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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Receptor_interaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Receptor interaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Receptor_interaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elimination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elimination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Elimination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elimination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Discovery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Identification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Identification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Identification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Identification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Actions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Actions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Actions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Actions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Actions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Actions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Modulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neurotransmitter_actions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neurotransmitter_actions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Neurotransmitter actions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neurotransmitter_actions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-List_of_neurotransmitters,_peptides,_and_gaseous_signaling_molecules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_neurotransmitters,_peptides,_and_gaseous_signaling_molecules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>List of neurotransmitters, peptides, and gaseous signaling molecules</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_neurotransmitters,_peptides,_and_gaseous_signaling_molecules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neurotransmitter_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neurotransmitter_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Neurotransmitter systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neurotransmitter_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drug_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drug_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Drug effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Drug_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Drug effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Drug_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agonists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agonists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Agonists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agonists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antagonists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antagonists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Antagonists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antagonists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Drug_antagonists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drug_antagonists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Drug antagonists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drug_antagonists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Precursors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precursors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Precursors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precursors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Catecholamine_and_trace_amine_precursors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catecholamine_and_trace_amine_precursors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1</span> <span>Catecholamine and trace amine precursors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catecholamine_and_trace_amine_precursors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Serotonin_precursors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Serotonin_precursors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.2</span> <span>Serotonin precursors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Serotonin_precursors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diseases_and_disorders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diseases_and_disorders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Diseases and disorders</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diseases_and_disorders-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Diseases and disorders subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Diseases_and_disorders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dopamine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dopamine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Dopamine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dopamine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Serotonin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Serotonin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Serotonin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Serotonin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glutamate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glutamate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Glutamate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glutamate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neurotransmitter_imbalance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neurotransmitter_imbalance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Neurotransmitter imbalance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neurotransmitter_imbalance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Neurotransmitter</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 68 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-68" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">68 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senuoordraer" title="Senuoordraer – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Senuoordraer" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%84_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="ناقل عصبي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ناقل عصبي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotresmisor" title="Neurotresmisor – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Neurotresmisor" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neyromediator" title="Neyromediator – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Neyromediator" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="নিউরোট্রান্সমিটার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নিউরোট্রান্সমিটার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Нейрамедыятар – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Нейрамедыятар" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8D%D1%9E%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Нэўрамэдыятар – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Нэўрамэдыятар" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Невротрансмитер – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Невротрансмитер" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmiter" title="Neurotransmiter – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Neurotransmiter" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmissor" title="Neurotransmissor – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Neurotransmissor" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmiter" title="Neurotransmiter – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Neurotransmiter" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Neurotransmitter" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Neurotransmitter" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Neurotransmitter" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%82" title="Νευροδιαβιβαστής – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νευροδιαβιβαστής" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmisor" title="Neurotransmisor – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Neurotransmisor" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervotransigilo" title="Nervotransigilo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nervotransigilo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmisore" title="Neurotransmisore – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Neurotransmisore" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%84_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="ناقل عصبی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ناقل عصبی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmetteur" title="Neurotransmetteur – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Neurotransmetteur" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A9aratharchurad%C3%B3ir" title="Néaratharchuradóir – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Néaratharchuradóir" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmisor" title="Neurotransmisor – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Neurotransmisor" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A0%EA%B2%BD%EC%A0%84%EB%8B%AC%EB%AC%BC%EC%A7%88" title="신경전달물질 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="신경전달물질" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%A5%D5%B5%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Նեյրոտրանսմիտեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նեյրոտրանսմիտեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0" title="न्यूरोट्रांसमीटर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="न्यूरोट्रांसमीटर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroprijenosnik" title="Neuroprijenosnik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Neuroprijenosnik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmiter" title="Neurotransmiter – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Neurotransmiter" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taugabo%C3%B0efni" title="Taugaboðefni – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Taugaboðefni" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotrasmettitore" title="Neurotrasmettitore – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Neurotrasmettitore" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9A_%D7%A2%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%99" title="מוליך עצבי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מוליך עצבי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ნეირომედიატორი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნეირომედიატორი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newotransmet%C3%A8" title="Newotransmetè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Newotransmetè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmissor" title="Neurotransmissor – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Neurotransmissor" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neiromediatori" title="Neiromediatori – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Neiromediatori" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediatorius_(biochemija)" title="Mediatorius (biochemija) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mediatorius (biochemija)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmetador" title="Neurotransmetador – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Neurotransmetador" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inger%C3%BClet%C3%A1tviv%C5%91_anyagok" title="Ingerületátvivő anyagok – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ingerületátvivő anyagok" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%82" title="നാഡീയപ്രേഷകം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നാഡീയപ്രേഷകം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%84_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D9%89" title="ناقل عصبى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ناقل عصبى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmiter" title="Neurotransmiter – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Neurotransmiter" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitters" title="Neurotransmitters – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Neurotransmitters" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B5%8C%E4%BC%9D%E9%81%94%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" title="神経伝達物質 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="神経伝達物質" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevrotransmitter" title="Nevrotransmitter – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nevrotransmitter" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmetor" title="Neurotransmetor – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Neurotransmetor" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediatorlar" title="Mediatorlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Mediatorlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D9%8A_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%90_%D9%84%DB%90%DA%96%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="د عصبي سیالې لېږدوونکی – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د عصبي سیالې لېږدوونکی" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroprzeka%C5%BAnik" title="Neuroprzekaźnik – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Neuroprzekaźnik" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmissor" title="Neurotransmissor – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Neurotransmissor" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmi%C8%9B%C4%83tor" title="Neurotransmițător – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Neurotransmițător" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Нейромедиатор – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нейромедиатор" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Neurotransmitter" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmiter" title="Neurotransmiter – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Neurotransmiter" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDiv%C4%8Dni_prena%C5%A1alec" title="Živčni prenašalec – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Živčni prenašalec" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%95%DA%AF%D9%88%DB%8E%D8%B2%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95" title="دەمارەگوێزەرەوە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دەمارەگوێزەرەوە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Неуротрансмитер – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Неуротрансмитер" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmiter" title="Neurotransmiter – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Neurotransmiter" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aivojen_v%C3%A4litt%C3%A4j%C3%A4aine" title="Aivojen välittäjäaine – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Aivojen välittäjäaine" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signalsubstans" title="Signalsubstans – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Signalsubstans" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Neurotransmitter" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%97" title="สารสื่อประสาท – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สารสื่อประสาท" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B6rotransmitter" title="Nörotransmitter – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nörotransmitter" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Нейромедіатори – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нейромедіатори" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%84" title="عصبی ناقل – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="عصبی ناقل" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BA%A5t_d%E1%BA%ABn_truy%E1%BB%81n_th%E1%BA%A7n_kinh" title="Chất dẫn truyền thần kinh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chất dẫn truyền thần kinh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmiter" title="Neurotransmiter – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Neurotransmiter" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F%E9%80%92%E8%B4%A8" title="神经递质 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="神经递质" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B6%93%E5%82%B3%E9%81%9E%E7%B4%A0" title="神經傳遞素 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="神經傳遞素" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F%E9%80%92%E8%B4%A8" title="神经递质 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="神经递质" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitters&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotransmitters">Neurotransmitters</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chemical substance that enables neurotransmission</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For an introduction to concepts and terminology used in this article, see <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse">Chemical synapse</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="thumb tright" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:-moz-fit-content; width:fit-content;"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:auto;"> <div style="position: relative;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SynapseSchematic_lines.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An illustrated chemical synapse" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/SynapseSchematic_lines.svg/400px-SynapseSchematic_lines.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/SynapseSchematic_lines.svg/600px-SynapseSchematic_lines.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/SynapseSchematic_lines.svg/800px-SynapseSchematic_lines.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1064" /></a></span> <div style="position:absolute; left:-1px; top:160px"><a href="/wiki/Postsynaptic_density" title="Postsynaptic density">Postsynaptic<br /> density</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:6px; top:97px"><a href="/wiki/Voltage-dependent_calcium_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Voltage-dependent calcium channel">Voltage-<br />gated Ca<sup>++</sup><br /> channel</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:19px; top:54px"><a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle" title="Synaptic vesicle">Synaptic<br /> vesicle</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:206px; top:22px"><a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter_transporter" title="Neurotransmitter transporter">Neurotransmitter <br /> transporter</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:250px; top:153px"><a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter_receptor" title="Neurotransmitter receptor">Receptor</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:8px; top:7px"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neurotransmitter</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:332px; top:55px"><a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">Axon terminal</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:330px; top:137px"><a href="/wiki/Synaptic_cleft" class="mw-redirect" title="Synaptic cleft">Synaptic cleft</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:342px; top:182px"><a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">Dendrite</a></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption">Structure of a typical <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse">chemical synapse</a></div></div></div> <p>A <b>neurotransmitter</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Signaling_molecule" class="mw-redirect" title="Signaling molecule">signaling molecule</a> secreted by a <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neuron</a> to affect another cell across a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse">synapse</a>. The cell receiving the signal, or target cell, may be another neuron, but could also be a <a href="/wiki/Gland" title="Gland">gland</a> or <a href="/wiki/Muscle_cell" title="Muscle cell">muscle cell</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Neurotransmitters are released from <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Synaptic vesicles">synaptic vesicles</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_cleft" class="mw-redirect" title="Synaptic cleft">synaptic cleft</a> where they are able to interact with <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter_receptor" title="Neurotransmitter receptor">neurotransmitter receptors</a> on the target cell. Some neurotransmitters are also stored in <a href="/wiki/Large_dense_core_vesicles" title="Large dense core vesicles">large dense core vesicles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The neurotransmitter's effect on the target cell is determined by the receptor it binds to. Many neurotransmitters are synthesized from simple and plentiful precursors such as <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>, which are readily available and often require a small number of <a href="/wiki/Biosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Biosynthetic">biosynthetic</a> steps for conversion. </p><p>Neurotransmitters are essential to the function of complex neural systems. The exact number of unique neurotransmitters in humans is unknown, but more than 100 have been identified.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common neurotransmitters include <a href="/wiki/Glutamate_(neurotransmitter)" title="Glutamate (neurotransmitter)">glutamate</a>, <a href="/wiki/GABA" title="GABA">GABA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">glycine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanism_and_cycle">Mechanism and cycle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Mechanism and cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmission" title="Neurotransmission">Neurotransmission</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Synthesis">Synthesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Synthesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neurotransmitters are generally synthesized in neurons and are made up of, or derived from, precursor molecules that are found abundantly in the cell. Classes of neurotransmitters include <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monoamines" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoamines">monoamines</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptides</a>. Monoamines are synthesized by altering a single amino acid. For example, the precursor of serotonin is the amino acid tryptophan. Peptide neurotransmitters, or <a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide" title="Neuropeptide">neuropeptides</a>, are protein transmitters which are larger than the classical small-molecule neurotransmitters and are often released together to elicit a modulatory effect.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Purine neurotransmitters, like <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a>, are derived from nucleic acids. Metabolic products such as <a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">nitric oxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> have also been reported to act like neurotransmitters.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Examples </th></tr> <tr> <td>Amino acids </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">glycine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">glutamate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Monoamines </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epinephrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Epinephrine">epinephrine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Peptides </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Substance_P" title="Substance P">substance P</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">opioids</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Purines </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guanosine_triphosphate" title="Guanosine triphosphate">GTP</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">nitric oxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Storage">Storage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Storage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neurotransmitters.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Neurotransmitters.jpg/220px-Neurotransmitters.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Neurotransmitters.jpg/330px-Neurotransmitters.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Neurotransmitters.jpg/440px-Neurotransmitters.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters</figcaption></figure> <p>Neurotransmitters are generally stored in <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Synaptic vesicles">synaptic vesicles</a>, clustered close to the <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membrane</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">axon terminal</a> of the presynaptic neuron. However, some neurotransmitters, like the metabolic gases carbon monoxide and nitric oxide, are synthesized and released immediately following an action potential without ever being stored in vesicles.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Release">Release</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Release"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Generally, a neurotransmitter is released via <a href="/wiki/Exocytosis" title="Exocytosis">exocytosis</a> at the presynaptic terminal in response to an electrical signal called an <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potential</a> in the presynaptic neuron. However, low-level "baseline" release also occurs without electrical stimulation. Neurotransmitters are released into and diffuse across the <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_cleft" class="mw-redirect" title="Synaptic cleft">synaptic cleft</a>, where they bind to specific <a href="/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">receptors</a> on the membrane of the postsynaptic neuron.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Receptor_interaction">Receptor interaction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Receptor interaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After being released into the synaptic cleft, neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse where they are able to interact with receptors on the target cell. The effect of the neurotransmitter is dependent on the identity of the target cell's receptors present at the synapse. Depending on the receptor, binding of neurotransmitters may cause <a href="/wiki/Excitatory_synapse" title="Excitatory synapse">excitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inhibitory_postsynaptic_potential" title="Inhibitory postsynaptic potential">inhibition</a>, or modulation of the postsynaptic neuron.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elimination">Elimination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Elimination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Synapse_acetylcholine.