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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>The texts of the early Buddhist schools</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_texts_of_the_early_Buddhist_schools-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The texts of the early Buddhist schools subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_texts_of_the_early_Buddhist_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Buddhist_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Buddhist_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Early Buddhist texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Buddhist_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abhidharma_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abhidharma_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Abhidharma texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abhidharma_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Other texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theravāda_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theravāda_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Theravāda texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theravāda_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mahāyāna_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mahāyāna_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Mahāyāna texts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mahāyāna_texts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mahāyāna texts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mahāyāna_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mahāyāna_sūtras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mahāyāna_sūtras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Mahāyāna sūtras</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mahāyāna_sūtras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_Mahāyāna_sūtras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_Mahāyāna_sūtras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Major Mahāyāna sūtras</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_Mahāyāna_sūtras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_treatises" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_treatises"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Indian treatises</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_treatises-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Asian_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Asian_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>East Asian works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Asian_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vajrayana_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vajrayana_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Vajrayana texts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vajrayana_texts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Vajrayana texts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Vajrayana_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Buddhist_tantras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhist_tantras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Buddhist tantras</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhist_tantras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_products_of_the_Vajrayana_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_products_of_the_Vajrayana_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Other products of the Vajrayana literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_products_of_the_Vajrayana_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Buddhist texts</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B5_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B0%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="النصوص البوذية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="النصوص البوذية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7_%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5" title="বৌদ্ধ ধর্মগ্রন্থ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বৌদ্ধ ধর্মগ্রন্থ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu%CC%8Dt-keng" title="Hu̍t-keng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hu̍t-keng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD" title="बौद्ध पोथी सभ – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="बौद्ध पोथी सभ" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhistick%C3%A9_texty" title="Buddhistické texty – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Buddhistické texty" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhistische_Literatur" title="Buddhistische Literatur – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Buddhistische Literatur" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budistlik_kirjandus" title="Budistlik kirjandus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Budistlik kirjandus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutra_(budismo)" title="Sutra (budismo) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sutra (budismo)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budhismaj_tekstoj" title="Budhismaj tekstoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Budhismaj tekstoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="متون بودایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="متون بودایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textes_du_bouddhisme" title="Textes du bouddhisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Textes du bouddhisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%88%EA%B2%BD" title="불경 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="불경" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A5" title="बौद्ध ग्रंथ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बौद्ध ग्रंथ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitab_Buddhis" title="Kitab Buddhis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kitab Buddhis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhista_sz%C3%B6vegek" title="Buddhista szövegek – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Buddhista szövegek" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="बौद्ध साहित्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बौद्ध साहित्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeddhistische_geschriften" title="Boeddhistische geschriften – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Boeddhistische geschriften" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5" title="बुद्ध धर्मया ग्रन्थ – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="बुद्ध धर्मया ग्रन्थ" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BB%8F%E5%85%B8" title="仏典 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="仏典" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AF%DA%BE_%D9%85%D8%AA_%D8%AF%DB%92_%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AA%DA%BE" title="بدھ مت دے گرنتھ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بدھ مت دے گرنتھ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textos_budistas" title="Textos budistas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Textos budistas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Буддийские источники – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Буддийские источники" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%8C%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A7%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%A4_%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%81" title="బౌద్ధమత గ్రంథాలు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="బౌద్ధమత గ్రంథాలు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B9%8C" title="ปกรณ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปกรณ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B8%D2%A3_%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%8B" title="Буддизмниң литературазы – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Буддизмниң литературазы" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Буддійські джерела – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Буддійські джерела" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinh_%C4%91i%E1%BB%83n_Ph%E1%BA%ADt_gi%C3%A1o" title="Kinh điển Phật giáo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Kinh điển Phật giáo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng 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href="/wiki/File:Illustrated_Sinhalese_covers_(inside)_showing_the_events_Wellcome_L0031774.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Illustrated_Sinhalese_covers_%28inside%29_showing_the_events_Wellcome_L0031774.jpg/220px-Illustrated_Sinhalese_covers_%28inside%29_showing_the_events_Wellcome_L0031774.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Illustrated_Sinhalese_covers_%28inside%29_showing_the_events_Wellcome_L0031774.jpg/330px-Illustrated_Sinhalese_covers_%28inside%29_showing_the_events_Wellcome_L0031774.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Illustrated_Sinhalese_covers_%28inside%29_showing_the_events_Wellcome_L0031774.jpg/440px-Illustrated_Sinhalese_covers_%28inside%29_showing_the_events_Wellcome_L0031774.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4254" data-file-height="2652" /></a><figcaption>Illustrated Sinhalese covers and <a href="/wiki/Palm-leaf_manuscript" title="Palm-leaf manuscript">palm-leaf pages</a>, depicting the events between the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a>'s renunciation and the request by <a href="/wiki/Brahm%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Brahmā (Buddhism)">Brahmā Sahampati</a> that he teach the <a href="/wiki/Buddha_Dharma" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha Dharma">Dharma</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Buddha's awakening</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%EB%B2%95%ED%99%94%EA%B2%BD%EB%B3%80%EC%83%81%EB%8F%84_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4-%E5%A6%99%E6%B3%95%E8%93%AE%E8%8F%AF%E7%B6%93%E5%8D%B7%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E8%AE%8A%E7%9B%B8%E5%9C%96_%E9%AB%98%E9%BA%97-Illustrated_Manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_MET_DP270185.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/%EB%B2%95%ED%99%94%EA%B2%BD%EB%B3%80%EC%83%81%EB%8F%84_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4-%E5%A6%99%E6%B3%95%E8%93%AE%E8%8F%AF%E7%B6%93%E5%8D%B7%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E8%AE%8A%E7%9B%B8%E5%9C%96_%E9%AB%98%E9%BA%97-Illustrated_Manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_MET_DP270185.jpg/220px-%EB%B2%95%ED%99%94%EA%B2%BD%EB%B3%80%EC%83%81%EB%8F%84_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4-%E5%A6%99%E6%B3%95%E8%93%AE%E8%8F%AF%E7%B6%93%E5%8D%B7%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E8%AE%8A%E7%9B%B8%E5%9C%96_%E9%AB%98%E9%BA%97-Illustrated_Manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_MET_DP270185.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/%EB%B2%95%ED%99%94%EA%B2%BD%EB%B3%80%EC%83%81%EB%8F%84_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4-%E5%A6%99%E6%B3%95%E8%93%AE%E8%8F%AF%E7%B6%93%E5%8D%B7%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E8%AE%8A%E7%9B%B8%E5%9C%96_%E9%AB%98%E9%BA%97-Illustrated_Manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_MET_DP270185.jpg/330px-%EB%B2%95%ED%99%94%EA%B2%BD%EB%B3%80%EC%83%81%EB%8F%84_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4-%E5%A6%99%E6%B3%95%E8%93%AE%E8%8F%AF%E7%B6%93%E5%8D%B7%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E8%AE%8A%E7%9B%B8%E5%9C%96_%E9%AB%98%E9%BA%97-Illustrated_Manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_MET_DP270185.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/%EB%B2%95%ED%99%94%EA%B2%BD%EB%B3%80%EC%83%81%EB%8F%84_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4-%E5%A6%99%E6%B3%95%E8%93%AE%E8%8F%AF%E7%B6%93%E5%8D%B7%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E8%AE%8A%E7%9B%B8%E5%9C%96_%E9%AB%98%E9%BA%97-Illustrated_Manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_MET_DP270185.jpg/440px-%EB%B2%95%ED%99%94%EA%B2%BD%EB%B3%80%EC%83%81%EB%8F%84_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4-%E5%A6%99%E6%B3%95%E8%93%AE%E8%8F%AF%E7%B6%93%E5%8D%B7%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E8%AE%8A%E7%9B%B8%E5%9C%96_%E9%AB%98%E9%BA%97-Illustrated_Manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_MET_DP270185.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1870" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Illustrated <i><a href="/wiki/Lotus_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotus Sūtra">Lotus Sūtra</a></i> from Korea; circa 1340, accordion-format book; gold and silver on indigo-dyed mulberry paper</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MET_24_DP238441r2_61E.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/MET_24_DP238441r2_61E.jpg/220px-MET_24_DP238441r2_61E.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/MET_24_DP238441r2_61E.jpg/330px-MET_24_DP238441r2_61E.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/MET_24_DP238441r2_61E.jpg/440px-MET_24_DP238441r2_61E.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3002" /></a><figcaption>Folio from a manuscript of the <i><a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a></i> depicting <a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Shadakshari Lokesvara</a>, early 12th century, opaque watercolor on palm leaf</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Buddhist texts</b> are <a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">religious texts</a> that belong to, or are associated with, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">its traditions</a>. There is no single textual collection for all of Buddhism. Instead, there are three main <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist Canon">Buddhist Canons</a>: the <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli Canon</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda tradition</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist Canon</a> used in <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">East Asian Buddhist tradition</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Buddhist Canon</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Indo-Tibetan Buddhism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-British_Library_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-British_Library-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest Buddhist texts were not committed to writing until some centuries after the death of <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the <a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">Gandhāran Buddhist texts</a>, found in <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and written in <a href="/wiki/G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gāndhārī language">Gāndhārī</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they date from the first century BCE to the third century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">first Buddhist texts</a> were initially passed on orally by <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Buddhist monastics</a>, but were later written down and composed as <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscripts</a> in various <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan languages</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pāli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gandhari_language" title="Gandhari language">Gāndhārī</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Hybrid_Sanskrit" title="Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit">Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-British_Library_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-British_Library-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These texts were collected into various collections and translated into other languages such as Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> (<i>fójiào hànyǔ</i> 佛教漢語) and <a href="/wiki/Classical_Tibetan" title="Classical Tibetan">Classical Tibetan</a> as <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spread of Buddhism">Buddhism spread outside of India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-British_Library_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-British_Library-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Buddhist texts can be categorized in a number of ways. The Western terms "scripture" and "canonical" are applied to Buddhism in inconsistent ways by Western scholars: for example, one authority refers to "scriptures and other canonical texts", while another says that scriptures can be categorized into canonical, commentarial, and pseudo-canonical. Buddhist traditions have generally divided these texts with their own categories and divisions, such as that between <i><a href="/wiki/Buddhavacana" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhavacana">buddhavacana</a></i> "word of the <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha</a>," many of which are known as "<a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">sutras</a>", and other texts, such as "<a href="/wiki/Shastras" class="mw-redirect" title="Shastras">shastras</a>" (treatises) or "<a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-British_Library_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-British_Library-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These religious texts were written in different languages, methods and <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing systems</a>. Memorizing, reciting and copying the texts was seen as spiritually valuable. Even after the development and adoption of <a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printing</a> by Buddhist institutions, Buddhists continued to copy them by hand as a present authenticity exercise and spiritual practice <sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In an effort to preserve these scriptures, Asian Buddhist institutions were at the forefront of the adoption of Chinese technologies related to <a href="/wiki/Bookmaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Bookmaking">bookmaking</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">block printing</a> which were often deployed on a large scale. Because of this, the first surviving example of a <a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printed text</a> is a Buddhist charm, the first full printed book is the Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Diamond_Sutra" title="Diamond Sutra">Diamond Sutra</a> (c. 868) and the first hand colored print is an illustration of <a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a> dated to 947.