exist. Heaven for Christians is depicted in various ways. As the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of God">Kingdom of God</a> described in the New Testament and particularly the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a>, Heaven is a new or restored earth, a <a href="/wiki/World_to_Come" class="mw-redirect" title="World to Come">World to Come</a>, free of sin and death, with a <a href="/wiki/New_Jerusalem" title="New Jerusalem">New Jerusalem</a> led by God, Jesus, and the most righteous of believers starting with 144,000 Israelites from every tribe, and all others who received salvation living peacefully and making <a href="/wiki/Pilgrimages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrimages">pilgrimages</a> to give glory to the city.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> In Christianity, promises of Heaven and Hell as rewards and punishments are often used to motivate good and bad behavior, as threats of disaster were used by prophets like <a href="/wiki/Jeremiah" title="Jeremiah">Jeremiah</a> to motivate the Israelites. Modern Judaism generally rejects this form of motivation, instead teaching to do the right thing because it's the right thing to do. As Maimonides wrote: <blockquote> "A man should not say: I shall carry out the precepts of the Torah and study her wisdom in order to receive all the blessings written therein or in order to merit the life of the World to Come and I shall keep away from the sins forbidden by the Torah in order to be spared the curses mentioned in the Torah or in order not to be cut off from the life of the World to Come. It is not proper to serve God in this fashion. For one who serves thus serves out of fear. Such a way is not that of the prophets and sages. Only the ignorant, and the women and children serve God in this way. These are trained to serve out of fear until they obtain sufficient knowledge to serve out of love. One who serves God out of love studies the Torah and practices the precepts and walks in the way of wisdom for no ulterior motive at all, neither out of fear of evil nor in order to acquire the good, but follows the truth because it is true and the good will follow the merit of attaining to it. It is the stage of Abraham our father whom the Holy One, blessed be God, called "My friend" (Isaiah 41:8 – ohavi = the one who loves me) because he served out of love alone. It is regarding this stage that the Holy One, Blessed be God, commanded us through Moses, as it is said: "You shall love the Lord your God" (Deuteronomy 6:5). When man loves God with a love that is fitting he automatically carries out all the precepts of love. (Maimonides Yad Chapter 10, quoted in Jacobs 1973: 159)</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Messiah">The Messiah</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The Messiah" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a></div> Jews believe that a descendant of <a href="/wiki/King_David" class="mw-redirect" title="King David">King David</a> will one day appear to restore the Kingdom of Israel and usher in an era of peace, prosperity, and spiritual understanding for Israel and all the nations of the world. Jews refer to this person as <a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Moshiach</a> or "anointed one", translated as messiah in English. The traditional Jewish understanding of the messiah is that he is fully human and born of human parents without any supernatural element. The messiah is expected to have a relationship with God similar to that of the <a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">prophets</a> of the Tanakh. In his commentary on the Talmud, Maimonides (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon) wrote: <dl><dd>All of the people Israel will come back to Torah; The people of Israel will be gathered back to the land of Israel; The Temple in Jerusalem will be rebuilt; Israel will live among the nations as an equal, and will be strong enough to defend herself; Eventually, war, hatred and famine will end, and an era of peace and prosperity will come upon the Earth.</dd></dl> He adds: <dl><dd>"And if a king shall stand up from among the House of David, studying Torah and indulging in commandments like his father David, according to the written and oral Torah, and he will coerce all Israel to follow it and to strengthen its weak points, and will fight The Lord's wars, this one is to be treated as if he were the anointed one. If he succeeded [and won all nations surrounding him. Old prints and mss.] and built a Holy Temple in its proper place and gathered the strayed ones of Israel together, this is indeed the anointed one for certain, and he will mend the entire world to worship the Lord together ... But if he did not succeed until now, or if he was killed, it becomes known that he is not this one of whom the Torah had promised us, and he is indeed like all [other] proper and wholesome kings of the House of David who died."</dd></dl> He also clarified the nature of the Messiah: <dl><dd>"Do not imagine that the anointed King must perform miracles and signs and create new things in the world or resurrect the dead and so on. The matter is not so: For Rabbi Akiba was a great scholar of the sages of the Mishnah, and he was the assistant-warrior of the king Ben Coziba Simon bar Kokhba... He and all the Sages of his generation deemed him the anointed king, until he was killed by sins; only since he was killed, they knew that he was not. The Sages asked him neither a miracle nor a sign..."</dd></dl> The Christian view of Jesus as Messiah goes beyond such claims and is the fulfillment and union of three anointed offices; a prophet like Moses who delivers God's commands and covenant and frees people from bondage, a High Priest in the order of <a href="/wiki/Melchizedek" title="Melchizedek">Melchizedek</a> overshadowing the <a href="/wiki/Levite_priesthood" class="mw-redirect" title="Levite priesthood">Levite priesthood</a> and a king like King David ruling over Jews, and like God ruling over the whole world and coming from the line of David. For Christians, Jesus is also <a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_union" title="Hypostatic union">fully human and fully divine</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Word of God</a> who sacrifices himself so that humans can receive salvation. Jesus <a href="/wiki/Session_of_Christ" title="Session of Christ">sits</a> in <a href="/wiki/Heaven_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heaven (Christianity)">Heaven</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Right_Hand_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Right Hand of God">Right Hand of God</a> and will <a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">judge humanity</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">end times</a> when he <a href="/wiki/Second_Coming_of_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Coming of Christ">returns to earth</a>. Christian readings of the Hebrew Bible find many references to Jesus. This can take the form of specific prophesy, and in other cases of foreshadowing by <a href="/wiki/Typology_(theology)" title="Typology (theology)">types</a> or forerunners. Traditionally, most Christian readings of the Bible maintained that almost every prophecy was actually about the coming of Jesus, and that the entire Old Testament of the Bible is a prophecy about the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">coming of Jesus</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Catholic_views">Catholic views</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Catholic views" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Catholicism teaches <a href="/wiki/Extra_Ecclesiam_Nulla_Salus" class="mw-redirect" title="Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus">Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus</a> ("Outside the Church there is no salvation"), which some, like Fr. <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Feeney" title="Leonard Feeney">Leonard Feeney</a>, interpreted as limiting salvation to Catholics only. At the same time, it does not deny the possibility that those not visibly members of the Church may attain salvation as well. In recent times, its teaching has been most notably expressed in the Vatican II council documents <a href="/wiki/Unitatis_Redintegratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Unitatis Redintegratio">Unitatis Redintegratio</a> (1964), <a href="/wiki/Lumen_gentium" title="Lumen gentium">Lumen gentium</a> (1964), <a href="/wiki/Nostra_aetate" title="Nostra aetate">Nostra aetate</a> (1965), an encyclical issued by Pope John Paul II: <a href="/wiki/Ut_unum_sint" title="Ut unum sint">Ut unum sint</a> (1995), and in a document issued by the <a href="/wiki/Congregation_for_the_Doctrine_of_the_Faith" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith">Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dominus_Iesus" title="Dominus Iesus">Dominus Iesus</a> in 2000. The latter document has been criticised for claiming that non-Christians are in a "gravely deficient situation" as compared to Catholics, but also adds that "for those who are not formally and visibly members of the Church, salvation in Christ is accessible by virtue of a grace which, while having a mysterious relationship to the Church, does not make them formally part of the Church, but enlightens them in a way which is accommodated to their spiritual and material situation." <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a> on 2 October 2000 emphasized that this document did not say that non-Christians were actively denied salvation: "...this confession does not deny salvation to non-Christians, but points to its ultimate source in Christ, in whom man and God are united". On 6 December the Pope issued a statement to further emphasize that the Church continued to support its traditional stance that salvation was available to believers of other faiths: "The gospel teaches us that those who live in accordance with the Beatitudes—the poor in spirit, the pure of heart, those who bear lovingly the sufferings of life—will enter God's kingdom." He further added, "All who seek God with a sincere heart, including those who do not know Christ and his church, contribute under the influence of Grace to the building of this Kingdom." On 13 August 2002 American Catholic bishops issued a joint statement with leaders of <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative Judaism</a>, called "Reflections on Covenant and Mission", which affirmed that Christians should not target Jews for conversion. The document stated: "Jews already dwell in a saving covenant with God" and "Jews are also called by God to prepare the world for God's Kingdom." However, many Christian denominations still believe it is their duty to reach out to "unbelieving" Jews. In December 2015, the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Vatican</a> released a 10,000-word document that, among other things, stated that Jews do not need to be converted to find salvation, and that Catholics should work with Jews to fight antisemitism.