CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Psychology - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"19b674ca-2409-4520-801e-c654d064ff74","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Psychology","wgTitle":"Psychology","wgCurRevisionId":1257795111,"wgRevisionId":1257795111,"wgArticleId":22921,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Webarchive template other archives","CS1 French-language sources (fr)","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from February 2019","CS1: long volume value","Articles intentionally citing publications with errata","CS1 errors: periodical ignored","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages","Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages","Use dmy dates from May 2021", "Articles with a promotional tone from September 2024","All articles with a promotional tone","Articles with excerpts","Articles containing Latin-language text","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from December 2023","Articles with unsourced statements from October 2024","Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from September 2024","All articles needing rewrite","Pages using Sister project links with wikidata namespace mismatch","Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata","Psychology","Behavioural sciences","Cognitive behavioral therapy"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Psychology","wgRelevantArticleId":22921,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["sysop"],"wgRedirectedFrom":"Psychological","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false, "wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgInternalRedirectTargetUrl":"/wiki/Psychology","wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q9418","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false, "wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.tmh.player.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["mediawiki.action.view.redirect","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.tmh.player","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap", "ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Psychology - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Psychology rootpage-Psychology skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Psychology" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Psychology" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Psychology" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Psychology" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology_and_definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology_and_definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Etymology and definitions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology_and_definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Beginning_of_experimental_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginning_of_experimental_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Beginning of experimental psychology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beginning_of_experimental_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consolidation_and_funding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consolidation_and_funding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Consolidation and funding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consolidation_and_funding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_in_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_in_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Women in psychology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_in_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1900–1949" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1900–1949"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 1900–1949 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1900–1949-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1950–1999" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1950–1999"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 1950–1999 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1950–1999-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 21st century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disciplinary_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disciplinary_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Disciplinary organizations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Disciplinary_organizations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Disciplinary organizations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Disciplinary_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Institutions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Boundaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boundaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Boundaries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boundaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_schools_of_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_schools_of_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Major schools of thought </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Major_schools_of_thought-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Major schools of thought subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Major_schools_of_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Biological </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Behaviorist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Behaviorist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Behaviorist </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Behaviorist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognitive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Cognitive </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Social </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychoanalytic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychoanalytic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Psychoanalytic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychoanalytic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Existential-humanistic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Existential-humanistic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Existential-humanistic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Existential-humanistic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Themes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Themes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Themes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Themes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Themes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Themes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Personality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Personality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unconscious_mind" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unconscious_mind"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Unconscious mind </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unconscious_mind-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Motivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Motivation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Development psychology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genes_and_environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genes_and_environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Genes and environment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genes_and_environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Applications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Applications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Psychological_testing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychological_testing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Psychological testing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychological_testing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mental_health_care" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mental_health_care"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Mental health care </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mental_health_care-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Work </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_and_intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_and_intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Military and intelligence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_and_intelligence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health,_well-being,_and_social_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health,_well-being,_and_social_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Health, well-being, and social change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health,_well-being,_and_social_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6.1 Social change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6.2 Medical applications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Worker_health,_safety_and_wellbeing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Worker_health,_safety_and_wellbeing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6.3 Worker health, safety and wellbeing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Worker_health,_safety_and_wellbeing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occupational_health_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupational_health_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6.4 Occupational health psychology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occupational_health_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Research methods </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research_methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Research methods subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Research_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Controlled_experiments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controlled_experiments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Controlled experiments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controlled_experiments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_types_of_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_types_of_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Other types of studies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_types_of_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Direct_brain_observation/manipulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct_brain_observation/manipulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Direct brain observation/manipulation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct_brain_observation/manipulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computer_simulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_simulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Computer simulation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_simulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Animal_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Animal_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Animal studies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Animal_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qualitative_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qualitative_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Qualitative research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qualitative_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Program_evaluation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Program_evaluation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Program evaluation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Program_evaluation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Contemporary issues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Contemporary issues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Metascience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metascience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Metascience </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metascience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Confirmation_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confirmation_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.1 Confirmation bias </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confirmation_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Replication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Replication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.2 Replication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Replication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Misuse_of_statistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Misuse_of_statistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.3 Misuse of statistics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Misuse_of_statistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-WEIRD_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#WEIRD_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 WEIRD bias </div> </a> <ul id="toc-WEIRD_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-STRANGE_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#STRANGE_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 STRANGE bias </div> </a> <ul id="toc-STRANGE_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unscientific_mental_health_training" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unscientific_mental_health_training"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Unscientific mental health training </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unscientific_mental_health_training-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Ethics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Ethics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ethics_with_Humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics_with_Humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Ethics with Humans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics_with_Humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics_with_other_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics_with_other_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Ethics with other animals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics_with_other_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Psychology</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 200 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-200" aria-hidden="true" > 200 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sielkunde" title="Sielkunde – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sielkunde" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" title="Psychologie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Psychologie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%88%A5%E1%8A%90%E1%8D%A1%E1%88%8D%E1%89%A1%E1%8A%93_%E1%89%B5%E1%88%9D%E1%88%85%E1%88%AD%E1%89%B5" title="የሥነ፡ልቡና ትምህርት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የሥነ፡ልቡና ትምህርት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3" title="علم النفس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم النفس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicoloch%C3%ADa" title="Psicolochía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Psicolochía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հոգեբանութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Հոգեբանութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="মনোবিজ্ঞান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মনোবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicolox%C3%ADa" title="Sicoloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sicoloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apytu%27%C5%A9kuaaty" title="Apytu'ũkuaaty – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Apytu'ũkuaaty" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psixologiya" title="Psixologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Psixologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C" title="سایکولوژی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سایکولوژی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="মনোবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মনোবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sim-l%C3%AD-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Sim-lí-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sim-lí-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Психология – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Психология" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D1%96%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Псіхалогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Псіхалогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Псыхалёгія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Псыхалёгія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="मनोबिज्ञान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="मनोबिज्ञान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikolohiya" title="Sikolohiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Sikolohiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Психология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Психология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%81%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="སེམས་ཁམས་རིག་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="སེམས་ཁམས་རིག་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psihologija" title="Psihologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Psihologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bredoniezh" title="Bredoniezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Bredoniezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8C%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB_%D1%88%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Сэдьхэл