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Buddhavacana">Buddhavacana</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Buddhavacana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of <i>buddhavacana</i> (word of the Buddha) is important in understanding how Buddhists classify and see their texts. Buddhavacana texts have special status as sacred scripture and are generally seen as in accord with the teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">historical Buddha</a>, which is termed "the <a href="/wiki/Dharma_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharma (Buddhism)">Dharma</a>". According to <a href="/wiki/Donald_S._Lopez_Jr." title="Donald S. Lopez Jr.">Donald Lopez</a>, the criteria for determining what should be considered buddhavacana were developed at an early stage, and that the early formulations do not suggest that <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a> is limited to what was spoken by the historical Buddha.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated28_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated28-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghika</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mulasarvastivada" title="Mulasarvastivada">Mūlasarvāstivāda</a> considered both the Buddha's discourses and those of his disciples to be <i>buddhavacana</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated28_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated28-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of different beings such as Buddhas, disciples of the Buddha, <a href="/wiki/Rishi" title="Rishi">ṛṣis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">devas</a> were considered capable to transmitting buddhavacana.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated28_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated28-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The content of such a discourse was then to be collated with the <a href="/wiki/S%C5%ABtras" class="mw-redirect" title="Sūtras">sūtras</a>, compared with the <a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a>, and evaluated against the nature of the Dharma.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated29_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated29-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated83_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated83-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These texts may then be certified as true buddhavacana by a buddha, a <a href="/wiki/Sangha_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangha (Buddhism)">sangha</a>, a small group of elders, or one knowledgeable elder.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated29_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated29-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated83_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated83-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Theravāda Buddhism, the standard collection of <i>buddhavacana</i> is the Pāli Canon, also known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></i> ("three baskets"). Generally speaking, the Theravāda school rejects the <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahāyāna sūtras</a> as <i>buddhavacana</i> (word of the Buddha), and do not study or see these texts as reliable sources.<sup id="cite_ref-Karen_Pechilis_2013_p._115_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Karen_Pechilis_2013_p._115-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">East Asian Buddhism</a>, what is considered <i>buddhavacana</i> is collected in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a>; the most common edition of this is the <a href="/wiki/Taisho_Tripitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Taisho Tripitaka">Taishō Tripiṭaka</a>, itself based on the <a href="/wiki/Tripitaka_Koreana" title="Tripitaka Koreana">Tripiṭaka Koreana</a>. This collection, unlike the Pāli <i>Tripiṭaka</i>, contains Mahāyāna sūtras, Śāstras (scholastic treatises), and <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Esoteric Buddhist literature</a>. </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Hsuan_Hua" title="Hsuan Hua">Hsuan Hua</a> from the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a>, there are five types of beings who may speak the sutras of Buddhism: a Buddha, a disciple of a Buddha, a deva, a ṛṣi, or an emanation of one of these beings; however, they must first receive certification from a buddha that its contents are true Dharma.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2003_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2003-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then these sutras may be properly regarded as <i>buddhavacana</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2003_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2003-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes texts that are considered commentaries by some are regarded by others as <i>buddhavacana</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Indo-Tibetan Buddhism</a>, what is considered <i>buddhavacana</i> is collected in the <a href="/wiki/Kangyur" title="Kangyur">Kangyur</a> ('The Translation of the Word'). The East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist Canons always combined <i>buddhavacana</i> with other literature in their standard collected editions. However, the general view of what is and is not <i>buddhavacana</i> is broadly similar between East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism. The Tibetan Kangyur, which belongs to the various schools of Tibetan <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayāna Buddhism</a>, in addition to containing sutras and Vinaya, also contains <a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Buddhism)">Buddhist tantras</a> and other related Tantric literature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_texts_of_the_early_Buddhist_schools">The texts of the early Buddhist schools</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The texts of the early Buddhist schools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Buddhist_texts">Early Buddhist texts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early Buddhist texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">Early Buddhist texts</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E9%9B%9C%E9%98%BF%E5%90%AB%E7%B6%93_%E5%8D%B7-Samyutagama_Sutra,_chapter_25_MET_1989_363_2_sec01_CRD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E9%9B%9C%E9%98%BF%E5%90%AB%E7%B6%93_%E5%8D%B7-Samyutagama_Sutra%2C_chapter_25_MET_1989_363_2_sec01_CRD.jpg/220px-%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E9%9B%9C%E9%98%BF%E5%90%AB%E7%B6%93_%E5%8D%B7-Samyutagama_Sutra%2C_chapter_25_MET_1989_363_2_sec01_CRD.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E9%9B%9C%E9%98%BF%E5%90%AB%E7%B6%93_%E5%8D%B7-Samyutagama_Sutra%2C_chapter_25_MET_1989_363_2_sec01_CRD.jpg/330px-%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E9%9B%9C%E9%98%BF%E5%90%AB%E7%B6%93_%E5%8D%B7-Samyutagama_Sutra%2C_chapter_25_MET_1989_363_2_sec01_CRD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E9%9B%9C%E9%98%BF%E5%90%AB%E7%B6%93_%E5%8D%B7-Samyutagama_Sutra%2C_chapter_25_MET_1989_363_2_sec01_CRD.jpg/440px-%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B_%E4%BD%9A%E5%90%8D_%E9%9B%9C%E9%98%BF%E5%90%AB%E7%B6%93_%E5%8D%B7-Samyutagama_Sutra%2C_chapter_25_MET_1989_363_2_sec01_CRD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="405" /></a><figcaption><i>Samyutagama Sūtra</i>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Song,_Liao,_Jin,_and_Western_Xia_dynasties_(960–1279)" title="History of China">Medieval China</a>, 11th century</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burmese-Pali_Manuscript_Wellcome_L0067947.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Burmese-Pali_Manuscript_Wellcome_L0067947.jpg/220px-Burmese-Pali_Manuscript_Wellcome_L0067947.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Burmese-Pali_Manuscript_Wellcome_L0067947.jpg/330px-Burmese-Pali_Manuscript_Wellcome_L0067947.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Burmese-Pali_Manuscript_Wellcome_L0067947.jpg/440px-Burmese-Pali_Manuscript_Wellcome_L0067947.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5400" data-file-height="4050" /></a><figcaption>Burmese Pāli manuscript</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest Buddhist texts were passed down orally in Middle <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan languages</a> called <a href="/wiki/Prakrits" class="mw-redirect" title="Prakrits">Prakrits</a>, including <a href="/wiki/G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gāndhārī language">Gāndhārī language</a>, the early <a href="/wiki/Magadhan" class="mw-redirect" title="Magadhan">Magadhan</a> language and Pāli through the use of repetition, communal recitation and mnemonic devices.<sup id="cite_ref-British_Library_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-British_Library-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These texts were later compiled into canons and written down in manuscripts. For example, the Pāli Canon was preserved in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> where it was first written down in the first century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are early texts from various Buddhist schools, the largest collections are from the Theravāda and <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivāda</a> schools, but there are also full texts and fragments from the <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṅghika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%AB%C5%9B%C4%81saka" title="Mahīśāsaka">Mahīśāsaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mulasarvastivada" title="Mulasarvastivada">Mūlasarvāstivāda</a>, and others.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most widely studied early Buddhist material are the first four Pāli <a href="/wiki/Nikayas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikayas">Nikayas</a>, as well as the corresponding Chinese <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgamas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern study of early <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">pre-sectarian Buddhism</a> often relies on comparative scholarship using these various early Buddhist sources.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various scholars of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhist studies</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Gombrich" title="Richard Gombrich">Richard Gombrich</a>, Akira Hirakawa, Alexander Wynne, and <a href="/wiki/A._K._Warder" title="A. K. Warder">A. K. Warder</a> hold that early Buddhist texts contain material that could possibly be traced to the <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">historical Buddha</a> himself or at least to the early years of <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">pre-sectarian Buddhism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna Buddhism</a>, these texts are sometimes referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vakay%C4%81na" title="Śrāvakayāna">Śrāvakayāna</a>". </p><p>Although many versions of the texts of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">early Buddhist schools</a> exist, the only complete collection of texts to survive in a Middle Indo-Aryan language is the <i>Tipiṭaka</i> (triple basket) of the Theravāda school.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The other (parts of) extant versions of the Tripitakas of early schools include the Chinese <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgamas</a>, which includes collections by the <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivāda</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a> contains a complete collection of early sutras in Chinese translation, their content is very similar to the Pali, differing in detail but not in the core doctrinal content.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Tibetan canon contains some of these early texts as well, but not as complete collections. The earliest known Buddhist manuscripts containing early Buddhist texts are the <a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandharan Buddhist Texts">Gandharan Buddhist Texts</a>, dated to the 1st century BCE and constitute the Buddhist textual tradition of <a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism" title="Gandharan Buddhism">Gandharan Buddhism</a> which was an important link between Indian and East Asian Buddhism.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parts of what is likely to be the canon of the <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a> can be found among these <a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandharan Buddhist Texts">Gandharan Buddhist Texts</a>. </p><p>There are different genres of early Buddhist texts, including prose "<a href="/wiki/Sutta_Pi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Sutta Piṭaka">suttas</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>: <i>sūtra</i>, discourses), disciplinary works (<i><a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a></i>), various forms of verse compositions (such as <a href="/wiki/Gatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gatha"><i>gāthā</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/Udana" class="mw-redirect" title="Udana"><i>udāna</i></a>), mixed prose and verse works (<i>geya</i>), and also lists (<i>matika</i>) of monastic rules or doctrinal topics. A large portion of Early Buddhist literature is part of the "sutta" or "sutra" genre. The <i>Sūtras</i> (Sanskrit; Pāli: <i>Sutta</i>) are mostly discourses attributed to the Buddha or one of his close disciples. They are considered to be <i>buddhavacana</i> by all schools. The Buddha's discourses were perhaps originally organised according to the style in which they were delivered. They were later organized into collections called <i><a href="/wiki/Nik%C4%81ya" title="Nikāya">Nikāyas</a></i> ('volumes') or <i><a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgamas</a></i> ('scriptures'), which were further collected into the <i>Sūtra Piṭaka</i> ("Basket of Discourses") of the canons of the early Buddhist schools. </p><p>Most of the early sutras that have survived are from <a href="/wiki/Sthavira_nik%C4%81ya" title="Sthavira nikāya">Sthavira nikaya</a> schools, no complete collection has survived from the other early branch of Buddhism, the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghika</a>. However, some individual texts have survived, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Salistamba_Sutra" title="Salistamba Sutra">Śālistamba Sūtra</a></i> (rice stalk sūtra). This <i>sūtra</i> contains many parallel passages to the Pali suttas. As noted by N. Ross Reat, this text is in general agreement with the basic doctrines of the early sutras of the Sthavira schools such as <a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">dependent origination</a>, the "<a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">middle way</a>" between eternalism and annihilationism, the "<a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">five aggregates</a>", the "<a href="/wiki/Three_poisons" title="Three poisons">three unwholesome roots</a>", the <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another important source for Mahāsāṃghika sutras is the <i><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81vastu" title="Mahāvastu">Mahāvastu</a></i> ("Great Event"), which is a collection of various texts compiled into a biography of the Buddha. Within it can be found quotations and whole sutras, such as the Mahāsāṃghika version of the <i><a href="/wiki/Dhammacakkappavattana_Sutta" title="Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta">Dharmacakrapravartana</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The other major type of text aside from the sutras are the <a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinayas</a>. Vinaya literature is primarily concerned with aspects of the monastic discipline and the rules and procedures that govern the Buddhist monastic community (<a href="/wiki/Sangha_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangha (Buddhism)">sangha</a>). However, Vinaya as a term is also contrasted with Dharma, where the pair (Dhamma-Vinaya) mean something like 'doctrine and discipline'. The Vinaya literature in fact contains a considerable range of texts. There are, of course, those that discuss the monastic rules, how they came about, how they developed, and how they were applied. But the vinaya also contains some doctrinal expositions, ritual and liturgical texts, biographical stories, and some elements of the "<a href="/wiki/Jataka_tales" title="Jataka tales">Jatakas</a>", or birth stories. Various <a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a> collections survive in full, including those of the following schools: Theravāda (in <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli">Pali</a>), <a href="/wiki/Mulasarvastivada" title="Mulasarvastivada">Mula-Sarvāstivāda</a> (in Tibetan translation) and the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsānghika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivāda</a>, Mahīshāsika, and Dharmaguptaka (in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> translations). In addition, portions survive of a number of Vinayas in various languages. </p><p>Aside from the Sutras and the Vinayas, some schools also had collections of "minor" or miscellaneous texts. The Theravāda <i><a href="/wiki/Khuddaka_Nik%C4%81ya" title="Khuddaka Nikāya">Khuddaka Nikāya</a></i> ('Minor Collection') is one example of such a collection, while there is evidence that the <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a> school had a similar collection, known as the <i>Kṣudraka Āgam</i>a. Fragments of the Dharmaguptaka minor collection have been found in Gandhari.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sarvāstivāda school also seems to have had a <i>Kṣudraka</i> collection of texts, but they did not see it as an "Āgama".<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These "minor" collections seem to have been a category for miscellaneous texts, and was perhaps never definitively established among many early Buddhist schools. </p><p>Early Buddhist texts which appear in such "minor" collections include: </p> <ul><li>The <i>Dharmapadas</i>. These texts are collections of sayings and aphorisms, the most well known of which is the Pali <i><a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a></i>, but there are various versions in different languages, such as the <i>Patna Dharmapada</i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gāndhārī language">Gāndhārī</a> Dharmapada</i>.</li> <li>The Pali <i><a href="/wiki/Udana" class="mw-redirect" title="Udana">Udana</a></i> and the Sarvāstivāda <a href="/wiki/Udanavarga" title="Udanavarga"><i>Udānavarga</i></a>. These are other collections of "inspired sayings".