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Synapse_acetylcholine.png/220px-Synapse_acetylcholine.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Synapse_acetylcholine.png/330px-Synapse_acetylcholine.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Synapse_acetylcholine.png/440px-Synapse_acetylcholine.png 2x" data-file-width="705" data-file-height="722" /></a><figcaption>Acetylcholine is cleaved in the synaptic cleft into acetic acid and choline.</figcaption></figure> <p>In order to avoid continuous activation of receptors on the post-synaptic or target cell, neurotransmitters must be removed from the synaptic cleft.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neurotransmitters are removed through one of three mechanisms: </p> <ol><li>Diffusion – neurotransmitters drift out of the synaptic cleft, where they are absorbed by <a href="/wiki/Glial_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Glial cells">glial cells</a>. These glial cells, usually <a href="/wiki/Astrocyte" title="Astrocyte">astrocytes</a>, absorb the excess neurotransmitters. <ul><li>Astrocytes, a type of <a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">glial</a> cell in the brain, actively contribute to synaptic communication through astrocytic diffusion or <a href="/wiki/Gliotransmitter" title="Gliotransmitter">gliotransmission</a>. Neuronal activity triggers an increase in astrocytic calcium levels, prompting the release of gliotransmitters, such as <a href="/wiki/Glutamate_(neurotransmitter)" title="Glutamate (neurotransmitter)">glutamate</a>, ATP, and D-serine.These gliotransmitters diffuse into the <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_fluid" title="Extracellular fluid">extracellular</a> space, interacting with nearby neurons and influencing synaptic transmission. By regulating extracellular neurotransmitter levels, astrocytes help maintain proper synaptic function. This bidirectional communication between astrocytes and neurons add complexity to brain signaling, with implications for brain function and neurological disorders.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>Enzyme degradation – proteins called <a href="/wiki/Enzymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymes">enzymes</a> break the neurotransmitters down.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reuptake" title="Reuptake">Reuptake</a> – neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the pre-synaptic neuron. Transporters, or <a href="/wiki/Membrane_transport_protein" title="Membrane transport protein">membrane transport proteins</a>, pump neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft back into <a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">axon terminals</a> (the presynaptic neuron) where they are stored for reuse.</li></ol> <p>For example, <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a> is eliminated by having its acetyl group cleaved by the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholinesterase" title="Acetylcholinesterase">acetylcholinesterase</a>; the remaining <a href="/wiki/Choline" title="Choline">choline</a> is then taken in and recycled by the pre-synaptic neuron to synthesize more <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other neurotransmitters are able to <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffuse</a> away from their targeted synaptic junctions and are eliminated from the body via the kidneys, or destroyed in the liver. Each neurotransmitter has very specific degradation pathways at regulatory points, which may be targeted by the body's regulatory system or medication. <a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">Cocaine</a> blocks a dopamine transporter responsible for the reuptake of dopamine. Without the transporter, dopamine diffuses much more slowly from the synaptic cleft and continues to activate the dopamine receptors on the target cell.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discovery">Discovery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Discovery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_catecholamine_research" title="History of catecholamine research">History of catecholamine research</a></div> <p>Until the early 20th century, scientists assumed that the majority of synaptic communication in the brain was electrical. However, through <a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">histological</a> examinations by <a href="/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramón y Cajal">Ramón y Cajal</a>, a 20 to 40 nm gap between neurons, known today as the <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_cleft" class="mw-redirect" title="Synaptic cleft">synaptic cleft</a>, was discovered. The presence of such a gap suggested communication via chemical messengers traversing the synaptic cleft, and in 1921 German pharmacologist <a href="/wiki/Otto_Loewi" title="Otto Loewi">Otto Loewi</a> confirmed that neurons can communicate by releasing chemicals. Through a series of experiments involving the vagus nerves of frogs, Loewi was able to manually slow the heart rate of frogs by controlling the amount of saline solution present around the vagus nerve. Upon completion of this experiment, Loewi asserted that sympathetic regulation of cardiac function can be mediated through changes in chemical concentrations. Furthermore, Otto Loewi is credited with discovering <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a> (ACh) – the first known neurotransmitter.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Identification">Identification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Identification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To identify neurotransmitters, the following criteria are typically considered: </p> <ol><li>Synthesis: The chemical must be produced within the neuron or be present in it as a precursor molecule.</li> <li>Release and response: When the neuron is activated, the chemical must be released and elicit a response in target cells or neurons.</li> <li>Experimental response: Application of the chemical directly to the target cells should produce the same response observed when the chemical is naturally released from neurons.</li> <li>Removal mechanism: There must be a mechanism in place to remove the neurotransmitter from its site of action once its signaling role is complete.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>However, given advances in <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, and chemical <a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">neuroanatomy</a>, the term "neurotransmitter" can be applied to chemicals that: </p> <ul><li>Carry messages between neurons via influence on the postsynaptic membrane.</li> <li>Have little or no effect on membrane voltage, but have a common carrying function such as changing the structure of the synapse.</li> <li>Communicate by sending reverse-direction messages that affect the release or <a href="/wiki/Reuptake" title="Reuptake">reuptake</a> of transmitters.</li></ul> <p>The anatomical localization of neurotransmitters is typically determined using <a href="/wiki/Immunocytochemistry" title="Immunocytochemistry">immunocytochemical</a> techniques, which identify the location of either the transmitter substances themselves or of the enzymes that are involved in their synthesis. Immunocytochemical techniques have also revealed that many transmitters, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide" title="Neuropeptide">neuropeptides</a>, are co-localized, that is, a neuron may release more than one transmitter from its <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_terminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Synaptic terminal">synaptic terminal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BioPsych_Breedlove_&_Watson_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BioPsych_Breedlove_&_Watson-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various techniques and experiments such as <a href="/wiki/Staining" title="Staining">staining</a>, stimulating, and collecting can be used to identify neurotransmitters throughout the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kolb_Intro_to_Brain_&_Behavior_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolb_Intro_to_Brain_&_Behavior-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Actions">Actions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Actions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neurons communicate with each other through <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapses</a>, specialized contact points where neurotransmitters transmit signals. When an <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potential</a> reaches the <a href="/wiki/Presynaptic_terminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Presynaptic terminal">presynaptic terminal</a>, the action potential can trigger the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. These neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, influencing the receiving neuron in either an <a href="/wiki/Inhibitory_postsynaptic_potential" title="Inhibitory postsynaptic potential">inhibitory</a> or <a href="/wiki/Excitatory_postsynaptic_potential" title="Excitatory postsynaptic potential">excitatory</a> manner. If the overall excitatory influences outweigh the inhibitory influences, the receiving neuron may generate its own action potential, continuing the transmission of information to the next neuron in the network. This process allows for the flow of information and the formation of complex neural networks.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modulation">Modulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Modulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A neurotransmitter may have an excitatory, inhibitory or modulatory effect on the target cell. The effect is determined by the receptors the neurotransmitter interacts with at the post-synaptic membrane. Neurotransmitter influences trans-membrane ion flow either to increase (excitatory) or to decrease (inhibitory) the probability that the cell with which it comes in contact will produce an action potential. Synapses containing receptors with excitatory effects are called Type I synapses, while Type II synapses contain receptors with inhibitory effects.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, despite the wide variety of synapses, they all convey messages of only these two types. The two types are different appearance and are primarily located on different parts of the neurons under its influence.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Receptors with modulatory effects are spread throughout all synaptic membranes and binding of neurotransmitters sets in motion signaling cascades that help the cell regulate its function.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Binding of neurotransmitters to receptors with modulatory effects can have many results. For example, it may result in an increase or decrease in sensitivity to future stimulus by recruiting more or less receptors to the synaptic membrane. </p><p>Type I (excitatory) synapses are typically located on the shafts or the spines of dendrites, whereas type II (inhibitory) synapses are typically located on a cell body. In addition, Type I synapses have round synaptic vesicles, whereas the vesicles of type II synapses are flattened. The material on the presynaptic and post-synaptic membranes is denser in a Type I synapse than it is in a Type II, and the Type I synaptic cleft is wider. Finally, the active zone on a Type I synapse is larger than that on a Type II synapse. </p><p>The different locations of Type I and Type II synapses divide a neuron into two zones: an excitatory dendritic tree and an inhibitory cell body. From an inhibitory perspective, excitation comes in over the dendrites and spreads to the <a href="/wiki/Axon_hillock" title="Axon hillock">axon hillock</a> to trigger an <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potential</a>. If the message is to be stopped, it is best stopped by applying inhibition on the cell body, close to the axon hillock where the action potential originates. Another way to conceptualize excitatory–inhibitory interaction is to picture excitation overcoming inhibition. If the cell body is normally in an inhibited state, the only way to generate an action potential at the axon hillock is to reduce the cell body's inhibition. In this "open the gates" strategy, the excitatory message is like a racehorse ready to run down the track, but first, the inhibitory starting gate must be removed.<sup id="cite_ref-Kolb_Intro_to_Brain_and_Behavior_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolb_Intro_to_Brain_and_Behavior-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neurotransmitter_actions">Neurotransmitter actions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Neurotransmitter actions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As explained above, the only direct action of a neurotransmitter is to activate a receptor. Therefore, the effects of a neurotransmitter system depend on the connections of the neurons that use the transmitter, and the chemical properties of the receptors. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glutamate_(neurotransmitter)" title="Glutamate (neurotransmitter)">Glutamate</a> is used at the great majority of fast excitatory synapses in the brain and spinal cord. It is also used at most synapses that are "modifiable", i.e. capable of increasing or decreasing in strength. <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity" title="Synaptic plasticity">Modifiable synapses</a> are thought to be the main memory-storage elements in the brain. Excessive glutamate release can overstimulate the brain and lead to <a href="/wiki/Excitotoxicity" title="Excitotoxicity">excitotoxicity</a> causing cell death resulting in seizures or strokes.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Excitotoxicity has been implicated in certain chronic diseases including <a href="/wiki/Ischemic_stroke" class="mw-redirect" title="Ischemic stroke">ischemic stroke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis">amyotrophic lateral sclerosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huntington_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Huntington disease">Huntington disease</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21729715_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21729715-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GABA" title="GABA">GABA</a> is used at the great majority of fast inhibitory synapses in virtually every part of the brain. Many <a href="/wiki/Sedative" title="Sedative">sedative/tranquilizing drugs</a> act by enhancing the effects of GABA.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">Glycine</a> is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a> was the first neurotransmitter discovered in the peripheral and central nervous systems. It activates skeletal muscles in the somatic nervous system and may either excite or inhibit internal organs in the autonomic system.<sup id="cite_ref-Kolb_Intro_to_Brain_&_Behavior_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolb_Intro_to_Brain_&_Behavior-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is main neurotransmitter at the <a href="/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction" title="Neuromuscular junction">neuromuscular junction</a> connecting motor nerves to muscles. The paralytic arrow-poison <a href="/wiki/Curare" title="Curare">curare</a> acts by blocking transmission at these synapses. Acetylcholine also operates in many regions of the brain as a <a href="/wiki/Neuromodulation" title="Neuromodulation">neuromodulatory</a>, but using <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine_receptor#Receptor_types" title="Acetylcholine receptor">different types of receptors</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Nicotinic_acetylcholine_receptor" title="Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor">nicotinic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muscarinic_acetylcholine_receptor" title="Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor">muscarinic</a> receptors.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">Dopamine</a> has a number of important functions in the brain. This includes critical role in the <a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">reward system</a>, motivation and emotional arousal. It also plays an important role in fine motor control and <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a> has been linked to low levels of dopamine due to the loss of <a href="/wiki/Dopaminergic_neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Dopaminergic neurons">dopaminergic neurons</a> in <a href="/wiki/Substantia_nigra" title="Substantia nigra">substantia nigra</a> <a href="/wiki/Pars_compacta" title="Pars compacta">pars compacta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a>, a highly heterogeneous and complicated disorder has been linked to high levels of dopamine.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">Serotonin</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Monoamine_neurotransmitter" title="Monoamine neurotransmitter">monoamine neurotransmitter</a>. Most of it is produced by the intestine (approximately 90%),<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the remainder by <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> neurons at the <a href="/wiki/Raphe_nuclei" title="Raphe nuclei">raphe nuclei</a>. It functions to regulate appetite, sleep, memory and learning, temperature, mood, behaviour, muscle contraction, and the functions of the <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular system">cardiovascular system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine system</a>. It is speculated to have a role in <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a>, as some depressed patients have been reported to exhibit lower concentrations of metabolites of serotonin in their <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a> and brain tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-serotonin_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-serotonin-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">Norepinephrine</a> is a member of the <a href="/wiki/Catecholamine" title="Catecholamine">catecholamine</a> family of neurotransmitters. It is synthesized from the <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> <a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">tyrosine</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a>, one of the primary roles of norepinephrine is to stimulate the release of the stress hormone <a href="/wiki/Epinephrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Epinephrine">epinephrine</a> (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Adrenaline" title="Adrenaline">adrenaline</a>) from the <a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">adrenal glands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Norepinephrine is involved in the <a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">fight-or-flight response</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is also affected in <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">anxiety disorders</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and depression.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epinephrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Epinephrine">Epinephrine</a>, a neurotransmitter and <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormone</a> is synthesized from <a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">tyrosine</a>. It is released from the <a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">adrenal glands</a> and also plays a role in the fight-or-flight response. Epinephrine has <a href="/wiki/Vasoconstriction" title="Vasoconstriction">vasoconstrictive</a> effects, which promote increased heart rate, blood pressure, energy mobilization. Vasoconstriction influences <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> by promoting the breakdown of <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> released into the bloodstream. Epinephrine also has <a href="/wiki/Bronchodilator" title="Bronchodilator">bronchodilation</a> effects, which is the relaxing of airways.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are many different ways to classify neurotransmitters and are commonly classified into <a href="/wiki/Amino_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acids">amino acids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monoamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoamine">monoamines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peptides" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptides">peptides</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of the major neurotransmitters are: </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acids</a>:</b> <a href="/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">glutamate</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-twsNovK11_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twsNovK11-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aspartate" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspartate">aspartate</a>, <a href="/wiki/D-serine" class="mw-redirect" title="D-serine">D-serine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gamma-Aminobutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Aminobutyric acid">gamma-Aminobutyric acid</a> (GABA),<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">glycine</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Gasotransmitter" title="Gasotransmitter">Gasotransmitters</a>:</b> <a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">nitric oxide</a> (NO), <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> (CO), <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> (H<sub>2</sub>S)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Monoamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoamine">Monoamines</a>:</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catecholamine" title="Catecholamine"><b>Catecholamines</b></a>: <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> (DA), <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a> (noradrenaline, NE), <a href="/wiki/Adrenaline" title="Adrenaline">epinephrine</a> (adrenaline)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Indolamines" title="Indolamines">Indolamines</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a> (5-HT, SER), <a href="/wiki/Melatonin" title="Melatonin">melatonin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histamine" title="Histamine">histamine</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Trace_amine" title="Trace amine">Trace amines</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Phenethylamine" title="Phenethylamine">phenethylamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/N-methylphenethylamine" class="mw-redirect" title="N-methylphenethylamine"><i>N</i>-methylphenethylamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tyramine" title="Tyramine">tyramine</a>, <a href="/wiki/3-iodothyronamine" class="mw-redirect" title="3-iodothyronamine">3-iodothyronamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Octopamine" title="Octopamine">octopamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tryptamine" title="Tryptamine">tryptamine</a>, etc.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">Peptides</a>:</b> <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">oxytocin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somatostatin" title="Somatostatin">somatostatin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Substance_P" title="Substance P">substance P</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cocaine_and_amphetamine_regulated_transcript" title="Cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript">cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opioid_peptide" title="Opioid peptide">opioid peptides</a><sup id="cite_ref-pmid38738_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid38738-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Purinergic_signalling" title="Purinergic signalling">Purines</a>:</b> <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">adenosine triphosphate</a> (ATP), <a href="/wiki/Adenosine" title="Adenosine">adenosine</a></li> <li>Others: <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a> (ACh), <a href="/wiki/Anandamide" title="Anandamide">anandamide</a>, etc.</li></ul> <p>In addition, over 100 neuroactive <a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptides</a> have been found, and new ones are discovered regularly.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these are co-released along with a small-molecule transmitter. Nevertheless, in some cases, a peptide is the primary transmitter at a synapse. <a href="/wiki/Beta-Endorphin" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-Endorphin">Beta-Endorphin</a> is a relatively well-known example of a peptide neurotransmitter because it engages in highly specific interactions with <a href="/wiki/Opioid_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Opioid receptors">opioid receptors</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>. </p><p>Single <a href="/wiki/Ions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ions">ions</a> (such as synaptically released <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>) are also considered neurotransmitters by some,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as some gaseous molecules such as <a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">nitric oxide</a> (NO), <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> (CO), and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> (H<sub>2</sub>S).<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gases are produced in the neural cytoplasm and are immediately diffused through the cell membrane into the extracellular fluid and into nearby cells to stimulate production of second messengers. Soluble gas neurotransmitters are difficult to study, as they act rapidly and are immediately broken down, existing for only a few seconds. </p><p>The most prevalent transmitter is <a href="/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">glutamate</a>, which is excitatory at well over 90% of the synapses in the human brain.<sup id="cite_ref-twsNovK11_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twsNovK11-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next most prevalent is gamma-Aminobutyric Acid, or GABA, which is inhibitory at more than 90% of the synapses that do not use glutamate. Although other transmitters are used in fewer synapses, they may be very important functionally: the great majority of psychoactive drugs exert their effects by altering the actions of some neurotransmitter systems, often acting through transmitters other than glutamate or GABA. Addictive drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines exert their effects primarily on the dopamine system. The addictive <a href="/wiki/Opiate" title="Opiate">opiate</a> drugs exert their effects primarily as functional analogs of <a href="/wiki/Opioid_peptides" class="mw-redirect" title="Opioid peptides">opioid peptides</a>, which, in turn, regulate dopamine levels. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="List_of_neurotransmitters,_peptides,_and_gaseous_signaling_molecules"><span id="List_of_neurotransmitters.2C_peptides.2C_and_gaseous_signaling_molecules"></span>List of neurotransmitters, peptides, and gaseous signaling molecules</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: List of neurotransmitters, peptides, and gaseous signaling molecules"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width: auto;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/20px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/30px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></td><td class="mbox-text" style="width: auto;"><div class="mbox-text-span">This list is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Lists#Incomplete_lists" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Lists">incomplete</a>; you can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit">adding missing items</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2017</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable unsortable" style="width:100%"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="sortable wikitable" style="width:100%"> <caption>Neurotransmitters </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" style="width: 15%;"><b>Category</b> </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 24%;"><b>Name</b> </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 6%;" class="unsortable"><small><b>Abbreviation</b></small> </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 31%;"><b><a href="/wiki/Metabotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabotropic">Metabotropic</a></b> </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 24%;"><b><a href="/wiki/Ionotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionotropic">Ionotropic</a></b> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Small_molecule" title="Small molecule"><abbr title="Small molecule"> Small</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Small molecule</span>: <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acids</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arginine" title="Arginine">Arg</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arginine" title="Arginine">Arginine</a></td> <td>Arg, R</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Alpha-2_adrenergic_receptor" title="Alpha-2 adrenergic receptor">α<sub>2</sub>-Adrenergic receptors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imidazoline_receptor" title="Imidazoline receptor">imidazoline receptors</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA receptors</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Amino acids</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspartate" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspartate">Aspartate</a></td> <td>Asp, D</td> <td>–</td> <td><a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA receptors</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Amino acids</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">Glutamate</a></td> <td>Glu, E</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor">Metabotropic glutamate receptors</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA receptors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kainate_receptor" title="Kainate receptor">kainate receptors</a>, <a href="/wiki/AMPAR" class="mw-redirect" title="AMPAR">AMPARs</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Amino acids</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gamma-aminobutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-aminobutyric acid">Gamma-aminobutyric acid</a></td> <td>GABA</td> <td><a href="/wiki/GABAB_receptor" title="GABAB receptor">GABA<sub>B</sub> receptors</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/GABAA_receptor" title="GABAA receptor">GABA<sub>A</sub> receptors</a>, <a href="/wiki/GABAA-rho_receptor" title="GABAA-rho receptor">GABA<sub>A</sub>-ρ receptors</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Amino acids</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">Glycine</a></td> <td>Gly, G</td> <td>–</td> <td><a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA receptors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glycine_receptor" title="Glycine receptor">glycine receptors</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Amino acids</td> <td><a href="/wiki/D-serine" class="mw-redirect" title="D-serine"><small>D</small>-serine</a></td> <td>Ser, S</td> <td>–</td> <td><a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA receptors</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Acetylcholine</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a></td> <td>ACh</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Muscarinic_acetylcholine_receptor" title="Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor">Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nicotinic_acetylcholine_receptor" title="Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor">Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: <a href="/wiki/Monoamine_neurotransmitter" title="Monoamine neurotransmitter">Monoamine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">Phe</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">Tyr</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">Dopamine</a></td> <td>DA</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor" title="Dopamine receptor">Dopamine receptors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trace_amine-associated_receptor_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Trace amine-associated receptor 1">trace amine-associated receptor 1</a><sup id="cite_ref-DA_IUPHAR_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DA_IUPHAR-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Miller+Grandy_2016_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller+Grandy_2016-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Monoamine (<a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">Phe</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">Tyr</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">Norepinephrine</a> (noradrenaline)</td> <td>NE, NAd</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Adrenergic_receptor" title="Adrenergic receptor">Adrenergic receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Monoamine (<a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">Phe</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">Tyr</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Epinephrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Epinephrine">Epinephrine</a> (adrenaline)</td> <td>Epi, Ad</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Adrenergic_receptor" title="Adrenergic receptor">Adrenergic receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Monoamine (<a href="/wiki/Tryptophan" title="Tryptophan">Trp</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">Serotonin</a> (5-hydroxytryptamine)</td> <td>5-HT</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Serotonin_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Serotonin receptor">Serotonin receptors</a> (all except 5-HT<sub>3</sub>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/5-HT3" class="mw-redirect" title="5-HT3">5-HT<sub>3</sub></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Monoamine (<a href="/wiki/Histidine" title="Histidine">His</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Histamine" title="Histamine">Histamine</a></td> <td>H</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Histamine_receptor" title="Histamine receptor">Histamine receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: <a href="/wiki/Trace_amine" title="Trace amine">Trace amine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">Phe</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Phenethylamine" title="Phenethylamine">Phenethylamine</a></td> <td>PEA</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Trace_amine-associated_receptor" title="Trace amine-associated receptor">Trace amine-associated receptors</a> <a href="/wiki/TAAR1" title="TAAR1">TAAR1</a>, <a href="/wiki/TAAR2" title="TAAR2">TAAR2</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Trace amine (<a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">Phe</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/N-methylphenethylamine" class="mw-redirect" title="N-methylphenethylamine"><i>N</i>-methylphenethylamine</a></td> <td>NMPEA</td> <td><a href="/wiki/TAAR1" title="TAAR1">TAAR1</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Trace amine (<a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">Phe</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">Tyr</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tyramine" title="Tyramine">Tyramine</a></td> <td>TYR</td> <td><a href="/wiki/TAAR1" title="TAAR1">TAAR1</a>, <a href="/wiki/TAAR2" title="TAAR2">TAAR2</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Trace amine (<a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">Phe</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">Tyr</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Octopamine" title="Octopamine">octopamine</a></td> <td>Oct</td> <td><a href="/wiki/TAAR1" title="TAAR1">TAAR1</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Trace amine (<a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">Phe</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">Tyr</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Synephrine" title="Synephrine">Synephrine</a></td> <td>Syn</td> <td><a href="/wiki/TAAR1" title="TAAR1">TAAR1</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Trace amine (<a href="/wiki/Tryptophan" title="Tryptophan">Trp</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tryptamine" title="Tryptamine">Tryptamine</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/TAAR1" title="TAAR1">TAAR1</a>, various <a href="/wiki/Serotonin_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Serotonin receptor">serotonin receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Trace amine (<a href="/wiki/Tryptophan" title="Tryptophan">Trp</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/N-methyltryptamine" class="mw-redirect" title="N-methyltryptamine"><i>N</i>-methyltryptamine</a></td> <td>NMT</td> <td><a href="/wiki/TAAR1" title="TAAR1">TAAR1</a>, various <a href="/wiki/Serotonin_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Serotonin receptor">serotonin receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lipid</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Anandamide" title="Anandamide">Anandamide</a></td> <td>AEA</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cannabinoid_receptor" title="Cannabinoid receptor">Cannabinoid receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lipid</td> <td><a href="/wiki/2-Arachidonoylglycerol" title="2-Arachidonoylglycerol">2-Arachidonoylglycerol</a></td> <td>2-AG</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cannabinoid_receptor" title="Cannabinoid receptor">Cannabinoid receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lipid</td> <td><a href="/wiki/2-Arachidonyl_glyceryl_ether" title="2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether">2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether</a></td> <td>2-AGE</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cannabinoid_receptor" title="Cannabinoid receptor">Cannabinoid receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lipid</td> <td><a href="/wiki/N-Arachidonoyl_dopamine" title="N-Arachidonoyl dopamine"><i>N</i>-Arachidonoyl dopamine</a></td> <td>NADA</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cannabinoid_receptor" title="Cannabinoid receptor">Cannabinoid receptors</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/TRPV1" title="TRPV1">TRPV1</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lipid</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Virodhamine" title="Virodhamine">Virodhamine</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cannabinoid_receptor" title="Cannabinoid receptor">Cannabinoid receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: <a href="/wiki/Purine" title="Purine">Purine</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Adenosine" title="Adenosine">Adenosine</a></td> <td>Ado</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_receptor" title="Adenosine receptor">Adenosine receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Purine</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">Adenosine triphosphate</a></td> <td>ATP</td> <td><a href="/wiki/P2Y_receptor" title="P2Y receptor">P2Y receptors</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/P2X_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="P2X receptor">P2X receptors</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Small: Purine</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide">Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide</a></td> <td>β-NAD</td> <td><a href="/wiki/P2Y_receptor" title="P2Y receptor">P2Y receptors</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/P2X_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="P2X receptor">P2X receptors</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide" title="Neuropeptide">Neuropeptides</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" style="width: 15%;"><b>Category</b> </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 24%;"><b>Name</b> </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 6%;" class="unsortable"><small><b>Abbreviation</b></small> </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 31%;"><b><a href="/wiki/Metabotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabotropic">Metabotropic</a></b> </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 24%;"><b><a href="/wiki/Ionotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionotropic">Ionotropic</a></b> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bombesin-like_peptides" title="Bombesin-like peptides">Bombesin-like peptides</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bombesin" title="Bombesin">Bombesin</a></td> <td></td> <td>BBR1-2-3</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bombesin-like peptide</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gastrin_releasing_peptide" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrin releasing peptide">Gastrin releasing peptide</a></td> <td>GRP</td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bombesin-like peptide</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuromedin_B" title="Neuromedin B">Neuromedin B</a></td> <td>NMB</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuromedin_B_receptor" title="Neuromedin B receptor">Neuromedin B receptor</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bradykinins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bradykinin" title="Bradykinin">Bradykinin</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bradykinin_receptor_B1" title="Bradykinin receptor B1">B1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bradykinin_receptor_B2" title="Bradykinin receptor B2">B2</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Amylin_family" title="Amylin family">Calcitonin/CGRP family</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Calcitonin" title="Calcitonin">Calcitonin</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Calcitonin_receptor" title="Calcitonin receptor">Calcitonin receptor</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Calcitonin/CGRP family</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Calcitonin_gene-related_peptide" title="Calcitonin gene-related peptide">Calcitonin gene-related peptide</a></td> <td>CGRP</td> <td><a href="/wiki/CALCRL" title="CALCRL">CALCRL</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing_factor_family" title="Corticotropin-releasing factor family">Corticotropin-releasing factors</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Corticotropin-releasing hormone">Corticotropin-releasing hormone</a></td> <td>CRH</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing_hormone_receptor_1" title="Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1">CRHR1</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Corticotropin-releasing factors</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Urocortin" title="Urocortin">Urocortin</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing_hormone_receptor_1" title="Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1">CRHR1</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Galanins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Galanin" title="Galanin">Galanin</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/GALR1" class="mw-redirect" title="GALR1">GALR1</a>, <a href="/wiki/GALR2" class="mw-redirect" title="GALR2">GALR2</a>, <a href="/wiki/GALR3" class="mw-redirect" title="GALR3">GALR3</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Galanins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Galanin-like_peptide" title="Galanin-like peptide">Galanin-like peptide</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/GALR1" class="mw-redirect" title="GALR1">GALR1</a>, <a href="/wiki/GALR2" class="mw-redirect" title="GALR2">GALR2</a>, <a href="/wiki/GALR3" class="mw-redirect" title="GALR3">GALR3</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gastrins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gastrin" title="Gastrin">Gastrin</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cholecystokinin_B_receptor" title="Cholecystokinin B receptor">Cholecystokinin B receptor</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gastrins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cholecystokinin" title="Cholecystokinin">Cholecystokinin</a></td> <td>CCK</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cholecystokinin_receptor" title="Cholecystokinin receptor">Cholecystokinin receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Granin" title="Granin">Granins</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromogranin_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromogranin A">Chromogranin A</a></td> <td>ChgA</td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Melanocortin" title="Melanocortin">Melanocortins</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Adrenocorticotropic_hormone" title="Adrenocorticotropic hormone">Adrenocorticotropic hormone</a></td> <td>ACTH</td> <td><a href="/wiki/ACTH_receptor" title="ACTH receptor">ACTH receptor</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Melanocortins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proopiomelanocortin" title="Proopiomelanocortin">Proopiomelanocortin</a></td> <td>POMC</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Melanocortin_4_receptor" title="Melanocortin 4 receptor">Melanocortin 4 receptor</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Melanocortins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Melanocyte-stimulating_hormone" title="Melanocyte-stimulating hormone">Melanocyte-stimulating hormones</a></td> <td>MSH</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Melanocortin_receptor" title="Melanocortin receptor">Melanocortin receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neurohypophyseal" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurohypophyseal">Neurohypophyseals</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">Vasopressin</a></td> <td>AVP</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vasopressin_receptor" title="Vasopressin receptor">Vasopressin receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neurohypophyseals</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a></td> <td>OT</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin_receptor" title="Oxytocin receptor">Oxytocin receptor</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neurohypophyseals</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neurophysin_I" title="Neurophysin I">Neurophysin I</a></td> <td></td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neurohypophyseals</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neurophysin_II" title="Neurophysin II">Neurophysin II</a></td> <td></td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neurohypophyseals</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Copeptin" title="Copeptin">Copeptin</a></td> <td></td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neuromedins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuromedin_U" title="Neuromedin U">Neuromedin U</a></td> <td>NmU</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuromedin_U_receptor_1" title="Neuromedin U receptor 1">NmUR1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuromedin_U_receptor_2" title="Neuromedin U receptor 2">NmUR2</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neuropeptide B/W</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_B" title="Neuropeptide B">Neuropeptide B</a></td> <td>NPB</td> <td><a href="/wiki/NPBWR1" class="mw-redirect" title="NPBWR1">NPBW1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuropeptides_B/W_receptor_2" title="Neuropeptides B/W receptor 2">NPBW2</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neuropeptide B/W</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_S" title="Neuropeptide S">Neuropeptide S</a></td> <td>NPS</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_S_receptor" title="Neuropeptide S receptor">Neuropeptide S receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neuropeptide Y</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_Y" title="Neuropeptide Y">Neuropeptide Y</a></td> <td>NY</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_Y_receptor" title="Neuropeptide Y receptor">Neuropeptide Y receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neuropeptide Y</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_polypeptide" title="Pancreatic polypeptide">Pancreatic polypeptide</a></td> <td>PP</td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neuropeptide Y</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Peptide_YY" title="Peptide YY">Peptide YY</a></td> <td>PYY</td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">Opioids</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Enkephalins" class="mw-redirect" title="Enkephalins">Enkephalins</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Delta_opioid_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Delta opioid receptor">δ-Opioid receptor</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Opioids</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dynorphins" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynorphins">Dynorphins</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kappa_opioid_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Kappa opioid receptor">κ-Opioid receptor</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Opioids</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neoendorphins" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoendorphins">Neoendorphins</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kappa_opioid_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Kappa opioid receptor">κ-Opioid receptor</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Opioids</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Endorphins" title="Endorphins">Endorphins</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mu_opioid_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu opioid receptor">μ-Opioid receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Opioids</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Endomorphins" class="mw-redirect" title="Endomorphins">Endomorphins</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mu_opioid_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu opioid receptor">μ-Opioid receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Opioids</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Morphine#Human_biosynthesis" title="Morphine">Morphine</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mu_opioid_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu opioid receptor">μ-Opioid receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Opioids</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nociceptin" title="Nociceptin">Nociceptin/orphanin FQ</a></td> <td>N/OFQ</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nociceptin_receptor" title="Nociceptin receptor">Nociceptin receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Orexin" title="Orexin">Orexins</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Orexin_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Orexin A">Orexin A</a></td> <td>OX-A</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Orexin_receptor" title="Orexin receptor">Orexin receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Orexins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Orexin_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Orexin B">Orexin B</a></td> <td>OX-B</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Orexin_receptor" title="Orexin receptor">Orexin receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone_family" title="Parathyroid hormone family">Parathyroid hormone family</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone-related_protein" title="Parathyroid hormone-related protein">Parathyroid hormone-related protein</a></td> <td>PTHrP</td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/RFamide_peptide_family" title="RFamide peptide family">RFamides</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kisspeptin" title="Kisspeptin">Kisspeptin</a></td> <td>KiSS</td> <td><a href="/wiki/GPR54" class="mw-redirect" title="GPR54">GPR54</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>RFamides</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_FF" title="Neuropeptide FF">Neuropeptide FF</a></td> <td>NPFF</td> <td>NPFF1, NPFF2</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>RFamides</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prolactin-releasing_peptide" title="Prolactin-releasing peptide">Prolactin-releasing peptide</a></td> <td>PrRP</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prolactin-releasing_peptide_receptor" title="Prolactin-releasing peptide receptor">PrRPR</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>RFamides</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pyroglutamylated_RFamide_peptide" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyroglutamylated RFamide peptide">Pyroglutamylated RFamide peptide</a></td> <td>QRFP</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pyroglutamylated_RFamide_peptide_receptor" title="Pyroglutamylated RFamide peptide receptor">GPR103</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Secretin_family" title="Secretin family">Secretins</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Secretin" title="Secretin">Secretin</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Secretin_receptor" title="Secretin