шудалал – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Сэдьхэл шудалал" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia" title="Psicologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Psicologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Психологи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Психологи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikolohiya" title="Sikolohiya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Sikolohiya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" title="Psychologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Psychologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruambandanga" title="Ruambandanga – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ruambandanga" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia" title="Psicologia – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Psicologia" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seicoleg" title="Seicoleg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Seicoleg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykologi" title="Psykologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Psykologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="پسيكولوجيا – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="پسيكولوجيا" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" title="Psychologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Psychologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ps%C3%BChholoogia" title="Psühholoogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Psühholoogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A8%CF%85%CF%87%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ψυχολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ψυχολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicolog%C3%ADa" title="Psicología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Psicología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologio" title="Psikologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Psikologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicologia" title="Sicologia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Sicologia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologia" title="Psikologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Psikologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="روان‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روان‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Psychology" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1larfr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Sálarfrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Sálarfrøði" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" title="Psychologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Psychologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Psychology" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologjie" title="Psicologjie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Psicologjie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADceola%C3%ADocht" title="Síceolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Síceolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shicklaage" title="Shicklaage – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Shicklaage" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%B2las-inntinn" title="Eòlas-inntinn – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Eòlas-inntinn" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicolox%C3%ADa" title="Psicoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Psicoloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mb%C5%A9g%C4%A9" title="Mbũgĩ – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Mbũgĩ" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gĩkũyũ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9E%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A8" title="મનોવિજ્ઞાન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="મનોવિજ્ઞાન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AEm-l%C3%AE-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Sîm-lî-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Sîm-lî-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%AC%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="심리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="심리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilimin_halin_dan_Adam" title="Ilimin halin dan Adam – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Ilimin halin dan Adam" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80pana_kau" title="Āpana kau – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Āpana kau" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հոգեբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հոգեբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="मनोविज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मनोविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psihologija" title="Psihologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Psihologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologio" title="Psikologio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Psikologio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikolohia" title="Sikolohia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Sikolohia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologi" title="Psikologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Psikologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologia" title="Psychologia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Psychologia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psichologie" title="Psichologie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Psichologie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Психологи – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Психологи" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1lfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Sálfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sálfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia" title="Psicologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Psicologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="פסיכולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פסיכולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologi" title="Psikologi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Psikologi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C9%A3z%C9%A9m_kp%C9%9Bl%C9%9Bk%CA%8A%CA%8A_t%CA%8Am%C9%A9y%C9%9B" title="Maɣzɩm kpɛlɛkʊʊ tʊmɩyɛ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Maɣzɩm kpɛlɛkʊʊ tʊmɩyɛ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarnip_ilinniarnera" title="Tarnip ilinniarnera – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Tarnip ilinniarnera" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kalaallisut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%B6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಮನಶ್ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮನಶ್ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikoloh%C3%ADa" title="Sikolohía – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Sikolohía" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფსიქოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფსიქოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%8E%D9%81%D8%B3%D9%90%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="نَفسِیات – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="نَفسِیات" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psych%C3%B2logij%C3%B4" title="Psychòlogijô – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Psychòlogijô" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Психология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Психология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brysonieth" title="Brysonieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Brysonieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elimunafsia" title="Elimunafsia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Elimunafsia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikoloji" title="Sikoloji – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Sikoloji" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikoloji" title="Psikoloji – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Psikoloji" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der%C3%BBnnas%C3%AE" title="Derûnnasî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Derûnnasî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Психология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Психология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia" title="Psicologia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Psicologia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikolojiya" title="Psikolojiya – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Psikolojiya" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%95%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B2" title="ຈິຕະວິທະຍາ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຈິຕະວິທະຍາ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologia" title="Psychologia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Psychologia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psiholo%C4%A3ija" title="Psiholoģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Psiholoģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" title="Psychologie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Psychologie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Психология – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Психология" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psichologija" title="Psichologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Psichologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia" title="Psicologia – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Psicologia" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" title="Psychologie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Psychologie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicolojia" title="Psicolojia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Psicolojia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/menske" title="menske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="menske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia" title="Psicologia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Psicologia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pszichol%C3%B3gia" title="Pszichológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Pszichológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="मनोविज्ञान – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="मनोविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Психологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Психологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haifisaina_sy_hetsi-po" title="Haifisaina sy hetsi-po – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Haifisaina sy hetsi-po" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%83%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="മനഃശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മനഃശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikolo%C4%A1ija" title="Psikoloġija – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Psikoloġija" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="मानसशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मानसशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფსიქოლოგია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ფსიქოლოგია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="سايكولوجيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="سايكولوجيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%85%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA" title="ပညာစိုတ် – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ပညာစိုတ်" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target">ဘာသာမန်</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="روان‌شناسی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="روان‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologi" title="Psikologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Psikologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologie" title="Psicologie – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Psicologie" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B3%D1%8D%D0%BB_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Сэтгэл судлал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Сэтгэл судлал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%85%E1%80%AD%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC" title="စိတ်ပညာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="စိတ်ပညာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saikolaji" title="Saikolaji – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Saikolaji" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" title="Psychologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Psychologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" title="Psychologie – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Psychologie" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="मनोविज्ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="मनोविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80" title="साइकोलोजी – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="साइकोलोजी" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="心理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="心理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologgia" title="Psicologgia – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Psicologgia" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Психологи – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Психологи" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ps%C3%BCchologii" title="Psüchologii – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Psüchologii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykologi" title="Psykologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Psykologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykologi" title="Psykologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Psykologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" title="Psychologie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Psychologie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologia" title="Psikologia – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Psikologia" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia" title="Psicologia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Psicologia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Психологий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Психологий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%A8%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ମନୋବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ମନୋବିଜ୍ଞାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saayikoloojii" title="Saayikoloojii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Saayikoloojii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psixologiya" title="Psixologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Psixologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਮਨੋਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਨੋਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="चिन्तनशास्त्र – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="चिन्तनशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target">पालि</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="نفسیات – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="نفسیات" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia" title="Psicologia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Psicologia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="ساپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ساپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saikalaji" title="Saikalaji – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Saikalaji" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6" title="ចិត្តវិទ្យា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ចិត្តវិទ្យា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologie" title="Psicologie – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Psicologie" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicolog%C3%ACa" title="Psicologìa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Psicologìa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saikolosi" title="Saikolosi – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Saikolosi" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" title="Psychologie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Psychologie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologia" title="Psychologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Psychologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia" title="Psicologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Psicologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psixologiya" title="Psixologiya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Psixologiya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhiyat" title="Ruhiyat – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Ruhiyat" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psihologie" title="Psihologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Psihologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia" title="Psicologia – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Psicologia" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuna_yachay" title="Nuna yachay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Nuna