</li> <li>The Pali <i><a href="/wiki/Itivuttaka" title="Itivuttaka">Itivuttaka</a></i> ("as it was said") and the Chinese translation of the <i>Itivṛttaka</i> (本事經) by <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Winternitz,_Moriz_1996_p._227_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winternitz,_Moriz_1996_p._227-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The Pali <i><a href="/wiki/Sutta_Nipata" title="Sutta Nipata">Sutta Nipata</a></i>, including texts such as the <a href="/wiki/Atthakavagga_and_Parayanavagga" class="mw-redirect" title="Atthakavagga and Parayanavagga"><i>Aṭṭhakavagga</i> and <i>Pārāyanavagga</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also a parallel in the Chinese translation of the <i>Arthavargīya.</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theragatha" title="Theragatha"><i>Theragāthā</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/Therigatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Therigatha"><i>Therīgāthā</i></a> two collections of verses related to the elder disciples of the Buddha. A Sanskrit <i>Sthaviragāthā</i> is also known to have existed.<sup id="cite_ref-Winternitz,_Moriz_1996_p._227_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winternitz,_Moriz_1996_p._227-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abhidharma_texts">Abhidharma texts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Abhidharma texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></div><p><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pāli</a>, <i>Abhidhamma</i>) texts which contain "an abstract and highly technical systematization" of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist sutras.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is an attempt to best express the Buddhist view of "ultimate reality" (<i><a href="/wiki/Param%C4%81rtha-satya" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramārtha-satya">paramartha-satya</a></i>) without using the conventional language and narrative stories found in the sutras.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prominent modern scholar of Abhidharma, <a href="/wiki/Erich_Frauwallner" title="Erich Frauwallner">Erich Frauwallner</a> has said that these Buddhist systems are "among the major achievements of the classical period of <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a>." Modern scholars generally believe that the canonical Abhidharma texts emerged after the time of the Buddha, in around the 3rd century BCE. Therefore, the canonical Abhidharma works are generally claimed by scholars not to represent the words of the Buddha himself, but those of later Buddhists.<sup id="cite_ref-Abhidhamma_Pitaka_20082_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abhidhamma_Pitaka_20082-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are different types and historical layers of Abhidharma literature. The early canonical Abhidharma works (like the <i><a href="/wiki/Abhidhamma_Pi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Abhidhamma Piṭaka">Abhidhamma Pitaka</a></i>) are not philosophical treatises, but mainly summaries and expositions of early doctrinal lists with their accompanying explanations.<sup id="cite_ref-Abhidhamma_Pitaka_20082_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abhidhamma_Pitaka_20082-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These texts developed out of early Buddhist lists or matrices (<i>mātṛkās</i>) of key teachings, such as the 37 <a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">factors leading to Awakening</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars like <a href="/wiki/Erich_Frauwallner" title="Erich Frauwallner">Erich Frauwallner</a> have argued that there is an "ancient core" of early pre-sectarian material in the earliest Abhidharma works, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Vibhanga" class="mw-redirect" title="Vibhanga">Vibhanga</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Dharmaskandha" title="Dharmaskandha">Dharmaskandha</a></i> of the <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvastivada</a>, and the <i>Śāriputrābhidharma</i> of the <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a> school.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Only two full canonical Abhidharma collections have survived both containing seven texts, the <a href="/wiki/Therav%C4%81da_Abhidhamma" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravāda Abhidhamma">Theravāda Abhidhamma</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vaibh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ika" title="Vaibhāṣika">Sarvastivada Abhidharma</a>, which survives in Chinese translation. However, texts of other tradition have survived, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputr%C4%81bhidharma" title="Śāriputrābhidharma">Śāriputrābhidharma</a></i> of the Dharmaguptaka school, the <i><a href="/wiki/Tattvasiddhi" title="Tattvasiddhi">Tattvasiddhi Śāstra</a></i> (<i>Chéngshílun</i>), and various Abhidharma type works from the <a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a> school. </p><p>Later post-canonical Abhidharma works were written as either large treatises (<i><a href="/wiki/Shastra" title="Shastra">śāstra</a></i>), as commentaries (<i><a href="/wiki/Atthakatha" title="Atthakatha">aṭṭhakathā</a></i>) or as smaller introductory manuals. They are more developed philosophical works which include many innovations and doctrines not found in the canonical Abhidharma. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_texts">Other texts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Other texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illuminated_manuscript_of_Jataka_Tales_and_the_Story_of_Phra_Malai%27s_Visit_to_Heaven_and_Hell,_Thailand,_Bangkok_style,_1813,_ink,_color_and_gold_on_paper,_HAA.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Illuminated_manuscript_of_Jataka_Tales_and_the_Story_of_Phra_Malai%27s_Visit_to_Heaven_and_Hell%2C_Thailand%2C_Bangkok_style%2C_1813%2C_ink%2C_color_and_gold_on_paper%2C_HAA.JPG/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Illuminated_manuscript_of_Jataka_Tales_and_the_Story_of_Phra_Malai%27s_Visit_to_Heaven_and_Hell%2C_Thailand%2C_Bangkok_style%2C_1813%2C_ink%2C_color_and_gold_on_paper%2C_HAA.JPG/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Illuminated_manuscript_of_Jataka_Tales_and_the_Story_of_Phra_Malai%27s_Visit_to_Heaven_and_Hell%2C_Thailand%2C_Bangkok_style%2C_1813%2C_ink%2C_color_and_gold_on_paper%2C_HAA.JPG/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2145" data-file-height="2005" /></a><figcaption> Illuminated manuscript of a Jataka, the Story of <a href="/wiki/Phra_Malai" title="Phra Malai">Phra Malai</a>'s Visit to Heaven and Hell, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, Bangkok style, 1813, ink, color and gold on paper, <a href="/wiki/Honolulu_Museum_of_Art" title="Honolulu Museum of Art">Honolulu Museum of Art</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The early Buddhist schools also preserved other types of texts which developed in later periods, which were variously seen as canonical or not, depending on the tradition. </p><p>One of the largest category of texts that were neither Sutra, Vinaya nor Abhidharma includes various collections of stories such as the <a href="/wiki/Jataka_tales" title="Jataka tales">Jātaka tales</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Avadana" title="Avadana">Avadānas</a> (Pali: <a href="/wiki/Apad%C4%81na" title="Apadāna">Apadāna</a>). These are moral <a href="/wiki/Fable" title="Fable">fables</a> and legends dealing with the previous births of <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a> in both human and animal form.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The different Buddhist schools had their own collections of these tales and often disagreed on which stories were canonical.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated286_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated286-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another genre that developed over time in the various early schools were biographies of the Buddha. Buddha biographies include the <i><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81vastu" title="Mahāvastu">Mahāvastu</a></i> of the <a href="/wiki/Lokottarav%C4%81da" title="Lokottaravāda">Lokottaravadin</a> school, the northern tradition's <i><a href="/wiki/Lalitavistara_S%C5%ABtra" title="Lalitavistara Sūtra">Lalitavistara Sūtra</a>,</i> the Theravada <i>Nidānakathā</i> and the Dharmaguptaka <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abhini%E1%B9%A3krama%E1%B9%87a_S%C5%ABtra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra (page does not exist)">Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the most famous of biographies is the <i><a href="/wiki/Buddhacarita" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhacarita">Buddhacarita</a></i>, an <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic poem</a> in Classical Sanskrit by <a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a>. Aśvaghoṣa also wrote other poems, as well as <a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_drama" title="Indian classical drama">Sanskrit dramas</a>. Another Sanskrit Buddhist poet was Mātṛceṭa, who composed various pious hymns in <a href="/wiki/Shloka" title="Shloka">slokas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_poetry" title="Buddhist poetry">Buddhist poetry</a> is a broad genre with numerous forms and has been composed in many languages, including Sanskrit, Tibetan, Chinese and Japanese. Aside from the work of Aśvaghoṣa, another important Sanskrit poet was Mātr̥ceṭa, known for his <i>One Hundred and Fifty Verses.</i> Buddhist poetry was also written in popular Indian languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apabhra%E1%B9%83%C5%9Ba" title="Apabhraṃśa">Apabhramsa</a>. One well known poem is the Tamil epic <i><a href="/wiki/Manimekalai" title="Manimekalai">Manimekalai</a>,</i> which is one of the <a href="/wiki/Five_Great_Epics" title="Five Great Epics">Five Great Epics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tamil_literature" title="Tamil literature">Tamil literature</a>. </p><p>Other later hagiographical texts include the <i><a href="/wiki/Buddhava%E1%B9%83sa" title="Buddhavaṃsa">Buddhavaṃsa</a>,</i> the <i><a href="/wiki/Cariy%C4%81pi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Cariyāpiṭaka">Cariyāpiṭaka</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Vim%C4%81navatthu" title="Vimānavatthu">Vimanavatthu</a></i> (as well as its Chinese parallel, the <i>Vimānāvadāna</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also some unique individual texts like the <i><a href="/wiki/Milinda_Panha" title="Milinda Panha">Milinda pañha</a></i> (literally <i>The Questions of Milinda</i>) and its parallel in Chinese, the <i>Nāgasena Bhikśu Sūtra</i> (那先比丘經).<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These texts depict a dialogue between the monk <a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a> King <a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander</a> (Pali: Milinda). It is a compendium of doctrine, and covers a range of subjects. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theravāda_texts"><span id="Therav.C4.81da_texts"></span>Theravāda texts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Theravāda texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pali_literature" title="Pali literature">Pali literature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burmese-Pali_Manuscript._Wellcome_L0026547.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Burmese-Pali_Manuscript._Wellcome_L0026547.jpg/220px-Burmese-Pali_Manuscript._Wellcome_L0026547.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Burmese-Pali_Manuscript._Wellcome_L0026547.jpg/330px-Burmese-Pali_Manuscript._Wellcome_L0026547.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Burmese-Pali_Manuscript._Wellcome_L0026547.jpg/440px-Burmese-Pali_Manuscript._Wellcome_L0026547.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1670" data-file-height="1166" /></a><figcaption>Burmese-Pali manuscript copy of the Buddhist text <a href="/wiki/Niddesa" title="Niddesa">Mahaniddesa</a>, showing three different types of <a href="/wiki/Burmese_alphabet" title="Burmese alphabet">Burmese script</a>, (top) medium square, (centre) round, and (bottom) outline round in red lacquer from the inside of one of the gilded covers</figcaption></figure><p> The Theravāda tradition has an extensive <a href="/wiki/Atthakatha" title="Atthakatha">commentarial literature</a>, much of which is still untranslated. These are attributed to scholars working in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a> (5th century CE) and <a href="/wiki/Dhammap%C4%81la" title="Dhammapāla">Dhammapala</a>. There are also <a href="/wiki/Sub-commentaries_(Therav%C4%81da)" title="Sub-commentaries (Theravāda)">sub-commentaries</a> (<i>ṭīkā</i>) or commentaries on the commentaries. Buddhaghosa was also the author of the <i><a href="/wiki/Visuddhimagga" title="Visuddhimagga">Visuddhimagga</a></i>, or <i>Path of Purification</i>, which is a manual of doctrine and practice according to the <a href="/wiki/Anuradhapura_Maha_Viharaya" title="Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya">Mahavihara</a> tradition of Sri Lanka. According to <a href="/wiki/Nanamoli_Bhikkhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanamoli Bhikkhu">Nanamoli Bhikkhu</a>, this text is regarded as "the principal non-canonical authority of the Theravada."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar albeit shorter work is the <i><a href="/wiki/Vimuttimagga" title="Vimuttimagga">Vimuttimagga</a></i>. Another highly influential Pali Theravada work is the <i><a href="/wiki/Abhidhammattha-sangaha" title="Abhidhammattha-sangaha">Abhidhammattha-sangaha</a></i> (11th or 12th century), a short 50 page introductory summary to the Abhidhamma, which is widely used to teach Abhidhamma. </p><p>Buddhaghosa is known to have worked from Buddhist commentaries in the Sri Lankan <a href="/wiki/Sinhala_language" title="Sinhala language">Sinhala language</a>, which are now lost. <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_literature" title="Sri Lankan literature">Sri Lankan literature</a> in the vernacular contains many Buddhist works, including as classical Sinhala poems such as the <i>Muvadevāvata</i> (The Story of the Bodhisattva's Birth as King Mukhadeva, 12th century) and the <i>Sasadāvata</i> (The Story of the Bodhisattva's Birth as a Hare, 12th century) as well as prose works like the <i>Dhampiyātuvā gätapadaya</i> (Commentary on the Blessed Doctrine), a commentary on words and phrases in the Pāli <a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda</a> textual tradition spread into Burma and Thailand where Pali scholarship continued to flourish with such works as the <i>Aggavamsa</i> of Saddaniti and the <i><a href="/wiki/Jinakalamali" title="Jinakalamali">Jinakalamali</a></i> of Ratanapañña.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pali literature continued to be composed into the modern era, especially in Burma, and writers such as <a href="/wiki/Mahasi_Sayadaw" title="Mahasi Sayadaw">Mahasi Sayadaw</a> translated some of their texts into Pali. </p><p>There are also numerous <a href="/wiki/Tantric_Theravada" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantric Theravada">Esoteric Theravada</a> texts, mostly from <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This tradition flourished in <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> before the 19th century reformist movement of <a href="/wiki/Rama_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Rama IV">Rama IV</a>. One of these texts has been published in English by the <a href="/wiki/Pali_Text_Society" title="Pali Text Society">Pali Text Society</a> as "Manual of a Mystic".<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Burmese Buddhist literature developed unique poetic forms from the 1450s onwards, a major type of poetry is the <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">pyui'</i></span> which are long and embellished translations of Pali Buddhist works, mainly <a href="/wiki/Jatakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Jatakas">jatakas</a>. A famous example of <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">pyui'</i></span> poetry is the <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Kui khan pyui'</i></span> (the <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">pyui'</i></span> in nine sections, 1523). There is also a genre of Burmese commentaries or <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">nissayas</i></span> which were used to teach Pali.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The nineteenth century saw a flowering of Burmese Buddhist literature in various genres including religious biography, Abhidharma, legal literature and meditation literature. </p><p>An influential text of Thai literature is the "Three Worlds According to King Ruang" (1345) by Phya Lithai, which is an extensive Cosmological and visionary survey of the Thai Buddhist universe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mahāyāna_texts"><span id="Mah.C4.81y.C4.81na_texts"></span>Mahāyāna texts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Mahāyāna texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mahāyāna_sūtras"><span id="Mah.C4.81y.C4.81na_s.C5.ABtras"></span>Mahāyāna sūtras</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mahāyāna sūtras"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>See <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_Sutras" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahayana Sutras">Mahāyāna sūtras</a> for historical background and a list of some sutras categorised by source.</i> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jingangjing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Jingangjing.jpg/220px-Jingangjing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Jingangjing.jpg/330px-Jingangjing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Jingangjing.jpg/440px-Jingangjing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4917" data-file-height="3438" /></a><figcaption>Frontispiece of the Chinese <i><a href="/wiki/Diamond_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Diamond Sūtra">Diamond Sūtra</a></i>, the oldest known dated <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">printed</a> book in the world</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prajnyaapaaramitaa_Hridaya_Pel.sogd.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Prajnyaapaaramitaa_Hridaya_Pel.sogd.jpg/220px-Prajnyaapaaramitaa_Hridaya_Pel.sogd.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Prajnyaapaaramitaa_Hridaya_Pel.sogd.jpg/330px-Prajnyaapaaramitaa_Hridaya_Pel.sogd.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Prajnyaapaaramitaa_Hridaya_Pel.sogd.jpg/440px-Prajnyaapaaramitaa_Hridaya_Pel.sogd.