receptor">Secretin receptor</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Secretins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Motilin" title="Motilin">Motilin</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Motilin_receptor" title="Motilin receptor">Motilin receptor</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Secretins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glucagon" title="Glucagon">Glucagon</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glucagon_receptor" title="Glucagon receptor">Glucagon receptor</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Secretins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glucagon-like_peptide-1" title="Glucagon-like peptide-1">Glucagon-like peptide-1</a></td> <td>GLP-1</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glucagon-like_peptide_1_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor">Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Secretins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glucagon-like_peptide-2" title="Glucagon-like peptide-2">Glucagon-like peptide-2</a></td> <td>GLP-2</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glucagon-like_peptide_2_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Glucagon-like peptide 2 receptor">Glucagon-like peptide 2 receptor</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Secretins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vasoactive_intestinal_peptide" title="Vasoactive intestinal peptide">Vasoactive intestinal peptide</a></td> <td>VIP</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vasoactive_intestinal_peptide_receptor" title="Vasoactive intestinal peptide receptor">Vasoactive intestinal peptide receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Secretins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Growth_hormone%E2%80%93releasing_hormone" title="Growth hormone–releasing hormone">Growth hormone–releasing hormone</a></td> <td>GHRH</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Growth-hormone-releasing_hormone_receptor" title="Growth-hormone-releasing hormone receptor">Growth hormone–releasing hormone receptor</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Secretins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_adenylate_cyclase-activating_peptide" title="Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide">Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide</a></td> <td>PACAP</td> <td><a href="/wiki/ADCYAP1R1" title="ADCYAP1R1">ADCYAP1R1</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Somatostatins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Somatostatin" title="Somatostatin">Somatostatin</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Somatostatin_receptor" title="Somatostatin receptor">Somatostatin receptors</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tachykinin_peptides" title="Tachykinin peptides">Tachykinins</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neurokinin_A" title="Neurokinin A">Neurokinin A</a></td> <td></td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tachykinins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neurokinin_B" title="Neurokinin B">Neurokinin B</a></td> <td></td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tachykinins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Substance_P" title="Substance P">Substance P</a></td> <td></td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tachykinins</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_K" title="Neuropeptide K">Neuropeptide K</a></td> <td></td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Agouti-related_peptide" title="Agouti-related peptide">Agouti-related peptide</a></td> <td>AgRP</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Melanocortin_receptor" title="Melanocortin receptor">Melanocortin receptor</a> – </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other</td> <td><a href="/wiki/N-Acetylaspartylglutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="N-Acetylaspartylglutamate"><i>N</i>-Acetylaspartylglutamate</a></td> <td>NAAG</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_3" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 3">Metabotropic glutamate receptor 3</a> (mGluR3)</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cocaine-_and_amphetamine-regulated_transcript" class="mw-redirect" title="Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript">Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript</a></td> <td>CART</td> <td>Unknown <a href="/wiki/Gi_alpha_subunit" title="Gi alpha subunit">G<sub>i</sub>/G<sub>o</sub></a>-coupled receptor<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21855138_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21855138-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gonadotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Gonadotropin-releasing hormone">Gonadotropin-releasing hormone</a></td> <td>GnRH</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gonadotropin-releasing_hormone_receptor" title="Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor">GnRHR</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thyrotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Thyrotropin-releasing hormone">Thyrotropin-releasing hormone</a></td> <td>TRH</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thyrotropin-releasing_hormone_receptor" title="Thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor">TRHR</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Melanin-concentrating_hormone" title="Melanin-concentrating hormone">Melanin-concentrating hormone</a></td> <td>MCH</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Melanin-concentrating_hormone_receptor" title="Melanin-concentrating hormone receptor">MCHR</a> 1,2</td> <td>– </td></tr> </tbody></table> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Gasotransmitter" title="Gasotransmitter">Gasotransmitters</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" style="width: 15%;"><b>Category</b> </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 24%;"><b>Name</b> </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 6%;" class="unsortable"><small><b>Abbreviation</b></small> </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 31%;"><b><a href="/wiki/Metabotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabotropic">Metabotropic</a></b> </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 24%;"><b><a href="/wiki/Ionotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionotropic">Ionotropic</a></b> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gaseous_signaling_molecule" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaseous signaling molecule">Gaseous signaling molecule</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">Nitric oxide</a></td> <td>NO</td> <td>Soluble <a href="/wiki/Guanylyl_cyclase" class="mw-redirect" title="Guanylyl cyclase">guanylyl cyclase</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gaseous signaling molecule</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">Carbon monoxide</a></td> <td>CO</td> <td>–</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Heme" title="Heme">Heme</a> bound to <a href="/wiki/Potassium_channel" title="Potassium channel">potassium channels</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gaseous signaling molecule</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">Hydrogen sulfide</a></td> <td>H2S</td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neurotransmitter_systems">Neurotransmitter systems <span class="anchor" id="table"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Neurotransmitter systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neurons expressing certain types of neurotransmitters sometimes form distinct systems, where activation of the system affects large volumes of the brain, called <a href="/wiki/Volume_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Volume transmission">volume transmission</a>. Major neurotransmitter systems include the <a href="/wiki/Noradrenaline" class="mw-redirect" title="Noradrenaline">noradrenaline</a> (norepinephrine) system, the <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> system, the <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a> system, and the <a href="/wiki/Cholinergic" title="Cholinergic">cholinergic</a> system, among others. <a href="/wiki/Trace_amine" title="Trace amine">Trace amines</a> have a modulatory effect on neurotransmission in <a href="/wiki/Monoamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoamine">monoamine</a> pathways (i.e., dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin pathways) throughout the brain via signaling through <a href="/wiki/TAAR1" title="TAAR1">trace amine-associated receptor 1</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-E_Weihe_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-E_Weihe-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A brief comparison of these systems follows: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="width:92%"> <caption>Neurotransmitter systems in the brain </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>System</th> <th>Pathway origin and projections</th> <th>Regulated cognitive processes and behaviors </th></tr> <tr> <th id="Noradrenaline">Noradrenaline system<br /><sup id="cite_ref-VTA_inputs_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VTA_inputs-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Noradrenergic_pathways_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noradrenergic_pathways-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rang_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rang-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ARAS_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ARAS-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NHM_-_ascending_reticular_activating_system_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHM_-_ascending_reticular_activating_system-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rinaman_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rinaman-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td><b>Noradrenergic pathways</b>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locus_coeruleus" title="Locus coeruleus">Locus coeruleus</a> (LC) projections</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>LC → <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">Amygdala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">Hippocampus</a></li> <li>LC → <a href="/wiki/Brain_stem" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain stem">Brain stem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></li> <li>LC → <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">Cerebellum</a></li> <li>LC → <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">Cerebral cortex</a></li> <li>LC → <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">Hypothalamus</a></li> <li>LC → <a href="/wiki/Tectum" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectum">Tectum</a></li> <li>LC → <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">Thalamus</a></li> <li>LC → <a href="/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area" title="Ventral tegmental area">Ventral tegmental area</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_tegmental_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral tegmental field">Lateral tegmental field</a> (LTF) projections</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>LTF → <a href="/wiki/Brain_stem" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain stem">Brain stem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></li> <li>LTF → <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_bulb" title="Olfactory bulb">Olfactory bulb</a></li></ul></dd></dl> </td> <td> <ul><li>anxiety</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arousal" title="Arousal">arousal</a> (wakefulness)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive control">cognitive control</a> and <a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">working memory</a> (co-regulated by dopamine)</li> <li>feeding and <a href="/wiki/Energy_homeostasis" title="Energy homeostasis">energy homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medullary_respiratory_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Medullary respiratory center">medullary control of respiration</a></li> <li>negative emotional memory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nociception" title="Nociception">nociception</a> (perception of pain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">reward</a> (minor role)</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th id="Dopamine">Dopamine system<br /><sup id="cite_ref-Rang_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rang-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ARAS_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ARAS-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NHM_-_ascending_reticular_activating_system_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHM_-_ascending_reticular_activating_system-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Malenka_pathways_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malenka_pathways-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Reward_and_aversion_MSNs_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reward_and_aversion_MSNs-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dopaminergic_pathways_and_reward_system_review_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dopaminergic_pathways_and_reward_system_review-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Dopaminergic_pathways" title="Dopaminergic pathways">Dopaminergic pathways</a></b>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area" title="Ventral tegmental area">Ventral tegmental area</a> (VTA) projections</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>VTA → <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">Amygdala</a></li> <li>VTA → <a href="/wiki/Cingulate_cortex" title="Cingulate cortex">Cingulate cortex</a></li> <li>VTA → <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">Hippocampus</a></li> <li>VTA → <a href="/wiki/Ventral_striatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral striatum">Ventral striatum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mesolimbic_pathway" title="Mesolimbic pathway">Mesolimbic pathway</a>)</li> <li>VTA → <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_bulb" title="Olfactory bulb">Olfactory bulb</a></li> <li>VTA → <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">Prefrontal cortex</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mesocortical_pathway" title="Mesocortical pathway">Mesocortical pathway</a>)</li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigrostriatal_pathway" title="Nigrostriatal pathway">Nigrostriatal pathway</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Substantia_nigra_pars_compacta" class="mw-redirect" title="Substantia nigra pars compacta">Substantia nigra pars compacta</a> → <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_striatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal striatum">Dorsal striatum</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tuberoinfundibular_pathway" title="Tuberoinfundibular pathway">Tuberoinfundibular pathway</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcuate_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Arcuate nucleus">Arcuate nucleus</a> → <a href="/wiki/Median_eminence" title="Median eminence">Median eminence</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li>Hypothalamospinal projection</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">Hypothalamus</a> → <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incertohypothalamic_pathway" title="Incertohypothalamic pathway">Incertohypothalamic pathway</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zona_incerta" title="Zona incerta">Zona incerta</a> → Hypothalamus</li></ul></dd></dl> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arousal" title="Arousal">arousal</a> (wakefulness)</li> <li>aversion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive control">cognitive control</a> and <a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">working memory</a> (co-regulated by norepinephrine)</li> <li>emotion and <a href="/wiki/Mood_(psychology)" title="Mood (psychology)">mood</a></li> <li>motivation (<a href="/wiki/Motivational_salience" title="Motivational salience">motivational salience</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_system" title="Motor system">motor function</a> and control</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_reinforcement" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive reinforcement">positive reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">reward</a> (primary mediator)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">sexual arousal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orgasm" title="Orgasm">orgasm</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_refractory_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual refractory period">refractory period</a> (via neuroendocrine regulation)</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th id="Histamine">Histamine system<br /><sup id="cite_ref-ARAS_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ARAS-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NHM_-_ascending_reticular_activating_system_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHM_-_ascending_reticular_activating_system-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Histamine_pathways_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Histamine_pathways-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td><b>Histaminergic pathways</b>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tuberomammillary_nucleus" title="Tuberomammillary nucleus">Tuberomammillary nucleus</a> (TMN) projections</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>TMN → <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">Cerebral cortex</a></li> <li>TMN → <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">Hippocampus</a></li> <li>TMN → <a href="/wiki/Neostriatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Neostriatum">Neostriatum</a></li> <li>TMN → <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">Nucleus accumbens</a></li> <li>TMN → <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">Amygdala</a></li> <li>TMN → <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">Hypothalamus</a></li></ul></dd></dl> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arousal" title="Arousal">arousal</a> (wakefulness)</li> <li>feeding and <a href="/wiki/Energy_homeostasis" title="Energy homeostasis">energy homeostasis</a></li> <li>learning</li> <li>memory</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th id="Serotonin">Serotonin system<br /><sup id="cite_ref-VTA_inputs_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VTA_inputs-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rang_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rang-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ARAS_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ARAS-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NHM_-_ascending_reticular_activating_system_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHM_-_ascending_reticular_activating_system-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Serotonergic_pathways_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Serotonergic_pathways-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid21216242_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21216242-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Serotonergic_pathways" class="mw-redirect" title="Serotonergic pathways">Serotonergic pathways</a></b>: <p><a href="/wiki/Caudal_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudal nuclei">Caudal nuclei</a> (CN):<br /> <a href="/wiki/Raphe_magnus" class="mw-redirect" title="Raphe magnus">Raphe magnus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raphe_pallidus" class="mw-redirect" title="Raphe pallidus">raphe pallidus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Raphe_obscurus" class="mw-redirect" title="Raphe obscurus">raphe obscurus</a> </p> <ul><li>Caudal projections</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>CN → <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">Cerebral cortex</a></li> <li>CN → <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">Thalamus</a></li> <li>CN → <a href="/wiki/Caudate_nucleus" title="Caudate nucleus">Caudate</a>-<a href="/wiki/Putamen" title="Putamen">putamen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">nucleus accumbens</a></li> <li>CN → <a href="/wiki/Substantia_nigra" title="Substantia nigra">Substantia nigra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area" title="Ventral tegmental area">ventral tegmental area</a></li> <li>CN → <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">Cerebellum</a></li> <li>CN → <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Rostral_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Rostral nuclei">Rostral nuclei</a> (RN):<br /> <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_linearis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleus linearis">Nucleus linearis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_raphe" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal raphe">dorsal raphe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medial_raphe" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial raphe">medial raphe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Raphe_pontis" class="mw-redirect" title="Raphe pontis">raphe pontis</a> </p> <ul><li>Rostral projections</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>RN → <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">Amygdala</a></li> <li>RN → <a href="/wiki/Cingulate_cortex" title="Cingulate cortex">Cingulate cortex</a></li> <li>RN → <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">Hippocampus</a></li> <li>RN → <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">Hypothalamus</a></li> <li>RN → <a href="/wiki/Neocortex" title="Neocortex">Neocortex</a></li> <li>RN → <a href="/wiki/Septum" title="Septum">Septum</a></li> <li>RN → <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">Thalamus</a></li> <li>RN → <a href="/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area" title="Ventral tegmental area">Ventral tegmental area</a></li></ul></dd></dl> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arousal" title="Arousal">arousal</a> (wakefulness)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Body temperature">body temperature</a> regulation</li> <li>emotion and <a href="/wiki/Mood_(psychology)" title="Mood (psychology)">mood</a>, potentially including aggression</li> <li>feeding and <a href="/wiki/Energy_homeostasis" title="Energy homeostasis">energy homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">reward</a> (minor role)</li> <li>sensory perception</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th id="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine system<br /><sup id="cite_ref-VTA_inputs_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VTA_inputs-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rang_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rang-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ARAS_51-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ARAS-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NHM_-_ascending_reticular_activating_system_52-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHM_-_ascending_reticular_activating_system-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cholinergic_pathways_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cholinergic_pathways-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td><b>Cholinergic pathways</b>: <p>Forebrain cholinergic nuclei (FCN):<br /> <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_basalis_of_Meynert" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleus basalis of Meynert">Nucleus basalis of Meynert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medial_septal_nucleus" title="Medial septal nucleus">medial septal nucleus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_of_diagonal_band" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleus of diagonal band">diagonal band</a> </p> <ul><li>Forebrain nuclei projections</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>FCN → <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">Hippocampus</a></li> <li>FCN → <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">Cerebral cortex</a></li> <li>FCN → <a href="/wiki/Limbic_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Limbic cortex">Limbic cortex</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sensory_cortex" title="Sensory cortex">sensory cortex</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <p>Striatal tonically active cholinergic neurons (TAN) </p> <dl><dd><ul><li>TAN → <a href="/wiki/Medium_spiny_neuron" title="Medium spiny neuron">Medium spiny neuron</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <p>Brainstem cholinergic nuclei (BCN):<br /> <a href="/wiki/Pedunculopontine_nucleus" title="Pedunculopontine nucleus">Pedunculopontine nucleus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laterodorsal_tegmental_nucleus" title="Laterodorsal tegmental nucleus">laterodorsal tegmentum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medial_habenula" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial habenula">medial habenula</a>, and<br /><a href="/wiki/Parabigeminal_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Parabigeminal nucleus">parabigeminal nucleus</a> </p> <ul><li>Brainstem nuclei projections</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>BCN → <a href="/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area" title="Ventral tegmental area">Ventral tegmental area</a></li> <li>BCN → <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">Thalamus</a></li></ul></dd></dl> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arousal" title="Arousal">arousal</a> (wakefulness)</li> <li>emotion and <a href="/wiki/Mood_(psychology)" title="Mood (psychology)">mood</a></li> <li>learning</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_system" title="Motor system">motor function</a></li> <li>motivation (<a href="/wiki/Motivational_salience" title="Motivational salience">motivational salience</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory#Short-term" title="Memory">short-term memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">reward</a> (minor role)</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th id="Adrenaline">Adrenaline system<br /><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td><b>Adrenergic pathways</b>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rostral_ventrolateral_medulla" title="Rostral ventrolateral medulla">Rostral ventrolateral medulla</a> (RVLM) projections</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>RVLM → <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></li> <li>RVLM → <a href="/wiki/Brain_stem" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain stem">Brain stem</a></li> <li>RVLM → <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">Hypothalamus</a></li></ul></dd></dl> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medullary_respiratory_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Medullary respiratory center">medullary control of respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic nervous system</a></li> <li>feeding and <a href="/wiki/Energy_homeostasis" title="Energy homeostasis">energy homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arousal" title="Arousal">arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)" title="Stress (biology)">stress</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Neural_pathway" title="Neural pathway">Neural pathway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuromodulation" title="Neuromodulation">Neuromodulation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_in_the_human_brain" title="List of regions in the human brain">List of regions in the human brain</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Drug_effects">Drug effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Drug effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Understanding the effects of drugs on neurotransmitters comprises a significant portion of research initiatives in the field of <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>. Most neuroscientists involved in this field of research believe that such efforts may further advance our understanding of the circuits responsible for various neurological diseases and disorders, as well as ways to effectively treat and someday possibly prevent or cure such illnesses.