yachay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D1%96%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D2%91%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Псіхолоґія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Псіхолоґія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Психология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Психология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Психология – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Психология" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saikolosi" title="Saikolosi – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Saikolosi" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="मनोविज्ञानम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="मनोविज्ञानम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%B1_%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AC%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A5" title="ᱢᱚᱱ ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱢᱚᱱ ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia" title="Psicologia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Psicologia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" title="Psychologie – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Psychologie" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" title="Psychologie – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Psychologie" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saekholoji" title="Saekholoji – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Saekholoji" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="Southern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologjia" title="Psikologjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Psikologjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicolugg%C3%ACa" title="Psicoluggìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Psicoluggìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%9D%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="මනෝවිද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මනෝවිද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Psychology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="نفسيات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="نفسيات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychol%C3%B3gia" title="Psychológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Psychológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psihologija" title="Psihologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Psihologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilminafsi" title="Cilminafsi – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Cilminafsi" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="دەروونناسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دەروونناسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Психологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Психологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psihologija" title="Psihologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Psihologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologi" title="Psikologi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Psikologi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykologia" title="Psykologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Psykologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psykologi" title="Psykologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Psykologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikolohiya" title="Sikolohiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sikolohiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="உளவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உளவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnafsit" title="Tasnafsit – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tasnafsit" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Психология – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Психология" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="మానసిక శాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మానసిక శాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikolojia" title="Psikolojia – Tetum" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Psikolojia" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="Tetum" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tetun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" title="จิตวิทยา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จิตวิทยา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C3%B6%C3%B6c%C3%ABku%C9%9B%CC%88nnhom" title="Piööcëkuɛ̈nnhom – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Piööcëkuɛ̈nnhom" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target">Thuɔŋjäŋ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Равоншиносӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Равоншиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikoloji" title="Psikoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Psikoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saek%C9%94l%C9%94gye" title="Saekɔlɔgye – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Saekɔlɔgye" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Twi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Психологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Психологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="نفسیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نفسیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simleixhag" title="Simleixhag – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Simleixhag" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psico%C5%82ozia" title="Psicołozia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Psicołozia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psihologii" title="Psihologii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Psihologii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A2m_l%C3%BD_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Tâm lý học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tâm lý học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ps%C3%BCkoloogia" title="Psükoloogia – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Psükoloogia" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" title="Psychologie – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Psychologie" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikolohiya" title="Psikolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Psikolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="心理学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="心理学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A2" title="פסיכאלאגיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פסיכאלאגיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="心理學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="心理學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikolociye" title="Psikolociye – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Psikolociye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psyholohie" title="Psyholohie – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Psyholohie" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikoluog%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Psikoluogėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Psikoluogėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="心理学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="心理学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologi" title="Psikologi – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Psikologi" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologi" title="Psikologi – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Psikologi" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kadazandusun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologi" title="Psikologi – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Psikologi" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9418#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Psychology" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Psychology">Read</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Psychology">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology&action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Psychology" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Psychology" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology&oldid=1257795111" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Psychology&id=1257795111&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPsychology">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPsychology">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Psychology&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Psychology" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Psychology" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiversity mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Psychology" hreflang="en">Wikiversity</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9418" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological">Psychological</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of mental functions and behaviors</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Psychology_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Psychology (disambiguation)">Psychology (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Promotional plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Advert" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_soapbox_or_means_of_promotion" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">promotional content</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychology&action=edit">improve it</a> by removing <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Spam" title="Wikipedia:Spam">promotional language</a> and inappropriate <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links#Advertising_and_conflicts_of_interest" title="Wikipedia:External links">external links</a>, and by adding encyclopedic text written from a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutral point of view</a>. (September 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;background:#ccccff;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Psychology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0;padding:0.8em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/100px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/150px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/200px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="94" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subfields_of_psychology" title="Subfields of psychology">Subfields</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Basic_science_(psychology)" title="Basic science (psychology)">Basic psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">Abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_science" title="Affective science">Affective science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">Differential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">Psychophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_psychology" title="Theoretical psychology">Theoretical</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">Anomalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coaching_psychology" title="Coaching psychology">Coaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counseling_psychology" title="Counseling psychology">Counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_psychology" title="Critical psychology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_psychology" title="Legal psychology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_psychology" title="Military psychology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_psychology" title="Music psychology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral psychology">Pastoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_psychology" title="School psychology">School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_psychology" title="Sport psychology">Sport and exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicidology" title="Suicidology">Suicidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_psychology" title="Traffic psychology">Traffic</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">Behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Behavioral engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competence_(polyseme)" title="Competence (polyseme)">Competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">Feelings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Psychology_lists" title="Category:Psychology lists">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_counseling" title="Outline of counseling">Counseling topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_branches_of_psychology" title="List of branches of psychology">Disciplines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychology_organizations" title="List of psychology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Research methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_schools" title="List of psychological schools">Schools of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology" title="Timeline of psychology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_psychology_articles" title="Index of psychology articles">Topics</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/16px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/24px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/32px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Psychology_sidebar" title="Template:Psychology sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Psychology_sidebar" title="Template talk:Psychology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Psychology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Psychology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Psychology is the scientific study of <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">behavior</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Its subject matter includes the behavior of humans and nonhumans, both <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">conscious</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unconscious_mind" title="Unconscious mind">unconscious</a> phenomena, and mental processes such as <a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">thoughts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">feelings</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motives</a>. Psychology is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries between the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>. Biological psychologists seek an understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergent</a> properties of brains, linking the discipline to <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>. As social scientists, psychologists aim to understand the behavior of individuals and groups.<a href="#cite_note-Fernald-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Psychology-4">[4]</a> A professional practitioner or researcher involved in the discipline is called a <a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologist</a>. Some psychologists can also be classified as <a href="/wiki/Behavioural_sciences" title="Behavioural sciences">behavioral</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive scientists</a>. Some psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and <a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">social behavior</a>. Others explore the <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">neurobiological</a> processes that underlie cognitive functions and behaviors. Psychologists are involved in research on <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">attention</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(psychology)" title="Phenomenology (psychology)">subjective experiences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_brain#Function" title="Human brain">brain functioning</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a>. Psychologists' interests extend to <a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">interpersonal relationships</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychological_resilience" title="Psychological resilience">psychological resilience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Family_resilience" title="Family resilience">family resilience</a>, and other areas within <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a>. They also consider the unconscious mind.<a href="#cite_note-reference_name_A-5">[5]</a> Research psychologists employ <a href="/wiki/Empirical_research" title="Empirical research">empirical methods</a> to infer <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlational</a> relationships between psychosocial <a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">variables</a>. Some, but not all, <a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">clinical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Counseling_psychology" title="Counseling psychology">counseling</a> psychologists rely on <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics#Psychology_and_cognitive_science" title="Hermeneutics">symbolic interpretation</a>. While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in several spheres of human activity. By many accounts, psychology ultimately aims to benefit society.<a href="#cite_note-O'Neil-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-APA_mission-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Many psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a> in clinical, counseling, or <a href="/wiki/School_psychology" title="School psychology">school</a> settings. Other psychologists conduct scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. Typically the latter group of psychologists work in academic settings (e.g., universities, medical schools, or hospitals). Another group of psychologists is employed in <a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">industrial and organizational</a> settings.