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4512" data-file-height="4029" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> manuscript of the <i>Heart Sūtra</i>, written in the <a href="/wiki/Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddhaṃ script</a>. <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">Bibliothèque nationale de France</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%81%8E%E5%8E%BB%E7%8F%BE%E5%9C%A8%E5%9B%A0%E6%9E%9C%E7%B5%8C%E7%B5%B5%E5%B7%BB-Buddha_Preaching,_a_section_from_the_Illustrated_Sutra_of_Past_and_Present_Karma_(Kako_genzai_inga_ky%C5%8D_emaki)_MET_DP-757-002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/%E9%81%8E%E5%8E%BB%E7%8F%BE%E5%9C%A8%E5%9B%A0%E6%9E%9C%E7%B5%8C%E7%B5%B5%E5%B7%BB-Buddha_Preaching%2C_a_section_from_the_Illustrated_Sutra_of_Past_and_Present_Karma_%28Kako_genzai_inga_ky%C5%8D_emaki%29_MET_DP-757-002.jpg/220px-%E9%81%8E%E5%8E%BB%E7%8F%BE%E5%9C%A8%E5%9B%A0%E6%9E%9C%E7%B5%8C%E7%B5%B5%E5%B7%BB-Buddha_Preaching%2C_a_section_from_the_Illustrated_Sutra_of_Past_and_Present_Karma_%28Kako_genzai_inga_ky%C5%8D_emaki%29_MET_DP-757-002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/%E9%81%8E%E5%8E%BB%E7%8F%BE%E5%9C%A8%E5%9B%A0%E6%9E%9C%E7%B5%8C%E7%B5%B5%E5%B7%BB-Buddha_Preaching%2C_a_section_from_the_Illustrated_Sutra_of_Past_and_Present_Karma_%28Kako_genzai_inga_ky%C5%8D_emaki%29_MET_DP-757-002.jpg/330px-%E9%81%8E%E5%8E%BB%E7%8F%BE%E5%9C%A8%E5%9B%A0%E6%9E%9C%E7%B5%8C%E7%B5%B5%E5%B7%BB-Buddha_Preaching%2C_a_section_from_the_Illustrated_Sutra_of_Past_and_Present_Karma_%28Kako_genzai_inga_ky%C5%8D_emaki%29_MET_DP-757-002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/%E9%81%8E%E5%8E%BB%E7%8F%BE%E5%9C%A8%E5%9B%A0%E6%9E%9C%E7%B5%8C%E7%B5%B5%E5%B7%BB-Buddha_Preaching%2C_a_section_from_the_Illustrated_Sutra_of_Past_and_Present_Karma_%28Kako_genzai_inga_ky%C5%8D_emaki%29_MET_DP-757-002.jpg/440px-%E9%81%8E%E5%8E%BB%E7%8F%BE%E5%9C%A8%E5%9B%A0%E6%9E%9C%E7%B5%8C%E7%B5%B5%E5%B7%BB-Buddha_Preaching%2C_a_section_from_the_Illustrated_Sutra_of_Past_and_Present_Karma_%28Kako_genzai_inga_ky%C5%8D_emaki%29_MET_DP-757-002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>A section from the Illustrated Sutra of Past and Present Karma (<i>Kako genzai inga kyō emaki</i>), mid-8th century, Japan</figcaption></figure> <p>Around the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">common era</a>, a new genre of sutra literature began to be written with a focus on the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a> ideal, commonly known as <i>Mahāyāna</i> ("Great Vehicle") or <i>Bodhisattvayāna</i> ("<a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a> Vehicle").<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest of these sutras do not call themselves 'Mahāyāna,' but use the terms <i>Vaipulya</i> (extensive, expansive) sutras, or <i>Gambhira</i> (deep, profound) sutras.<sup id="cite_ref-:34_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:34-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are various theories of how Mahāyāna emerged. According to David Drewes, it seems to have been "primarily a textual movement, focused on the revelation, preaching, and dissemination of Mahāyāna sutras, that developed within, and never really departed from, traditional Buddhist social and institutional structures."<sup id="cite_ref-:34_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:34-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early <i>dharmabhanakas</i> (preachers, reciters of these sutras) were influential figures, and promoted these new texts throughout the Buddhist communities.<sup id="cite_ref-:34_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:34-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many of these Mahāyāna sūtras were written in Sanskrit (in <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Hybrid_Sanskrit" title="Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit">hybrid forms</a> and in classical Sanskrit) and then later translated into the Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist canons (the <a href="/wiki/Kangyur" title="Kangyur">Kangyur</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Taishō Tripiṭaka">Taishō Tripiṭaka</a> respectively) which then developed their own textual histories. Sanskrit had been adopted by Buddhists in north India during the <a href="/wiki/Kushans" class="mw-redirect" title="Kushans">Kushan era</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Buddhist_literature" title="Sanskrit Buddhist literature">Sanskrit Buddhist literature</a> became the dominant tradition in Buddhist India until the <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of Buddhism in India">decline of Buddhism there</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mahāyāna sūtras are also generally regarded by the Mahāyāna tradition as being more profound than the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">śrāvaka</a> texts as well as generating more spiritual merit and benefit. Thus, they are seen as superior and more virtuous to non-Mahāyāna sutras.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mahāyāna sūtras are traditionally considered by Mahāyāna Buddhists to be the word of the Buddha. Mahāyāna Buddhists explained the emergence of these new texts by arguing that they had been transmitted in secret, via lineages of supernatural beings (such as the <a href="/wiki/Naga_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Naga (mythology)">nagas</a>) until people were ready to hear them, or by stating that they had been revealed directly through visions and meditative experiences to a select few.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to David McMahan, the literary style of the Mahāyāna sūtras reveals how these texts were mainly composed as written works and how they also needed to legitimate themselves to other Buddhists. They used different literary and narrative ways to defend the legitimacy of these texts as Buddha word.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mahāyāna sūtras such as the <i>Gaṇḍavyūha</i> also often criticize early Buddhist figures, such as <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputra" title="Śāriputra">Sariputra</a> for lacking knowledge and goodness, and thus, these elders or <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">śrāvaka</a> are seen as not intelligent enough to receive the Mahāyāna teachings, while more the advanced elite, the bodhisattvas, are depicted as those who can see the highest teachings.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These sūtras were not recognized as being Buddha word by various early Buddhist schools and there was lively debate over their authenticity throughout the Buddhist world. Various Mahāyāna sūtras warn against the charge that they are not word of the Buddha, showing that they are aware of this claim.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Buddhist communities such as the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghika</a> school were divided along these doctrinal lines into sub-schools which accepted or did not accept these texts.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Theravāda school of Sri Lanka also was split on the issue during the medieval period. The <a href="/wiki/Mahavihara" title="Mahavihara">Mahavihara</a> sub-sect rejected these texts and the (now extinct) <a href="/wiki/Abhayagiri_vih%C4%81ra" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhayagiri vihāra">Abhayagiri</a> sect accepted them. Theravāda commentaries mention these texts (which they call <i>Vedalla/Vetulla</i>) as not being the Buddha word and being counterfeit scriptures.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern Theravāda generally does not accept these texts as <i><a href="/wiki/Buddhavacana" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhavacana">buddhavacana</a></i> (word of the Buddha).<sup id="cite_ref-Karen_Pechilis_2013_p._115_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Karen_Pechilis_2013_p._115-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Mahāyāna movement remained quite small until the fifth century, with very few manuscripts having been found before then (the exceptions are from <a href="/wiki/Bamyan" title="Bamyan">Bamiyan</a>). However, according to Walser, the fifth and sixth centuries saw a great increase in the production of these texts.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such as <a href="/wiki/Faxian" title="Faxian">Faxian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yijing_(monk)" title="Yijing (monk)">Yijing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> were traveling to India, and their writings do describe monasteries which they label 'Mahāyāna' as well as monasteries where both Mahāyāna monks and non-Mahāyāna monks lived together.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mahāyāna sūtras contain several elements besides the promotion of the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a> ideal, including "expanded cosmologies and mythical histories, ideas of <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">purelands</a> and great, 'celestial' <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattvas</a>, descriptions of powerful new religious practices, new ideas on the nature of the Buddha, and a range of new philosophical perspectives."<sup id="cite_ref-:34_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:34-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These texts present stories of revelation in which the Buddha teaches Mahāyāna sutras to certain bodhisattvas who vow to teach and spread these sutras.<sup id="cite_ref-:34_53-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:34-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These texts also promoted new religious practices that were supposed to make Buddhahood easy to achieve, such as "hearing the names of certain Buddhas or bodhisattvas, maintaining Buddhist precepts, and listening to, memorizing, and copying sutras." Some Mahāyāna sūtras claim that these practices lead to rebirth in <a href="/wiki/Pure_land" title="Pure land">Pure lands</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Abhirati" title="Abhirati">Abhirati</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sukhavati" title="Sukhavati">Sukhavati</a>, where becoming a Buddha is much easier to achieve.<sup id="cite_ref-:34_53-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:34-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several Mahāyāna sūtras also depict important Buddhas or Bodhisattvas not found in earlier texts, such as the Buddhas <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitabha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Five_Wisdom_Buddhas" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Wisdom Buddhas">Akshobhya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vairocana" title="Vairocana">Vairocana</a>, and the bodhisattvas <a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ma%C3%B1jusri" class="mw-redirect" title="Mañjusri">Mañjusri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ksitigarbha" class="mw-redirect" title="Ksitigarbha">Ksitigarbha</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteshvara</a>. An important feature of Mahāyāna is the way that it understands the nature of <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a>. Mahāyāna texts see Buddhas (and to a lesser extent, certain bodhisattvas as well) as transcendental or supramundane (<i>lokuttara</i>) beings, who live for eons constantly helping others through their activity.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Paul Williams, in Mahāyāna, a Buddha is often seen as "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world", rather than simply a teacher who after his death "has completely 'gone beyond' the world and its cares".<sup id="cite_ref-:8_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha Sakyamuni</a>'s life and death on earth is then usually understood as a "mere appearance", his death is an unreal show, in reality he continues to live in a transcendent reality.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus the Buddha in the Lotus sutra says that he is "the father of the world", "the self existent (<i>svayambhu</i>)...protector of all creatures", who has "never ceased to exist" and only "pretends to have passed away."<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hundreds of Mahāyāna sūtras have survived in Sanskrit, Chinese and <a href="/wiki/Classical_Tibetan" title="Classical Tibetan">Tibetan</a> translation. There many different genres or classes of Mahāyāna sutras, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñāpāramitā</a> sūtra</i>s, the <i><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Tathāgatagarbha</a> sūtras</i> and the <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land <i>sūtra</i>s</a>. The different Mahāyāna schools have many varied classification schemas for organizing them and they see different texts as having higher authority than others. </p><p>Some Mahāyāna sūtras are also thought to display a distinctly <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">tantric</a> character, like some of the shorter <a href="/wiki/Perfection_of_Wisdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfection of Wisdom">Perfection of Wisdom</a> sutras and the <i><a href="/wiki/Mahavairocana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahavairocana Sutra">Mahavairocana Sutra</a></i>. At least some editions of the Kangyur include the <i><a href="/wiki/Heart_Sutra" title="Heart Sutra">Heart Sutra</a></i> in the tantra division.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such overlap is not confined to "neighbouring" yanas: at least nine "Sravakayana" texts can be found in the tantra divisions of some editions of the Kangyur.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of them, the <i><a href="/wiki/Atanatiya_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Atanatiya Sutra">Atanatiya Sutra</a></i>, is also included in the <a href="/wiki/Mikky%C5%8D" title="Mikkyō">Mikkyo</a> (esoteric) division of the standard modern collected edition of Sino-Japanese Buddhist literature.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Mahāyāna texts also contain <i><a href="/wiki/Dharani" title="Dharani">dhāraṇī</a>,</i> which are chants that are believed to have magical and spiritual power. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_Mahāyāna_sūtras"><span id="Major_Mah.C4.81y.C4.81na_s.C5.ABtras"></span>Major Mahāyāna sūtras</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Major Mahāyāna sūtras"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following is a list of some well known Mahāyāna sutras which have been studied by modern scholarship: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ajitasena_Sutra" title="Ajitasena Sutra">Ajitasena Sutra</a></i> – A "proto-Mahāyāna" text, possibly one of the earliest texts with Mahāyāna elements.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ugraparip%E1%B9%9Bcch%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra">Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra</a> –</i> An early Mahāyāna text focused on bodhisattva monasticism.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a> –</i> Possibly the earliest <i>Prajñāpāramitā</i> text.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Diamond_Sutra" title="Diamond Sutra">Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā (Diamond Sutra)</a> –</i> Another possibly early <i>Prajñāpāramitā</i> text, very popular.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heart_Sutra" title="Heart Sutra"> Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya (Heart Sutra)</a> –</i> Another very popular <i>Prajñāpāramitā</i> text.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longer_Sukh%C4%81vat%C4%ABvy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra"><i>Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra (Infinite Life Sutra)</i></a> – An influential text in <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land Buddhism</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Amitabha_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Amitabha Sutra">Amitabha Sutra</a></i> – Another Pure land text.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Contemplation_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemplation Sutra">Contemplation Sutra</a> –</i> Another Pure land text.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pratyutpanna_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratyutpanna Sutra">Pratyutpanna Sutra</a></i>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shurangama_Samadhi_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Shurangama Samadhi Sutra">Shurangama Samadhi Sutra</a></i>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Saddharmapundarīka-sūtra (Lotus Sutra)</a> –</i> One of the most influential texts in East Asian Buddhism.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81ratnak%C5%AB%E1%B9%ADa_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra">Mahāratnakūta Sūtra</a> –</i> Actually a collection of various sūtras.</li> <li><i>Suvarnaprabhasa Sutra</i> (or <i><a href="/wiki/Golden_Light_Sutra" title="Golden Light Sutra">Golden Light Sutra</a></i>).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Avatamsaka_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Avatamsaka Sutra">Avataṃsaka Sūtra</a> –</i> A compilation of numerous texts, such as the <i>Gaṇḍavyūha Sutra</i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Ten_Stages_Sutra" title="Ten Stages Sutra">Daśabhūmika Sūtra</a></i>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra" title="Sandhinirmocana Sutra">Sandhinirmocana Sutra</a></i> (c. 2nd century CE), the main sutra of <a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a> Buddhism, introduces the doctrine of the "three turnings".</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tathagatagarbha_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tathagatagarbha Sutra">Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Tathagatagarbha_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tathagatagarbha Sutra">–</a> One of the key "Buddha nature" (<i>Tathāgatagarbha</i>) sūtras.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%ABm%C4%81l%C4%81dev%C4%AB_Si%E1%B9%83han%C4%81da_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra">Shrīmālādevi-simhanāda Sūtra</a> –</i> A "Buddha nature" text.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_Mahaparinirvana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra">Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra</a></i> – A "Buddha nature" text, very influential in East Asian Buddhism.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lankavatara_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Lankavatara Sutra">Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra</a></i> – Includes Yogacara and <i>Tathāgatagarbha</i> elements, influential in <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen Buddhism</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samadhiraja_Sutra" title="Samadhiraja Sutra">Samādhirāja Sūtra</a></i> (or <i>Candrapradīpa Sūtra</i>), influential in the <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a> scholasticism of Tibet.