<a href="#cite_note-NPR.org-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Philip_Pullella-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-news.va-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Eastern_Orthodox_views">Eastern Orthodox views</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Eastern Orthodox views" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Special:EditPage/Christianity and Judaism">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (July 2019) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Eastern Orthodox Christianity emphasizes a continuing life of repentance or metanoia, which includes an increasing improvement in thought, belief and action. Regarding the salvation of Jews, <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a>, and other non-Christians, the Orthodox have traditionally taught that there is no salvation outside the church. Orthodoxy recognizes that other religions may contain truth, to the extent that they are in agreement with Christianity. God is thought to be good, just, and merciful; it would not seem just to condemn someone because they never heard the Gospel message, or were taught a distorted version of the Gospel by <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretics</a>. Therefore, the reasoning goes, they must at some point have an opportunity to make a genuine informed decision.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Ultimately, those who persist in rejecting God condemn themselves, by cutting themselves off from the ultimate source of all Life, and from the God who is Love embodied. Jews, Muslims, and members of other faiths, then, are expected to convert to Christianity in the afterlife. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proselytizing">Proselytizing</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Proselytizing" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Christianity#Conversion_of_Jews" title="Antisemitism in Christianity">Antisemitism_in_Christianity § Conversion_of_Jews</a></div> Judaism is not a <a href="/wiki/Proselytizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Proselytizing">proselytizing</a> religion. Orthodox Judaism deliberately makes it very difficult to <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">convert</a> and become a Jew, and requires a significant and full-time effort in living, study, righteousness, and conduct over several years. The final decision is by no means a foregone conclusion. A person cannot become Jewish by marrying a Jew, or by joining a synagogue, nor by any degree of involvement in the community or religion, but only by explicitly undertaking intense, formal, and supervised work over years aimed towards that goal. Some[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>] less strict versions of Judaism have made this process somewhat easier but it is still far from common. In the past, scholars understood Judaism to have an evangelistic drive,<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> but today's scholars are inclined to the view that it was often more akin just to "greater openness to converts" rather than active soliciting of conversions. Since Jews believe that one need not be a Jew to approach God, there is no religious pressure to convert non-Jews to their faith. Indeed, Scholars have revisited the traditional claims about Jewish proselytizing and have brought forward a variety of new insights. McKnight and Goodman have argued persuasively that a distinction ought to be made between the passive reception of converts or interested Pagans, and an active desire or intent to convert the non-Jewish world to Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Chabad-Lubavitch" class="mw-redirect" title="Chabad-Lubavitch">Chabad-Lubavitch</a> branch of <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic Judaism</a> has been an exception to this non-proselytizing standard, since in recent decades it has been actively promoting Noahide Laws for gentiles as an alternative to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> By contrast, Christianity is an explicitly <a href="/wiki/Evangelism" title="Evangelism">evangelistic</a> religion. Christians are commanded by Jesus to "<a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Therefore, go and make disciples of all nations</a>". Historically, evangelism has on rare occasions led to <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">forced conversion</a> under threat of death or mass expulsion. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Mutual_views">Mutual views</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Mutual views" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_Jewish_views_of_Christianity">Common Jewish views of Christianity</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Common Jewish views of Christianity" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Judaism%27s_view_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism's view of Jesus">Judaism's view of Jesus</a></div> Many Jews view Jesus as one in a long list of failed <a href="/wiki/List_of_messiah_claimants" title="List of messiah claimants">Jewish claimants to be the Messiah</a>, none of whom fulfilled the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_view_of_Jesus#Prophecy_and_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish view of Jesus">tests</a> of a prophet specified in the Law of Moses. Others see Jesus as a teacher who worked with the gentiles and ascribe the messianic claims that Jews find objectionable to his later followers. Because much physical and spiritual violence was done to Jews in the name of Jesus and his followers,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and because <a href="/wiki/Evangelism" title="Evangelism">evangelism</a> is still an active aspect of many churches' activities, many Jews are uncomfortable with discussing Jesus and treat him as a <a href="/wiki/Yeshu" title="Yeshu">non-person</a>. In answering the question "What do Jews think of Jesus", philosopher Milton Steinberg claims, for Jews, Jesus cannot be accepted as anything more than a teacher. "In only a few respects did Jesus deviate from the Tradition," Steinberg concludes, "and in all of them, Jews believe, he blundered."<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Judaism does not believe that God requires the sacrifice of any human. This is emphasized in Jewish traditions concerning the story of the <a href="/wiki/Binding_of_Isaac" title="Binding of Isaac">Akedah</a>, the binding of Isaac. In the Jewish explanation, this is a story in the Torah whereby God wanted to test Abraham's faith and willingness, and Isaac was never going to be actually sacrificed. Thus, Judaism rejects the notion that anyone can or should die for anyone else's sin.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Judaism is more focused on the practicalities of understanding how one may live a sacred life in the world according to God's will, rather than a hope of a future one. Judaism does not believe in the Christian concept of hell but does have a punishment stage in the afterlife (i.e. Gehenna, a term that also appears in the New Testament and translated as hell) as well as a Heaven (<a href="/wiki/Olam_Haba" class="mw-redirect" title="Olam Haba">Gan Eden</a>), but the religion does not intend it as a focus. Judaism views the worship of Jesus as inherently polytheistic, and rejects the Christian attempts to explain the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> as a complex monotheism.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Christian festivals have no religious significance in Judaism and are not celebrated, but some secular Jews in the West treat Christmas as a secular holiday. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_Christian_views_of_Judaism">Common Christian views of Judaism</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Common Christian views of Judaism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Christians believe that Christianity is the fulfillment and successor of Judaism, retaining much of its doctrine and many of its practices including <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheism</a>, the belief in a Messiah, and certain forms of worship like prayer and reading from religious texts. Christians believe that Judaism requires blood sacrifice to atone for sins, and believe that Judaism has abandoned this since the <a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_the_Second_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of the Second Temple">destruction of the Second Temple</a>. Most Christians consider the Mosaic Law to have been a necessary intermediate stage, but that once the <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">crucifixion of Jesus</a> occurred, adherence to civil and ceremonial Law was superseded by the New Covenant.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Some Christians[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] adhere to <a href="/wiki/New_Covenant_theology" title="New Covenant theology">New Covenant theology</a>, which states that with the arrival of his New Covenant, Jews have ceased being blessed under his <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_covenant" title="Mosaic covenant">Mosaic covenant</a>. This position has been softened or disputed by other Christians[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>], where Jews are recognized to have a special status under the <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_covenant" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrahamic covenant">Abrahamic covenant</a>. New Covenant theology is thus in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Dual-covenant_theology" title="Dual-covenant theology">Dual-covenant theology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Some Christians[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] who view the Jewish people as close to God seek to understand and incorporate elements of Jewish understanding or perspective into their beliefs as a means to <a href="/wiki/Philo-Semitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Philo-Semitism">respect</a> their "parent" religion of Judaism, or to more fully seek out and return to their Christian roots. Christians embracing aspects of Judaism are sometimes criticized as Biblical <a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizers</a> by Christians when they pressure gentile Christians to observe Mosaic teachings rejected by most modern Christians.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Theology" title="Commonwealth Theology">Commonwealth Theology</a> (CT) asserts that Judeo-Christian tensions were exacerbated in the fall of Jerusalem and by the subsequent Jewish Revolt.<a href="#cite_note-:0-66">[66]</a> As a result, early Christian theologies formulated in the Roman capitals of Rome and Constantinople began to include antisemitic attitudes, which have been carried forward and embraced by the Protestant Reformers. <a href="/wiki/Dispensationalism" title="Dispensationalism">Dispensation Theology</a>, formalized in the 1830s by <a href="/wiki/John_Nelson_Darby" title="John Nelson Darby">John Darby</a>, holds that "God has not rejected His people whom He foreknew."<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Dispensationalism, however, maintains that God's special dealings with Israel have been interrupted by the <a href="/wiki/Church_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Church Age">Church Age</a>. Commonwealth Theology, on the other hand, recognizes the continuity of God's "congregation in the wilderness"<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> as presently consisting of the Jews (house of Judah) and the Nations (Gentiles), among whom are abiding the historically scattered Northern Kingdom (house of Israel). Commonwealth Theology views the Jews as already included in <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Israel" title="Commonwealth of Israel">Commonwealth of Israel</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> even while in unbelief, but nevertheless unsaved in their unbelieving state.