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Yet others are involved in work on <a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">human development</a>, aging, <a href="/wiki/Sports_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Sports psychology">sports</a>, health, <a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">forensic science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">education</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">media</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_definitions">Etymology and definitions</h2></div> The word <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psychology" class="extiw" title="wikt:psychology">psychology</a> derives from the Greek word <a href="/wiki/Psyche_(psychology)" title="Psyche (psychology)">psyche</a>, for spirit or <a href="/wiki/Soul_(spirit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul (spirit)">soul</a>. The latter part of the word psychology derives from -λογία <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-logia" class="extiw" title="wikt:-logia">-logia</a>, which means "study" or "research".<a href="#cite_note-OED-10">[10]</a> The word psychology was first used in the Renaissance.<a href="#cite_note-foo-bar-11">[11]</a> In its <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> form psychiologia, it was first employed by the <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatian</a> <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Croatian_latinistic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Croatian latinistic literature">Latinist</a> <a href="/wiki/Marko_Maruli%C4%87" title="Marko Marulić">Marko Marulić</a> in his book <a href="/wiki/Psichiologia_de_ratione_animae_humanae" title="Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae">Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae</a> (Psychology, on the Nature of the Human Soul) in the decade 1510–1520<a href="#cite_note-foo-bar-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> The earliest known reference to the word psychology in English was by <a href="/wiki/Steven_Blankaart" title="Steven Blankaart">Steven Blankaart</a> in 1694 in The Physical Dictionary. The dictionary refers to "<a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a>, which treats the Body, and Psychology, which treats of the Soul."<a href="#cite_note-OED_Psychology-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Psi_(Greek)" title="Psi (Greek)">Ψ (psi)</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">letter</a> of the Greek word psyche from which the term psychology is derived, is commonly associated with the field of psychology. In 1890, <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a> defined psychology as "the science of mental life, both of its phenomena and their conditions."<a href="#cite_note-James_1890-14">[14]</a> This definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. However, this meaning was contested, notably by radical <a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behaviorists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/John_B._Watson" title="John B. Watson">John B. Watson</a>, who in 1913 asserted that the discipline is a <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a>, the theoretical goal of which "is the prediction and control of behavior."<a href="#cite_note-Watson1913-15">[15]</a> Since James defined "psychology", the term more strongly implicates scientific experimentation.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Watson1913-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a> is the understanding of the mental states and behaviors of people held by <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">ordinary people</a>, as contrasted with psychology professionals' understanding.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">History of psychology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology" title="Timeline of psychology">Timeline of psychology</a>.</div> The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia all engaged in the philosophical study of psychology. In Ancient Egypt the <a href="/wiki/Ebers_Papyrus" title="Ebers Papyrus">Ebers Papyrus</a> mentioned <a href="/wiki/Clinical_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical depression">depression</a> and thought disorders.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Historians note that Greek philosophers, including <a href="/wiki/Thales" class="mw-redirect" title="Thales">Thales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (especially in his <a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">De Anima</a> treatise),<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> addressed the workings of the mind.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> As early as the 4th century BC, the Greek physician <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> theorized that <a href="/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">mental disorders</a> had physical rather than supernatural causes.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> In 387 BCE, Plato suggested that the brain is where mental processes take place, and in 335 BCE Aristotle suggested that it was the heart.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> In China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>, and later from the doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation, as well as techniques for focused thinking and acting. It frames the universe in term of a division of physical reality and mental reality as well as the interaction between the physical and the mental.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Chinese philosophy also emphasized purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. An ancient text known as <a href="/wiki/Huangdi_Neijing" title="Huangdi Neijing">The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine</a> identifies the brain as the nexus of wisdom and sensation, includes theories of personality based on <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin–yang</a> balance, and analyzes mental disorder in terms of physiological and social disequilibria. Chinese scholarship that focused on the brain advanced during the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi (1611–1671), <a href="/wiki/Liu_Zhi_(scholar)" title="Liu Zhi (scholar)">Liu Zhi</a> (1660–1730), and Wang Qingren (1768–1831). Wang Qingren emphasized the importance of the brain as the center of the nervous system, linked mental disorder with brain diseases, investigated the causes of dreams and <a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">insomnia</a>, and advanced a theory of <a href="/wiki/Lateralization_of_brain_function" title="Lateralization of brain function">hemispheric lateralization</a> in brain function.<a href="#cite_note-HsuehGuo-24">[24]</a> Influenced by <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a> explored distinctions in types of awareness. A central idea of the <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic</a> texts that formed the foundations of Hinduism was the distinction between a person's transient mundane self and their <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">eternal, unchanging soul</a>. Divergent Hindu doctrines and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> have challenged this hierarchy of selves, but have all emphasized the importance of reaching higher awareness. <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a> encompasses a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal. <a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">Theosophy</a>, a religion established by <a href="/wiki/Russian_Americans" title="Russian Americans">Russian-American</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Helena_Blavatsky" title="Helena Blavatsky">Helena Blavatsky</a>, drew inspiration from these doctrines during her time in <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Paranjpe-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-ptraju-26">[26]</a> Psychology was of interest to <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment thinkers</a> in Europe. In Germany, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> (1646–1716) applied his principles of calculus to the mind, arguing that mental activity took place on an indivisible continuum. He suggested that the difference between conscious and unconscious awareness is only a matter of degree. <a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Christian Wolff</a> identified psychology as its own science, writing Psychologia Empirica in 1732 and Psychologia Rationalis in 1734. <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> advanced the idea of <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> as a discipline, with psychology an important subdivision. Kant, however, explicitly rejected the idea of an <a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">experimental psychology</a>, writing that "the empirical doctrine of the soul can also never approach chemistry even as a systematic art of analysis or experimental doctrine, for in it the manifold of inner observation can be separated only by mere division in thought, and cannot then be held separate and recombined at will (but still less does another thinking subject suffer himself to be experimented upon to suit our purpose), and even observation by itself already changes and displaces the state of the observed object." In 1783, Ferdinand Ueberwasser (1752–1812) designated himself Professor of Empirical Psychology and Logic and gave lectures on scientific psychology, though these developments were soon overshadowed by the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schwarz_2016-27">[27]</a> At the end of the Napoleonic era, Prussian authorities discontinued the Old University of Münster.<a href="#cite_note-Schwarz_2016-27">[27]</a> Having consulted philosophers <a href="/wiki/Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel">Hegel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Herbart" title="Johann Friedrich Herbart">Herbart</a>, however, in 1825 <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">the Prussian state</a> established psychology as a mandatory discipline in its rapidly expanding and highly influential <a href="/wiki/Prussian_education_system" title="Prussian education system">educational system</a>. However, this discipline did not yet embrace experimentation.<a href="#cite_note-Horst-28">[28]</a> In England, early psychology involved <a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">phrenology</a> and the response to social problems including alcoholism, violence, and the country's crowded "lunatic" asylums.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginning_of_experimental_psychology">Beginning of experimental psychology</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_McKeen_Cattell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/James_McKeen_Cattell.jpg/220px-James_McKeen_Cattell.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/James_McKeen_Cattell.jpg/330px-James_McKeen_Cattell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/James_McKeen_Cattell.jpg/440px-James_McKeen_Cattell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3314" data-file-height="4699" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/James_McKeen_Cattell" title="James McKeen Cattell">James McKeen Cattell</a>, the first psychologist in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wundt-research-group.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Wundt-research-group.jpg/220px-Wundt-research-group.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Wundt-research-group.jpg/330px-Wundt-research-group.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Wundt-research-group.jpg/440px-Wundt-research-group.jpg 2x" data-file-width="552" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a> (seated), a German psychologist, with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1880</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:One_of_Pavlov%27s_dogs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/One_of_Pavlov%27s_dogs.jpg/220px-One_of_Pavlov%27s_dogs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/One_of_Pavlov%27s_dogs.jpg/330px-One_of_Pavlov%27s_dogs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/One_of_Pavlov%27s_dogs.jpg/440px-One_of_Pavlov%27s_dogs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>One of the dogs used in Russian psychologist <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a>'s experiment with a surgically implanted <a href="/wiki/Cannula" title="Cannula">cannula</a> to measure <a href="/wiki/Saliva" title="Saliva">saliva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taxidermy" title="Taxidermy">preserved</a> in the Pavlov Museum in <a href="/wiki/Ryazan" title="Ryazan">Ryazan</a>, Russia</figcaption></figure> Philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> believed that the human mind was open to scientific investigation, even if the science is in some ways inexact.<a href="#cite_note-Henley-30">[30]</a> Mill proposed a "mental <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>" in which elementary thoughts could combine into ideas of greater complexity.<a href="#cite_note-Henley-30">[30]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Fechner" title="Gustav Fechner">Gustav Fechner</a> began conducting <a href="/wiki/Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">psychophysics</a> research in <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a> in the 1830s. He articulated the principle that human perception of a stimulus varies <a href="/wiki/Logarithmically" class="mw-redirect" title="Logarithmically">logarithmically</a> according to its intensity.<a href="#cite_note-Leahey_2001-31">[31]</a>: 61  The principle became known as the <a href="/wiki/Weber%E2%80%93Fechner_law" title="Weber–Fechner law">Weber–Fechner law</a>. Fechner's 1860 Elements of Psychophysics challenged Kant's negative view with regard to conducting quantitative research on the mind.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Horst-28">[28]</a> Fechner's achievement was to show that "mental processes could not only be given numerical magnitudes, but also that these could be measured by experimental methods."<a href="#cite_note-Horst-28">[28]</a> In Heidelberg, <a href="/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Hermann von Helmholtz</a> conducted parallel research on sensory perception, and trained physiologist <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a>. Wundt, in turn, came to Leipzig University, where he established the psychological laboratory that brought experimental psychology to the world. Wundt focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components, motivated in part by an analogy to recent advances in chemistry, and its successful investigation of the elements and structure of materials.<a href="#cite_note-WundtStanford-33">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Flechsig" title="Paul Flechsig">Paul Flechsig</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emil_Kraepelin" title="Emil Kraepelin">Emil Kraepelin</a> soon created another influential laboratory at Leipzig, a psychology-related lab, that focused more on experimental psychiatry.<a href="#cite_note-Horst-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/James_McKeen_Cattell" title="James McKeen Cattell">James McKeen Cattell</a>, a professor of psychology at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> and the co-founder of <a href="/wiki/Psychological_Review" title="Psychological Review">Psychological Review</a>, was the first professor of psychology in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The German psychologist <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a>, a researcher at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a>, was a 19th-century contributor to the field. He pioneered the experimental study of memory and developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> In the early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Kohler" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolfgang Kohler">Wolfgang Kohler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Wertheimer" title="Max Wertheimer">Max Wertheimer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Koffka" title="Kurt Koffka">Kurt Koffka</a> co-founded the school of <a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt psychology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Perls" title="Fritz Perls">Fritz Perls</a>. The approach of Gestalt psychology is based upon the idea that individuals experience things as unified wholes. Rather than <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reducing</a> thoughts and behavior into smaller component elements, as in structuralism, the Gestaltists maintained that whole of experience is important, and differs from the sum of its parts.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Psychologists in Germany, Denmark, Austria, England, and the United States soon followed Wundt in setting up laboratories.