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vimalakirti_Sutra" title="Vimalakirti Sutra">Vimalakīrti Sūtra</a> –</i> A sutra which depicts the teachings of a layman on <a href="/wiki/Nonduality_(spirituality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonduality (spirituality)">non-dualism</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahmaj%C4%81la_S%C5%ABtra" title="Brahmajāla Sūtra">Brahmajāla Sūtra</a></i> – A text which contains an influential listing of bodhisattva precepts.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/K%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Davy%C5%ABhas%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra">Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra</a></i>, which introduces the <a href="/wiki/Om_mani_padme_hum" title="Om mani padme hum">Om Mani Padme Hum</a> mantra.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/U%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%87%C4%AB%E1%B9%A3a_Vijaya_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra">Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra</a></i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_treatises">Indian treatises</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Indian treatises"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Mahāyāna commentarial and exegetical literature is vast. Many of these exegetical and scholastic works are called <a href="/wiki/Shastras" class="mw-redirect" title="Shastras"><i>Śāstras</i></a>, which can refer to a scholastic treatise, exposition or commentary. </p><p>Central to much of Mahāyāna philosophy are the works of the Indian scholar <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a>. Especially important is his magnum opus, the <i><a href="/wiki/Mulamadhyamakakarika" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulamadhyamakakarika">Mūlamadhyamika-karikā</a></i>, or Root Verses on the Middle Way, a seminal text on the <a href="/wiki/Madhyamika" class="mw-redirect" title="Madhyamika">Madhyamika</a> philosophy. Various other authors of the Madhyamaka school followed him and wrote commentaries to his texts or their own treatises. </p><p>Another very influential work which traditionally attributed to Nagarjuna In East Asia is the <i><a href="/wiki/Da_zhidu_lun" class="mw-redirect" title="Da zhidu lun">Dà zhìdù lùn</a></i> (*<i>Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa, The Great Discourse on <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñāpāramitā</a></i>). This is a massive <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> treatise and commentary on the <i>Prajñāpāramitā sutra</i> in Twenty-five Thousand Lines, and it has been extremely important in the development of the major Chinese Buddhist traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its authorship to Nagarjuna however has been questioned by modern scholars and it only survives in the Chinese translation by <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a> (344–413 CE).<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Yog%C4%81c%C4%81rabh%C5%ABmi-%C5%9B%C4%81stra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra">Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra</a></i> (fourth century CE) is another very large treatise which focuses on yogic praxis and the doctrines of the Indian <a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a> school. Unlike the <i>Dà zhìdù lùn</i>, it was studied and transmitted in both the <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">East Asian Buddhist</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhist</a> traditions. </p><p>The works of <a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a>, a great scholar and systematizer of the <a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogacara</a>, are also very influential in both traditions, including his magnum opus, the <i><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na-samgraha" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāyāna-samgraha">Mahāyāna-samgraha</a></i>, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma-samuccaya" title="Abhidharma-samuccaya">Abhidharma-samuccaya</a></i> (a compendium of <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a> thought that became the standard text for many Mahayana schools especially in Tibet). Various texts are also said to have received by Asanga from the Bodhisattva Maitreya in the Tushita god realm, including works such as <i><a href="/wiki/Madhyanta-vibhaga-karika" title="Madhyanta-vibhaga-karika">Madhyāntavibhāga</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Mahayana-sutra-alamkara-karika" title="Mahayana-sutra-alamkara-karika">Mahāyāna-sūtrālamkāra</a></i>, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Abhisamayalankara" title="Abhisamayalankara">Abhisamayālamkara</a></i>. Their authorship remains disputed by modern scholars however.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Asanga's brother <a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a> wrote a large number of texts associated with the Yogacara including: <i>Trisvabhāva-nirdesa</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Vim%C5%9Batik%C4%81vij%C3%B1aptim%C4%81trat%C4%81siddhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Vimśatikāvijñaptimātratāsiddhi">Vimsatika</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Tri%E1%B9%83%C5%9Bik%C4%81-vij%C3%B1aptim%C4%81trat%C4%81" title="Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā">Trimsika</a></i>, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmako%C5%9Bak%C4%81rik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidharmakośakārikā">Abhidharmakośa-bhāsya</a></i>. Numerous commentaries were written by later Yogacara exegetes on the works of these two brothers. </p><p>The 9th Century Indian Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Shantideva" title="Shantideva">Shantideva</a> produced two texts: the <i><a href="/wiki/Bodhicary%C4%81vat%C4%81ra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodhicaryāvatāra">Bodhicaryāvatāra</a></i> has been a strong influence in many schools of the Mahayana. It is notably a favorite text of the <a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Dignaga" class="mw-redirect" title="Dignaga">Dignāga</a> is associated with a school of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist logic">Buddhist logic</a> that tried to establish which texts were valid sources of knowledge (see also <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a>). He produced the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pram%C4%81na-samuccaya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pramāna-samuccaya (page does not exist)">Pramāna-samuccaya</a></i>, and later <a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a> wrote the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pram%C4%81na-v%C4%81rttik%C4%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pramāna-vārttikā (page does not exist)">Pramāna-vārttikā</a></i>, which was a commentary and reworking of the Dignaga text. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Asian_works">East Asian works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: East Asian works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>The <a href="/wiki/Awakening_of_Faith_in_the_Mahayana" title="Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana">Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana</a></i> (<i>Dàshéng Qǐxìn Lùn</i>) is an influential text in <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">East Asian Buddhism</a>, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Huayan_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Huayan school">Hua-yen</a> school of <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, and its <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japanese</a> equivalent, Kegon. While it is traditionally attributed to <a href="/wiki/Ashvaghosha" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashvaghosha">Ashvaghosha</a>, most scholars now hold it is a Chinese composition.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The <i><a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_sutras" title="Dhyāna sutras">Dhyāna sutras</a></i> (Chan-jing) are a group of early Buddhist meditation texts which contain meditation teachings from the <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvastivada</a> school along with some early proto-Mahayana meditations. They were mostly the work of Buddhist Yoga teachers from <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a> and were translated into Chinese early on.</p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg/220px-Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg/330px-Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg/440px-Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The Tripiṭaka Koreana, an early edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon</figcaption></figure> <p>The early period of the development of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a> was concerned with the collection and translation of texts into Chinese and the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a>. This was often done by traveling overland to <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, as recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Tang_Records_on_the_Western_Regions" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Tang Records on the Western Regions">Great Tang Records on the Western Regions</a>, by the monk <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> (c. 602–664), who also wrote a commentary on <a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a> which remained influential, the <i><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Weishi_Lun" title="Cheng Weishi Lun">Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only</a>.</i> </p><p><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">East Asian Buddhism</a> began to develop its own unique doctrinal literature with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a> School and its major representative, <a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a> (538–597 CE) who wrote important commentaries on the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotus sutra">Lotus sutra</a> as well as the first major comprehensive work on meditation composed in China, the <i><a href="/wiki/Mohe_Zhiguan" title="Mohe Zhiguan">Mohe Zhiguan</a></i> (摩訶止観). Another important school of Chinese Buddhism is <a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a>, which focused on developing their philosophical texts from the <a href="/wiki/Avatamsaka_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Avatamsaka Sutra"><i>Avatamsaka</i></a>. An important patriarch of this school is <a href="/wiki/Fazang" title="Fazang">Fazang</a> who wrote many commentaries and treatises. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Tripitaka_Koreana" title="Tripitaka Koreana">Tripitaka Koreana</a>, which was crafted in two versions (the first one was destroyed by fire during the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">Mongol invasions of Korea</a>), is a Korean collection of the Tripitaka carved onto 81,258 wooden printing blocks during the 13th century. Still intact in good condition after some 750 years, it has been described by the UNESCO committee as "one of the most important and most complete corpus of Buddhist doctrinal texts in the world".<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Zen_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Zen Buddhism">Zen Buddhism</a> developed a <a href="/wiki/Zen_and_Sutras#Zen_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Zen and Sutras">large literary tradition</a> based on the teachings and sayings of Chinese Zen masters. One of the key texts in this genre is the <i><a href="/wiki/Platform_Sutra" title="Platform Sutra">Platform Sutra</a></i> attributed to <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> patriarch <a href="/wiki/Huineng" title="Huineng">Huineng</a>, it gives an autobiographical account of his succession as <a href="/wiki/Ch%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Ch'an">Ch'an</a> Patriarch, as well as teachings about Ch'an theory and practice. Other texts are Koan collections, which are compilations of the sayings of Chinese masters such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Blue_Cliff_Record" title="Blue Cliff Record">Blue Cliff Record</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Gateless_Gate" class="mw-redirect" title="The Gateless Gate">The Gateless Gate</a></i>. Another key genre is that of compilations of Zen master biographies, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Transmission_of_the_Lamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission of the Lamp">Transmission of the Lamp</a></i>. Buddhist poetry was also an important contribution to the literature of the tradition. </p><p>After the arrival of Chinese Buddhism in Japan, Korea and Vietnam; they developed their own traditions and literature in the local language. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vajrayana_texts">Vajrayana texts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Vajrayana texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thar_pa_chen_po%E2%80%99i_mod_%3D_S%C5%ABtra_of_great_liberation..JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Thar_pa_chen_po%E2%80%99i_mod_%3D_S%C5%ABtra_of_great_liberation..JPG/220px-Thar_pa_chen_po%E2%80%99i_mod_%3D_S%C5%ABtra_of_great_liberation..JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Thar_pa_chen_po%E2%80%99i_mod_%3D_S%C5%ABtra_of_great_liberation..JPG/330px-Thar_pa_chen_po%E2%80%99i_mod_%3D_S%C5%ABtra_of_great_liberation..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Thar_pa_chen_po%E2%80%99i_mod_%3D_S%C5%ABtra_of_great_liberation..JPG/440px-Thar_pa_chen_po%E2%80%99i_mod_%3D_S%C5%ABtra_of_great_liberation..JPG 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="586" /></a><figcaption>Image of leaves and the upper book cover of <i>Thar pa chen po'i mod</i> (The Sūtra of Great Liberation), showing Tibetan writings on black paper with an ink that contain gold, silver, copper, coral, lazurite, malachite, and mother of pearl. The unbound sheets are kept between two wooden boards covered with green brocade. The upper book cover shows the images of four of the Eight Medicine Buddhas.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samye_Ling_Temple_with_Sangha_and_Abbot_Lama_Yeshe_Losal_Rinpoche.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Samye_Ling_Temple_with_Sangha_and_Abbot_Lama_Yeshe_Losal_Rinpoche.jpg/220px-Samye_Ling_Temple_with_Sangha_and_Abbot_Lama_Yeshe_Losal_Rinpoche.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Samye_Ling_Temple_with_Sangha_and_Abbot_Lama_Yeshe_Losal_Rinpoche.jpg/330px-Samye_Ling_Temple_with_Sangha_and_Abbot_Lama_Yeshe_Losal_Rinpoche.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Samye_Ling_Temple_with_Sangha_and_Abbot_Lama_Yeshe_Losal_Rinpoche.jpg/440px-Samye_Ling_Temple_with_Sangha_and_Abbot_Lama_Yeshe_Losal_Rinpoche.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1365" /></a><figcaption>Lama Yeshe Losal Rinpoche of Samye Ling Temple reads from prayer text</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tibetan_Buddhist_manuscripts_handmade_with_woodblock_printing_method_by_Tibetan_buddhist_monks_of_Tashilhunpo,_Shigatse,_Tibet_in_1938,_from-_Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-S-17-08-05,_Tibetexpedition,_M%C3%B6nche,_Buchdruck_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Tibetan_Buddhist_manuscripts_handmade_with_woodblock_printing_method_by_Tibetan_buddhist_monks_of_Tashilhunpo%2C_Shigatse%2C_Tibet_in_1938%2C_from-_Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-S-17-08-05%2C_Tibetexpedition%2C_M%C3%B6nche%2C_Buchdruck_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Tibetan_Buddhist_manuscripts_handmade_with_woodblock_printing_method_by_Tibetan_buddhist_monks_of_Tashilhunpo%2C_Shigatse%2C_Tibet_in_1938%2C_from-_Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-S-17-08-05%2C_Tibetexpedition%2C_M%C3%B6nche%2C_Buchdruck_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Tibetan_Buddhist_manuscripts_handmade_with_woodblock_printing_method_by_Tibetan_buddhist_monks_of_Tashilhunpo%2C_Shigatse%2C_Tibet_in_1938%2C_from-_Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-S-17-08-05%2C_Tibetexpedition%2C_M%C3%B6nche%2C_Buchdruck_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="796" data-file-height="556" /></a><figcaption>Tibetan Buddhist manuscripts handmade with woodblock printing method by Tibetan buddhist monks of Tashilhunpo, Shigatse, Tibet, in 1938</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buddhist_tantras">Buddhist tantras</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Buddhist tantras"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Tantras" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist Tantras">Buddhist Tantras</a></div> <p>The late Seventh century saw the rise of another new class of Buddhist texts, the Tantras, which focused on ritual practices and yogic techniques such as the use of <a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">Mantras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dharani" title="Dharani">Dharanis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandalas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandalas">Mandalas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mudras" class="mw-redirect" title="Mudras">Mudras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Homa_(ritual)" title="Homa (ritual)">Fire offerings</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many early Buddhist Tantric texts, later termed "action Tantras" (<i>kriyā tantra</i>), are mostly collections of magical mantras or phrases for mostly worldly ends called <i>mantrakalpas</i> (mantra manuals) and they do not call themselves Tantras.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later Tantric texts from the eighth century onward (termed variously <a href="/wiki/Yogatantra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogatantra">Yogatantra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mahayoga" title="Mahayoga">Mahayoga</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yogini" title="Yogini">Yogini</a> Tantras) advocated union with a deity (<a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">deity yoga</a>), sacred sounds (<a href="/wiki/Mantras" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantras">mantras</a>), techniques for manipulation of the <a href="/wiki/Lung_(Tibetan_Buddhism)#Subtle_Body" title="Lung (Tibetan Buddhism)">subtle body</a> and other secret methods with which to achieve swift <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Tantras contain <a href="/wiki/Antinomian" class="mw-redirect" title="Antinomian">antinomian</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/transgressive" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:transgressive">transgressive</a> practices such as ingesting <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a> and other forbidden substances as well as sexual rituals.