<sup id="cite_ref-Brainfacts_revised_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brainfacts_revised-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)"><span title="Material near this tag needs references to reliable medical sources. (December 2017)">medical citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Drugs can influence behavior by altering neurotransmitter activity. For instance, drugs can decrease the rate of synthesis of neurotransmitters by affecting the synthetic enzyme(s) for that neurotransmitter. When neurotransmitter syntheses are blocked, the amount of neurotransmitters available for release becomes substantially lower, resulting in a decrease in neurotransmitter activity. Some drugs block or stimulate the release of specific neurotransmitters. Alternatively, drugs can prevent neurotransmitter storage in synaptic vesicles by causing the synaptic vesicle membranes to leak. Drugs that prevent a neurotransmitter from binding to its receptor are called <a href="/wiki/Receptor_antagonist" title="Receptor antagonist">receptor antagonists</a>. For example, drugs used to treat patients with schizophrenia such as haloperidol, chlorpromazine, and clozapine are antagonists at receptors in the brain for dopamine. Other drugs act by binding to a receptor and mimicking the normal neurotransmitter. Such drugs are called receptor <a href="/wiki/Agonist" title="Agonist">agonists</a>. An example of a receptor agonist is <a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">morphine</a>, an opiate that mimics effects of the endogenous neurotransmitter <a href="/wiki/%CE%92-endorphin" class="mw-redirect" title="Β-endorphin">β-endorphin</a> to relieve pain. Other drugs interfere with the deactivation of a neurotransmitter after it has been released, thereby prolonging the action of a neurotransmitter. This can be accomplished by blocking re-uptake or inhibiting degradative enzymes. Lastly, drugs can also prevent an action potential from occurring, blocking neuronal activity throughout the central and peripheral <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>. Drugs such as <a href="/wiki/Tetrodotoxin" title="Tetrodotoxin">tetrodotoxin</a> that block neural activity are typically lethal. </p><p>Drugs targeting the neurotransmitter of major systems affect the whole system, which can explain the complexity of action of some drugs. <a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">Cocaine</a>, for example, blocks the re-uptake of <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> back into the <a href="/wiki/Presynaptic" class="mw-redirect" title="Presynaptic">presynaptic</a> neuron, leaving the neurotransmitter molecules in the <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synaptic gap</a> for an extended period of time. Since the dopamine remains in the synapse longer, the neurotransmitter continues to bind to the receptors on the <a href="/wiki/Postsynaptic" class="mw-redirect" title="Postsynaptic">postsynaptic</a> neuron, eliciting a pleasurable emotional response. Physical addiction to cocaine may result from prolonged exposure to excess dopamine in the synapses, which leads to the <a href="/wiki/Downregulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Downregulation">downregulation</a> of some post-synaptic receptors. After the effects of the drug wear off, an individual can become depressed due to decreased probability of the neurotransmitter binding to a receptor. <a href="/wiki/Fluoxetine" title="Fluoxetine">Fluoxetine</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Selective_serotonin_re-uptake_inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor">selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor</a> (SSRI), which blocks re-uptake of serotonin by the presynaptic cell which increases the amount of serotonin present at the synapse and furthermore allows it to remain there longer, providing potential for the effect of naturally released serotonin.<sup id="cite_ref-InhibitingSerotoninSynthesis_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InhibitingSerotoninSynthesis-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/AMPT" class="mw-redirect" title="AMPT">AMPT</a> prevents the conversion of tyrosine to <a href="/wiki/L-DOPA" title="L-DOPA">L-DOPA</a>, the precursor to dopamine; <a href="/wiki/Reserpine" title="Reserpine">reserpine</a> prevents dopamine storage within <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle" title="Synaptic vesicle">vesicles</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Deprenyl" title="Deprenyl">deprenyl</a> inhibits <a href="/wiki/Monoamine_oxidase" title="Monoamine oxidase">monoamine oxidase</a> (MAO)-B and thus increases dopamine levels. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Drug–neurotransmitter interactions<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Drug </th> <th>Interacts with </th> <th>Receptor interaction </th> <th>Type </th> <th>Effects </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Botulinum_toxin" title="Botulinum toxin">Botulinum toxin</a> (Botox) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a> </td> <td>– </td> <td>Antagonist </td> <td>Blocks <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a> release in PNS <p>Prevents muscle contractions </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Black widow spider venom </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a> </td> <td>– </td> <td>Agonist </td> <td>Promotes acetylcholine release in PNS <p>Stimulates muscle contractions </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neostigmine </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a> </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>Interferes with acetylcholinerase activity <p>Increases effects of ACh at receptors </p><p>Used to treat myasthenia gravis </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">Nicotine</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nicotinic_acetylcholine_receptor" title="Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor">Nicotinic</a> (skeletal muscle) </td> <td>Agonist </td> <td>Increases ACh activity <p>Increases attention </p><p>Reinforcing effects </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>d-tubocurarine </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nicotinic_acetylcholine_receptor" title="Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor">Nicotinic</a> (skeletal muscle) </td> <td>Antagonist </td> <td>Decreases activity at receptor site </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Curare" title="Curare">Curare</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nicotinic_acetylcholine_receptor" title="Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor">Nicotinic</a> (skeletal muscle) </td> <td>Antagonist </td> <td>Decreases ACh activity <p>Prevents muscle contractions </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Muscarine" title="Muscarine">Muscarine</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Muscarinic_acetylcholine_receptor" title="Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor">Muscarinic</a> (heart and smooth muscle) </td> <td>Agonist </td> <td>Increases ACh activity <p>Toxic </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Atropine" title="Atropine">Atropine</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Muscarinic_acetylcholine_receptor" title="Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor">Muscarinic</a> (heart and smooth muscle) </td> <td>Antagonist </td> <td>Blocks pupil constriction <p>Blocks saliva production </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Scopolamine (<a href="/wiki/Hyoscine" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyoscine">hyoscine</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Muscarinic_acetylcholine_receptor" title="Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor">Muscarinic</a> (heart and smooth muscle) </td> <td>Antagonist </td> <td>Treats motion sickness and postoperative nausea and vomiting </td></tr> <tr> <td>AMPT </td> <td>Dopamine/norepinephrine </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>Inactivates tyrosine hydroxylase and inhibits dopamine production </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Reserpine" title="Reserpine">Reserpine</a> </td> <td>Dopamine </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>Prevents storage of dopamine and other monoamines in synaptic vesicles <p>Causes sedation and depression </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Apomorphine" title="Apomorphine">Apomorphine</a> </td> <td>Dopamine </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D2" title="Dopamine receptor D2">D2 receptor</a> (presynaptic autoreceptors/postsynaptic receptors) </td> <td>Antagonist (low dose) / direct agonist (high dose) </td> <td>Low dose: blocks autoreceptors <p>High dose: stimulates postsynaptic receptors </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">Amphetamine</a> </td> <td>Dopamine/norepinephrine </td> <td>– </td> <td>Indirect agonist </td> <td>Releases dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin <p>Blocks reuptake<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-E_Weihe_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-E_Weihe-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Methamphetamine" title="Methamphetamine">Methamphetamine</a> </td> <td>Dopamine/norepinephrine </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>Releases dopamine and noradrenaline <p>Blocks reuptake </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Methylphenidate" title="Methylphenidate">Methylphenidate</a> </td> <td>Dopamine </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>Blocks reuptake <p>Enhances attention and impulse control in ADHD </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">Cocaine</a> </td> <td>Dopamine </td> <td>– </td> <td>Indirect agonist </td> <td>Blocks reuptake into presynapse <p>Blocks voltage-dependent sodium channels </p><p>Can be used as a topical anesthetic (eye drops) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Deprenyl </td> <td>Dopamine </td> <td>– </td> <td>Agonist </td> <td>Inhibits MAO-B <p>Prevents destruction of dopamine </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chlorpromazine" title="Chlorpromazine">Chlorpromazine</a> </td> <td>Dopamine </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D2" title="Dopamine receptor D2">D2 Receptors</a> </td> <td>Antagonist </td> <td>Blocks D2 receptors <p>Alleviates hallucinations </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/MPTP" title="MPTP">MPTP</a> </td> <td>Dopamine </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>Results in Parkinson-like symptoms </td></tr> <tr> <td>PCPA </td> <td>Serotonin (5-HT) </td> <td>– </td> <td>Antagonist </td> <td>Disrupts serotonin synthesis by blocking the activity of <a href="/wiki/Tryptophan_hydroxylase" title="Tryptophan hydroxylase">tryptophan hydroxylase</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ondansetron" title="Ondansetron">Ondansetron</a> </td> <td>Serotonin (5-HT) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/5-HT_receptor" title="5-HT receptor">5-HT<sub>3</sub> receptors</a> </td> <td>Antagonist </td> <td>Reduces side effects of chemotherapy and radiation <p>Reduces nausea and vomiting </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Buspirone" title="Buspirone">Buspirone</a> </td> <td>Serotonin (5-HT) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/5-HT1A_receptor" title="5-HT1A receptor">5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptors</a> </td> <td>Partial agonist </td> <td>Treats symptoms of anxiety and depression </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fluoxetine" title="Fluoxetine">Fluoxetine</a> </td> <td>Serotonin (5-HT) </td> <td>supports <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">5-HT</a> reuptake </td> <td>SSRI </td> <td>Inhibits reuptake of serotonin <p>Treats depression, some anxiety disorders, and OCD<sup id="cite_ref-InhibitingSerotoninSynthesis_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InhibitingSerotoninSynthesis-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common examples: <a href="/wiki/Prozac" class="mw-redirect" title="Prozac">Prozac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sarafem" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarafem">Sarafem</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fenfluramine" title="Fenfluramine">Fenfluramine</a> </td> <td>Serotonin (5-HT) </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>Causes release of serotonin <p>Inhibits reuptake of serotonin </p><p>Used as an appetite suppressant </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lysergic_acid_diethylamide" class="mw-redirect" title="Lysergic acid diethylamide">Lysergic acid diethylamide</a> </td> <td>Serotonin (5-HT) </td> <td>Post-synaptic 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptors </td> <td>Direct agonist </td> <td>Produces visual perception distortions <p>Stimulates 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptors in forebrain </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (<a href="/wiki/MDMA" title="MDMA">MDMA</a>) </td> <td>Serotonin (5-HT)/norepinphrine </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>Stimulates release of serotonin and norepinephrine and inhibits the reuptake <p>Causes excitatory and hallucinogenic effects </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Strychnine" title="Strychnine">Strychnine</a> </td> <td>Glycine </td> <td>– </td> <td>Antagonist </td> <td>Causes severe muscle spasms<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Diphenhydramine" title="Diphenhydramine">Diphenhydramine</a> </td> <td>Histamine </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>Crosses blood–brain barrier to cause drowsiness </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tetrahydrocannabinol" title="Tetrahydrocannabinol">Tetrahydrocannabinol</a> (THC) </td> <td>Endocannabinoids </td> <td>Cannabinoid (CB) receptors </td> <td>Agonist </td> <td>Produces analgesia and sedation <p>Increases appetite </p><p>Cognitive effects </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rimonabant </td> <td>Endocannabinoids </td> <td>Cannabinoid (CB) receptors </td> <td>Antagonist </td> <td>Suppresses appetite <p>Used in smoking cessation </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>MAFP </td> <td>Endocannabinoids </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>Inhibits FAAH <p>Used in research to increase cannabinoid system activity </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>AM1172 </td> <td>Endocannabinoids </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>Blocks cannabinoid reuptake <p>Used in research to increase cannabinoid system activity </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Anandamide (endogenous) </td> <td>– </td> <td>Cannabinoid (CB) receptors; 5-HT<sub>3</sub> receptors </td> <td>– </td> <td>Reduce nausea and vomiting </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">Caffeine</a> </td> <td>Adenosine </td> <td>Adenosine receptors </td> <td>Antagonist </td> <td>Blocks adenosine receptors <p>Increases wakefulness </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/PCP_(drug)" class="mw-redirect" title="PCP (drug)">PCP</a> </td> <td>Glutamate </td> <td><a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA receptor</a> </td> <td>Indirect antagonist </td> <td>Blocks PCP binding site <p>Prevents calcium ions from entering neurons </p><p>Impairs learning </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/AP5" title="AP5">AP5</a> </td> <td>Glutamate </td> <td><a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA receptor</a> </td> <td>Antagonist </td> <td>Blocks glutamate binding site on NMDA receptor <p>Impairs synaptic plasticity and certain forms of learning </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">Ketamine</a> </td> <td>Glutamate </td> <td><a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA receptor</a> </td> <td>Antagonist </td> <td>Used as anesthesia <p>Induces trance-like state, helps with pain relief and sedation </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/N-Methyl-D-aspartic_acid" title="N-Methyl-D-aspartic acid">NMDA</a> </td> <td>Glutamate </td> <td><a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA receptor</a> </td> <td>Agonist </td> <td>Used in research to study NMDA receptor <p>Ionotropic receptor </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/AMPA" title="AMPA">AMPA</a> </td> <td>Glutamate </td> <td><a href="/wiki/AMPA_receptor" title="AMPA receptor">AMPA receptor</a> </td> <td>Agonist </td> <td>Used in research to study AMPA receptor <p>Ionotropic receptor </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Allyglycine </td> <td>GABA </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>Inhibits GABA synthesis <p>Causes seizures </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Muscimol" title="Muscimol">Muscimol</a> </td> <td>GABA </td> <td><a href="/wiki/GABA_receptor" title="GABA receptor">GABA receptor</a> </td> <td>Agonist </td> <td>Causes sedation </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bicuculline" title="Bicuculline">Bicuculine</a> </td> <td>GABA </td> <td>GABA receptor </td> <td>Antagonist </td> <td>Causes Seizures </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine" title="Benzodiazepine">Benzodiazepines</a> </td> <td>GABA </td> <td><a href="/wiki/GABAA_receptor" title="GABAA receptor">GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor</a> </td> <td>Indirect agonists </td> <td>Anxiolytic, sedation, memory impairment, muscle relaxation </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">Barbiturates</a> </td> <td>GABA </td> <td><a href="/wiki/GABAA_receptor" title="GABAA receptor">GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor</a> </td> <td>Indirect agonists </td> <td>Sedation, memory impairment, muscle relaxation </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Alcohol</a> </td> <td>GABA </td> <td><a href="/wiki/GABA_receptor" title="GABA receptor">GABA receptor</a> </td> <td>Indirect agonist </td> <td>Sedation, memory impairment, muscle relaxation </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Picrotoxin" title="Picrotoxin">Picrotoxin</a> </td> <td>GABA </td> <td><a href="/wiki/GABAA_receptor" title="GABAA receptor">GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor</a> </td> <td>Indirect antagonist </td> <td>High doses cause seizures </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tiagabine" title="Tiagabine">Tiagabine</a> </td> <td>GABA </td> <td>– </td> <td>Antagonist </td> <td>GABA transporter antagonist <p>Increase availability of GABA </p><p>Reduces the likelihood of seizures </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Moclobemide" title="Moclobemide">Moclobemide</a> </td> <td>Norepinephrine </td> <td>– </td> <td>Agonist </td> <td>Blocks MAO-A to treat depression </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Idazoxan" title="Idazoxan">Idazoxan</a> </td> <td>Norepinephrine </td> <td>alpha-2 adrenergic autoreceptors </td> <td>Agonist </td> <td>Blocks alpha-2 autoreceptors <p>Used to study norepinephrine system </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fusaric acid </td> <td>Norepinephrine </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>Inhibits activity of dopamine beta-hydroxylase which blocks the production of norepinephrine <p>Used to study norepinephrine system without affecting dopamine system </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Opiates (<a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">morphine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heroin" title="Heroin">heroin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oxycodone" title="Oxycodone">oxycodone</a>) </td> <td>Opioids </td> <td>Opioid receptor<sup id="cite_ref-Fallows_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fallows-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Agonists </td> <td>Analgesia, sedation, and reinforcing effects </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Naloxone" title="Naloxone">Naloxone</a> </td> <td>Opioids </td> <td>– </td> <td>Antagonist </td> <td>Reverses opiate intoxication or overdose symptoms (i.e. problems with breathing) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agonists">Agonists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Agonists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Agonist" title="Agonist">Agonist</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: coverage of full agonists and their distinction from partial agonist and inverse agonist.. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2015</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>An agonist is a chemical capable of binding to a receptor, such as a neurotransmitter receptor, and initiating the same reaction typically produced by the binding of the endogenous substance.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An agonist of a neurotransmitter will thus initiate the same receptor response as the transmitter. In neurons, an agonist drug may activate neurotransmitter receptors either directly or indirectly. Direct-binding agonists can be further characterized as <a href="/wiki/Agonist#Types_of_agonists" title="Agonist">full agonists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Partial_agonist" title="Partial agonist">partial agonists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inverse_agonist" title="Inverse agonist">inverse agonists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Direct_agonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct agonist">Direct agonists</a> act similar to a neurotransmitter by binding directly to its associated receptor site(s), which may be located on the presynaptic neuron or postsynaptic neuron, or both.<sup id="cite_ref-Direct_and_indirect_agonists_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Direct_and_indirect_agonists-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically, neurotransmitter receptors are located on the postsynaptic neuron, while neurotransmitter <a href="/wiki/Autoreceptor" title="Autoreceptor">autoreceptors</a> are located on the presynaptic neuron, as is the case for <a href="/wiki/Monoamine_neurotransmitter" title="Monoamine neurotransmitter">monoamine neurotransmitters</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in some cases, a neurotransmitter utilizes <a href="/wiki/Retrograde_neurotransmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Retrograde neurotransmission">retrograde neurotransmission</a>, a type of feedback signaling in neurons where the neurotransmitter is released postsynaptically and binds to target receptors located on the presynaptic neuron.<sup id="cite_ref-Cannabinoid-Orexin_systemic_cross-talk_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cannabinoid-Orexin_systemic_cross-talk-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-retrograde_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-retrograde-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">Nicotine</a>, a compound found in <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>, is a direct agonist of most <a href="/wiki/Nicotinic_acetylcholine_receptor" title="Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor">nicotinic acetylcholine receptors</a>, mainly located in <a href="/wiki/Cholinergic_neuron" title="Cholinergic neuron">cholinergic neurons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fallows_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fallows-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Opiate" title="Opiate">Opiates</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">morphine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heroin" title="Heroin">heroin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrocodone" title="Hydrocodone">hydrocodone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxycodone" title="Oxycodone">oxycodone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Codeine" title="Codeine">codeine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Methadone" title="Methadone">methadone</a>, are <a href="/wiki/Mu_opioid_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu opioid receptor">μ-opioid receptor</a> agonists; this action mediates their <a href="/wiki/Euphoria" title="Euphoria">euphoriant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Analgesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Analgesia">pain relieving</a> properties.<sup id="cite_ref-Fallows_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fallows-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Indirect_agonist" title="Indirect agonist">Indirect agonists</a> increase the binding of neurotransmitters at their target receptors by stimulating the release or preventing the <a href="/wiki/Reuptake" title="Reuptake">reuptake</a> of neurotransmitters.