<a href="#cite_note-BenjaminBaker-35">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/G._Stanley_Hall" title="G. Stanley Hall">G. Stanley Hall</a>, an American who studied with Wundt, founded a psychology lab that became internationally influential. The lab was located at <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a>. Hall, in turn, trained <a href="/wiki/Y%C5%ABjir%C5%8D_Motora" title="Yūjirō Motora">Yujiro Motora</a>, who brought experimental psychology, emphasizing psychophysics, to the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_University_of_Tokyo" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial University of Tokyo">Imperial University of Tokyo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Takasuna-36">[36]</a> Wundt's assistant, <a href="/wiki/Hugo_M%C3%BCnsterberg" title="Hugo Münsterberg">Hugo Münsterberg</a>, taught psychology at Harvard to students such as <a href="/wiki/Narendra_Nath_Sen_Gupta" title="Narendra Nath Sen Gupta">Narendra Nath Sen Gupta</a>—who, in 1905, founded a psychology department and laboratory at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Calcutta" title="University of Calcutta">University of Calcutta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Paranjpe-25">[25]</a> Wundt's students <a href="/wiki/Walter_Dill_Scott" title="Walter Dill Scott">Walter Dill Scott</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lightner_Witmer" title="Lightner Witmer">Lightner Witmer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_McKeen_Cattell" title="James McKeen Cattell">James McKeen Cattell</a> worked on developing tests of mental ability. Cattell, who also studied with <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a>, went on to found the <a href="/wiki/Psychological_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological Corporation">Psychological Corporation</a>. Witmer focused on the mental testing of children; Scott, on employee selection.<a href="#cite_note-Leahey_2001-31">[31]</a>: 60  Another student of Wundt, the Englishman <a href="/wiki/Edward_Titchener" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Titchener">Edward Titchener</a>, created the psychology program at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> and advanced "<a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(psychology)" title="Structuralism (psychology)">structuralist</a>" psychology. The idea behind structuralism was to analyze and classify different aspects of the mind, primarily through the method of <a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">introspection</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Goodwin-37">[37]</a> William James, <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Harvey_Carr" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvey Carr">Harvey Carr</a> advanced the idea of <a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">functionalism</a>, an expansive approach to psychology that underlined the Darwinian idea of a behavior's usefulness to the individual. In 1890, James wrote an influential book, <a href="/wiki/The_Principles_of_Psychology" title="The Principles of Psychology">The Principles of Psychology</a>, which expanded on the structuralism. He memorably described "<a href="/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness_(psychology)" title="Stream of consciousness (psychology)">stream of consciousness</a>." James's ideas interested many American students in the emerging discipline.<a href="#cite_note-Goodwin-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-James_1890-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Leahey_2001-31">[31]</a>: 178–82  Dewey integrated psychology with societal concerns, most notably by promoting <a href="/wiki/Progressive_education" title="Progressive education">progressive education</a>, inculcating moral values in children, and assimilating immigrants.<a href="#cite_note-Leahey_2001-31">[31]</a>: 196–200  A different strain of experimentalism, with a greater connection to physiology, emerged in South America, under the leadership of Horacio G. Piñero at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Buenos_Aires" title="University of Buenos Aires">University of Buenos Aires</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> In Russia, too, researchers placed greater emphasis on the biological basis for psychology, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Sechenov" title="Ivan Sechenov">Ivan Sechenov</a>'s 1873 essay, "Who Is to Develop Psychology and How?" Sechenov advanced the idea of brain <a href="/wiki/Reflexes" class="mw-redirect" title="Reflexes">reflexes</a> and aggressively promoted a <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">deterministic</a> view of human behavior.<a href="#cite_note-SirotkinaSmith-39">[39]</a> The Russian-Soviet <a href="/wiki/Physiologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiologist">physiologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a> discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed "<a href="/wiki/Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">classical conditioning</a>" and applied the process to human beings.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consolidation_and_funding">Consolidation and funding</h3></div> One of the earliest psychology societies was La Société de Psychologie Physiologique in France, which lasted from 1885 to 1893. The first meeting of the International Congress of Psychology sponsored by the <a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Psychological_Science" title="International Union of Psychological Science">International Union of Psychological Science</a> took place in Paris, in August 1889, amidst <a href="/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_(1889)" title="Exposition Universelle (1889)">the World's Fair</a> celebrating the centennial of the French Revolution. William James was one of three Americans among the 400 attendees. The <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a> (APA) was founded soon after, in 1892. The International Congress continued to be held at different locations in Europe and with wide international participation. The Sixth Congress, held in Geneva in 1909, included presentations in Russian, Chinese, and Japanese, as well as <a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a>. After a hiatus for World War I, the Seventh Congress met in Oxford, with substantially greater participation from the war-victorious Anglo-Americans. In 1929, the Congress took place at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, attended by hundreds of members of the APA.<a href="#cite_note-BenjaminBaker-35">[35]</a> Tokyo Imperial University led the way in bringing new psychology to the East. New ideas about psychology diffused from Japan into China.<a href="#cite_note-HsuehGuo-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Takasuna-36">[36]</a> American psychology gained status upon the U.S.'s entry into World War I. A standing committee headed by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Yerkes" title="Robert Yerkes">Robert Yerkes</a> administered mental tests ("<a href="/wiki/Army_Alpha" title="Army Alpha">Army Alpha</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Army_Beta" title="Army Beta">Army Beta</a>") to almost 1.8 million soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-Tomes2008-41">[41]</a> Subsequently, the <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_family" title="Rockefeller family">Rockefeller family</a>, via the <a href="/wiki/Social_Science_Research_Council" title="Social Science Research Council">Social Science Research Council</a>, began to provide funding for behavioral research.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Rockefeller charities funded the National Committee on Mental Hygiene, which disseminated the concept of mental illness and lobbied for applying ideas from psychology to child rearing.<a href="#cite_note-Tomes2008-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Through the Bureau of Social Hygiene and later funding of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kinsey" title="Alfred Kinsey">Alfred Kinsey</a>, Rockefeller foundations helped establish research on sexuality in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Under the influence of the Carnegie-funded <a href="/wiki/Eugenics_Record_Office" title="Eugenics Record Office">Eugenics Record Office</a>, the Draper-funded <a href="/wiki/Pioneer_Fund" title="Pioneer Fund">Pioneer Fund</a>, and other institutions, the <a href="/wiki/Eugenics_in_the_United_States" title="Eugenics in the United States">eugenics movement</a> also influenced American psychology. In the 1910s and 1920s, eugenics became a standard topic in psychology classes.<a href="#cite_note-GuthrieChapter4-46">[46]</a> In contrast to the US, in the UK psychology was met with antagonism by the scientific and medical establishments, and up until 1939, there were only six psychology chairs in universities in England.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> During World War II and the Cold War, the U.S. military and intelligence agencies established themselves as leading funders of psychology by way of the armed forces and in the new <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Strategic_Services" title="Office of Strategic Services">Office of Strategic Services</a> intelligence agency. University of Michigan psychologist Dorwin Cartwright reported that university researchers began large-scale propaganda research in 1939–1941. He observed that "the last few months of the war saw a social psychologist become chiefly responsible for determining the week-by-week-propaganda policy for the United States Government." Cartwright also wrote that psychologists had significant roles in managing the domestic economy.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The Army rolled out its new <a href="/wiki/Army_General_Classification_Test" title="Army General Classification Test">General Classification Test</a> to assess the ability of millions of soldiers. The Army also engaged in large-scale psychological research of <a href="/wiki/Samuel_A._Stouffer#Studies_in_Social_Psychology_in_World_War_II:_The_American_Soldier" title="Samuel A. Stouffer">troop morale and mental health</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schonfeld-49">[49]</a> In the 1950s, the <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ford_Foundation" title="Ford Foundation">Ford Foundation</a> collaborated with the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (CIA) to fund research on <a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">psychological warfare</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> In 1965, public controversy called attention to the Army's <a href="/wiki/Project_Camelot" title="Project Camelot">Project Camelot</a>, the "Manhattan Project" of <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a>, an effort which enlisted psychologists and anthropologists to analyze the plans and policies of foreign countries for strategic purposes.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> In Germany after World War I, psychology held institutional power through the military, which was subsequently expanded along with the rest of the military during <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Horst-28">[28]</a> Under the direction of <a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a>'s cousin <a href="/wiki/Matthias_G%C3%B6ring" title="Matthias Göring">Matthias Göring</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Psychoanalytic_Institute" title="Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute">Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute</a> was renamed the Göring Institute. <a href="/wiki/Freudian_psychoanalysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Freudian psychoanalysis">Freudian psychoanalysts</a> were expelled and persecuted under the anti-Jewish policies of the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a>, and all psychologists had to distance themselves from <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Freud</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Adler" title="Alfred Adler">Adler</a>, founders of <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a> who were also Jewish.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The Göring Institute was well-financed throughout the war with a mandate to create a "New German Psychotherapy." This psychotherapy aimed to align suitable Germans with the overall goals of the Reich. As described by one physician, "Despite the importance of analysis, spiritual guidance and the active cooperation of the patient represent the best way to overcome individual mental problems and to subordinate them to the requirements of the <a href="/wiki/Volk" title="Volk">Volk</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gemeinschaft_and_Gesellschaft" title="Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft">Gemeinschaft</a>." Psychologists were to provide Seelenführung [lit., soul guidance], the leadership of the mind, to integrate people into the new vision of a German community.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Harald_Schultz-Hencke" title="Harald Schultz-Hencke">Harald Schultz-Hencke</a> melded psychology with the Nazi theory of biology and racial origins, criticizing psychoanalysis as a study of the weak and deformed.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Heinrich_Schultz" title="Johannes Heinrich Schultz">Johannes Heinrich Schultz</a>, a German psychologist recognized for developing the technique of <a href="/wiki/Autogenic_training" title="Autogenic training">autogenic training</a>, prominently advocated sterilization and euthanasia of men considered genetically undesirable, and devised techniques for facilitating this process.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> After the war, new institutions were created although some psychologists, because of their Nazi affiliation, were discredited. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mitscherlich_(psychologist)" title="Alexander Mitscherlich (psychologist)">Alexander Mitscherlich</a> founded a prominent applied psychoanalysis journal called Psyche. With funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, Mitscherlich established the first clinical psychosomatic medicine division at Heidelberg University. In 1970, psychology was integrated into the required studies of medical students.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a> promoted psychology as a way to engineer the "New Man" of socialism. Consequently, university psychology departments trained large numbers of students in psychology. At the completion of training, positions were made available for those students at schools, workplaces, cultural institutions, and in the military. The Russian state emphasized <a href="/wiki/Pedology_(children_study)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedology (children study)">pedology</a> and the study of child development. <a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Lev Vygotsky</a> became prominent in the field of child development.<a href="#cite_note-SirotkinaSmith-39">[39]</a> The Bolsheviks also promoted <a href="/wiki/Free_love" title="Free love">free love</a> and embraced the doctrine of psychoanalysis as an antidote to sexual repression.<a href="#cite_note-Kozulin_1984-58">[58]</a>: <span title="Pages: 84–6
Quotation: "Against such a background it is not at all surprising that psychoanalysis, as a theory that ventured to approach the forbidden but topical theme of sexual relations, was embraced by the newborn Soviet psychology. Psychoanalysis also attracted the interest of Soviet psychology as a materialist trend that had challenged the credentials of classical introspective psychology. The reluctance of the pre-Revolutionary establishment to propagate psychoanalysis also played a positive role in the post-Revolutionary years; it was a field uncompromised by ties to old-regime science."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">84–6 <a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Although pedology and intelligence testing fell out of favor in 1936, psychology maintained its privileged position as an instrument of the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-SirotkinaSmith-39">[39]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stalinist_purges" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalinist purges">Stalinist purges</a> took a heavy toll and instilled a climate of fear in the profession, as elsewhere in Soviet society.<a href="#cite_note-Kozulin_1984-58">[58]</a>: <span title="Page: 22
Quotation: "Stalin's purges of the 1930s did not spare Soviet psychologists. Leading Marxist philosophers earlier associated with psychology—including Yuri Frankfurt, Nikolai Karev, and Ivan Luppol—were executed in prison camps. The same fate awaited Alexei Gastev and Isaak Shipilrein. Those who survived lived in an atmosphere of total suspicion. ... People who dominated their fields yesterday might be denounced today as traitors and enemies of the people, and by tomorrow their names might disappear from all public records. Books and newspapers were constantly being recalled from libraries to rid them of 'obsolete' names and references."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">22  Following World War II, Jewish psychologists past and present, including <a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Lev Vygotsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Luria" title="Alexander Luria">A.R. Luria</a>, and Aron Zalkind, were denounced; Ivan Pavlov (posthumously) and Stalin himself were celebrated as heroes of Soviet psychology.<a href="#cite_note-Kozulin_1984-58">[58]</a>: 25–6, 48–9  Soviet academics experienced a degree of liberalization during the <a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a>. The topics of cybernetics, linguistics, and genetics became acceptable again. The new field of <a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">engineering psychology</a> emerged. The field involved the study of the mental aspects of complex jobs (such as pilot and cosmonaut). Interdisciplinary studies became popular and scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Shchedrovitsky" title="Georgy Shchedrovitsky">Georgy Shchedrovitsky</a> developed systems theory approaches to human behavior.<a href="#cite_note-Kozulin_1984-58">[58]</a>: <span title="Pages: 27–33