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Alexis_Sanderson" title="Alexis Sanderson">Alexis Sanderson</a> have argued that these later tantras, mainly the Yogini tantras, can be shown to have been influenced by non-Buddhist religious texts, mainly Tantric <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Śaivism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Hinduism)">Śaiva tantras</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">East Asian Esoteric Buddhism</a> and its Japanese offshoot, the <a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a> school, the most influential tantras are those which focus on <a href="/wiki/Vairocana" title="Vairocana">Vairocana</a> Buddha, mainly, the <i><a href="/wiki/Mahavairocana_Tantra" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahavairocana Tantra">Mahavairocana Tantra</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Vajrasekhara_Sutra" title="Vajrasekhara Sutra">Vajrasekhara Sutra</a>.</i> </p><p>Buddhist Tantras are key texts in <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> Buddhism, which is the dominant form of Buddhism in <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>. They can be found in the Chinese canon, but even more so in the Tibetan Kangyur which contains translations of almost 500 <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">tantras</a>. In the Tibetan tradition, there are various categories of tantra. The <a href="/wiki/Sarma_(Tibetan_Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarma (Tibetan Buddhism)">Sarma</a> or New Translation schools of Tibetan Buddhism divide the Tantras into four main categories: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outer_Tantras" class="mw-redirect" title="Outer Tantras"><i>Kriyayogatantra</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_Tantras" class="mw-redirect" title="Outer Tantras"><i>Charyayogatantra</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_Tantras" class="mw-redirect" title="Outer Tantras"><i>Yogatantra</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highest_Yoga_Tantra" class="mw-redirect" title="Highest Yoga Tantra"><i>Anuttarayogatantra</i></a></li></ul> <p><i>Anuttarayogatantra</i> (Higher Yoga Tantra) is known in the <a href="/wiki/Nyingma" title="Nyingma">Nyingma</a> school as <i><a href="/wiki/Mahayoga" title="Mahayoga">Mahayoga</a></i>. Some of the most influential Higher Tantras in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism are the <i><a href="/wiki/Guhyasam%C4%81ja_Tantra" title="Guhyasamāja Tantra">Guhyasamāja Tantra</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Hevajra_Tantra" class="mw-redirect" title="Hevajra Tantra">Hevajra Tantra</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Cakrasamvara_Tantra" class="mw-redirect" title="Cakrasamvara Tantra">Cakrasamvara Tantra</a></i>, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Kalacakra_Tantra" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalacakra Tantra">Kalacakra Tantra</a>.</i> The Nyingma school also has unique tantras of its own, not found in the other Tibetan schools, the most important of these are the <a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a> tantras. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_products_of_the_Vajrayana_literature">Other products of the Vajrayana literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Other products of the Vajrayana literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a> has a unique and special class of texts called <a href="/wiki/Terma_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Terma (Buddhism)"><i>terma</i></a> (Tibetan: <i>gTer-ma</i>). These are texts (or ritual objects, etc.) believed either composed or hidden by tantric masters and/or elementally secreted or encoded in the elements and retrieved, accessed or rediscovered by other tantric masters when appropriate. Termas are discovered by <a href="/wiki/Tert%C3%B6n" title="Tertön">tertöns</a> (Tibetan: <i>gTer-stons</i>), whose special function is to reveal these texts. Some termas are hidden in caves or similar places, but a few are said to be 'mind termas,' which are 'discovered' in the mind of the tertön. The <a href="/wiki/Nyingma" title="Nyingma">Nyingma</a> school (and <a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6n" class="mw-redirect" title="Bön">Bön</a> tradition) has a large terma literature. Many of the terma texts are said to have been written by <a href="/wiki/Padmasambhava" title="Padmasambhava">Padmasambhava</a>, who is particularly important to the Nyingmas. Probably the best known terma text is the so-called <i><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_book_of_the_dead" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan book of the dead">Tibetan book of the dead</a></i>, the <i>Bardo Thodol</i>. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Sadhana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sadhana">sadhana</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">tantric</a> spiritual practice text used by practitioners, primarily to practice the <a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">mandala</a> or a particular <a href="/wiki/Yidam" title="Yidam">yidam</a>, or meditation deity. The <i>Sādhanamālā</i> is a collection of sadhanas. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> adepts, known as <a href="/wiki/Mahasiddha" title="Mahasiddha">mahasiddha</a>, often expounded their teachings in the form of <a href="/wiki/Songs_of_realization" title="Songs of realization">songs of realization</a>. Collections of these songs such as the <i>Caryāgīti</i>, or the <a href="/wiki/Charyapada" title="Charyapada">Charyapada</a> are still in existence. The <i>Dohakosha</i> is a collection of <i>doha</i> songs by the <a href="/wiki/Yogi" title="Yogi">yogi</a> <a href="/wiki/Saraha" title="Saraha">Saraha</a> from the 9th century. A collection known in English as <i>The Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarepa</i> was composed by <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan Buddhist">Tibetan Buddhist</a> yogi <a href="/wiki/Milarepa" title="Milarepa">Milarepa</a> and is especially popular amongst members of the <a href="/wiki/Kagyu" title="Kagyu">Kagyu</a> school. </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Blue_Annals" title="Blue Annals">Blue Annals</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Standard_Tibetan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Tibetan language">Standard Tibetan</a>: <i lang="bo">deb ther sngon po</i>) completed in 1476<small>CE</small>, authored by <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6lo_Zh%C3%B6nnupel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gölo Zhönnupel">Gölo Zhönnupel</a> (Tibetan: <i>gos lo gzhon nu dpal</i>, 1392–1481), is a historical survey of <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a> with a marked <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecumenical">ecumenical</a> view, focusing upon the dissemination of various sectarian traditions throughout <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Namtar_(biography)" title="Namtar (biography)">Namtar</a>, or spiritual biographies, are another popular form of <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan Buddhist">Tibetan Buddhist</a> texts, whereby the teachings and spiritual path of a practitioner are explained through a review of their life story. </p><p><a href="/wiki/K%C5%ABkai" title="Kūkai">Kūkai</a> wrote a number of treatises on <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> Buddhism, and these are influential in Japanese <a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon Buddhism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidhamma_Pi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Abhidhamma Piṭaka">Abhidhamma Piṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atthakatha" title="Atthakatha">Atthakatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgama (Buddhism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhavacana" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhavacana">Buddhavacana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Publication_Society" title="Buddhist Publication Society">Buddhist Publication Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a>, one of the most widely read and best known Buddhist scriptures</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_Society_Fund" title="Dhamma Society Fund">Dhamma Society Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Buddhist Texts">Early Buddhist Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandharan Buddhist Texts">Gandharan Buddhist Texts</a>, the oldest Buddhist manuscripts yet discovered</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index of Buddhism-related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_Indian_texts" title="List of historic Indian texts">List of historic Indian texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_suttas" title="List of suttas">List of suttas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Pali Literature">Pali Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Text_Society" title="Pali Text Society">Pali Text Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm-leaf_manuscript" title="Palm-leaf manuscript">Palm-leaf manuscript</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pariyatti_(bookstore)" title="Pariyatti (bookstore)">Pariyatti (bookstore)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Buddhist_literature" title="Sanskrit Buddhist literature">Sanskrit Buddhist literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutta_Pi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Sutta Piṭaka">Sutta Piṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Taishō Tripiṭaka">Taishō Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka_Koreana" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripiṭaka Koreana">Tripiṭaka Koreana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinaya_Pi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Vinaya Piṭaka">Vinaya Piṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yana_(Buddhism)" title="Yana (Buddhism)">Yana</a>, Buddhist schools into "yanas" or "vehicles"</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol 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Princeton University Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated28-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated28_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated28_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated28_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lopez, Donald. <i>Elaborations on Emptiness: Uses of the Heart Sutra.</i> 1998. p. 28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated29-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated29_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated29_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lopez, Donald. <i>Elaborations on Emptiness: Uses of the Heart Sutra.</i> 1998. p. 29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated83-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated83_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated83_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Skilton, Andrew. <i>A Concise History of Buddhism.</i> 2004. p. 83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Karen_Pechilis_2013_p._115-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Karen_Pechilis_2013_p._115_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Karen_Pechilis_2013_p._115_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Karen Pechilis, Selva J. Raj (2013). <i>South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today</i>, p. 115. Routledge.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2003-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2003_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2003_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hsuan Hua. <i>The Buddha speaks of Amitabha Sutra: A General Explanation.</i> 2003. p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, <a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Buddhism">Japanese</a> <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a>, says that the writings of Shan-tao come from <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha Buddha</a> and are of the same value as sutras. in: Eliot, <i>Japanese Buddhism</i>, Edward Arnold, London, 1935, p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gethin, Rupert; The Foundations of Buddhism, 1998; pp 39–41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gethin, Rupert; The Foundations of Buddhism, 1998; p. 42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSujatoBrahmali2015" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Bhante_Sujato" title="Bhante Sujato">Sujato, Bhante</a>; Brahmali, Bhikkhu (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ocbs.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/authenticity.pdf"><i>The Authenticity of the Early Buddhist Texts</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Chroniker Press, p. 39, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-312-91150-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-312-91150-5"><bdi>978-1-312-91150-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Authenticity+of+the+Early+Buddhist+Texts&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Chroniker+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-312-91150-5&rft.aulast=Sujato&rft.aufirst=Bhante&rft.au=Brahmali%2C+Bhikkhu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Focbs.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2015%2F09%2Fauthenticity.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+texts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shulman, Eviatar. <i>Mindful Wisdom: The Sati-paṭṭhāna-sutta on Mindfulness, Memory, and Liberation.</i> Vol. 49, No. 4 (May 2010), pp. 393-420</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. "<i>Mun-keat, Choong (2000), The Fundamental Teachings of Early Buddhism</i>" and "<i>Analayo. 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Motilal Banarsidass, 1996, pp. 28, 33, 37, 41, 43, 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rahula, Bhikkhu Telwatte (1978). <i>A Critical Study of the Mahāvastu,</i> chapter 2<i>.</i> Motilal Banarsidass.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Deepak Sarma (2011). <i>Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader</i>, p. 16. Columbia University Press,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_SalomonFrank_Raymond_AllchinMark_Barnard1999" class="citation book cs1">Richard Salomon; Frank Raymond Allchin; Mark Barnard (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dm8aXSwL0OgC&q=ksudrakagama&pg=RA1-PA161"><i>Ancient Buddhist scrolls from Gandhāra: the British Library Kharoṣṭhī fragments</i></a>. University of Washington Press. p. 161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-295-97769-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-295-97769-8"><bdi>0-295-97769-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Buddhist+scrolls+from+Gandh%C4%81ra%3A+the+British+Library+Kharo%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADh%C4%AB+fragments&rft.pages=161&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-295-97769-8&rft.au=Richard+Salomon&rft.au=Frank+Raymond+Allchin&rft.au=Mark+Barnard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDm8aXSwL0OgC%26q%3Dksudrakagama%26pg%3DRA1-PA161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+texts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFT._Skorupski1996" class="citation book cs1">T. 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Routledge. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7286-0255-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7286-0255-5"><bdi>0-7286-0255-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Buddhist+Forum%2C+Volume+2&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-7286-0255-5&rft.au=T.+Skorupski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_B73f0ZajeQC%26q%3Dksudrakagama%26pg%3DPA78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+texts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Winternitz,_Moriz_1996_p._227-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Winternitz,_Moriz_1996_p._227_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Winternitz,_Moriz_1996_p._227_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Winternitz, Moriz (1996). <i>A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2</i>, p. 227. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGomez1976" class="citation web cs1">Gomez, Luis O. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303182207/http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/gomez.htm">"Proto-Maadhyamika in the Paali canon"</a>. Philosophy East and West. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Cambridge University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abhidhamma_Pitaka_20082-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Abhidhamma_Pitaka_20082_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abhidhamma_Pitaka_20082_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Abhidhamma Pitaka." Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anālayo (2014) <i>"The Dawn of Abhidharma,"</i> pp. 79-83. Hamburg University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMigot1954" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Migot, André (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/befeo_0336-1519_1954_num_46_2_5607">"XV. Un grand disciple du Buddha: Sâriputra. 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(1997), "Aspects of Southern Esoteric Buddhism", in Peter Connolly and Sue Hamilton (eds.), Indian Insights: Buddhism, Brahmanism and Bhakd Papers from the Annual Spalding Symposium on Indian Religions, Luzac Oriental, London: 185–207, 410. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-898942-153" title="Special:BookSources/1-898942-153">1-898942-153</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Woodward, F.L. Manual of a mystic, Being a Translation from the Pali and Sinhalese Work Entitled The Yogāvachara's Manual.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jason A. 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(1998). <i>The Shrimaladevi Sutra</i>. Oxford: Longchen Foundation: p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Werner et al (2013). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bps.lk/olib/bp/bp625s_The-Bodhisatva-Ideal.pdf">The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana</a>.