<sup id="cite_ref-Direct_and_indirect_agonists_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Direct_and_indirect_agonists-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some indirect agonists <a href="/wiki/Releasing_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Releasing agent">trigger neurotransmitter release</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reuptake_inhibitor" title="Reuptake inhibitor">prevent neurotransmitter reuptake</a>. <a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">Amphetamine</a>, for example, is an indirect agonist of postsynaptic dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin receptors in each their respective neurons;<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_46-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-E_Weihe_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-E_Weihe-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it produces both neurotransmitter release into the presynaptic neuron and subsequently the synaptic cleft and prevents their reuptake from the synaptic cleft by activating <a href="/wiki/TAAR1" title="TAAR1">TAAR1</a>, a presynaptic <a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="G protein-coupled receptor">G protein-coupled receptor</a>, and binding to a site on <a href="/wiki/VMAT2" class="mw-redirect" title="VMAT2">VMAT2</a>, a type of <a href="/wiki/Monoamine_transporter" title="Monoamine transporter">monoamine transporter</a> located on <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Synaptic vesicles">synaptic vesicles</a> within <a href="/wiki/Monoamine_neurotransmitter" title="Monoamine neurotransmitter">monoamine neurons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_46-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-E_Weihe_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-E_Weihe-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antagonists">Antagonists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Antagonists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Receptor_antagonist" title="Receptor antagonist">Receptor antagonist</a></div> <p>An antagonist is a chemical that acts within the body to reduce the physiological activity of another chemical substance (such as an opiate); especially one that opposes the action on the nervous system of a drug or a substance occurring naturally in the body by combining with and blocking its nervous receptor.<sup id="cite_ref-M-W_revised_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-M-W_revised-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two main types of antagonist: direct-acting Antagonist and indirect-acting Antagonists: </p> <ol><li>Direct-acting antagonist- which takes up space present on receptors which are otherwise taken up by neurotransmitters themselves. This results in neurotransmitters being blocked from binding to the receptors. An example of one of the most common is called Atropine.</li> <li>Indirect-acting antagonist- drugs that inhibit the release/production of neurotransmitters (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Reserpine" title="Reserpine">Reserpine</a>).</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Drug_antagonists">Drug antagonists</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Drug antagonists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An antagonist drug is one that attaches (or binds) to a site called a receptor without activating that receptor to produce a biological response. It is therefore said to have no intrinsic activity. An antagonist may also be called a receptor "blocker" because they block the effect of an agonist at the site. The pharmacological effects of an antagonist, therefore, result in preventing the corresponding receptor site's agonists (e.g., drugs, hormones, neurotransmitters) from binding to and activating it. Antagonists may be "competitive" or "irreversible". </p><p>A competitive antagonist competes with an agonist for binding to the receptor. As the concentration of antagonist increases, the binding of the agonist is progressively inhibited, resulting in a decrease in the physiological response. High concentration of an antagonist can completely inhibit the response. This inhibition can be reversed, however, by an increase of the concentration of the agonist, since the agonist and antagonist compete for binding to the receptor. Competitive antagonists, therefore, can be characterized as shifting the <a href="/wiki/Dose%E2%80%93response_relationship" title="Dose–response relationship">dose–response relationship</a> for the agonist to the right. In the presence of a competitive antagonist, it takes an increased concentration of the agonist to produce the same response observed in the absence of the antagonist. </p><p>An irreversible antagonist binds so strongly to the receptor as to render the receptor unavailable for binding to the agonist. Irreversible antagonists may even form covalent chemical bonds with the receptor. In either case, if the concentration of the irreversible antagonist is high enough, the number of unbound receptors remaining for agonist binding may be so low that even high concentrations of the agonist do not produce the maximum biological response.<sup id="cite_ref-Encyclopedia.com_2_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia.com_2-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precursors">Precursors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Precursors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="skin-invert-image"> <table role="presentation" cellpadding="0" style="border-spacing:0; clear:right; float:right;"> <tbody><tr> <td><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:592px;"> <div style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; font-size: 106.4%; text-align: center; background-color: #F0F8FF;margin-bottom:3px;">Biosynthetic pathways for <a href="/wiki/Catecholamine" title="Catecholamine">catecholamines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trace_amine" title="Trace amine">trace amines</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a><sup id="cite_ref-Trace_amine_template_1_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trace_amine_template_1-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Trace_amine_template_2_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trace_amine_template_2-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CYP2D6_tyramine-dopamine_metabolism_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CYP2D6_tyramine-dopamine_metabolism-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> <div style="position:relative; width:590px; height:465px; overflow:hidden; border:solid #ccc 1px; background-color:white;"> <div style="left:5px; top:0px; width:580px; position:absolute"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Catecholamine_and_trace_amine_biosynthesis.svg" title="commons:File:Catecholamine and trace amine biosynthesis.svg"><img alt="Graphic of catecholamine and trace amine biosynthesis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Catecholamine_and_trace_amine_biosynthesis.svg/580px-Catecholamine_and_trace_amine_biosynthesis.svg.png" decoding="async" width="580" height="458" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Catecholamine_and_trace_amine_biosynthesis.svg/870px-Catecholamine_and_trace_amine_biosynthesis.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Catecholamine_and_trace_amine_biosynthesis.svg/1160px-Catecholamine_and_trace_amine_biosynthesis.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="404" /></a></span> </div> <div style="text-align:center; font-size:14px; line-height:110%"> <div style="background-color:transparent; color:black"><div id="annotation_40x60" style="position:absolute; left:40px; top:60px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine"><small>L</small>-Phenylalanine</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_50x185" style="position:absolute; left:50px; top:185px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine"><small>L</small>-Tyrosine</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_60x315" style="position:absolute; left:60px; top:315px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/L-DOPA" title="L-DOPA"><small>L</small>-DOPA</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_50x445" style="position:absolute; left:50px; top:445px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Adrenaline" title="Adrenaline">Epinephrine</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_245x60" style="position:absolute; left:245px; top:60px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Phenethylamine" title="Phenethylamine">Phenethylamine</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_245x185" style="position:absolute; left:245px; top:185px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Tyramine" title="Tyramine"><i>p</i>-Tyramine</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_245x315" style="position:absolute; left:245px; top:315px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">Dopamine</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_245x445" style="position:absolute; left:245px; top:445px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">Norepinephrine</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_415x60" style="position:absolute; left:415px; top:60px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/N-Methylphenethylamine" title="N-Methylphenethylamine"><i>N</i>-Methylphenethylamine</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_440x138" style="position:absolute; left:440px; top:138px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/N-Methyltyramine" title="N-Methyltyramine"><i>N</i>-Methyltyramine</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_440x228" style="position:absolute; left:440px; top:228px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Octopamine" title="Octopamine"><i>p</i>-Octopamine</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_455x350" style="position:absolute; left:455px; top:350px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Synephrine" title="Synephrine">Synephrine</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_445x445" style="position:absolute; left:445px; top:445px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/3-Methoxytyramine" title="3-Methoxytyramine">3-Methoxytyramine</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_167x16" style="position:absolute; left:167px; top:16px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Aromatic_L-amino_acid_decarboxylase" title="Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase">AADC</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_167x145" style="position:absolute; left:167px; top:145px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Aromatic_L-amino_acid_decarboxylase" title="Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase">AADC</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_167x275" style="position:absolute; left:167px; top:275px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Aromatic_L-amino_acid_decarboxylase" title="Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase">AADC</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_164x295" style="position:absolute; left:164px; top:295px; font-size:12px; font-size:12; line-height:14px;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;">primary<br />pathway</span></div> <div id="annotation_370x17" style="position:absolute; left:370px; top:17px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Phenylethanolamine_N-methyltransferase" title="Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase">PNMT</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_360x120" style="position:absolute; left:360px; top:120px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Phenylethanolamine_N-methyltransferase" title="Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase">PNMT</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_445x255" style="position:absolute; left:445px; top:255px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Phenylethanolamine_N-methyltransferase" title="Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase">PNMT</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_176x407" style="position:absolute; left:176px; top:407px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Phenylethanolamine_N-methyltransferase" title="Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase">PNMT</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_40x90" style="position:absolute; left:40px; top:90px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Biopterin-dependent_aromatic_amino_acid_hydroxylase" title="Biopterin-dependent aromatic amino acid hydroxylase">AAAH</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_40x220" style="position:absolute; left:40px; top:220px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Biopterin-dependent_aromatic_amino_acid_hydroxylase" title="Biopterin-dependent aromatic amino acid hydroxylase">AAAH</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_225x215" style="position:absolute; left:225px; top:215px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;">brain<br /><a href="/wiki/CYP2D6" title="CYP2D6">CYP2D6</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_291x217" style="position:absolute; left:291px; top:217px; font-size:12px; font-size:12; line-height:14px; text-align:left;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;">minor<br />pathway</span></div> <div id="annotation_325x350" style="position:absolute; left:325px; top:350px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Catechol-O-methyltransferase" title="Catechol-O-methyltransferase">COMT</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_250x350" style="position:absolute; left:250px; top:350px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_beta-hydroxylase" title="Dopamine beta-hydroxylase">DBH</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_360x185" style="position:absolute; left:360px; top:185px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_beta-hydroxylase" title="Dopamine beta-hydroxylase">DBH</a></span></div></div> </div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left"><div style="float:left;margin-right:0.5em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="The image above contains clickable links"><img alt="The image above contains clickable links" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/18px-Interactive_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/27px-Interactive_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/36px-Interactive_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="133" data-file-height="200" /></span></span></div>In humans, <a href="/wiki/Catecholamine" title="Catecholamine">catecholamines</a> and phenethylaminergic <a href="/wiki/Trace_amine" title="Trace amine">trace amines</a> are derived from the <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">L-phenylalanine</a></span>.</div> </div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <p>While intake of neurotransmitter <a href="/wiki/Precursor_(chemistry)" title="Precursor (chemistry)">precursors</a> does increase neurotransmitter synthesis, evidence is mixed as to whether <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter_release" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotransmitter release">neurotransmitter release</a> and postsynaptic receptor firing is increased. Even with increased neurotransmitter release, it is unclear whether this will result in a long-term increase in neurotransmitter signal strength, since the nervous system can adapt to changes such as increased neurotransmitter synthesis and may therefore maintain constant firing.<sup id="cite_ref-NeurotransmitterPrecursorsDepression_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NeurotransmitterPrecursorsDepression-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)"><span title="Material near this tag may rely on an unreliable or less reliable medical source. (December 2017)">unreliable medical source?</span></a></i>]</sup> Some neurotransmitters may have a role in depression and there is some evidence to suggest that intake of precursors of these neurotransmitters may be useful in the treatment of mild and moderate depression.<sup id="cite_ref-NeurotransmitterPrecursorsDepression_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NeurotransmitterPrecursorsDepression-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)"><span title="Material near this tag may rely on an unreliable or less reliable medical source. (December 2017)">unreliable medical source?</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-ManagementDepressionSerotoninPrecursors_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ManagementDepressionSerotoninPrecursors-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Catecholamine_and_trace_amine_precursors">Catecholamine and trace amine precursors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Catecholamine and trace amine precursors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/L-DOPA" title="L-DOPA"><small>L</small>-DOPA</a>, a precursor of <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> that crosses the <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</a>, is used in the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a>. For depressed patients where low activity of the neurotransmitter <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a> is implicated, there is only little evidence for benefit of neurotransmitter precursor administration. <a href="/wiki/L-phenylalanine" class="mw-redirect" title="L-phenylalanine">L-phenylalanine</a> and <a href="/wiki/L-tyrosine" class="mw-redirect" title="L-tyrosine">L-tyrosine</a> are both precursors for <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Epinephrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Epinephrine">epinephrine</a>. These conversions require <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B6" title="Vitamin B6">vitamin B6</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C" title="Vitamin C">vitamin C</a>, and <a href="/wiki/S-adenosylmethionine" class="mw-redirect" title="S-adenosylmethionine">S-adenosylmethionine</a>. A few studies suggest potential antidepressant effects of L-phenylalanine and L-tyrosine, but there is much room for further research in this area.<sup id="cite_ref-NeurotransmitterPrecursorsDepression_80-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NeurotransmitterPrecursorsDepression-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)"><span title="Material near this tag may rely on an unreliable or less reliable medical source. (December 2017)">unreliable medical source?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Serotonin_precursors">Serotonin precursors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Serotonin precursors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Administration of <a href="/wiki/L-tryptophan" class="mw-redirect" title="L-tryptophan">L-tryptophan</a>, a precursor for <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a>, is seen to double the production of serotonin in the brain. It is significantly more effective than a placebo in the treatment of mild and moderate depression.<sup id="cite_ref-NeurotransmitterPrecursorsDepression_80-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NeurotransmitterPrecursorsDepression-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)"><span title="Material near this tag may rely on an unreliable or less reliable medical source. (December 2017)">unreliable medical source?</span></a></i>]</sup> This conversion requires <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C" title="Vitamin C">vitamin C</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-serotonin_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-serotonin-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/5-hydroxytryptophan" class="mw-redirect" title="5-hydroxytryptophan">5-hydroxytryptophan</a> (5-HTP), also a precursor for <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a>, is more effective than a placebo.<sup id="cite_ref-NeurotransmitterPrecursorsDepression_80-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NeurotransmitterPrecursorsDepression-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)"><span title="Material near this tag may rely on an unreliable or less reliable medical source. (December 2017)">unreliable medical source?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diseases_and_disorders">Diseases and disorders</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Diseases and disorders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Diseases and disorders may also affect specific neurotransmitter systems. The following are disorders involved in either an increase, decrease, or imbalance of certain neurotransmitters. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dopamine">Dopamine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Dopamine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For example, problems in producing dopamine (mainly in the <a href="/wiki/Substantia_nigra" title="Substantia nigra">substantia nigra</a>) can result in <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a>, a disorder that affects a person's ability to move as they want to, resulting in stiffness, tremors or shaking, and other symptoms. Some studies suggest that having too little or too much dopamine or problems using dopamine in the thinking and feeling regions of the brain may play a role in disorders like <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a> (ADHD). Dopamine is also involved in addiction and drug use, as most recreational drugs cause an influx of dopamine in the brain (especially <a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">opioid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Methamphetamine" title="Methamphetamine">methamphetamines</a>) that produces a pleasurable feeling, which is why users constantly crave drugs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Serotonin">Serotonin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Serotonin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Similarly, after some research suggested that drugs that block the recycling, or reuptake, of serotonin seemed to help some people diagnosed with depression, it was theorized that people with <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a> might have lower-than-normal serotonin levels. Though widely popularized, this theory was not borne out in subsequent research.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, <a href="/wiki/Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitor" title="Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor">selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)</a> are used to increase the amounts of serotonin in synapses. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glutamate">Glutamate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Glutamate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CAPON_Binds_Nitric_Oxide_Synthase,_Regulating_NMDA_Receptor%E2%80%93Mediated_Glutamate_Neurotransmission.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/CAPON_Binds_Nitric_Oxide_Synthase%2C_Regulating_NMDA_Receptor%E2%80%93Mediated_Glutamate_Neurotransmission.png/220px-CAPON_Binds_Nitric_Oxide_Synthase%2C_Regulating_NMDA_Receptor%E2%80%93Mediated_Glutamate_Neurotransmission.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/CAPON_Binds_Nitric_Oxide_Synthase%2C_Regulating_NMDA_Receptor%E2%80%93Mediated_Glutamate_Neurotransmission.png/330px-CAPON_Binds_Nitric_Oxide_Synthase%2C_Regulating_NMDA_Receptor%E2%80%93Mediated_Glutamate_Neurotransmission.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/CAPON_Binds_Nitric_Oxide_Synthase%2C_Regulating_NMDA_Receptor%E2%80%93Mediated_Glutamate_Neurotransmission.png/440px-CAPON_Binds_Nitric_Oxide_Synthase%2C_Regulating_NMDA_Receptor%E2%80%93Mediated_Glutamate_Neurotransmission.png 2x" data-file-width="1370" data-file-height="956" /></a><figcaption>CAPON binds nitric oxide synthase, regulating NMDA receptor–mediated glutamate neurotransmission</figcaption></figure> <p>Furthermore, problems with producing or using glutamate have been suggestively and tentatively linked to many mental disorders, including <a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">autism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive disorder">obsessive–compulsive disorder</a> (OCD), <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NIH_Brain_Basics_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH_Brain_Basics-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having too much glutamate has been linked to neurological diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis" title="Multiple sclerosis">multiple sclerosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis">ALS</a> (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis).<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neurotransmitter_imbalance">Neurotransmitter imbalance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Neurotransmitter imbalance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Generally, there are no scientifically established "norms" for appropriate levels or "balances" of different neurotransmitters. In most cases, it is practically impossible to measure neurotransmitter levels in the brain or body at any given moment. Neurotransmitters regulate each other's release, and weak consistent imbalances in this mutual regulation were linked to temperament in healthy people.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, significant imbalances or disruptions in neurotransmitter systems are associated with various diseases and mental disorders, including Parkinson's disease, depression, insomnia, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), anxiety, memory loss, dramatic weight changes, and addictions. Some of these conditions are also related to neurotransmitter switching, a phenomenon where neurons change the type of neurotransmitters they release.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chronic physical or emotional stress can be a contributor to neurotransmitter system changes. Genetics also plays a role in neurotransmitter activities. </p><p>Apart from recreational use, medications that directly and indirectly interact with one or more transmitter or its receptor are commonly prescribed for psychiatric and psychological issues. Notably, drugs interacting with <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a> are prescribed to patients with problems such as depression and anxiety—though the notion that there is much solid medical evidence to support such interventions has been widely criticized.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies shown that dopamine imbalance has an influence on multiple sclerosis and other neurological disorders.<sup id="cite_ref-Dopamine_Imbalance_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dopamine_Imbalance-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output 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<li><a href="/wiki/Neurotransmission" title="Neurotransmission">Neurotransmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter_analog" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotransmitter analog">Neurotransmitter analog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter_release" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotransmitter release">Neurotransmitter release</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_pathway" title="Neural pathway">Neural pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromodulation" title="Neuromodulation">Neuromodulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_neurotransmitter" title="False neurotransmitter">False neurotransmitter</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-retrograde-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-retrograde_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the central nervous system, <a href="/wiki/Anandamide" title="Anandamide">anandamide</a> other <a href="/wiki/Endocannabinoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Endocannabinoid">endocannabinoids</a> utilize retrograde neurotransmission, since their release is postsynaptic, while their target receptor, <a href="/wiki/Cannabinoid_receptor_1" title="Cannabinoid receptor 1">cannabinoid receptor 1</a> (CB1), is presynaptic.