Quotation: "Georgy Schedrovitsky, who is currently at the Moscow Institute of Psychology, can be singled out as the most prominent theorist working in the context of systems research. ... This is Schedrovitsky's second major thesis: Activity should not be regarded as an attribute of the individual but rather as an all-embracing system that 'captures' individuals and 'forces' them to behave a certain way. This approach may be traced back to the assertion of Wilhelm Humboldt that it is not man who has language as an attribute, but rather language that 'possesses' man. ... Schedrovitsky's activity approach has been applied successfully to the design of man-machine systems and to the evaluation of human factors in urban planning."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">27–33  Twentieth-century Chinese psychology originally modeled itself on U.S. psychology, with translations from American authors like William James, the establishment of university psychology departments and journals, and the establishment of groups including the Chinese Association of Psychological Testing (1930) and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Psychological_Society" title="Chinese Psychological Society">Chinese Psychological Society</a> (1937). Chinese psychologists were encouraged to focus on education and language learning. Chinese psychologists were drawn to the idea that education would enable modernization. John Dewey, who lectured to Chinese audiences between 1919 and 1921, had a significant influence on psychology in China. Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Cai_Yuanpei" title="Cai Yuanpei">T'sai Yuan-p'ei</a> introduced him at <a href="/wiki/Peking_University" title="Peking University">Peking University</a> as a greater thinker than Confucius. <a href="/wiki/Zing-Yang_Kuo" title="Zing-Yang Kuo">Kuo Zing-yang</a> who received a PhD at the University of California, Berkeley, became President of <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang_University" title="Zhejiang University">Zhejiang University</a> and popularized <a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behaviorism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chin_1969-60">[60]</a>: 5–9  After the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> gained control of the country, the Stalinist Soviet Union became the major influence, with <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a> the leading social doctrine and Pavlovian conditioning the approved means of behavior change. Chinese psychologists elaborated on Lenin's model of a "reflective" consciousness, envisioning an "active consciousness" (<a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: tzu-chueh neng-tung-li) able to transcend material conditions through hard work and ideological struggle. They developed a concept of "recognition" (<a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: jen-shih) which referred to the interface between individual perceptions and the socially accepted worldview; failure to correspond with party doctrine was "incorrect recognition."<a href="#cite_note-Chin_1969-60">[60]</a>: <span title="Pages: 9–17
Quotation: "The Soviet psychology that Peking modeled itself upon was Marxist-Leninist psychology with a philosophical base in dialectical materialism and a newly added label, Pavlovianism. This new Soviet psychology leaned heavily on Lenin's theory of reflection, which was unearthed in his two volumes posthumously published in 1924. Toward the late twenties, a group of Soviet research psychologists headed by Vygotskii, along with Luria and Leont'ev, laid the groundwork for a Marxist-Leninist approach to psychic development."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">9–17  Psychology education was centralized under the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Chinese Academy of Sciences">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>, supervised by the <a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="State Council of the People's Republic of China">State Council</a>. In 1951, the academy created a Psychology Research Office, which in 1956 became the Institute of Psychology. Because most leading psychologists were educated in the United States, the first concern of the academy was the re-education of these psychologists in the Soviet doctrines. Child psychology and pedagogy for the purpose of a nationally cohesive education remained a central goal of the discipline.<a href="#cite_note-Chin_1969-60">[60]</a>: 18–24  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_in_psychology">Women in psychology</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1900–1949">1900–1949</h4></div> Women in the early 1900s started to make key findings within the world of psychology. In 1923, <a href="/wiki/Anna_Freud" title="Anna Freud">Anna Freud</a>,<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>, built on her father's work using different <a href="/wiki/Defence_mechanism" title="Defence mechanism">defense mechanisms</a> (denial, repression, and suppression) to <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalyze</a> children. She believed that once a child reached the <a href="/wiki/Latency_stage" title="Latency stage">latency period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Child_psychoanalysis" title="Child psychoanalysis">child analysis</a> could be used as a mode of <a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">therapy</a>. She stated it is important focus on the child's environment, support their development, and prevent <a href="/wiki/Neurosis" title="Neurosis">neurosis</a>. She believed a child should be recognized as their own person with their own right and have each session catered to the child's specific needs. She encouraged drawing, moving freely, and expressing themselves in any way. This helped build a strong therapeutic alliance with child patients, which allows psychologists to observe their normal behavior. She continued her research on the impact of children after family separation, children with socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds, and all stages of child development from infancy to adolescence.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Functional_periodicity" title="Functional periodicity">Functional periodicity</a>, the belief women are mentally and physically impaired during <a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">menstruation</a>, impacted <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">women's rights</a> because employers were less likely to hire them due to the belief they would be incapable of working for 1 week a month. <a href="/wiki/Leta_Stetter_Hollingworth" title="Leta Stetter Hollingworth">Leta Stetter Hollingworth</a> wanted to prove this hypothesis and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Thorndike" title="Edward Thorndike">Edward L. Thorndike's</a> theory, that women have lesser psychological and physical traits than men and were simply mediocre, incorrect. <a href="/wiki/Leta_Stetter_Hollingworth" title="Leta Stetter Hollingworth">Hollingworth</a> worked to prove differences were not from male genetic superiority, but from culture. She also included the concept of women's impairment during <a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">menstruation</a> in her research. She recorded both women and men performances on tasks (cognitive, perceptual, and motor) for three months. No evidence was found of decreased performance due to a woman's <a href="/wiki/Menstrual_cycle" title="Menstrual cycle">menstrual</a> cycle.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> She also challenged the belief intelligence is inherited and women here are intellectually inferior to men. She stated that women do not reach positions of power due to the <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">societal norms</a> and roles they are assigned. As she states in her article, "Variability as related to sex differences in achievement: A Critique",<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> the largest problem women have is the social order that was built due to the assumption women have less interests and abilities than men. To further prove her point, she completed another experiment with infants who have not been influenced by the environment of social norms, like the adult male getting more opportunities than women. She found no difference between infants besides size. After this research proved the original hypothesis wrong, <a href="/wiki/Leta_Stetter_Hollingworth" title="Leta Stetter Hollingworth">Hollingworth</a> was able to show there is no difference between the physiological and psychological traits of men and women, and women are not impaired during <a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">menstruation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> The first half of the 1900s was filled with new theories and it was a turning point for women's recognition within the field of psychology. In addition to the contributions made by <a href="/wiki/Leta_Stetter_Hollingworth" title="Leta Stetter Hollingworth">Leta Stetter Hollingworth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anna_Freud" title="Anna Freud">Anna Freud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Whiton_Calkins" title="Mary Whiton Calkins">Mary Whiton Calkins</a> invented the paired associates technique of studying memory and developed <a href="/wiki/Self_psychology" title="Self psychology">self-psychology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Karen_Horney" title="Karen Horney">Karen Horney</a> developed the concept of "<a href="/wiki/Womb_envy" title="Womb envy">womb envy</a>" and neurotic needs.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Psychoanalyst <a href="/wiki/Melanie_Klein" title="Melanie Klein">Melanie Klein</a> impacted <a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental psychology</a> with her research of <a href="/wiki/Play_therapy" title="Play therapy">play therapy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> These great discoveries and contributions were made during struggles of <a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">sexism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a>, and little recognition for their work. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1950–1999">1950–1999</h4></div> Women in the second half of the 20th century continued to do research that had large-scale impacts on the field of psychology. <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ainsworth" title="Mary Ainsworth">Mary Ainsworth</a>'s work centered around <a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">attachment theory</a>. Building off fellow psychologist <a href="/wiki/John_Bowlby" title="John Bowlby">John Bowlby</a>, Ainsworth spent years doing <a href="/wiki/Field_research" title="Field research">fieldwork</a> to understand the development of mother-infant relationships. In doing this field research, Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation Procedure, a laboratory procedure meant to study attachment style by separating and uniting a child with their mother several different times under different circumstances. These field studies are also where she developed her <a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">attachment theory</a> and the order of <a href="/wiki/Attachment_styles" class="mw-redirect" title="Attachment styles">attachment styles</a>, which was a landmark for <a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental psychology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Because of her work, Ainsworth became one of the most cited psychologists of all time.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mamie_Phipps_Clark" title="Mamie Phipps Clark">Mamie Phipps Clark</a> was another woman in psychology that changed the field with her research. She was one of the first African-Americans to receive a doctoral degree in psychology from <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, along with her husband, <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_and_Mamie_Clark" title="Kenneth and Mamie Clark">Kenneth Clark</a>. Her master's thesis, "The Development of Consciousness in Negro Pre-School Children," argued that black children's <a href="/wiki/Self-esteem" title="Self-esteem">self-esteem</a> was negatively impacted by <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">racial discrimination</a>. She and her husband conduced research building off her thesis throughout the 1940s. These tests, called the <a href="/wiki/Doll_Test" class="mw-redirect" title="Doll Test">doll tests</a>, asked young children to choose between identical dolls whose only difference was race, and they found that the majority of the children preferred the white dolls and attributed positive traits to them. Repeated over and over again, these tests helped to determine the negative effects of <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">racial discrimination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">segregation</a> on black children's <a href="/wiki/Self-image" title="Self-image">self-image</a> and development. In 1954, this research would help decide the landmark <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> decision, leading to the end of legal segregation across the nation. Clark went on to be an influential figure in psychology, her work continuing to focus on minority youth.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> As the field of psychology developed throughout the latter half of the 20th century, women in the field advocated for their voices to be heard and their perspectives to be valued. <a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a> did not miss psychology. An outspoken feminist in psychology was <a href="/wiki/Naomi_Weisstein" title="Naomi Weisstein">Naomi Weisstein</a>, who was an accomplished researcher in psychology and <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>, and is perhaps best known for her paper, "Kirche, Kuche, Kinder as Scientific Law: Psychology Constructs the Female." Psychology Constructs the Female criticized the field of psychology for centering men and using biology too much to explain gender differences without taking into account social factors.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Her work set the stage for further research to be done in <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a>, especially in <a href="/wiki/Gender_Construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender Construction">gender construction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Other women in the field also continued advocating for women in psychology, creating the <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Women_in_Psychology" title="Association for Women in Psychology">Association for Women in Psychology</a> to criticize how the field treated women. <a href="/wiki/E._Kitch_Childs" title="E. Kitch Childs">E. Kitsch Child</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phyllis_Chesler" title="Phyllis Chesler">Phyllis Chesler</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Riddle" title="Dorothy Riddle">Dorothy Riddle</a> were some of the founding members of the organization in 1969.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> The latter half of the 20th century further diversified the field of psychology, with women of color reaching new milestones. In 1962, <a href="/wiki/Martha_E._Bernal" title="Martha E. Bernal">Martha Bernal</a> became the first Latina woman to get a Ph.D. in psychology. In 1969, <a href="/wiki/Marigold_Linton" title="Marigold Linton">Marigold Linton</a>, the first Native American woman to get a Ph.D. in psychology, founded the <a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Education_Association" title="National Indian Education Association">National Indian Education Association</a>. She was also a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Advancement_of_Chicanos_and_Native_Americans_in_Science" title="Society for Advancement of Chicanos and Native Americans in Science">Society for Advancement of Chicanos and Native Americans in Science</a>. In 1971, The Network of Indian Psychologists was established by <a href="/wiki/Carolyn_Attneave" title="Carolyn Attneave">Carolyn Attneave</a>. Harriet McAdoo was appointed to the White House Conference on Families in 1979.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="21st_century">21st century</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Cleanup_rewrite plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/40px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/60px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/80px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychology&action=edit">You can help</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Talk:Psychology" title="Talk:Psychology">talk page</a> may contain suggestions. (September 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Dr. <a href="/wiki/Kay_Redfield_Jamison" title="Kay Redfield Jamison">Kay Redfield Jamison</a>, named one of <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time Magazine's</a> "Best Doctors in the United States" is a lecturer, psychologist, and writer. She is known for her vast modern contributions to <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a> and her books <a href="/wiki/An_Unquiet_Mind" title="An Unquiet Mind">An Unquiet Mind</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> (Published 1995) and Nothing Was the Same<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> (Published in 2009). Having <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">Bipolar Disorder</a> herself, she has written several memoirs about her experience with <a href="/wiki/Suicidal_ideation" title="Suicidal ideation">suicidal thoughts</a>, manic behaviors, <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a>, and other issues that arise from being <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">Bipolar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-blog.zencare.co-79">[79]</a> Dr. <a href="/wiki/Angela_Neal-Barnett" title="Angela Neal-Barnett">Angela Neal-Barnett</a> views psychology through a Black lens and dedicated her career to focusing on the <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a> of African American women. She founded the organization Rise Sally Rise which helps Black women cope with anxiety. She published her work Soothe Your Nerves: The Black Woman's Guide to Understanding and Overcoming Anxiety, Panic and Fear<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> in 2003.