</i> pp. 89-90, 211-212, 227. Buddhist Publication Society.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Werner et al (2013). <i>The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana.</i> p. 215. Buddhist Publication Society.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Werner et al (2013). <i>The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana.</i> p. 231. Buddhist Publication Society.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sree Padma. Barber, Anthony W. <i>Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra.</i> 2008. p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Werner et al (2013). <i>The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana.</i> pp. 89, 93. Buddhist Publication Society.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walser, Joseph, <i>Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,</i> Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walser, Joseph, <i>Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,</i> Columbia University Press, 2005, pp. 40–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:7_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Winternitz, Moriz (1996). <i>A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2</i>, p. 284. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conze, <i>The Prajnaparamita Literature</i>, Mouton, the Hague, 1960, p. 72; Rgyud is Tibetan for tantra</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Journal of the Pali Text Society</i>, volume XVI, pp. 161ff</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Skilling, <i>Mahasutras</i>, Volume II, Parts I & II, 1997, Pali Text Society, Lancaster</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hans-Rudolf Kantor, <i>Philosophical Aspects of Sixth-Century Chinese Buddhist Debates on "Mind and Consciousness"</i> pp. 337–395 in: <i>Chen-kuo Lin / Michael Radich (eds.) A Distant Mirror Articulating Indic Ideas in Sixth and Seventh Century Chinese Buddhism,</i> Hamburg Buddhist Studies, Hamburg University Press 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ramanan, Krishniah Venkata, Dr. (1966). Nāgārjuna's Philosophy as presented in Mahā-prajñāpāramitā-śāstra . Charles E. Tuttle Company of Rutland, Vermont and Tokyo, 1966. page 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hookham, S. K. (1991). The Buddha within: Tathagatagarbha doctrine according to the Shentong interpretation of the Ratnagotravibhaga. SUNY Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-0357-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-0357-2">0-7914-0357-2</a>. Source; [3] (accessed: Tuesday May 5, 2009), p. 325.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hsieh, Ding-Hwa (2004). "Awakening Of Faith (Dasheng Qixin Lun)". <i>MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism</i>. <b>1</b>. New York: MacMillan Reference US. pp. 38–39. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-865719-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-865719-5">0-02-865719-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jikimi.cha.go.kr/english/search_plaza_new/ECulresult_Db_View.jsp?VdkVgwKey=11,00320000,38&queryText=&requery=0">"Printing Woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana in Haeinsa Temple, Hapcheon"</a>. <i>Cultural Heritage Administration</i>. Korea Tourism Organization<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 1,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cultural+Heritage+Administration&rft.atitle=Printing+Woodblocks+of+the+Tripitaka+Koreana+in+Haeinsa+Temple%2C+Hapcheon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjikimi.cha.go.kr%2Fenglish%2Fsearch_plaza_new%2FECulresult_Db_View.jsp%3FVdkVgwKey%3D11%2C00320000%2C38%26queryText%3D%26requery%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+texts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald M. Davidson, Charles D. Orzech. "Tantra", <i>Encyclopedia of Buddhism</i>, Buswell (editor)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wallis, Christopher; THE TANTRIC AGE: A Comparison Of Shaiva And Buddhist Tantra, February, 2016</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"A Crisis of Doxography: How Tibetans Organized Tantra During the 8th-12th Centuries," Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 28.1 (2005): 115–181.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Tribe and Wynne; Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, chapter 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sanderson, Alexis. "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period." In: Genesis and Development of Tantrism, edited by Shingo Einoo. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009. Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series, 23, pp. 129-131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090210175520/http://thdl.org/collections/history/blueannals/index.html">"THDL: Blue Annals"</a>. February 10, 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thdl.org/collections/history/blueannals/index.html">the original</a> on February 10, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=THDL%3A+Blue+Annals&rft.date=2009-02-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthdl.org%2Fcollections%2Fhistory%2Fblueannals%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+texts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>The Rider encyclopedia of eastern philosophy and religion</i>. London, Rider, 1989.</li> <li>Nakamura, Hajime. 1980. <i>Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes</i>. 1st edition: Japan, 1980. 1st Indian Edition: Delhi, 1987. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0272-1" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0272-1">81-208-0272-1</a></li> <li>Skilton, Andrew. <i>A concise history of Buddhism</i>. Birmingham, Windhorse Publications, 1994.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._K._Warder" title="A. K. Warder">Warder, A. K.</a> 1970. Indian Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. 2nd revised edition: 1980.</li> <li>Williams, Paul. <i>Mahayana Buddhism : the doctrinal foundations</i>. London, Routledge, 1989.</li> <li>Zürcher, E. 1959. <i>The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in early Medieval China</i>. 2nd edition. Reprint, with additions and corrections: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1972.</li> <li>Susan Murcott. <i>The First Buddhist Women</i> Translations and Commentary on the Therigatha, 1991.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_texts&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Buddhist_texts" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/themes/buddhism">The British Library: Discovering Sacred Texts - Buddhism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211111174533/https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/themes/buddhism">Archived</a> November 11, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080419001336/http://www.dharmanet.org/learning.htm">Online Dharma Libraries</a> (archived 19 April 2008)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cttbusa.org/cttb/btts.asp">The Buddhist Text Translation Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://suttacentral.net/">SuttaCentral</a> <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a> translations in multiple languages from the Pali <a href="/wiki/Tipitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Tipitaka">Tipitaka</a> as well as other collections, focusing on <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Buddhist Texts">Early Buddhist Texts</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/index.html">Pali Canon</a> in English translation (incomplete).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mbingenheimer.net/tools/bibls/transbibl.html">Bibliography of Translations from the Chinese Buddhist Canon</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thecompassionnetwork.org/tripitaka-lists/">Buddhist Canonical Text Titles and Translations in English</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040406214720/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/postcanon.html">Beyond the Tipitaka: A Field Guide to Post-canonical Pali Literature</a> (archived 6 April 2004)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/ckeyt/home.htm">Bibliography of Indian Philosophy</a>, Karl Potter; includes lists of available translations and known or estimated dates of composition of many Buddhist sutras.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebsut055.htm">How old is the Suttapiṭaka? The relative value of textual and epigraphical sources for the study of early Indian Buddhism</a> by Alexander Wynne, St John's College, Oxford University, 2003.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mahavamsa.org">History of early Buddhism in Sri Lanka, The Mahawansa</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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aria-labelledby="25px&#124;link=Dharmachakra_Topics_in_Buddhism_25px&#124;link=Buddhist_flag" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Buddhism_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Buddhism topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="25px&#124;link=Dharmachakra_Topics_in_Buddhism_25px&#124;link=Buddhist_flag" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhism_Symbol.png/25px-Buddhism_Symbol.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhism_Symbol.png/38px-Buddhism_Symbol.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhism_Symbol.png/50px-Buddhism_Symbol.png 2x" data-file-width="267" data-file-height="278" /></a></span>   Topics in <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>   <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/25px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/38px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/50px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Three Jewels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangha" title="Sangha">Sangha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata" title="Tathāgata">Tathāgata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha%27s_Birthday" title="Buddha's Birthday">Birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_sights" title="Four sights">Four sights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eight_Great_Events_in_the_Life_of_Buddha" title="The Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha">Eight Great Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Renunciation" title="Great Renunciation">Great Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_characteristics_of_the_Buddha" title="Physical characteristics of the Buddha">Physical characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Buddha_in_art" title="Life of Buddha in art">Life of Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_footprint" title="Buddha footprint">Footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relics_associated_with_Buddha" title="Relics associated with Buddha">Relics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconography_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_Laos_and_Thailand" title="Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand">Iconography in Laos and Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depictions_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_film" title="Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Miracles of Gautama Buddha">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Family of Gautama Buddha">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Auddhodana" title="Śuddhodana">Suddhodāna <small>(father)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(mother_of_the_Buddha)" title="Maya (mother of the Buddha)">Māyā <small>(mother)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī<small> (aunt, adoptive mother)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%C5%9Bodhar%C4%81" title="Yaśodharā">Yaśodharā <small>(wife)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81hula" title="Rāhula">Rāhula <small>(son)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda <small>(cousin)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devadatta" title="Devadatta">Devadatta <small>(cousin)</small></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_where_Gautama_Buddha_stayed" title="List of places where Gautama Buddha stayed">Places where the Buddha stayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha_in_world_religions" title="Gautama Buddha in world religions">Buddha in world religions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasthamaprapta" title="Mahasthamaprapta">Mahāsthāmaprāpta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Bagarbha" title="Ākāśagarbha">Ākāśagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha" title="Kṣitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Bodhisattva)" title="Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrapani" title="Vajrapani">Vajrapāṇi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skanda_(Buddhism)" title="Skanda (Buddhism)">Skanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tārā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Metteyya/Maitreya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Disciples_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Category:Disciples of Gautama Buddha">Disciples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaundinya" title="Kaundinya">Kaundinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assaji" title="Assaji">Assaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputra" title="Śāriputra">Sāriputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maudgalyayana" title="Maudgalyayana">Mahamoggallāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81k%C4%81%C5%9Byapa" title="Mahākāśyapa">Mahākassapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85gulim%C4%81la" title="Aṅgulimāla">Aṅgulimāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuruddha" title="Anuruddha">Anuruddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katyayana_(Buddhist)" title="Katyayana (Buddhist)">Mahākaccana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_(half-brother_of_Buddha)" title="Nanda (half-brother of Buddha)">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subh%C5%ABti" title="Subhūti">Subhūti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%87a_Mant%C4%81n%C4%ABputta" title="Puṇṇa Mantānīputta">Puṇṇa Mantānīputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81li" title="Upāli">Upāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema" title="Khema">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uppalavanna" title="Uppalavanna">Uppalavanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asita" title="Asita">Asita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channa_(Buddhist)" title="Channa (Buddhist)">Channa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasa" title="Yasa">Yasa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Key concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">Avidyā (Ignorance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardo" title="Bardo">Bardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Bodhicitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhamma theory">Dhamma theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">Five hindrances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indriya" title="Indriya">Indriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">Kleshas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">Mental factors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindstream" title="Mindstream">Mindstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">Parinirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%85kh%C4%81ra" title="Saṅkhāra">Saṅkhāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Skandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">Taṇhā (Craving)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81t%C4%81" title="Tathātā">Tathātā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetter_(Buddhism)" title="Fetter (Buddhism)">Ten Fetters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impermanence_(Buddhism)" title="Impermanence (Buddhism)">Anicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">Dukkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Anattā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Cosmology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_realms" title="Ten realms">Ten spiritual realms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Paths" title="Six Paths">Six Paths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">Deva realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_beings_in_Buddhism" title="Human beings in Buddhism">Human realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asura_(Buddhism)" title="Asura (Buddhism)">Asura realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preta" title="Preta">Hungry Ghost realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Buddhism" title="Animals in Buddhism">Animal realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naraka_(Buddhism)" title="Naraka (Buddhism)">Naraka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailokya" title="Trailokya">Three planes of existence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chinese Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Zen" title="Japanese Zen">Japanese Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Korean Seon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Vietnamese Thiền</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rissh%C5%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Risshū (Buddhism)">Risshū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_points_unifying_Therav%C4%81da_and_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna">Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern,_Eastern_and_Northern_Buddhism" title="Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism">Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhist_practices" title="Category:Buddhist practices">Practices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhavana" title="Bhavana">Bhavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyādhammā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Mudita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekkha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81bhi%E1%B9%A3eka" title="Buddhābhiṣeka">Buddhābhiṣeka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">Deity yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism" title="Dhyana in Buddhism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Strengths" title="Five