<sup id="cite_ref-Cannabinoid-Orexin_systemic_cross-talk_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cannabinoid-Orexin_systemic_cross-talk-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Cannabis" title="Cannabis">cannabis</a> plant contains <a href="/wiki/Tetrahydrocannabinol" title="Tetrahydrocannabinol">Δ<sup>9</sup>-tetrahydrocannabinol</a>, which is a direct agonist at CB1.<sup id="cite_ref-Cannabinoid-Orexin_systemic_cross-talk_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cannabinoid-Orexin_systemic_cross-talk-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">GABA is a <i>non-proteinogenic</i> amino acid</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSmelserBaltes2001" class="citation book cs1">Smelser, Neil J.; Baltes, Paul B. 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(identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21855138">21855138</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuropeptides&rft.atitle=CART+peptide+stimulation+of+G+protein-mediated+signaling+in+differentiated+PC12+cells%3A+identification+of+PACAP+6-38+as+a+CART+receptor+antagonist&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=351-8&rft.date=2011-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3170513%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21855138&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.npep.2011.07.006&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Y&rft.au=Hall%2C+RA&rft.au=Kuhar%2C+MJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3170513&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miller-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_46-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_46-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2011" class="citation journal cs1">Miller GM (January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3005101">"The emerging role of trace amine-associated receptor 1 in the functional regulation of monoamine transporters and dopaminergic activity"</a>. <i>Journal of Neurochemistry</i>. <b>116</b> (2): 164–76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1471-4159.2010.07109.x">10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.07109.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3005101">3005101</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21073468">21073468</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Neurochemistry&rft.atitle=The+emerging+role+of+trace+amine-associated+receptor+1+in+the+functional+regulation+of+monoamine+transporters+and+dopaminergic+activity&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=164-76&rft.date=2011-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3005101%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21073468&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1471-4159.2010.07109.x&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=GM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3005101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-E_Weihe-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-E_Weihe_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-E_Weihe_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-E_Weihe_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-E_Weihe_47-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEidenWeihe2011" class="citation journal cs1">Eiden LE, Weihe E (January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4183197">"VMAT2: a dynamic regulator of brain monoaminergic neuronal function interacting with drugs of abuse"</a>. <i>Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>1216</b> (1): 86–98. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011NYASA1216...86E">2011NYASA1216...86E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.2010.05906.x">10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05906.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4183197">4183197</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21272013">21272013</a>. <q>VMAT2 is the CNS vesicular transporter for not only the biogenic amines DA, NE, EPI, 5-HT, and HIS, but likely also for the trace amines TYR, PEA, and thyronamine (THYR) ... [Trace aminergic] neurons in mammalian CNS would be identifiable as neurons expressing VMAT2 for storage, and the biosynthetic enzyme aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AADC).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=VMAT2%3A+a+dynamic+regulator+of+brain+monoaminergic+neuronal+function+interacting+with+drugs+of+abuse&rft.volume=1216&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=86-98&rft.date=2011-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4183197%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21272013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.2010.05906.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011NYASA1216...86E&rft.aulast=Eiden&rft.aufirst=LE&rft.au=Weihe%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4183197&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VTA_inputs-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-VTA_inputs_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VTA_inputs_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VTA_inputs_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHyman2009" class="citation book cs1">Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). <i>Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience</i> (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 155. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780071481274" title="Special:BookSources/9780071481274"><bdi>9780071481274</bdi></a>. <q>Different subregions of the VTA receive glutamatergic inputs from the prefrontal cortex, orexinergic inputs from the lateral hypothalamus, cholinergic and also glutamatergic and GABAergic inputs from the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus and pedunculopontine nucleus, noradrenergic inputs from the locus ceruleus, serotonergic inputs from the raphe nuclei, and GABAergic inputs from the nucleus accumbens and ventral pallidum.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Widely+Projecting+Systems%3A+Monoamines%2C+Acetylcholine%2C+and+Orexin&rft.btitle=Molecular+Neuropharmacology%3A+A+Foundation+for+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=155&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780071481274&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft.au=Hyman%2C+SE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Noradrenergic_pathways-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Noradrenergic_pathways_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHyman2009" class="citation book cs1">Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). <i>Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience</i> (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 145, 156–157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780071481274" title="Special:BookSources/9780071481274"><bdi>9780071481274</bdi></a>. <q>Descending NE fibers modulate afferent pain signals. ... The locus ceruleus (LC), which is located on the floor of the fourth ventricle in the rostral pons, contains more than 50% of all noradrenergic neurons in the brain; it innervates both the forebrain (eg, it provides virtually all the NE to the cerebral cortex) and regions of the brainstem and spinal cord. ... The other noradrenergic neurons in the brain occur in loose collections of cells in the brainstem, including the lateral tegmental regions. These neurons project largely within the brainstem and spinal cord. NE, along with 5HT, ACh, histamine, and orexin, is a critical regulator of the sleep-wake cycle and of levels of arousal. ... LC firing may also increase anxiety ...Stimulation of β-adrenergic receptors in the amygdala results in enhanced memory for stimuli encoded under strong negative emotion ... Epinephrine occurs in only a small number of central neurons, all located in the medulla. Epinephrine is involved in visceral functions, such as control of respiration.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Widely+Projecting+Systems%3A+Monoamines%2C+Acetylcholine%2C+and+Orexin&rft.btitle=Molecular+Neuropharmacology%3A+A+Foundation+for+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=145%2C+156-157&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780071481274&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft.au=Hyman%2C+SE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rang-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rang_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rang_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rang_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rang_50-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRang2003" class="citation book cs1">Rang HP (2003). <i>Pharmacology</i>. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. pp. 474 for noradrenaline system, page 476 for dopamine system, page 480 for serotonin system and page 483 for cholinergic system. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-443-07145-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-443-07145-4"><bdi>978-0-443-07145-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pharmacology&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=474+for+noradrenaline+system%2C+page+476+for+dopamine+system%2C+page+480+for+serotonin+system+and+page+483+for+cholinergic+system&rft.pub=Churchill+Livingstone&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-443-07145-4&rft.aulast=Rang&rft.aufirst=HP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ARAS-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ARAS_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ARAS_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ARAS_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ARAS_51-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ARAS_51-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIwańczukGuźniczak2015" class="citation journal cs1">Iwańczuk W, Guźniczak P (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5603%2FAIT.2015.0015">"Neurophysiological foundations of sleep, arousal, awareness and consciousness phenomena. Part 1"</a>. <i>Anaesthesiology Intensive Therapy</i>. <b>47</b> (2): 162–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5603%2FAIT.2015.0015">10.5603/AIT.2015.0015</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25940332">25940332</a>. <q>The ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) is responsible for a sustained wakefulness state. ... The thalamic projection is dominated by cholinergic neurons originating from the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus of pons and midbrain (PPT) and laterodorsal tegmental nucleus of pons and midbrain (LDT) nuclei [17, 18]. The hypothalamic projection involves noradrenergic neurons of the locus coeruleus (LC) and serotoninergic neurons of the dorsal and median raphe nuclei (DR), which pass through the lateral hypothalamus and reach axons of the histaminergic tubero-mamillary nucleus (TMN), together forming a pathway extending into the forebrain, cortex and hippocampus. Cortical arousal also takes advantage of dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra (SN), ventral tegmenti area (VTA) and the periaqueductal grey area (PAG). Fewer cholinergic neurons of the pons and midbrain send projections to the forebrain along the ventral pathway, bypassing the thalamus [19, 20].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anaesthesiology+Intensive+Therapy&rft.atitle=Neurophysiological+foundations+of+sleep%2C+arousal%2C+awareness+and+consciousness+phenomena.+Part+1&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=162-7&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5603%2FAIT.2015.0015&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25940332&rft.aulast=Iwa%C5%84czuk&rft.aufirst=W&rft.au=Gu%C5%BAniczak%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5603%252FAIT.2015.0015&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NHM_-_ascending_reticular_activating_system-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NHM_-_ascending_reticular_activating_system_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NHM_-_ascending_reticular_activating_system_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NHM_-_ascending_reticular_activating_system_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NHM_-_ascending_reticular_activating_system_52-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NHM_-_ascending_reticular_activating_system_52-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHyman2009" class="citation book cs1">Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 12: Sleep and Arousal". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). <i>Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience</i> (2nd ed.). New York, USA: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 295. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780071481274" title="Special:BookSources/9780071481274"><bdi>9780071481274</bdi></a>. <q>The ARAS is a complex structure consisting of several different circuits including the four monoaminergic pathways ... The norepinephrine pathway originates from the locus ceruleus (LC) and related brainstem nuclei; the serotonergic neurons originate from the raphe nuclei within the brainstem as well; the dopaminergic neurons originate in ventral tegmental area (VTA); and the histaminergic pathway originates from neurons in the tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN) of the posterior hypothalamus. As discussed in Chapter 6, these neurons project widely throughout the brain from restricted collections of cell bodies. Norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine, and histamine have complex modulatory functions and, in general, promote wakefulness. The PT in the brain stem is also an important component of the ARAS. Activity of PT cholinergic neurons (REM-on cells) promotes REM sleep. During waking, REM-on cells are inhibited by a subset of ARAS norepinephrine and serotonin neurons called REM-off cells.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+12%3A+Sleep+and+Arousal&rft.btitle=Molecular+Neuropharmacology%3A+A+Foundation+for+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.place=New+York%2C+USA&rft.pages=295&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780071481274&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft.au=Hyman%2C+SE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rinaman-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rinaman_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRinaman2011" class="citation journal cs1">Rinaman L (February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3043801">"Hindbrain noradrenergic A2 neurons: diverse roles in autonomic, endocrine, cognitive, and behavioral functions"</a>. <i>American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology</i>. <b>300</b> (2): R222-35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fajpregu.00556.2010">10.1152/ajpregu.00556.2010</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3043801">3043801</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20962208">20962208</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physiology.+Regulatory%2C+Integrative+and+Comparative+Physiology&rft.atitle=Hindbrain+noradrenergic+A2+neurons%3A+diverse+roles+in+autonomic%2C+endocrine%2C+cognitive%2C+and+behavioral+functions&rft.volume=300&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=R222-35&rft.date=2011-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3043801%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20962208&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fajpregu.00556.2010&rft.aulast=Rinaman&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3043801&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Malenka_pathways-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Malenka_pathways_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHyman2009" class="citation book cs1">Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). <i>Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience</i> (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 147–148, 154–157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780071481274" title="Special:BookSources/9780071481274"><bdi>9780071481274</bdi></a>. <q>Neurons from the SNc densely innervate the dorsal striatum where they play a critical role in the learning and execution of motor programs. Neurons from the VTA innervate the ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens), olfactory bulb, amygdala, hippocampus, orbital and medial prefrontal cortex, and cingulate cortex. VTA DA neurons play a critical role in motivation, reward-related behavior, attention, and multiple forms of memory. ... Thus, acting in diverse terminal fields, dopamine confers motivational salience ("wanting") on the reward itself or associated cues (nucleus accumbens shell region), updates the value placed on different goals in light of this new experience (orbital prefrontal cortex), helps consolidate multiple forms of memory (amygdala and hippocampus), and encodes new motor programs that will facilitate obtaining this reward in the future (nucleus accumbens core region and dorsal striatum). ... DA has multiple actions in the prefrontal cortex. It promotes the "cognitive control" of behavior: the selection and successful monitoring of behavior to facilitate attainment of chosen goals. Aspects of cognitive control in which DA plays a role include working memory, the ability to hold information "on line" in order to guide actions, suppression of prepotent behaviors that compete with goal-directed actions, and control of attention and thus the ability to overcome distractions. ... Noradrenergic projections from the LC thus interact with dopaminergic projections from the VTA to regulate cognitive control. ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Widely+Projecting+Systems%3A+Monoamines%2C+Acetylcholine%2C+and+Orexin&rft.btitle=Molecular+Neuropharmacology%3A+A+Foundation+for+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=147-148%2C+154-157&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780071481274&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft.au=Hyman%2C+SE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reward_and_aversion_MSNs-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Reward_and_aversion_MSNs_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalipariBagotPurushothamanDavidson2016" class="citation journal cs1">Calipari ES, Bagot RC, Purushothaman I, Davidson TJ, Yorgason JT, Peña CJ, et al. (March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4791010">"In vivo imaging identifies temporal signature of D1 and D2 medium spiny neurons in cocaine reward"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>113</b> (10): 2726–31. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016PNAS..113.2726C">2016PNAS..113.2726C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1521238113">10.1073/pnas.1521238113</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4791010">4791010</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26831103">26831103</a>. <q>Previous work has demonstrated that optogenetically stimulating D1 MSNs promotes reward, whereas stimulating D2 MSNs produces aversion.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=In+vivo+imaging+identifies+temporal+signature+of+D1+and+D2+medium+spiny+neurons+in+cocaine+reward&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=2726-31&rft.date=2016-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4791010%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26831103&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1521238113&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016PNAS..113.2726C&rft.aulast=Calipari&rft.aufirst=ES&rft.au=Bagot%2C+RC&rft.au=Purushothaman%2C+I&rft.au=Davidson%2C+TJ&rft.au=Yorgason%2C+JT&rft.au=Pe%C3%B1a%2C+CJ&rft.au=Walker%2C+DM&rft.au=Pirpinias%2C+ST&rft.au=Guise%2C+KG&rft.au=Ramakrishnan%2C+C&rft.au=Deisseroth%2C+K&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4791010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dopaminergic_pathways_and_reward_system_review-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dopaminergic_pathways_and_reward_system_review_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIkemoto2010" class="citation journal cs1">Ikemoto S (November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2894302">"Brain reward circuitry beyond the mesolimbic dopamine system: a neurobiological theory"</a>. <i>Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews</i>. <b>35</b> (2): 129–50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neubiorev.2010.02.001">10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.02.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2894302">2894302</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20149820">20149820</a>. <q>Recent studies on intracranial self-administration of neurochemicals (drugs) found that rats learn to self-administer various drugs into the mesolimbic dopamine structures–the posterior ventral tegmental area, medial shell nucleus accumbens and medial olfactory tubercle. ... In the 1970s it was recognized that the olfactory tubercle contains a striatal component, which is filled with GABAergic medium spiny neurons receiving glutamatergic inputs form cortical regions and dopaminergic inputs from the VTA and projecting to the ventral pallidum just like the nucleus accumbens</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuroscience+and+Biobehavioral+Reviews&rft.atitle=Brain+reward+circuitry+beyond+the+mesolimbic+dopamine+system%3A+a+neurobiological+theory&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=129-50&rft.date=2010-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2894302%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20149820&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neubiorev.2010.02.001&rft.aulast=Ikemoto&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2894302&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span><br /><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2894302/figure/F3/">Figure 3: The ventral striatum and self-administration of amphetamine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Histamine_pathways-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Histamine_pathways_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHyman2009" class="citation book cs1">Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). <i>Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience</i> (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 175–176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780071481274" title="Special:BookSources/9780071481274"><bdi>9780071481274</bdi></a>. <q>Within the brain, histamine is synthesized exclusively by neurons with their cell bodies in the tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN) that lies within the posterior hypothalamus. There are approximately 64000 histaminergic neurons per side in humans. These cells project throughout the brain and spinal cord. Areas that receive especially dense projections include the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, neostriatum, nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and hypothalamus.  ... While the best characterized function of the histamine system in the brain is regulation of sleep and arousal, histamine is also involved in learning and memory ...It also appears that histamine is involved in the regulation of feeding and energy balance.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Widely+Projecting+Systems%3A+Monoamines%2C+Acetylcholine%2C+and+Orexin&rft.btitle=Molecular+Neuropharmacology%3A+A+Foundation+for+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=175-176&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780071481274&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft.au=Hyman%2C+SE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Serotonergic_pathways-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Serotonergic_pathways_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHyman2009" class="citation book cs1">Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). <i>Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience</i> (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 158–160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780071481274" title="Special:BookSources/9780071481274"><bdi>9780071481274</bdi></a>. <q>[The] dorsal raphe preferentially innervates the cerebral cortex, thalamus, striatal regions (caudate-putamen and nucleus accumbens), and dopaminergic nuclei of the midbrain (eg, the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area), while the median raphe innervates the hippocampus, septum, and other structures of the limbic forebrain. ... it is clear that 5HT influences sleep, arousal, attention, processing of sensory information in the cerebral cortex, and important aspects of emotion (likely including aggression) and mood regulation. ...The rostral nuclei, which include the nucleus linearis, dorsal raphe, medial raphe, and raphe pontis, innervate most of the brain, including the cerebellum. The caudal nuclei, which comprise the raphe magnus, raphe pallidus, and raphe obscuris, have more limited projections that terminate in the cerebellum, brainstem, and spinal cord.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Widely+Projecting+Systems%3A+Monoamines%2C+Acetylcholine%2C+and+Orexin&rft.btitle=Molecular+Neuropharmacology%3A+A+Foundation+for+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=158-160&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780071481274&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft.au=Hyman%2C+SE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNestler" class="citation web cs1">Nestler EJ. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://neuroscience.mssm.edu/nestler/brainRewardpathways.html">"Brain Reward Pathways"</a>. <i>Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai</i>. Nestler Lab<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 August</span> 2014</span>. <q>The dorsal raphe is the primary site of serotonergic neurons in the brain, which, like noradrenergic neurons, pervasively modulate brain function to regulate the state of activation and mood of the organism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Icahn+School+of+Medicine+at+Mount+Sinai&rft.atitle=Brain+Reward+Pathways&rft.aulast=Nestler&rft.aufirst=EJ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fneuroscience.mssm.edu%2Fnestler%2FbrainRewardpathways.