<a href="#cite_note-blog.zencare.co-79">[79]</a> In 2002 Dr. Teresa LaFromboise, former president of the Society of Indian Psychologists, received the APA's Distinguished Career Contribution to Research Award from the Society for the Psychological Study of Culture Ethnicity, and Race for her research on <a href="/wiki/Suicide_prevention" title="Suicide prevention">suicide prevention</a>. She was the first person to lead an intervention for Native American children and adolescents that utilized evidence-based suicide prevention. She has spent her career dedicated to aiding racial and ethnic minority youth cope with cultural adjustment and pressures.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Dr. Shari Miles-Cohen, a psychologist and political activist has applied a black, feminist, and class lens to all her psychological studies. Aiding progressive and women's issues, she has been the executive director for many NGOs. In 2007 she became the Senior Director of the Women's Programs Office of the American Psychological Association. Therefore, she was one of the creators of the APA's "Women in Psychology Timeline" which features the accomplishments of women of color in psychology. She is well known for co-editing Eliminating Inequities for Women with Disabilities: An Agenda for Health and Wellness<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> (published in 2016), her article published in the Women's Reproductive Health Journal about women of color's struggle with pregnancy and <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_depression" title="Postpartum depression">postpartum</a> (Published in 2018), and co-authoring the "APA Handbook of the Psychology of Women" (published in 2019).<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disciplinary_organizations">Disciplinary organizations</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Institutions">Institutions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_psychology_organizations" title="List of psychology organizations">List of psychology organizations</a></div> In 1920, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Clapar%C3%A8de" title="Édouard Claparède">Édouard Claparède</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bovet" title="Pierre Bovet">Pierre Bovet</a> created a new applied psychology organization called the International Congress of Psychotechnics Applied to Vocational Guidance, later called the International Congress of Psychotechnics and then the <a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Applied_Psychology" title="International Association of Applied Psychology">International Association of Applied Psychology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BenjaminBaker-35">[35]</a> The IAAP is considered the oldest international psychology association.<a href="#cite_note-PickrenFowler-84">[84]</a> Today, at least 65 international groups deal with specialized aspects of psychology.<a href="#cite_note-PickrenFowler-84">[84]</a> In response to male predominance in the field, female psychologists in the U.S. formed the National Council of Women Psychologists in 1941. This organization became the International Council of Women Psychologists after World War II and the International Council of Psychologists in 1959. Several associations including the <a href="/wiki/Association_of_Black_Psychologists" title="Association of Black Psychologists">Association of Black Psychologists</a> and the Asian American Psychological Association have arisen to promote the inclusion of non-European racial groups in the profession.<a href="#cite_note-PickrenFowler-84">[84]</a> The <a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Psychological_Science" title="International Union of Psychological Science">International Union of Psychological Science</a> (IUPsyS) is the world federation of national psychological societies. The IUPsyS was founded in 1951 under the auspices of the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">United Nations Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (UNESCO)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BenjaminBaker-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Staeuble-85">[85]</a> Psychology departments have since proliferated around the world, based primarily on the Euro-American model.<a href="#cite_note-Paranjpe-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Staeuble-85">[85]</a> Since 1966, the Union has published the International Journal of Psychology.<a href="#cite_note-BenjaminBaker-35">[35]</a> IAAP and IUPsyS agreed in 1976 each to hold a congress every four years, on a staggered basis.<a href="#cite_note-PickrenFowler-84">[84]</a> IUPsyS recognizes 66 national psychology associations and at least 15 others exist.<a href="#cite_note-PickrenFowler-84">[84]</a> The American Psychological Association is the oldest and largest.<a href="#cite_note-PickrenFowler-84">[84]</a> Its membership has increased from 5,000 in 1945 to 100,000 in the present day.<a href="#cite_note-Goodwin-37">[37]</a> The APA includes <a href="/wiki/Divisions_of_the_American_Psychological_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Divisions of the American Psychological Association">54 divisions</a>, which since 1960 have steadily proliferated to include more specialties. Some of these divisions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_the_Psychological_Study_of_Social_Issues" title="Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues">Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues</a> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychology%E2%80%93Law_Society" title="American Psychology–Law Society">American Psychology–Law Society</a>, began as autonomous groups.<a href="#cite_note-PickrenFowler-84">[84]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Interamerican_Psychological_Society" title="Interamerican Psychological Society">Interamerican Psychological Society</a>, founded in 1951, aspires to promote psychology across the Western Hemisphere. It holds the Interamerican Congress of Psychology and had 1,000 members in year 2000. The European Federation of Professional Psychology Associations, founded in 1981, represents 30 national associations with a total of 100,000 individual members. At least 30 other international organizations represent psychologists in different regions.<a href="#cite_note-PickrenFowler-84">[84]</a> In some places, governments legally regulate who can provide psychological services or represent themselves as a "psychologist."<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> The APA defines a psychologist as someone with a doctoral degree in psychology.<a href="#cite_note-HallHurley-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boundaries">Boundaries</h3></div> Early practitioners of experimental psychology distinguished themselves from <a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">parapsychology</a>, which in the late nineteenth century enjoyed popularity (including the interest of scholars such as William James). Some people considered parapsychology to be part of "psychology". Parapsychology, <a href="/wiki/Hypnosis" title="Hypnosis">hypnotism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Psychic" title="Psychic">psychism</a> were major topics at the early International Congresses. But students of these fields were eventually ostracized, and more or less banished from the Congress in 1900–1905.<a href="#cite_note-BenjaminBaker-35">[35]</a> Parapsychology persisted for a time at Imperial University in Japan, with publications such as Clairvoyance and Thoughtography by Tomokichi Fukurai, but it was mostly shunned by 1913.<a href="#cite_note-Takasuna-36">[36]</a> As a discipline, psychology has long sought to fend off accusations that it is a <a href="/wiki/Soft_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Soft science">"soft" science</a>. Philosopher of science <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a>'s 1962 critique implied psychology overall was in a pre-paradigm state, lacking agreement on the type of overarching theory found in mature hard sciences such as chemistry and physics.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Because some areas of psychology rely on research methods such as <a href="/wiki/Self-report_study" title="Self-report study">self-reports</a> in surveys and questionnaires, critics asserted that psychology is not an <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_and_subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity and subjectivity">objective</a> science. Skeptics have suggested that personality, thinking, and emotion cannot be directly measured and are often inferred from subjective self-reports, which may be problematic. Experimental psychologists have devised a variety of ways to indirectly measure these elusive phenomenological entities.<a href="#cite_note-Beveridge_subj-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-Peterson_subj-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-Panksepp_AN-91">[91]</a> Divisions still exist within the field, with some psychologists more oriented towards the unique experiences of individual humans, which cannot be understood only as data points within a larger population. Critics inside and outside the field have argued that mainstream psychology has become increasingly dominated by a "cult of empiricism", which limits the scope of research because investigators restrict themselves to methods derived from the physical sciences.<a href="#cite_note-Teo_2005-92">[92]</a>: <span title="Pages: 36–7
Quotation: "Methodologism means that the method dominates the problem, problems are chosen in subordination to the respected method, and psychology has to adopt without question, the methods of the natural sciences. ... From an epistemological and ontological-critical as well as from a human-scientific perspective the experiment in psychology has limited value (for example, only for basic psychological processes), given the nature of the psychological subject matter, and the reality of persons and their capabilities."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">36–7  Feminist critiques have argued that claims to scientific objectivity obscure the values and agenda of (historically) mostly male researchers.<a href="#cite_note-Tomes2008-41">[41]</a> Jean Grimshaw, for example, argues that mainstream psychological research has advanced a <a href="/wiki/Patriarchal" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarchal">patriarchal</a> agenda through its efforts to control behavior.<a href="#cite_note-Teo_2005-92">[92]</a>: <span title="Page: 120
Quotation: "Pervasive in feminist critiques of science, with the exception of feminist empiricism, is the rejection of positivist assumptions, including the assumption of value-neutrality or that research can only be objective if subjectivity and emotional dimensions are excluded, when in fact culture, personality, and institutions play significant roles (see Longino, 1990; Longino & Doell, 1983). For psychology, Grimshaw (1986) discussed behaviorism's goals of modification, suggesting that behaviorist principles reinforced a hierarchical position between controller and controlled and that behaviorism was in principle an antidemocratic program."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">120  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_schools_of_thought">Major schools of thought</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological">Biological</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simulated_Connectivity_Damage_of_Phineas_Gage_4_vanHorn_PathwaysDamaged.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Simulated_Connectivity_Damage_of_Phineas_Gage_4_vanHorn_PathwaysDamaged.jpg/220px-Simulated_Connectivity_Damage_of_Phineas_Gage_4_vanHorn_PathwaysDamaged.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Simulated_Connectivity_Damage_of_Phineas_Gage_4_vanHorn_PathwaysDamaged.jpg/330px-Simulated_Connectivity_Damage_of_Phineas_Gage_4_vanHorn_PathwaysDamaged.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Simulated_Connectivity_Damage_of_Phineas_Gage_4_vanHorn_PathwaysDamaged.jpg/440px-Simulated_Connectivity_Damage_of_Phineas_Gage_4_vanHorn_PathwaysDamaged.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1234" data-file-height="891" /></a><figcaption>False-color representations of <a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">cerebral fiber</a> pathways affected, per Van Horn et al.<a href="#CITEREFV">[V]</a>: 3  </figcaption></figure> Psychologists generally consider biology the substrate of thought and feeling, and therefore an important area of study. Behaviorial neuroscience, also known as biological psychology, involves the application of biological principles to the study of physiological and genetic mechanisms underlying behavior in humans and other animals. The allied field of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">comparative psychology</a> is the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> A leading question in behavioral neuroscience has been whether and how mental functions are <a href="/wiki/Functional_specialization_(brain)" title="Functional specialization (brain)">localized in the brain</a>. From <a href="/wiki/Phineas_Gage" title="Phineas Gage">Phineas Gage</a> to <a href="/wiki/Henry_Molaison" title="Henry Molaison">H.M.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clive_Wearing" title="Clive Wearing">Clive Wearing</a>, individual people with mental deficits traceable to physical brain damage have inspired new discoveries in this area.<a href="#cite_note-ThompsonZola-94">[94]</a> Modern behavioral neuroscience could be said to originate in the 1870s, when in France <a href="/wiki/Paul_Broca" title="Paul Broca">Paul Broca</a> traced production of speech to the left frontal gyrus, thereby also demonstrating hemispheric lateralization of brain function. Soon after, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wernicke" title="Carl Wernicke">Carl Wernicke</a> identified a related area necessary for the understanding of speech.<a href="#cite_note-Luria_1973-95">[95]</a>: 20–2  The contemporary field of <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral neuroscience</a> focuses on the physical basis of behavior. Behaviorial neuroscientists use animal models, often relying on rats, to study the neural, genetic, and cellular mechanisms that underlie behaviors involved in learning, memory, and fear responses.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscientists</a>, by using neural imaging tools, investigate the neural correlates of psychological processes in humans. <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychologists</a> conduct psychological assessments to determine how an individual's behavior and cognition are related to the brain. The <a href="/wiki/Biopsychosocial_model" title="Biopsychosocial model">biopsychosocial model</a> is a cross-disciplinary, holistic model that concerns the ways in which interrelationships of biological, psychological, and socio-environmental factors affect health and behavior.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a> approaches thought and behavior from a modern <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> perspective. This perspective suggests that psychological adaptations evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments. Evolutionary psychologists attempt to find out how human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, the results of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a> over the course of human evolution.<a href="#cite_note-Behavior_Genetics-98">[98]</a> The history of the biological foundations of psychology includes evidence of racism. The idea of white supremacy and indeed the modern concept of race itself arose during the process of world conquest by Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carl_von_Linnaeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl von Linnaeus">Carl von Linnaeus</a>'s four-fold classification of humans classifies Europeans as intelligent and severe, Americans as contented and free, Asians as ritualistic, and Africans as lazy and capricious. Race was also used to justify the construction of socially specific mental disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Drapetomania" title="Drapetomania">drapetomania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dysaesthesia_aethiopica" title="Dysaesthesia aethiopica">dysaesthesia aethiopica</a>—the behavior of uncooperative African slaves.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> After the creation of experimental psychology, "ethnical psychology" emerged as a subdiscipline, based on the assumption that studying primitive races would provide an important link between animal behavior and the psychology of more evolved humans.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Behaviorist">Behaviorist</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychological_behaviorism" title="Psychological behaviorism">Psychological behaviorism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radical_behaviorism" title="Radical behaviorism">Radical behaviorism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skinner_teaching_machine_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Skinner_teaching_machine_01.jpg/220px-Skinner_teaching_machine_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Skinner_teaching_machine_01.jpg/330px-Skinner_teaching_machine_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Skinner_teaching_machine_01.jpg/440px-Skinner_teaching_machine_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2602" data-file-height="1804" /></a><figcaption>Skinner's <a href="/wiki/Teaching_machine" title="Teaching machine">teaching machine</a>, a mechanical invention to automate the task of <a href="/wiki/Programmed_instruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Programmed instruction">programmed instruction</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Little_Albert_experiment_%281920%29.webm/220px-seek%3D192-Little_Albert_experiment_%281920%29.