<a href="#cite_note-:0-66">[66]</a> CT recognizes that both the reconciliation of the Jewish house and the reconciliation of the estranged house of Israel (among the Gentiles) was accomplished by the cross; and that the salvation of "All Israel"<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> is a process that began on the Day of Pentecost. The full realization of the "one new man" created through the peace (between the Jews and "you Gentiles") made by his cross<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> will take place in Ezekiel's two sticks made one, when both houses of Israel will be united under the Kingdom of David.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Messianic_Judaism">Messianic Judaism</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Messianic Judaism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Messianic_Judaism" title="Messianic Judaism">Messianic Judaism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_Christians">Jewish Christians</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Jewish Christians" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">Jewish Christian</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Special:EditPage/Christianity and Judaism">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (July 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Some scholars have found evidence of continuous interactions between Jewish-Christian and rabbinic movements from the mid- to late second century CE to the fourth century CE. Of particular importance is the figure of <a href="/wiki/James,_brother_of_Jesus" title="James, brother of Jesus">James the brother of Jesus</a>, the leader of the Christian Church in Jerusalem until he was killed in the year 62, who was known for his righteous behavior as a Jew, and set the terms of the relationship between Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians in dialogue with Paul. To him is attributed a letter which emphasizes the view that faith must be expressed in works. The neglect of this mediating figure has often damaged Christian-Jewish relations. Modern scholarship is engaged in an ongoing debate over which term should be used as the proper designation for Jesus' first followers. Many scholars believe that the term Jewish Christians is anachronistic given the fact that there is no consensus on the date of the birth of Christianity. The very concepts of Christianity and Judaism can be seen as essentializing, since these are changing and plural traditions. Clearly, the first Christians would not have believed that they were exchanging one religion for another, because they believed that the <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">resurrection of Jesus</a> was the fulfillment of <a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Jewish prophecies</a>, and they believed that the mission to the gentiles which was initiated by Saul (Paul of Tarsus) was a secondary activity. Some modern scholars have suggested that the designations "Jewish believers in Jesus" and "Jewish followers of Jesus" better reflect the original context. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Inter-faith_relationship">Inter-faith relationship</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Inter-faith relationship" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franciscus_kotel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Franciscus_kotel.jpg/220px-Franciscus_kotel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="539"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 148px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Franciscus_kotel.jpg/220px-Franciscus_kotel.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="148" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Franciscus_kotel.jpg/330px-Franciscus_kotel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Franciscus_kotel.jpg/440px-Franciscus_kotel.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a> praying at the <a href="/wiki/Western_Wall" title="Western Wall">Western Wall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> on his 2014 visit to the Holy Land.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Christianity" title="Antisemitism in Christianity">Antisemitism in Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Split_of_early_Christianity_and_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Split of early Christianity and Judaism">Split of early Christianity and Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_anti-Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian anti-Judaism">Christian anti-Judaism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Christian">Anti-Christian</a></div> In addition to Christianity and Judaism's varying views on each other as religions, there has also been a long and often painful <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Christianity" title="Antisemitism in Christianity">history</a> of conflict, <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">persecution</a> and at times, tolerance, <a href="/wiki/Christian%E2%80%93Jewish_reconciliation" title="Christian–Jewish reconciliation">reconciliation</a>, between the two religions, which have influenced their mutual views of their relationship with each other over time. Since the end of the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a>, Christianity has embarked on a process of introspection with regard to its Jewish roots and its attitudes toward Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The eradication of the anti-Jewish tendencies is but one dimension of this ongoing Christian introspection, that attempts to engage a variety of legacies that disturb modern believers (Antisemitism, slavery, racial and ethnic prejudice, colonialism, sexism, homophobia and religious persecution).<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Since the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_during_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity during the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> upheld Constitutio pro Judæis (Formal Statement on the Jews), which stated <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">We decree that no Christian shall use violence to force them to be baptized, so long as they are unwilling and refuse. ... Without the judgment of the political authority of the land, no Christian shall presume to wound them or kill them or rob them of their money or change the good customs that they have thus far enjoyed in the place where they live."<a href="#cite_note-BaskinSeeskin2010-75">[75]</a></blockquote> Persecution, <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">forcible conversion</a>, and forcible <a href="/wiki/Forced_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced migration">displacement</a> of Jews (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">hate crimes</a>) occurred for many centuries, along with occasional gestures at reconciliation which also occurred from time to time. <a href="/wiki/Pogroms" class="mw-redirect" title="Pogroms">Pogroms</a> were a common occurrence throughout Christian Europe, including organized violence, restrictions on land ownership and professional lives, forcible relocation and <a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">ghettoization</a>, mandatory dress codes, and at times, humiliating actions and <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>. All of these actions and restrictions had major effects on <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish cultures</a>. From the fifth century onward, Church councils imposed ever-increasing burdens and limitations on the Jews. Among the decrees: <ul><li>marriages between a Jew and a Christian were forbidden (Orleans, 533 and 538; Clermont, 535; Toledo, 589 and 633).</li> <li>Jews and Christians were forbidden to eat together (Vannes, 465; Agde, 506; Epaone, 517; Orleans, 538; Macon, 583; Clichy, 626–7)</li> <li>Jews were banned from public office (Clermont, 535; Toledo, 589; Paris, 614–5; Clichy, 626–7; Toledo, 633).</li> <li>Jews were forbidden to appear in public during Easter (Orleans, 538; Macon, 583) and to work on Sunday (Narbonne, 589).<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></li></ul> By the end of the first millennium, the Jewish population in the Christian lands had been decimated, expelled, forced into conversion or worse. Only a few small and scattered communities survived.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> There have also been non-coercive outreach and missionary efforts such as the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Church%27s_Ministry_Among_Jewish_People" title="Church's Ministry Among Jewish People">Ministry Among Jewish People</a>, founded in 1809. For Martin Buber, Judaism and Christianity were variations on the same theme of messianism. Buber made this theme the basis of a famous definition of the tension between Judaism and Christianity: <blockquote> Pre-messianically, our destinies are divided. Now to the Christian, the Jew is the incomprehensibly obdurate man who declines to see what has happened; and to the Jew, the Christian is the incomprehensibly daring man who affirms in an unredeemed world that its redemption has been accomplished. This is a gulf which no human power can bridge.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> </blockquote> The <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> was known for its <a href="/wiki/Kirchenkampf" title="Kirchenkampf">persecution of Christian Churches</a>; many of them, such as the Protestant <a href="/wiki/Confessing_Church" title="Confessing Church">Confessing Church</a> and the Catholic Church,<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a>, aided and rescued Jews who were being targeted by the régime.<a href="#cite_note-Gottfried2001-80">[80]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a>, attempts have been made to construct a new Jewish-Christian relationship of mutual respect for differences, through the inauguration of the interfaith body the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Christians_and_Jews" title="Council of Christians and Jews">Council of Christians and Jews</a> in 1942 and <a href="/wiki/International_Council_of_Christians_and_Jews" title="International Council of Christians and Jews">International Council of Christians and Jews</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Seelisberg_Conference" title="Seelisberg Conference">Seelisberg Conference</a> in 1947 established 10 points relating to the sources of <a href="/wiki/Christian_antisemitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian antisemitism">Christian antisemitism</a>. The ICCJ's "Twelve points of Berlin" sixty years later aim to reflect a recommitment to interreligious dialogue between the two communities.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI" title="Pope Paul VI">Pope Paul VI</a> wrote that "the Jewish people, who still retain the religion of the Old Testament, ... are indeed worthy of our respect and love".