Strengths">Five Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhipada" title="Iddhipada">Iddhipada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Meditation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mantra#Buddhism" title="Mantra">Mantras</a></li> <li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kamma%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Kammaṭṭhāna">Kammaṭṭhāna</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Recollection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simran" title="Simran">Smarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Anapanasati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatha-vipassan%C4%81" title="Samatha-vipassanā">Samatha-vipassanā</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikantaza" title="Shikantaza">Shikantaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">Zazen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukdam" title="Tukdam">Tukdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koan" title="Koan">Koan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganana" title="Ganana">Ganana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">Mandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonglen" title="Tonglen">Tonglen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tert%C3%B6n" title="Tertön">Tertön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terma_(religion)" title="Terma (religion)">Terma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindful_Yoga" title="Mindful Yoga">Mindful Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">Satipatthana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekkhamma" title="Nekkhamma">Nekkhamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo">Nianfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramitā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paritta" title="Paritta">Paritta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Puja</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offering_(Buddhism)" title="Offering (Buddhism)">Offerings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostration_(Buddhism)" title="Prostration (Buddhism)">Prostration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhu_(Pali_word)" title="Sādhu (Pali word)">Sādhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacca" title="Sacca">Sacca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Factors_of_Awakening" title="Seven Factors of Awakening">Seven Factors of Enlightenment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_vicaya" title="Dhamma vicaya">Dhamma vicaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%ABti" title="Pīti">Pīti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passaddhi" title="Passaddhi">Passaddhi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_precepts" title="Eight precepts">Eight precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Bodhisattva vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a" title="Pratimokṣa">Pratimokṣa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threefold_Training" title="Threefold Training">Threefold Training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Right_Exertions" title="Four Right Exertions">Four Right Exertions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-two_vows_of_Ambedkar" title="Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar">Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na" title="Pratyekabuddhayāna">Pratyekabuddhayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" title="Four stages of awakening">Four stages of awakening</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sot%C4%81panna" title="Sotāpanna">Sotāpanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakadagami" title="Sakadagami">Sakadagami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C4%81g%C4%81mi" title="Anāgāmi">Anāgāmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Monasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Bhikkhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhun%C4%AB" title="Bhikkhunī">Bhikkhunī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇerī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anag%C4%81rika" title="Anagārika">Anagārika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn" title="Ajahn">Ajahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayadaw" title="Sayadaw">Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen_master" title="Zen master">Zen master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C5%8Dshi" title="Rōshi">Rōshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinpoche" title="Rinpoche">Rinpoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geshe" title="Geshe">Geshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulku" title="Tulku">Tulku</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_tulku" title="Western tulku">Western tulku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kappiya" title="Kappiya">Kappiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donchee" title="Donchee">Donchee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">Householder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upāsaka and Upāsikā">Upāsaka and Upāsikā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achar_(Buddhism)" title="Achar (Buddhism)">Achar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">Śrāvaka</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_principal_disciples" title="Ten principal disciples">Ten principal disciples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery" title="Shaolin Monastery">Shaolin Monastery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Major figures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songtsen_Gampo" title="Songtsen Gampo">Songtsen Gampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmasambhava" title="Padmasambhava">Padmasambhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraha" title="Saraha">Saraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atiśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naropa" title="Naropa">Naropa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karmapa" title="Karmapa">Karmapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren" title="Nichiren">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamarpa" title="Shamarpa">Shamarpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchen_Lama" title="Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Mun" title="Ajahn Mun">Ajahn Mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Chah" title="Ajahn Chah">Ajahn Chah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">Early Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Madhyamak%C4%81la%E1%B9%83k%C4%81ra" title="Madhyamakālaṃkāra">Madhyamakālaṃkāra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmad%C4%ABpa" title="Abhidharmadīpa">Abhidharmadīpa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bangladesh" title="Buddhism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Maldives" title="Buddhism in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Pakistan" title="Buddhism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Philippines" title="Buddhism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Buryatia" title="Buddhism in Buryatia">Buryatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kalmykia" title="Buddhism in Kalmykia">Kalmykia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_in_Tuva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhism in Tuva (page does not exist)">Tuva</a> (<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%B2_%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Буддизм в Тыве">ru</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Africa" title="Buddhism in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Senegal" title="Buddhism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_South_Africa" title="Buddhism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Uzbekistan" title="Buddhism in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Buddhism in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Iran" title="Buddhism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Buddhism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Western countries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Argentina" title="Buddhism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Australia" title="Buddhism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Canada" title="Buddhism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Buddhism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Buddhism in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_France" title="Buddhism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Germany" title="Buddhism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Italy" title="Buddhism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mexico" title="Buddhism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Norway" title="Buddhism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Poland" title="Buddhism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sweden" title="Buddhism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Switzerland" title="Buddhism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Ukraine" title="Buddhism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Buddhism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Venezuela" title="Buddhism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">Buddhist councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">History of Buddhism in India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichang_persecution_of_Buddhism" title="Huichang persecution of Buddhism">Huichang persecution of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism" title="Gandharan Buddhism">Gandharan Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">Texts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander I</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_the_Roman_world" title="Buddhism and the Roman world">Buddhism and the Roman world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Buddhism in the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Persecution of Buddhists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">In Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_crisis" title="Buddhist crisis">In Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rim%C3%A9_movement" title="Rimé movement">Rimé movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banishment_of_Buddhist_monks_from_Nepal" title="Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal">Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit_Buddhist_movement" title="Dalit Buddhist movement">Dalit Buddhist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Tibet_by_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China">Chinese invasion of Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_Buddhist_nationalism" title="Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism">Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/969_Movement" title="969 Movement">969 Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Women in Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Creator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_democracy" title="Buddhism and democracy">Buddhism and democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Consciousnesses" title="Eight Consciousnesses">Eight Consciousnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism and evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality_in_Buddhism" title="Reality in Buddhism">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Buddhism" title="Secular Buddhism">Secular Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_socialism" title="Buddhist socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_unanswerable_questions" title="The unanswerable questions">The unanswerable questions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Buddhism" title="Culture of Buddhism">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_architecture" title="Buddhist architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vih%C4%81ra" title="Vihāra">Vihāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyaung" title="Kyaung">Kyaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">Wat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_hall" title="Ordination hall">Ordination hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagoda" title="Pagoda">Pagoda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_pagoda" title="Burmese pagoda">Burmese pagoda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">Candi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_architecture_in_China" title="List of Buddhist architecture in China">List of Buddhist architecture in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Buddhist_architecture" title="Japanese Buddhist architecture">Japanese Buddhist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temples_in_Korea" title="Buddhist temples in Korea">Buddhist temples in Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_temple_art_and_architecture" title="Thai temple art and architecture">Thai temple art and architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_architecture" title="Tibetan Buddhist architecture">Tibetan Buddhist architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art" title="Buddhist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhi_Tree" title="Bodhi Tree">Bodhi Tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budai" title="Budai">Budai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_in_art" title="Buddha in art">Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_calendar" title="Buddhist calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cuisine" title="Buddhist cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_funeral" title="Buddhist funeral">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_holidays" title="Buddhist holidays">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesak" title="Vesak">Vesak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uposatha" title="Uposatha">Uposatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81gha_P%C5%ABj%C4%81" title="Māgha Pūjā">Māgha Pūjā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asalha_Puja" title="Asalha Puja">Asalha Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassa" title="Vassa">Vassa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaya_Sri_Maha_Bodhi" title="Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi">Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasaya_(clothing)" title="Kasaya (clothing)">Kasaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple" title="Mahabodhi Temple">Mahabodhi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">Mantra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Om_mani_padme_hum" title="Om mani padme hum">Om mani padme hum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">Mudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_pilgrimage_sites" title="Buddhist pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumbini" title="Lumbini">Lumbini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Devi_Temple,_Lumbini" title="Maya Devi Temple, Lumbini">Maya Devi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodh_Gaya" title="Bodh Gaya">Bodh Gaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnath" title="Sarnath">Sarnath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushinagar" title="Kushinagar">Kushinagar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_poetry" title="Buddhist poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japamala" title="Japamala">Prayer beads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama_yumi" title="Hama yumi">Hama yumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_wheel" title="Prayer wheel">Prayer wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_symbolism" title="Buddhist symbolism">Symbolism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra">Dharmachakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhavacakra" title="Bhavacakra">Bhavacakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">Swastika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">Thangka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_the_Tooth" title="Temple of the Tooth">Temple of the Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Miscellaneous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81" title="Abhijñā">Abhijñā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahm%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Brahmā (Buddhism)">Brahmā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_talk" title="Dharma talk">Dharma talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhi" title="Iddhi">Iddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(time)" title="Kalpa (time)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koliya" title="Koliya">Koliya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(Buddhism)" title="Lineage (Buddhism)">Lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mara_(demon)" title="Mara (demon)">Māra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhi" title="Siddhi">Siddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">Sacred languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pāḷi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Comparative_Buddhism" title="Category:Comparative Buddhism">Comparison</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_Buddhism" title="Baháʼí Faith and Buddhism">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Buddhism and Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_influences_on_Christianity" title="Buddhist influences on Christianity">Influences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Comparison of Buddhism and Christianity">Comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Eastern_religions" title="Buddhism and Eastern religions">East Asian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Gnosticism" title="Buddhism and Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Jainism" title="Buddhism and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Buddhist" title="Jewish Buddhist">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_psychology" title="Buddhism and psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_science" title="Buddhism and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Theosophy" title="Buddhism and Theosophy">Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_violence" title="Buddhism and violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Western_philosophy" title="Buddhism and Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhism-related_lists" title="Category:Buddhism-related lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bodhisattvas" title="List of bodhisattvas">Bodhisattvas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Buddhas">Buddhas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_suttas" title="List of suttas">Suttas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_temples" title="List of Buddhist temples">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_festivals" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Buddhist festivals">Festivals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td 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