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid21216242-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid21216242_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarstonGarfieldHeisler2011" class="citation journal cs1">Marston OJ, Garfield AS, Heisler LK (June 2011). "Role of central serotonin and melanocortin systems in the control of energy balance". <i>European Journal of Pharmacology</i>. <b>660</b> (1): 70–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejphar.2010.12.024">10.1016/j.ejphar.2010.12.024</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21216242">21216242</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Pharmacology&rft.atitle=Role+of+central+serotonin+and+melanocortin+systems+in+the+control+of+energy+balance&rft.volume=660&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=70-9&rft.date=2011-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ejphar.2010.12.024&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21216242&rft.aulast=Marston&rft.aufirst=OJ&rft.au=Garfield%2C+AS&rft.au=Heisler%2C+LK&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cholinergic_pathways-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cholinergic_pathways_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHyman2009" class="citation book cs1">Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). <i>Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience</i> (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 167–175. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780071481274" title="Special:BookSources/9780071481274"><bdi>9780071481274</bdi></a>. <q>The basal forebrain cholinergic nuclei are comprised the medial septal nucleus (Ch1), the vertical nucleus of the diagonal band (Ch2), the horizontal limb of the diagonal band (Ch3), and the nucleus basalis of Meynert (Ch4). Brainstem cholinergic nuclei include the pedunculopontine nucleus (Ch5), the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (Ch6), the medial habenula (Ch7), and the parabigeminal nucleus (Ch8).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Widely+Projecting+Systems%3A+Monoamines%2C+Acetylcholine%2C+and+Orexin&rft.btitle=Molecular+Neuropharmacology%3A+A+Foundation+for+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=167-175&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780071481274&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft.au=Hyman%2C+SE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuyenetStornettaBochorishviliDepuy2013" class="citation journal cs1">Guyenet PG, Stornetta RL, Bochorishvili G, Depuy SD, Burke PG, Abbott SB (August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3743001">"C1 neurons: the body's EMTs"</a>. <i>American Journal of Physiology. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Neurology&rft.atitle=The+dopamine+imbalance+hypothesis+of+fatigue+in+multiple+sclerosis+and+other+neurological+disorders&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=52&rft.date=2015-03-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4357260%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25814977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffneur.2015.00052&rft.aulast=Dobryakova&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Genova%2C+HM&rft.au=DeLuca%2C+J&rft.au=Wylie%2C+GR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4357260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotransmitter&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Neuroscience/Cellular_Neurobiology/Neurotransmitters" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Neuroscience/Cellular Neurobiology/Neurotransmitters">Neuroscience/Cellular Neurobiology/Neurotransmitters</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurvesAugustineFitzpatrickKatz2001" class="citation book cs1">Purves, Dale; Augustine, George J.; Fitzpatrick, David; Katz, Lawrence C.; LaMantia, Anthony-Samuel; McNamara, James O.; Williams, S. Mark (2001). "Chapter 6. Neurotransmitters". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10957/"><i>What Defines a Neurotransmitter?</i></a> (2nd ed.). Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87893-742-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-87893-742-0"><bdi>0-87893-742-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6.+Neurotransmitters&rft.btitle=What+Defines+a+Neurotransmitter%3F&rft.place=Sunderland+%28MA%29&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-87893-742-0&rft.aulast=Purves&rft.aufirst=Dale&rft.au=Augustine%2C+George+J.&rft.au=Fitzpatrick%2C+David&rft.au=Katz%2C+Lawrence+C.&rft.au=LaMantia%2C+Anthony-Samuel&rft.au=McNamara%2C+James+O.&rft.au=Williams%2C+S.+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK10957%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolzFisher1999" class="citation book cs1">Holz, Ronald W.; Fisher, Stephen K. (1999). "Chapter 10. Synaptic Transmission and Cellular Signaling: An Overview". In Siegel, George J; Agranoff, Bernard W; Albers, R Wayne; Fisher, Stephen K; Uhler, Michael D (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27911/"><i>Synaptic Transmission</i></a> (6th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-397-51820-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-397-51820-X"><bdi>0-397-51820-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+10.+Synaptic+Transmission+and+Cellular+Signaling%3A+An+Overview&rft.btitle=Synaptic+Transmission&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Lippincott-Raven&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-397-51820-X&rft.aulast=Holz&rft.aufirst=Ronald+W.&rft.au=Fisher%2C+Stephen+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK27911%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurotransmitter" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chnt1.html">Neurotransmitters and Neuroactive Peptides at Neuroscience for Kids website</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output 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title="commons:Category:Neuroscience">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Neurotransmitters" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neurotransmitters" title="Template:Neurotransmitters"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neurotransmitters" title="Template talk:Neurotransmitters"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neurotransmitters" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neurotransmitters"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Neurotransmitters" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neurotransmitters</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a>-derived</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Major excitatory /<br />inhibitory systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Glutamate system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agmatine" title="Agmatine">Agmatine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspartic_acid" title="Aspartic acid">Aspartic acid (aspartate)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glutamate_(neurotransmitter)" title="Glutamate (neurotransmitter)">Glutamic acid (glutamate)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glutathione" title="Glutathione">Glutathione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">Glycine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-Nitrosoglutathione" title="S-Nitrosoglutathione">GSNO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glutathione_disulfide" title="Glutathione disulfide">GSSG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kynurenic_acid" title="Kynurenic acid">Kynurenic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Acetylaspartic_acid" title="N-Acetylaspartic acid">NAA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Acetylaspartylglutamic_acid" title="N-Acetylaspartylglutamic acid">NAAG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">Proline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serine" title="Serine">Serine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">GABA system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GABA" title="GABA">GABA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%93-Amino-%CE%B2-hydroxybutyric_acid" title="Γ-Amino-β-hydroxybutyric acid">GABOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%93-Hydroxybutyric_acid" title="Γ-Hydroxybutyric acid">GHB</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Glycine system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine">α-Alanine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%92-Alanine" title="Β-Alanine">β-Alanine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">Glycine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypotaurine" title="Hypotaurine">Hypotaurine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">Proline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarcosine" title="Sarcosine">Sarcosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serine" title="Serine">Serine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurine" title="Taurine">Taurine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/GHB_receptor" title="GHB receptor">GHB system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CE%93-Hydroxybutyric_acid" title="Γ-Hydroxybutyric acid">GHB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-HCA" title="T-HCA">T-HCA (GHC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Biogenic_amine" title="Biogenic amine">Biogenic amines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Monoamines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/6-Hydroxymelatonin" title="6-Hydroxymelatonin">6-OHM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">Dopamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenaline" title="Adrenaline">Epinephrine (adrenaline)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Acetylserotonin" title="N-Acetylserotonin">NAS (normelatonin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">Serotonin (5-HT)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Trace amines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3-Iodothyronamine" title="3-Iodothyronamine">3-Iodothyronamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Methylphenethylamine" title="N-Methylphenethylamine">N-Methylphenethylamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Methyltryptamine" title="N-Methyltryptamine">N-Methyltryptamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norfenefrine" title="Norfenefrine"><i>m</i>-Octopamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octopamine" title="Octopamine"><i>p</i>-Octopamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenylethanolamine" title="Phenylethanolamine">Phenylethanolamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenethylamine" title="Phenethylamine">Phenethylamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synephrine" title="Synephrine">Synephrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tryptamine" title="Tryptamine">Tryptamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-Tyramine" title="Meta-Tyramine"><i>m</i>-Tyramine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyramine" title="Tyramine"><i>p</i>-Tyramine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Histamine" title="Histamine">Histamine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide" title="Neuropeptide">Neuropeptides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>See <a href="/wiki/Template:Neuropeptides" title="Template:Neuropeptides">here</a> instead.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">Lipid</a>-derived</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Endocannabinoids" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Endocannabinoids</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2-Arachidonoylglycerol" title="2-Arachidonoylglycerol">2-AG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2-Arachidonyl_glyceryl_ether" title="2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether">2-AGE (noladin ether)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2-Arachidonoyl_lysophosphatidylinositol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2-Arachidonoyl lysophosphatidylinositol (page does not exist)">2-ALPI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2-Oleoylglycerol" title="2-Oleoylglycerol">2-OG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arachidonoyl_serotonin" title="Arachidonoyl serotonin">AA-5-HT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anandamide" title="Anandamide">Anandamide (AEA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docosatetraenoylethanolamide" title="Docosatetraenoylethanolamide">DEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysophosphatidylinositol" title="Lysophosphatidylinositol">LPI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Arachidonoyl_dopamine" title="N-Arachidonoyl dopamine">NADA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Arachidonylglycine" title="N-Arachidonylglycine">NAGly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleoylethanolamide" title="Oleoylethanolamide">OEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleamide" title="Oleamide">Oleamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmitoylethanolamide" title="Palmitoylethanolamide">PEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RVD-Hp%CE%B1" title="RVD-Hpα">RVD-Hpα</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stearoylethanolamide" title="Stearoylethanolamide">SEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virodhamine" title="Virodhamine">Virodhamine (O-AEA)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Neurosteroid" title="Neurosteroid">Neurosteroids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>See <a href="/wiki/Template:Steroid_hormones" title="Template:Steroid hormones">here</a> instead.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nucleobase" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobase">Nucleobase</a>-derived</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Nucleosides" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Nucleosides</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Adenosine_system" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Adenosine" title="Adenosine">Adenosine</a> system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_diphosphate" title="Adenosine diphosphate">ADP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_monophosphate" title="Adenosine monophosphate">AMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">Vitamin</a>-derived</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Cholinergic_system" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Cholinergic system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Gasotransmitters" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Gasotransmitters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">Carbon monoxide (CO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">Hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">Nitric oxide (NO)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Candidates" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Candidates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetaldehyde" title="Acetaldehyde">Acetaldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">Ammonia (NH<sub>3</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonyl_sulfide" title="Carbonyl sulfide">Carbonyl sulfide (COS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">Nitrous oxide (N<sub>2</sub>O)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">Sulfur dioxide (SO<sub>2</sub>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cell_signaling_/_Signal_transduction" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Signal_transduction" title="Template:Signal transduction"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Signal_transduction" title="Template talk:Signal transduction"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Signal_transduction" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Signal transduction"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cell_signaling_/_Signal_transduction" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Cell signaling</a> / <a href="/wiki/Signal_transduction" title="Signal transduction">Signal transduction</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Signaling pathways</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="G protein-coupled receptor">GPCR</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wnt_signaling_pathway" title="Wnt signaling pathway">Wnt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptor_tyrosine_kinase" title="Receptor tyrosine kinase">RTK</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TGF_beta_signaling_pathway" title="TGF beta signaling pathway">TGF beta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MAPK/ERK_pathway" title="MAPK/ERK pathway">MAPK/ERK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notch_signaling_pathway" title="Notch signaling pathway">Notch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JAK-STAT_signaling_pathway" title="JAK-STAT signaling pathway">JAK-STAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akt/PKB_signaling_pathway" title="Akt/PKB signaling pathway">Akt/PKB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">Fas apoptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippo_signaling_pathway" title="Hippo signaling pathway">Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PI3K/AKT/mTOR_pathway" title="PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway">PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrin#Signal_transduction" title="Integrin">Integrin receptors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Agents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ligand_(biochemistry)" title="Ligand (biochemistry)">Receptor ligands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">Hormones</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neurotransmitters</a>/<a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide" title="Neuropeptide">Neuropeptides</a>/<a href="/wiki/Neurohormone" title="Neurohormone">Neurohormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">Cytokines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_factor" title="Growth factor">Growth factors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Signaling molecules</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">Receptors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_surface_receptor" title="Cell surface receptor">Cell surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intracellular_receptor" title="Intracellular receptor">Intracellular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-receptor" title="Co-receptor">Co-receptor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_messenger_system" title="Second messenger system">Second messenger</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CAMP-dependent_pathway" title="CAMP-dependent pathway">cAMP-dependent pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcium_signaling" title="Calcium signaling">Ca<sup>2+</sup> signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid_signaling" title="Lipid signaling">Lipid signaling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Assistants:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Signal_transducing_adaptor_protein" title="Signal transducing adaptor protein">Signal transducing adaptor protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scaffold_protein" title="Scaffold protein">Scaffold protein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">Transcription factors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_transcription_factor" title="General transcription factor">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_preinitiation_complex" title="Transcription preinitiation complex">Transcription preinitiation complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor_II_D" title="Transcription factor II D">TFIID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor_II_H" title="Transcription factor II H">TFIIH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By distance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Juxtacrine_signalling" title="Juxtacrine signalling">Juxtacrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocrine_signalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Autocrine signalling">Autocrine</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paracrine_signalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Paracrine signalling">Paracrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intracrine" title="Intracrine">Intracrine action</a></li> <li>Neurocrine signaling <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synaptic_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Synaptic transmission">Synaptic transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse">Chemical synapse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrine_cell" title="Neuroendocrine cell">Neuroendocrine signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exocrine_gland" title="Exocrine gland">Exocrine signalling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pheromone" title="Pheromone">Pheromones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanotransduction" title="Mechanotransduction">Mechanotransduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_phototransduction" title="Visual phototransduction">Phototransduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_channel" title="Ion channel">Ion channel gating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gap_junction" title="Gap junction">Gap junction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Neurotransmitter_systems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neurotransmitter_systems" title="Template:Neurotransmitter systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neurotransmitter_systems" title="Template talk:Neurotransmitter systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neurotransmitter_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neurotransmitter systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Neurotransmitter_systems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Brain_neurotransmitter_systems">Neurotransmitter systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleus_basalis_of_Meynert" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleus basalis of Meynert">Nucleus basalis of Meynert</a> → <a href="/wiki/Neocortex" title="Neocortex">Neocortex</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Septal_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Septal nuclei">Septal nuclei</a> (<a href="/wiki/Medial_septal_nucleus" title="Medial septal nucleus">Medial septal nucleus</a>) → <a href="/wiki/Fornix_of_the_brain" class="mw-redirect" title="Fornix of the brain">Fornix</a> → <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">Hippocampus</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">Striatum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biogenic_amine" title="Biogenic amine">BA</a>/<a href="/wiki/Monoamine_neurotransmitter" title="Monoamine neurotransmitter">M</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dopaminergic_pathways" title="Dopaminergic pathways">Dopaminergic pathways</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesocortical_pathway" title="Mesocortical pathway">Mesocortical pathway</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area" title="Ventral tegmental area">Ventral tegmental area</a> → <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortices" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefrontal cortices">Prefrontal cortices</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesolimbic_pathway" title="Mesolimbic pathway">Mesolimbic pathway</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area" title="Ventral tegmental area">Ventral tegmental area</a> → <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">Nucleus accumbens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_tubercle" title="Olfactory tubercle">olfactory tubercle</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigrostriatal_pathway" title="Nigrostriatal pathway">Nigrostriatal pathway</a>: <a href="/wiki/Substantia_nigra_pars_compacta" class="mw-redirect" title="Substantia nigra pars compacta">Substantia nigra pars compacta</a> → <a href="/wiki/Caudate_nucleus" title="Caudate nucleus">Caudate nucleus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Putamen" title="Putamen">putamen</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tuberoinfundibular_pathway" title="Tuberoinfundibular pathway">Tuberoinfundibular pathway</a>: Hypothalamus (<a href="/wiki/Infundibular_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Infundibular nucleus">Infundibular nucleus</a>) → Pituitary gland (<a href="/wiki/Median_eminence" title="Median eminence">Median eminence</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">Norepinephrine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locus_coeruleus" title="Locus coeruleus">Locus coeruleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_tegmental_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral tegmental field">Lateral tegmental field</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Serotonin_pathways" class="mw-redirect" title="Serotonin pathways">Serotonin pathways</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raphe_nuclei" title="Raphe nuclei">Raphe nuclei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_raphespinal_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior raphespinal tract">Anterior raphespinal tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_raphespinal_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral raphespinal tract">Lateral raphespinal tract</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">AA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aspartic_acid" title="Aspartic acid">Aspartate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climbing_fiber" title="Climbing fiber">Climbing fibers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gamma-Aminobutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Aminobutyric acid">GABA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Globus_pallidus" title="Globus pallidus">Globus pallidus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rostromedial_tegmental_nucleus" title="Rostromedial tegmental nucleus">Rostromedial tegmental nucleus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">Glycine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renshaw_cell" title="Renshaw cell">Renshaw cells</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">Glutamate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">Thalamus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subthalamic_nucleus" title="Subthalamic nucleus">Subthalamic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globus_pallidus" title="Globus pallidus">Globus pallidus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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