<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Pope <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_II" class="mw-redirect" title="John Paul II">John Paul II</a> and the Catholic Church have "upheld the Church's acceptance of the continuing and permanent election of the Jewish people" as well as a <a href="/wiki/Dual-covenant_theology" title="Dual-covenant theology">reaffirmation of the covenant</a> between <a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> and the Jews.<a href="#cite_note-Wigoder1988-83">[83]</a> In December 2015, the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Vatican</a> released a 10,000-word document which, among other things, stated that Catholics should work with Jews to fight antisemitism.<a href="#cite_note-NPR.org-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Philip_Pullella-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-news.va-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orthodox_Rabbinic_Statement_on_Christianity">Orthodox Rabbinic Statement on Christianity</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Orthodox Rabbinic Statement on Christianity" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/To_Do_the_Will_of_Our_Father_in_Heaven:_Toward_a_Partnership_between_Jews_and_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="To Do the Will of Our Father in Heaven: Toward a Partnership between Jews and Christians">To Do the Will of Our Father in Heaven: Toward a Partnership between Jews and Christians</a></div> In 2012, the book <a href="/wiki/Kosher_Jesus" title="Kosher Jesus">Kosher Jesus</a> by <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a> <a href="/wiki/Shmuley_Boteach" title="Shmuley Boteach">Shmuley Boteach</a> was published. In it, he takes the position that Jesus was a wise and learned <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>-observant Jewish <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">rabbi</a>. Boteach says he was a beloved member of the Jewish community. At the same time, Jesus is said to have despised the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> for their cruelty, and fought them courageously. The book states that the Jews had nothing whatsoever to do with the murder of Jesus, but rather that blame for his trial and killing lies with the Romans and <a href="/wiki/Pontius_Pilate" title="Pontius Pilate">Pontius Pilate</a>. Boteach states clearly that he does not believe in Jesus as the Jewish <a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a>. At the same time, Boteach argues that "Jews have much to learn from Jesus - and from Christianity as a whole - without accepting Jesus' divinity. There are many reasons for accepting Jesus as a man of great wisdom, beautiful ethical teachings, and profound Jewish patriotism."<a href="#cite_note-auto3-84">[84]</a> He concludes by writing, as to <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_values" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Christian values">Judeo-Christian values</a>, that "the hyphen between Jewish and Christian values is Jesus himself."<a href="#cite_note-more-85">[85]</a> On 3 December 2015, the <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Jewish-Christian_Understanding_and_Cooperation" class="mw-redirect" title="Center for Jewish-Christian Understanding and Cooperation">Center for Jewish-Christian Understanding and Cooperation</a> (CJCUC) spearheaded a petition of Orthodox rabbis from around the world calling for increased partnership between Jews and Christians.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-vaticanradio-91">[91]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">excessive citations</a>] The unprecedented <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Jewish-Christian_Understanding_and_Cooperation#Orthodox_Rabbinic_Statement_on_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Center for Jewish-Christian Understanding and Cooperation">Orthodox Rabbinic Statement on Christianity</a>, entitled "To Do the Will of Our Father in Heaven: Toward a Partnership between Jews and Christians", was initially signed by over 25 prominent Orthodox rabbis in Israel, the United States, and Europe,<a href="#cite_note-vaticanradio-91">[91]</a> and as of 2016 had over 60 signatories.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Between_Jerusalem_and_Rome">Between Jerusalem and Rome</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Between Jerusalem and Rome" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> On 31 August 2017, representatives of the <a href="/wiki/Conference_of_European_Rabbis" title="Conference of European Rabbis">Conference of European Rabbis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rabbinical_Council_of_America" title="Rabbinical Council of America">Rabbinical Council of America</a>, and the Commission of the <a href="/wiki/Chief_Rabbinate_of_Israel" title="Chief Rabbinate of Israel">Chief Rabbinate of Israel</a> issued and presented the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a> with a statement entitled Between Jerusalem and Rome. The document pays particular tribute to the Second Vatican Council's Declaration <a href="/wiki/Nostra_Aetate" class="mw-redirect" title="Nostra Aetate">Nostra Aetate</a>, whose fourth chapter represents the "Magna Carta" of the Holy See's dialogue with the Jewish world. The Statement Between Jerusalem and Rome does not hide the theological differences that exist between the two faith traditions while all the same it expresses a firm resolve to collaborate more closely, now and in the future.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Anabaptist–Jewish relations">Anabaptist–Jewish relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Christianity" title="Antisemitism in Christianity">Antisemitism in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_other_religions" title="Christianity and other religions">Christianity and other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian%E2%80%93Jewish_reconciliation" title="Christian–Jewish reconciliation">Christian–Jewish reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Zionism" title="Christian Zionism">Christian Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Jesus in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Judaism" title="Catholic Church and Judaism">Roman Catholicism and Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_Mormonism" title="Judaism and Mormonism">Judaism and Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_and_Judaism" title="Protestantism and Judaism">Protestantism and Judaism</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-bibleverse||Hebrews|8:6|NIV-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bibleverse%7C%7CHebrews%7C8:6%7CNIV_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bibleverse%7C%7CHebrews%7C8:6%7CNIV_1-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:Hebrews%208:6">Hebrews 8:6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJackson2007" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Elizabeth (2007). The Illustrated Dictionary of Culture. Lotus Press. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-89093-26-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-89093-26-6"><bdi>978-81-89093-26-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Illustrated+Dictionary+of+Culture&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Lotus+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-81-89093-26-6&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestley2005" class="citation book cs1">Westley, Miles (2005). The Bibliophile's Dictionary. Writer's Digest Books. p. 91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58297-356-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58297-356-2"><bdi>978-1-58297-356-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bibliophile%27s+Dictionary&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=Writer%27s+Digest+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-58297-356-2&rft.aulast=Westley&rft.aufirst=Miles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKim1996" class="citation book cs1">McKim, Donald K. (1996). Westminster Dictionary of Theological Terms. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 197. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25511-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25511-4"><bdi>978-0-664-25511-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Westminster+Dictionary+of+Theological+Terms&rft.pages=197&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-664-25511-4&rft.aulast=McKim&rft.aufirst=Donald+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEcumenical_Association_of_Third_World_Theologians._International_Conference1985" class="citation book cs1">Ecumenical Association of Third World Theologians. International Conference (1985). Virginia Fabella; Sergio Torres (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kF4cAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Theology+without+action+is+the+theology+of+demons%22">Doing Theology in a Divided World</a>. Orbis Books. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88344-197-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88344-197-8"><bdi>978-0-88344-197-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doing+Theology+in+a+Divided+World&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Orbis+Books&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-88344-197-8&rft.au=Ecumenical+Association+of+Third+World+Theologians.+International+Conference&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkF4cAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522Theology%2Bwithout%2Baction%2Bis%2Bthe%2Btheology%2Bof%2Bdemons%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_7VKAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67">Paul W. Chilcote, Wesley Speaks on Christian Vocation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170215172955/https://books.google.com/books?id=_7VKAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67">Archived</a> 2017-02-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Wipf and Stock 2001 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57910812-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57910812-0">978-1-57910812-0</a>), p. 67 </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edinburgh2010.org/fileadmin/files/edinburgh2010/files/docs/Mission%20among%20Other%20Faiths_Orthodox%20Perspective%20090820.doc">"Mission among Other Faiths: An Orthodox Perspective"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100705205510/http://www.edinburgh2010.org/fileadmin/files/edinburgh2010/files/docs/Mission%20among%20Other%20Faiths_Orthodox%20Perspective%20090820.doc">Archived</a> from the original on 5 July 2010. Retrieved 3 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mission+among+Other+Faiths%3A+An+Orthodox+Perspective&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edinburgh2010.org%2Ffileadmin%2Ffiles%2Fedinburgh2010%2Ffiles%2Fdocs%2FMission%2520among%2520Other%2520Faiths_Orthodox%2520Perspective%2520090820.doc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Chief Rabbi of the Commonwealth, Dr. <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Jakobovits" class="mw-redirect" title="Immanuel Jakobovits">Immanuel Jakobovits</a> in the Forward to, Schimmel, H. Chaim, The Oral Law: A study of the rabbinic contribution to Torah she-be-al-peh, 2nd rev.ed., Feldheim Publishers, New York, 1996 </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Jacobs, Louis, God, in Arthur A. Cohen, Paul Mendes-Flohr, 20th Century Jewish Religious Thought: Original Essays on Critical Concepts, Jewish Publication Society, 2009, p. 394 cited in <a href="/wiki/Elie_Munk" title="Elie Munk">Elie Munk</a>. The World of Prayer 1 (1961), p. 182. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Scherman Nosson & Zlotowitz, Meir, eds., TANACH: The Torah, Prophets, Writings, The Twenty-Four Books of the Bible Newly Translated and Annotated, Mesorah Publications, Ltd., Brooklyn, 1996, p. 963 </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Jacobs, Louis, God, in Arthur A. Cohen, Paul Mendes-Flohr, 20th Century Jewish Religious Thought: Original Essays on Critical Concepts, Jewish Publication Society, 2009, p. 394 </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt1042.htm#6">Isa 42:6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> McGrath, Alister E., Christianity: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing (2006). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-0899-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-0899-1">1-4051-0899-1</a>. p. 174: "In effect, they [Jewish Christians] seemed to regard Christianity as an affirmation of every aspect of contemporary Judaism, with the addition of one extra belief—that Jesus is the Messiah. Unless males were <a href="/wiki/Circumcision_controversy_in_early_Christianity" title="Circumcision controversy in early Christianity">circumcised</a>, they could not be saved<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2015:1&version=nrsv">Acts 15:1</a>.";see also <a href="/wiki/Paleo-orthodoxy" title="Paleo-orthodoxy">Paleo-orthodoxy</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Beale, Gregory K., Other Religions in New Testament Theology, in David Weston Baker, ed., Biblical faith and other religions: an evangelical assessment, Kregel Academic, 2004, p. 85 </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> McKeehan, James, An Overview of the Old Testament and How It Relates to the New Testament, iUniverse, 2002, p. 265 </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Philippe Bobichon, "L'enseignement juif, païen, hérétique et chrétien dans l'œuvre de Justin Martyr", Revue des Études Augustiniennes 45/2 (1999), pp. 233–259 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/7279724/_Lenseignement_juif_pa%C3%AFen_h%C3%A9r%C3%A9tique_et_chr%C3%A9tien_dans_l%C5%93uvre_de_Justin_Martyr_Revue_des_%C3%89tudes_Augustiniennes_45_2_1999_p_233_259">online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%203:23&version=nrsv">Romans 3:23</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%201:1&version=nrsv">John 1:1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%201:14&version=nrsv">John 1:14</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%201:29&version=nrsv">John 1:29</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%205:24&version=nrsv">John 5:24</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:John%203:16">John 3:16</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Antithesis_of_the_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Antithesis of the Law">Antithesis of the Law</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Collinwood, Dean W. & James W. McConkie. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=3777&context=byusq">'Temple Theology: An Introduction' by Margaret Barker</a>. Provo, UT: <a href="/wiki/BYU_Studies_Quarterly" class="mw-redirect" title="BYU Studies Quarterly">BYU Studies</a> 45:2 (May 2006). </li> <li id="cite_note-Bench_2015-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Bench_2015_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner2015" class="citation web cs1">Turner, John G. (8 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.patheos.com/blogs/anxiousbench/2015/01/why-mormons-love-margaret-barker/">"Why Mormons Love Margaret Barker"</a>. Anxious Bench. Retrieved 5 December 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Anxious+Bench&rft.atitle=Why+Mormons+Love+Margaret+Barker&rft.date=2015-01-08&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=John+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.patheos.com%2Fblogs%2Fanxiousbench%2F2015%2F01%2Fwhy-mormons-love-margaret-barker%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schäfer_2020-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Sch%C3%A4fer_2020_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchäfer2020" class="citation book cs1">Schäfer, Peter (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691181325/two-gods-in-heaven">Two Gods in Heaven: Jewish Concepts of God in Antiquity</a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 143, n. 17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Two+Gods+in+Heaven%3A+Jewish+Concepts+of+God+in+Antiquity&rft.pages=143%2C+n.+17&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Sch%C3%A4fer&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Fbooks%2Fhardcover%2F9780691181325%2Ftwo-gods-in-heaven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=254&letter=J&search=Jesus">Jewish Encyclopedia: Jesus</a> notes: "Jesus, however, does not appear to have taken into account the fact that the <a href="/wiki/Halakah" class="mw-redirect" title="Halakah">Halakah</a> was at this period just becoming crystallized, and that much variation existed as to its definite form; the disputes of the <a href="/wiki/Hillel_the_Elder" title="Hillel the Elder">Bet Hillel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shammai" title="Shammai">Bet Shammai</a> were occurring about the time of his maturity." </li> <li id="cite_note-ODCC_self-26"><a href="#cite_ref-ODCC_self_26-0">^</a> "Sermon on the Mount." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Sometimes the New Covenant is referred to as the New Testament, on the basis of passages such as <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Hebrews#9:16" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Hebrews">Heb 9:16</a>, in its traditional (<a href="/wiki/KJV" class="mw-redirect" title="KJV">KJV</a>) translation. This usage reflects the <a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a>, in which the word "covenant" was translated testamentum. Biblical scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/O._Palmer_Robertson" title="O. Palmer Robertson">O. Palmer Robertson</a>, have argued against this translation, however, since the word testamentum, in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, expresses the concept of a "last will", not an agreement between two parties sealed with a self-maledictory oath. See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theopedia.com/Covenant">Theopedia: "Covenant"</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=837&letter=C&search=Mosaic%20Covenant#2888">Jewish Encyclopedia: "Covenant: The Old and the New Covenant"</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a href="/wiki/NIV" class="mw-redirect" title="NIV">NIV</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:Exodus%2031:16%E2%80%9317">Exodus 31:16–17</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0231.htm#16">Exodus 31:16–17</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2015:28%E2%80%9329&version=nrsv">Acts 15:28–29</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2021:25&version=nrsv">Acts 21:25</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&letter=G#543">Jewish Encyclopedia: Gentiles: Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah</a> states: "<a href="/wiki/Jacob_Emden" title="Jacob Emden">R. Emden</a> (), in a remarkable apology for Christianity contained in his appendix to "Seder 'Olam" (pp. 32b–34b, Hamburg, 1752), gives it as his opinion that the original intention of Jesus, and especially of Paul, was to convert only the gentiles to the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Laws_of_Noah" title="Seven Laws of Noah">seven moral laws of Noah</a> and to let the Jews follow the Mosaic law—which explains the apparent contradictions in the New Testament regarding the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_law_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical law in Christianity">laws of Moses</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Sabbath" title="Biblical Sabbath">Sabbath</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Matthew%205:19&version=nrsv">Matthew 5:19</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Denominations-33"><a href="#cite_ref-Denominations_33-0">^</a> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a></dt> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimmons2009" class="citation web cs1">Simmons, Shraga (9 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aish.com/jw/s/48892792.html">"Why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Aish_HaTorah" title="Aish HaTorah">Aish HaTorah</a>. Retrieved 28 July 2010. <q>Jews do not accept Jesus as the messiah because:<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> #Jesus did not fulfill the messianic prophecies. #Jesus did not embody the personal qualifications of the Messiah. #Biblical verses "referring" to Jesus are mistranslations. #Jewish belief is based on national revelation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+Jews+Don%27t+Believe+in+Jesus&rft.pub=Aish+HaTorah&rft.date=2009-05-09&rft.aulast=Simmons&rft.aufirst=Shraga&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aish.com%2Fjw%2Fs%2F48892792.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></dt> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaxman2006" class="citation web cs1">Waxman, Jonathan (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060628033541/http://www.uscj.org/Messianic_Jews_Not_J5480.html">"Messianic Jews Are Not Jews"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_Synagogue_of_Conservative_Judaism" title="United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism">United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uscj.org/Messianic_Jews_Not_J5480.html">the original</a> on 28 June 2006. Retrieved 14 February 2007. <q>Hebrew Christian, Jewish Christian, Jew for Jesus, Messianic Jew, Fulfilled Jew. The name may have changed over the course of time, but all of the names reflect the same phenomenon: one who asserts that s/he is straddling the theological fence between Christianity and Judaism, but in truth is firmly on the Christian side.…we must affirm as did the Israeli Supreme Court in the well-known Brother Daniel case that to adopt Christianity is to have crossed the line out of the Jewish community.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Messianic+Jews+Are+Not+Jews&rft.pub=United+Synagogue+of+Conservative+Judaism&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Waxman&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uscj.org%2FMessianic_Jews_Not_J5480.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></dt> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060928080259/http://www.huc.edu/news/mi.html">"Missionary Impossible"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Union_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew Union College">Hebrew Union College</a>. 9 August 1999. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huc.edu/news/mi.html">the original</a> on 28 September 2006. Retrieved 14 February 2007. <q>Missionary Impossible, an imaginative video and curriculum guide for teachers, educators, and rabbis to teach Jewish youth how to recognize and respond to "Jews-for-Jesus", "Messianic Jews", and other Christian proselytizers, has been produced by six rabbinic students at Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion's Cincinnati School. The students created the video as a tool for teaching why Jewish college and high school youth and Jews in intermarried couples are primary targets of Christian missionaries.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Missionary+Impossible&rft.pub=Hebrew+Union+College&rft.date=1999-08-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huc.edu%2Fnews%2Fmi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a>/<a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></dt> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141023183108/https://www.aleph.org/faq.htm">"FAQ's About Jewish Renewal"</a>. Aleph.org. 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aleph.org/faq.htm">the original</a> on 23 October 2014. Retrieved 20 December 2007. <q>What is ALEPH's position on so called messianic Judaism? ALEPH has a policy of respect for other spiritual traditions, but objects to deceptive practices and will not collaborate with denominations which actively target Jews for recruitment. Our position on so-called "Messianic Judaism" is that it is Christianity and its proponents would be more honest to call it that.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FAQ%27s+About+Jewish+Renewal&rft.pub=Aleph.org&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aleph.org%2Ffaq.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"></dd></dl> </li> <li id="cite_note-Berman-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Berman_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerman2006" class="citation news cs1">Berman, Daphna (10 June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080117214825/http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=21820&sec=59&con=35">"Aliyah with a cat, a dog and Jesus"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Haaretz" title="Haaretz">Haaretz</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=21820&sec=59&con=35">the original</a> on 17 January 2008. Retrieved 9 August 2010. <q>In rejecting their petition, Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Menachem_Elon" title="Menachem Elon">Menachem Elon</a> cited their belief in Jesus. 'In the last two thousand years of history...the Jewish people have decided that messianic Jews do not belong to the Jewish nation...and have no right to force themselves on it,' he wrote, concluding that 'those who believe in Jesus, are, in fact Christians.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=Aliyah+with+a+cat%2C+a+dog+and+Jesus&rft.date=2006-06-10&rft.aulast=Berman&rft.aufirst=Daphna&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wwrn.org%2Farticle.php%3Fidd%3D21820%26sec%3D59%26con%3D35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Christians-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Christians_35-0">^</a> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarries2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Harries,_Baron_Harries_of_Pentregarth" title="Richard Harries, Baron Harries of Pentregarth">Harries, Richard</a> (August 2003). "Should Christians Try to Convert Jews?". After the evil: Christianity and Judaism in the shadow of the Holocaust. New York City: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. g. 119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-926313-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-926313-2"><bdi>0-19-926313-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003273342">2003273342</a>. <q>Thirdly, there is Jews for Jesus or, more generally, Messianic Judaism. This is a movement of people often of Jewish background who have come to believe Jesus is the expected Jewish messiah....They often have congregations independent of other churches and specifically target Jews for conversion to their form of Christianity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Should+Christians+Try+to+Convert+Jews%3F&rft.btitle=After+the+evil%3A+Christianity+and+Judaism+in+the+shadow+of+the+Holocaust&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=g.+119&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003-08&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003273342&rft.isbn=0-19-926313-2&rft.aulast=Harries&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKessler2005" class="citation book cs1">Kessler, Edward (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QkI_JNv3rIwC&q=Christian+view+of+Messianic+Judaism&pg=PA292">"Messianic Jews"</a>. In Edward Kessler; Neil Wenborn (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QkI_JNv3rIwC">A dictionary of Jewish-Christian relations</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>; New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 292–293. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82692-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82692-1"><bdi>978-0-521-82692-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2005012923">2005012923</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60340826">60340826</a>. <q>Messianic Judaism is proactive in seeking Jewish converts and is condemned by the vast majority of the Jewish community. Although a Jewish convert to Christianity may still be categorised a Jew according to a strict interpretation of the halakhah (Jewish law), most Jews are adamantly opposed to the idea that one can convert to Christianity and still remoan a Jew or be considered part of Jewish life. From a mainstream Christian perspective Messianic Judaisms can also provoke hostility for misrepresenting Christianity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Messianic+Jews&rft.btitle=A+dictionary+of+Jewish-Christian+relations&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+New+York&rft.pages=292-293&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F60340826&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2005012923&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82692-1&rft.aulast=Kessler&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQkI_JNv3rIwC%26q%3DChristian%2Bview%2Bof%2BMessianic%2BJudaism%26pg%3DPA292&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris-Shapiro1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carol_Harris-Shapiro" title="Carol Harris-Shapiro">Harris-Shapiro, Carol</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=72QTLABTllwC&q=Christian+relationship+to+Messianic+Judaism&pg=PA118">"Studying the Messianic Jews"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=72QTLABTllwC">Messianic Judaism: A Rabbi's Journey Through Religious Change in America</a>. <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Beacon_Press" title="Beacon Press">Beacon Press</a>. pp. g. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8070-1040-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8070-1040-5"><bdi>0-8070-1040-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/98054864">98054864</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45729039">45729039</a>. <q>And while many evangelical Churches are openly supportive of Messianic Judaism, they treat it as an ethnic church squarely within evangelical Christianity, rather than as a separate entity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Studying+the+Messianic+Jews&rft.btitle=Messianic+Judaism%3A+A+Rabbi%27s+Journey+Through+Religious+Change+in+America&rft.place=Boston%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=g.+3&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45729039&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F98054864&rft.isbn=0-8070-1040-5&rft.aulast=Harris-Shapiro&rft.aufirst=Carol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D72QTLABTllwC%26q%3DChristian%2Brelationship%2Bto%2BMessianic%2BJudaism%26pg%3DPA118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Stetzer" title="Ed Stetzer">Stetzer, Ed</a> (13 October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christianindex.org/1657.article">"A Missional Church"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723215712/http://www.christianindex.org/1657.article">Archived</a> 23 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Christian Index. "Missional churches are indigenous. Churches that are indigenous have taken root in the soil and reflect, to some degree, the culture of their community... The messianic congregation (is)... in this case indigenous to Jewish culture."</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Psalms%20119:152&version=nrsv">Psalm 119:152</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Psalms%20119:160&version=nrsv">Psalm 119:160</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Exodus%2012:24&version=nrsv">Exodus 12:24</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Exodus%2029:9&version=nrsv">Exodus 29:9</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Leviticus%2016:29&version=nrsv">Leviticus 16:29</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Nehemiah%209:13&version=nrsv">Nehemiah 9:13</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Psalms%20119:39&version=nrsv">Psalm 119:39</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%207:7%E2%80%9312&version=nrsv">Romans 7:7–12</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein,_Reuven_Chaim2022" class="citation journal cs1">Klein, Reuven Chaim (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hcommons.org/deposits/download/hc:50798/CONTENT/shituf-article.pdf">"World Religions and the Noahide Prohibition of Idolatry"</a> (PDF). Journal of Halacha and Contemporary Society. 79: 109–167. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17613%2Fh2nz-ep07">10.17613/h2nz-ep07</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Halacha+and+Contemporary+Society&rft.atitle=World+Religions+and+the+Noahide+Prohibition+of+Idolatry&rft.volume=79&rft.pages=109-167&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17613%2Fh2nz-ep07&rft.au=Klein%2C+Reuven+Chaim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhcommons.org%2Fdeposits%2Fdownload%2Fhc%3A50798%2FCONTENT%2Fshituf-article.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.calvin.edu/~jks4/city/Oord~Defining+Love.pdf">"James K.A. Smith"</a> (PDF). Calvin College.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+K.A.+Smith&rft.pub=Calvin+College&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.calvin.edu%2F~jks4%2Fcity%2FOord~Defining%2BLove.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> See Bamberger 1981: 737 </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Exodus 21: 22–25 </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Daniel Schiff, 2002, Abortion in Judaism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. 9–11 </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> See: <a href="/wiki/Martyrdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Martyrdom">Martyrdom</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060506200930/http://www.religionfacts.com/euthanasia/judaism.htm">"Judaism and Euthanasia"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.religionfacts.com/euthanasia/judaism.htm">the original</a> on 6 May 2006. Retrieved 16 April 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Judaism+and+Euthanasia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.religionfacts.com%2Feuthanasia%2Fjudaism.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Josef_von_Hefele" title="Karl Josef von Hefele">Karl Josef von Hefele</a>'s <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.viii.v.iv.ii.html">commentary on canon II of Gangra</a> notes: "We further see that, at the time of the Synod of <a href="/wiki/Gangra" class="mw-redirect" title="Gangra">Gangra</a>, the rule of the Apostolic Synod with regard to blood and things strangled was still in force. With the Greeks, indeed, it continued always in force as their Euchologies still show. <a href="/wiki/Balsamon" class="mw-redirect" title="Balsamon">Balsamon</a> also, the well-known commentator on the canons of the Middle Ages, in his commentary on the sixty-third <a href="/wiki/Canons_of_the_Apostles" class="mw-redirect" title="Canons of the Apostles">Apostolic Canon</a>, expressly blames the Latins because they had ceased to observe this command. What the Latin Church, however, thought on this subject about the year 400, is shown by <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a> in his work <a href="/wiki/Contra_Faustum" class="mw-redirect" title="Contra Faustum">Contra Faustum</a>, where he states that the Apostles had given this command to unite the heathens and Jews in the one ark of Noah; but that then, when the barrier between Jewish and heathen converts had fallen, this command concerning things strangled and blood had lost its meaning, and was only observed by few. But still, as late as the eighth century, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_III" title="Pope Gregory III">Pope Gregory the Third</a> (731) forbade the eating of blood or things strangled under threat of a penance of forty days. No one will pretend that the disciplinary enactments of any council, even though it be one of the undisputed <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">Ecumenical Synods</a>, can be of greater and more unchanging force than the decree of that first council, held by the Holy Apostles at Jerusalem, and the fact that its decree has been obsolete for centuries in the West is proof that even Ecumenical canons may be of only temporary utility and may be repealed by disuse, like other laws." </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071219214921/http://www.jewsforjudaism.org/web/faq/general_messiah-criteria02.html">"JfJ Messiah : The Criteria"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewsforjudaism.org/web/faq/general_messiah-criteria02.html">the original</a> on 19 December 2007. Retrieved 23 December 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=JfJ+Messiah+%3A+The+Criteria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewsforjudaism.org%2Fweb%2Ffaq%2Fgeneral_messiah-criteria02.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Catechism of the Catholic Church No. 1446. The Vatican. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090319205218/http://www.chiefrabbi.org/thoughts/vayigash5766.pdf">"Covenant and Conversation"</a> (PDF). 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chiefrabbi.org/thoughts/vayigash5766.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 March 2009. Retrieved 7 February 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Covenant+and+Conversation&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chiefrabbi.org%2Fthoughts%2Fvayigash5766.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Daniel 12:2 </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=233&letter=R&search=Resurrection">"RESURRECTION - JewishEncyclopedia.com"</a>. jewishencyclopedia.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jewishencyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=RESURRECTION+-+JewishEncyclopedia.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjewishencyclopedia.com%2Fview.jsp%3Fartid%3D233%26letter%3DR%26search%3DResurrection&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=252&letter=P">"PHARISEES - JewishEncyclopedia.com"</a>. jewishencyclopedia.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jewishencyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=PHARISEES+-+JewishEncyclopedia.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjewishencyclopedia.com%2Fview.jsp%3Fartid%3D252%26letter%3DP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Book of Revelation 20–22 </li> <li id="cite_note-NPR.org-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NPR.org_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NPR.org_53-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/12/10/459223058/catholics-should-not-try-to-convert-jews-vatican-commission-says">"Catholics Should Not Try To Convert Jews, Vatican Commission Says"</a>. NPR. 10 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Catholics+Should+Not+Try+To+Convert+Jews%2C+Vatican+Commission+Says&rft.pub=NPR&rft.date=2015-12-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Fthetwo-way%2F2015%2F12%2F10%2F459223058%2Fcatholics-should-not-try-to-convert-jews-vatican-commission-says&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Philip_Pullella-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Philip_Pullella_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Philip_Pullella_54-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilip_Pullella2015" class="citation web cs1">Philip Pullella (10 December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pope-jews-idUSKBN0TT1BK20151210#bdz0KPLr1Y8xfUAR.97">"Vatican says Catholics should not try to convert Jews, should fight anti-semitism"</a>. Reuters.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Vatican+says+Catholics+should+not+try+to+convert+Jews%2C+should+fight+anti-semitism&rft.date=2015-12-10&rft.au=Philip+Pullella&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-pope-jews-idUSKBN0TT1BK20151210%23bdz0KPLr1Y8xfUAR.97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-news.va-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-news.va_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-news.va_55-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vaticannews.va/en.html">"News from the Vatican - News about the Church - Vatican News"</a>. www.vaticannews.va.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.vaticannews.va&rft.atitle=News+from+the+Vatican+-+News+about+the+Church+-+Vatican+News&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vaticannews.va%2Fen.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> H.H. Ben-Sasson's A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-39731-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-39731-2">0-674-39731-2</a>, p. 288: "Explicit evidence of a systematic attempt to propagate the Jewish faith in the city of Rome is found as early as 139 BCE. With the increase of the Jewish population of Rome, the Jews intensified their efforts to make converts among the Romans. Although the activity of Jewish missionaries in Roman society caused Tiberius to expel them from that city in 1 9 CE, they soon returned, and Jewish religious propaganda was resumed and maintained even after the destruction of the Temple. Tacitus mentions it regretfully (Histories 5.5), and Juvenal, in his Fourteenth Satire (11. 96ff.), describes how Roman families 'degenerated' into Judaism: the fathers permitted themselves to adopt some of its customs and the sons became Jews in every respect. ... the Bible provided the apostles of Judaism with a literature unparalleled in any other religion." </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Martin Goodman (The Jews among Pagans and Christians: In the Roman Empire, 1992, 53, 55, 70–71), McKnight, Scot (A Light Among the Gentiles: Jewish Missionary Activity in the Second Temple Period 1991). </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071128101917/http://noahide.org/article.asp?Level=493&Parent=88">"The Seven Laws of Noah and the Non-Jews who Follow Them "</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.noahide.org/article.asp?Level=493&Parent=88">the original</a> on 28 November 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Seven+Laws+of+Noah+and+the+Non-Jews+who+Follow+Them+&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.noahide.org%2Farticle.asp%3FLevel%3D493%26Parent%3D88&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c102:H.J.RES.104.ENR:">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160131231008/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c102:h.j.res.104.enr:">Archived</a> 31 January 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 102nd Congress of the United States of America, 5 March 1991. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> M. Steinberg, 1975 Basic Judaism p. 108, New York: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Spiegel, 1993 </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/trinity/judaic-islamic-trinity.html">"Trinity > Judaic and Islamic Objections (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)"</a>. plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 27 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=plato.stanford.edu&rft.atitle=Trinity+%3E+Judaic+and+Islamic+Objections+%28Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Ftrinity%2Fjudaic-islamic-trinity.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Hebrews+7:11-28;&version=31;">"Bible Gateway passage: Hebrews 7:11–28 – New International Version"</a>. Bible Gateway.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bible+Gateway&rft.atitle=Bible+Gateway+passage%3A+Hebrews+7%3A11%E2%80%9328+%E2%80%93+New+International+Version&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblegateway.com%2Fpassage%2F%3Fsearch%3DHebrews%2B7%3A11-28%3B%26version%3D31%3B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPettigrew" class="citation web cs1">Pettigrew, LD. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210302044603/http://www.tms.edu/m/tmsj18h.pdf">"THE NEW COVENANT AND NEW COVENANT THEOLOGY"</a> (PDF). The Master's Seminary. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tms.edu/m/tmsj18h.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2 March 2021. Retrieved 24 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Master%27s+Seminary&rft.atitle=THE+NEW+COVENANT+AND+NEW+COVENANT+THEOLOGY&rft.aulast=Pettigrew&rft.aufirst=LD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tms.edu%2Fm%2Ftmsj18h.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-life-and-religion/161086/observing-torah-like-jesus">"FOR SOME BELIEVERS TRYING TO CONNECT WITH JESUS, THE ANSWER IS TO LIVE LIKE A JEW"</a>. Tablet. 4 February 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tablet&rft.atitle=FOR+SOME+BELIEVERS+TRYING+TO+CONNECT+WITH+JESUS%2C+THE+ANSWER+IS+TO+LIVE+LIKE+A+JEW&rft.date=2014-02-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tabletmag.com%2Fjewish-life-and-religion%2F161086%2Fobserving-torah-like-jesus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_66-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrieger2020" class="citation book cs1">Krieger, Douglas W. (2020). Commonwealth Theology Essentials. Phoenix: Commonwealth of Israel Foundation. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-8-65-292851-3" title="Special:BookSources/979-8-65-292851-3"><bdi>979-8-65-292851-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commonwealth+Theology+Essentials&rft.place=Phoenix&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=Commonwealth+of+Israel+Foundation&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=979-8-65-292851-3&rft.aulast=Krieger&rft.aufirst=Douglas+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biblehub.com/romans/11-2.htm">"Romans 11:2 God did not reject His people, whom He foreknew. Do you not know what the Scripture says about Elijah, how he appealed to God against Israel"</a>. biblehub.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=biblehub.com&rft.atitle=Romans+11%3A2+God+did+not+reject+His+people%2C+whom+He+foreknew.+Do+you+not+know+what+the+Scripture+says+about+Elijah%2C+how+he+appealed+to+God+against+Israel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiblehub.com%2Fromans%2F11-2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Acts 7:38 </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Eph. 2:12 </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Rom. 11:26 </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Eph. 2:15 </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> see Ezekiel Ch. 37 </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBibliowicz2019" class="citation book cs1">Bibliowicz, Abel M. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/29628872">Jewish-Christian Relations – The First Centuries (Mascarat, 2019)</a>. WA: Mascarat. pp. 310–11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1513616483" title="Special:BookSources/978-1513616483"><bdi>978-1513616483</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish-Christian+Relations+%E2%80%93+The+First+Centuries+%28Mascarat%2C+2019%29&rft.place=WA&rft.pages=310-11&rft.pub=Mascarat&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1513616483&rft.aulast=Bibliowicz&rft.aufirst=Abel+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F29628872&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneiders1988" class="citation book cs1">Schneiders, Sandra M. (1988). Living Word or Dead(ly) Letter in Crowley Paul ed. (Proceedings of the Catholic Theological Society of America 47 ). Toronto, Ontario. p. 97.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+Word+or+Dead%28ly%29+Letter+in+Crowley+Paul+ed.+%28Proceedings+of+the+Catholic+Theological+Society+of+America+47+%29&rft.place=Toronto%2C+Ontario&rft.pages=97&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Schneiders&rft.aufirst=Sandra+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-BaskinSeeskin2010-75"><a href="#cite_ref-BaskinSeeskin2010_75-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaskinSeeskin2010" class="citation book cs1">Baskin, Judith R.; Seeskin, Kenneth (12 July 2010). The Cambridge Guide to Jewish History, Religion, and Culture. Cambridge University Press. p. 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521869607" title="Special:BookSources/9780521869607"><bdi>9780521869607</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Guide+to+Jewish+History%2C+Religion%2C+and+Culture&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010-07-12&rft.isbn=9780521869607&rft.aulast=Baskin&rft.aufirst=Judith+R.&rft.au=Seeskin%2C+Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1995" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Miriam (1995). Anti-Judaism and Early Christian Identity. Netherlands. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004101861" title="Special:BookSources/9004101861"><bdi>9004101861</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anti-Judaism+and+Early+Christian+Identity&rft.place=Netherlands&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9004101861&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Miriam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBibliowicz2019" class="citation book cs1">Bibliowicz, Abel (2019). Jewish-Christian Relations – The First Centuries ( 2019). Mascarat. pp. 282–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1513616483" title="Special:BookSources/978-1513616483"><bdi>978-1513616483</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish-Christian+Relations+%E2%80%93+The+First+Centuries+%28+2019%29&rft.pages=282-4&rft.pub=Mascarat&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1513616483&rft.aulast=Bibliowicz&rft.aufirst=Abel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Martin Buber, "The Two Foci of the Jewish Soul", cited in The Writings of Martin Buber, Will Herberg (editor), New York: Meridian Books, 1956, p. 276. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Gill, Anton (1994). An Honourable Defeat; A History of the German Resistance to Hitler. Heinemann Mandarin. 1995 paperback <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-434-29276-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-434-29276-9">978-0-434-29276-9</a>; p. 57 </li> <li id="cite_note-Gottfried2001-80"><a href="#cite_ref-Gottfried2001_80-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGottfried2001" class="citation book cs1">Gottfried, Ted (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780761317173">Heroes of the Holocaust</a>. Twenty-First Century Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780761317173/page/24">24</a>–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780761317173" title="Special:BookSources/9780761317173"><bdi>9780761317173</bdi></a>. Retrieved 14 January 2017. <q>Some groups that are known to have helped Jews were religious in nature. One of these was the Confessing Church, a Protestant denomination formed in May 1934, the year after Hitler became chancellor of Germany. One of its goals was to repeal the Nazi law "which required that the civil service would be purged of all those who were either Jewish or of partly Jewish descent." Another was to help those "who suffered through repressive laws, or violence." About 7,000 of the 17,000 Protestant clergy in Germany joined the Confessing Church. Much of their work has one unrecognized, but two who will never forget them are Max Krakauer and his wife. Sheltered in sixty-six houses and helped by more than eighty individuals who belonged to the Confessing Church, they owe them their lives. German Catholic churches went out of their way to protect Catholics of Jewish ancestry. More inclusive was the principled stand taken by Catholic Bishop Clemens Count von Galen of Munster. He publicly denounced the Nazi slaughter of Jews and actually succeeded in having the problem halted for a short time. ... Members of the Society of Friends—German Quakers working with organizations of Friends from other countries—were particularly successful in rescuing Jews. ... Jehovah's Witnesses, themselves targeted for concentration camps, also provided help to Jews.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heroes+of+the+Holocaust&rft.pages=24-25&rft.pub=Twenty-First+Century+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780761317173&rft.aulast=Gottfried&rft.aufirst=Ted&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780761317173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iccj.org/en/index.php?id=455">"Home"</a>. Iccj.org. 2 February 2012. 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Retrieved 3 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jewish-Christian+Relations&rft.atitle=Between+Jerusalem+and+Rome+%E2%80%93+%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%9C+%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%98+%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9F+%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9D+%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99&rft.date=2017-08-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jcrelations.net%2FBetween_Jerusalem_and_Rome_-.5580.0.html%3F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+and+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <ul><li>Bamberger, Bernard (1981). "Commentary to Leviticus" in The Torah: A Modern Commentary, edited by W. Gunther Plaut, New York: <a href="/wiki/Union_of_American_Hebrew_Congregations" class="mw-redirect" title="Union of American Hebrew Congregations">Union of American Hebrew Congregations</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8074-0055-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8074-0055-6">0-8074-0055-6</a></li> <li>Bloom, Harold (2005). Jesus and Yahweh: The Names Divine, Riverhead. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57322-322-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-57322-322-0">1-57322-322-0</a></li> <li>Herberg, Will (1951). Judaism and Modern Man: An Interpretation of Jewish religion, Jewish Publication Society. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-689-70232-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-689-70232-9">0-689-70232-9</a></li> <li>Jacobs, Louis (1973). A Jewish Theology, Behrman House. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87441-226-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-87441-226-9">0-87441-226-9</a></li> <li>Rosenzweig, Franz (2005). The Star of Redemption, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin_Press" title="University of Wisconsin Press">University of Wisconsin Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-299-20724-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-299-20724-2">0-299-20724-2</a></li> <li>Rouvière, Jean-Marc (2006). Brèves méditations sur la création du monde, L'Harmattan Paris.</li> <li>Spiegel, Shalom (1993). The Last Trial: On the Legends and Lore of the Command to Abraham to Offer Isaac As a Sacrifice: The Akedah, Jewish Lights Publishing; Reprint edition. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-879045-29-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-879045-29-X">1-879045-29-X</a></li> <li>Welker, Carmen (2007). Should Christians be Torah Observant?, Netzari Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-934916-00-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-934916-00-1">978-1-934916-00-1</a></li> <li>Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006). "'<a href="/wiki/Folk_etymology" title="Folk etymology">Etymythological</a> <a href="/wiki/Othering" class="mw-redirect" title="Othering">Othering</a>' and the Power of 'Lexical Engineering' in Judaism, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and Christianity. A Socio-Philo(sopho)logical Perspective", Explorations in the Sociology of <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a> and Religion, edited by Tope Omoniyi and Joshua A. Fishman, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 237–258. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-2710-1" title="Special:BookSources/90-272-2710-1">90-272-2710-1</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_and_Judaism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.religioustolerance.org/rcc_othe.htm">Roman Catholic Church's views on other faiths</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080516000732/http://www.religioustolerance.org/rcc_othe.htm">Archived</a> 16 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://JewishStudies.eteacherbiblical.com">Jewish Studies for Christians Online Study Group by Dr. Eli</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191209024142/http://jewishstudies.eteacherbiblical.com/">Archived</a> 9 December 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=489&letter=C&search=Christianity">Jewish Encyclopedia: Christianity in its Relation to Judaism</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080412081828/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=245&letter=N&search=New%20Testament#700">Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament: For and Against the Law</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030959/http://www.levant.info/MER039.html">A Rival, a Relative, or Both? 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