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="201" data-mwtitle="Little_Albert_experiment_(1920).webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Little_Albert_experiment_(1920).webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e3/Little_Albert_experiment_%281920%29.webm/Little_Albert_experiment_%281920%29.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="322" data-height="242" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Little_Albert_experiment_%281920%29.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8"" data-width="322" data-height="242" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e3/Little_Albert_experiment_%281920%29.webm/Little_Albert_experiment_%281920%29.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e3/Little_Albert_experiment_%281920%29.webm/Little_Albert_experiment_%281920%29.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ALittle_Albert_experiment_%281920%29.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>The film of the Little Albert experiment</figcaption></figure> A tenet of behavioral research is that a large part of both human and lower-animal behavior is learned. A principle associated with behavioral research is that the mechanisms involved in learning apply to humans and non-human animals. Behavioral researchers have developed a treatment known as <a href="/wiki/Behavior_modification" title="Behavior modification">behavior modification</a>, which is used to help individuals replace undesirable behaviors with desirable ones. Early behavioral researchers studied stimulus–response pairings, now known as <a href="/wiki/Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">classical conditioning</a>. They demonstrated that when a biologically potent stimulus (e.g., food that elicits salivation) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) over several learning trials, the neutral stimulus by itself can come to elicit the response the biologically potent stimulus elicits. <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a>—known best for inducing dogs to salivate in the presence of a stimulus previously linked with food—became a leading figure in the Soviet Union and inspired followers to use his methods on humans.<a href="#cite_note-SirotkinaSmith-39">[39]</a> In the United States, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Lee_Thorndike" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Lee Thorndike">Edward Lee Thorndike</a> initiated "<a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">connectionist</a>" studies by trapping animals in "puzzle boxes" and rewarding them for escaping. Thorndike wrote in 1911, "There can be no moral warrant for studying man's nature unless the study will enable us to control his acts."<a href="#cite_note-Leahey_2001-31">[31]</a>: 212–5  From 1910 to 1913 the American Psychological Association went through a sea change of opinion, away from <a href="/wiki/Mentalism_(psychology)" title="Mentalism (psychology)">mentalism</a> and towards "behavioralism." In 1913, John B. Watson coined the term behaviorism for this school of thought.<a href="#cite_note-Leahey_2001-31">[31]</a>: 218–27  Watson's famous <a href="/wiki/Little_Albert_experiment" title="Little Albert experiment">Little Albert experiment</a> in 1920 was at first thought to demonstrate that repeated use of upsetting loud noises could instill <a href="/wiki/Phobia" title="Phobia">phobias</a> (aversions to other stimuli) in an infant human,<a href="#cite_note-Watson1913-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> although such a conclusion was likely an exaggeration.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Lashley" title="Karl Lashley">Karl Lashley</a>, a close collaborator with Watson, examined biological manifestations of learning in the brain.<a href="#cite_note-ThompsonZola-94">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Clark_L._Hull" title="Clark L. Hull">Clark L. Hull</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Guthrie" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Guthrie">Edwin Guthrie</a>, and others did much to help behaviorism become a widely used paradigm.<a href="#cite_note-Goodwin-37">[37]</a> A new method of "instrumental" or "<a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">operant</a>" conditioning added the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Reinforcement" title="Reinforcement">reinforcement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">punishment</a> to the model of behavior change. <a href="/wiki/Radical_behaviorism" title="Radical behaviorism">Radical behaviorists</a> avoided discussing the inner workings of the mind, especially the unconscious mind, which they considered impossible to assess scientifically.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Operant conditioning was first described by Miller and Kanorski and popularized in the U.S. by <a href="/wiki/B.F._Skinner" class="mw-redirect" title="B.F. Skinner">B.F. Skinner</a>, who emerged as a leading intellectual of the behaviorist movement.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a> published an influential critique of radical behaviorism on the grounds that behaviorist principles could not adequately explain the complex mental process of <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">language acquisition</a> and language use.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schlinger_2008-108">[108]</a> The review, which was scathing, did much to reduce the status of behaviorism within psychology.<a href="#cite_note-Leahey_2001-31">[31]</a>: 282–5  <a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Martin Seligman</a> and his colleagues discovered that they could condition in dogs a state of "<a href="/wiki/Learned_helplessness" title="Learned helplessness">learned helplessness</a>", which was not predicted by the behaviorist approach to psychology.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_C._Tolman" title="Edward C. Tolman">Edward C. Tolman</a> advanced a hybrid "cognitive behavioral" model, most notably with his 1948 publication discussing the <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_map" title="Cognitive map">cognitive maps</a> used by rats to guess at the location of food at the end of a maze.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Skinner's behaviorism did not die, in part because it generated successful practical applications.<a href="#cite_note-Schlinger_2008-108">[108]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Behavior_Analysis_International" title="Association for Behavior Analysis International">Association for Behavior Analysis International</a> was founded in 1974 and by 2003 had members from 42 countries. The field has gained a foothold in Latin America and Japan.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a> is the term used for the application of the principles of operant conditioning to change socially significant behavior (it supersedes the term, "behavior modification").<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive">Cognitive</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Working_memory_model.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Working_memory_model.svg/220px-Working_memory_model.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Working_memory_model.svg/330px-Working_memory_model.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Working_memory_model.svg/440px-Working_memory_model.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="269" data-file-height="180" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Baddeley%27s_model_of_working_memory" title="Baddeley's model of working memory">Baddeley's model of working memory</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M%C3%BCller-Lyer_illusion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/M%C3%BCller-Lyer_illusion.svg/220px-M%C3%BCller-Lyer_illusion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/M%C3%BCller-Lyer_illusion.svg/330px-M%C3%BCller-Lyer_illusion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/M%C3%BCller-Lyer_illusion.svg/440px-M%C3%BCller-Lyer_illusion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCller%E2%80%93Lyer_illusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Müller–Lyer illusion">Müller–Lyer illusion</a>. Psychologists make inferences about mental processes from shared phenomena such as optical illusions.</figcaption></figure> <div style="background:#CCC;border:1px solid #666;float:right;width:24%;padding:4px;margin:0 0 2px 2px; font-size:98%"> Green Red Blue Purple Blue Purple <hr /> Blue Purple Red Green Purple Green <hr /> The Stroop effect is the fact that naming the color of the first set of words is easier and quicker than the second. </div> Cognitive psychology involves the study of <a href="/wiki/Mental_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental process">mental processes</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">attention</a>, language comprehension and production, <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>, and problem solving.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Researchers in the field of cognitive psychology are sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">cognitivists</a>. They rely on an <a href="/wiki/Information_processing_(psychology)" title="Information processing (psychology)">information processing</a> model of mental functioning. Cognitivist research is informed by <a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">functionalism</a> and experimental psychology. Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques developed by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others re-emerged as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitivist and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider, interdisciplinary <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mandler-116">[116]</a> Some called this development the <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">cognitive revolution</a> because it rejected the anti-mentalist dogma of behaviorism as well as the strictures of psychoanalysis.<a href="#cite_note-Mandler-116">[116]</a> <a href="/wiki/Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a> helped along the transition in psychology from behaviorism to cognitive psychology. Bandura and other <a href="/wiki/Social_learning_theory" title="Social learning theory">social learning theorists</a> advanced the idea of vicarious learning. In other words, they advanced the view that a child can learn by observing the immediate social environment and not necessarily from having been reinforced for enacting a behavior, although they did not rule out the influence of reinforcement on learning a behavior.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Technological advances also renewed interest in mental states and mental representations. English neuroscientist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sherrington" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Sherrington">Charles Sherrington</a> and Canadian psychologist <a href="/wiki/Donald_O._Hebb" title="Donald O. Hebb">Donald O. Hebb</a> used experimental methods to link psychological phenomena to the structure and function of the brain. The rise of computer science, <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> underlined the value of comparing information processing in humans and machines. A popular and representative topic in this area is <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">cognitive bias</a>, or irrational thought. Psychologists (and economists) have classified and described a <a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">sizeable catalog of biases</a> which recur frequently in human thought. The <a href="/wiki/Availability_heuristic" title="Availability heuristic">availability heuristic</a>, for example, is the tendency to overestimate the importance of something which happens to come readily to mind.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">cognitive behavioral therapy</a>, a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American psychologist <a href="/wiki/Albert_Ellis_(psychologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert Ellis (psychologist)">Albert Ellis</a> and American psychiatrist <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Beck" title="Aaron Beck">Aaron T. Beck</a>. On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise involving cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, linguists, and researchers in artificial intelligence, human–computer interaction, and <a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">computational neuroscience</a>. The discipline of cognitive science covers cognitive psychology as well as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Computer simulations are sometimes used to model phenomena of interest. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social">Social</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology (sociology)</a></div> Social psychology is concerned with how <a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">behaviors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">thoughts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">feelings</a>, and the social environment influence human interactions.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Social psychologists study such topics as the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Conformity_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conformity (psychology)">conformity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">persuasion</a>) and the formation of beliefs, <a href="/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)" title="Attitude (psychology)">attitudes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">stereotypes</a> about other people. <a href="/wiki/Social_cognition" title="Social cognition">Social cognition</a> fuses elements of social and cognitive psychology for the purpose of understanding how people process, remember, or distort social information. The study of <a href="/wiki/Group_dynamics" title="Group dynamics">group dynamics</a> involves research on the nature of leadership, organizational communication, and related phenomena. In recent years, social psychologists have become interested in <a href="/wiki/Implicit_Association_Test" class="mw-redirect" title="Implicit Association Test">implicit</a> measures, <a href="/wiki/Mediation_(statistics)" title="Mediation (statistics)">mediational</a> models, and the interaction of person and social factors in accounting for behavior. Some concepts that <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociologists</a> have applied to the study of psychiatric disorders, concepts such as the social role, sick role, social class, life events, culture, migration, and <a href="/wiki/Total_institution" title="Total institution">total institution</a>, have influenced social psychologists.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychoanalytic">Psychoanalytic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Psychodynamics" title="Psychodynamics">Psychodynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark.jpg/220px-Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark.jpg/330px-Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark.jpg/440px-Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="586" /></a><figcaption>Front row: <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>, G. Stanley Hall, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a>]. Back row: <a href="/wiki/Abraham_A._Brill" class="mw-redirect" title="Abraham A. Brill">Abraham A. Brill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Jones" title="Ernest Jones">Ernest Jones</a>, <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1ndor_Ferenczi" title="Sándor Ferenczi">Sándor Ferenczi</a> at <a href="/wiki/Clark_University" title="Clark University">Clark University</a> in 1909.</figcaption></figure> Psychoanalysis is a collection of theories and therapeutic techniques intended to analyze the unconscious mind and its impact on everyday life. These theories and techniques inform treatments for mental disorders.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Psychoanalysis originated in the 1890s, most prominently with the work of <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>. Freud's psychoanalytic theory was largely based on interpretive methods, <a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">introspection</a>, and clinical observation. It became very well known, largely because it tackled subjects such as <a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">sexuality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychological_repression" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological repression">repression</a>, and the unconscious.<a href="#cite_note-Kozulin_1984-58">[58]</a>: 84–6  Freud pioneered the methods of <a href="/wiki/Free_association_(psychology)" title="Free association (psychology)">free association</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dream_interpretation" title="Dream interpretation">dream interpretation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Psychoanalytic theory is not monolithic. Other well-known psychoanalytic thinkers who diverged from Freud include <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Adler" title="Alfred Adler">Alfred Adler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erik Erikson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melanie_Klein" title="Melanie Klein">Melanie Klein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Donald_Winnicott" title="Donald Winnicott">D.W. Winnicott</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karen_Horney" title="Karen Horney">Karen Horney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Erich Fromm</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Bowlby" title="John Bowlby">John Bowlby</a>, Freud's daughter <a href="/wiki/Anna_Freud" title="Anna Freud">Anna Freud</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Harry_Stack_Sullivan" title="Harry Stack Sullivan">Harry Stack Sullivan</a>. These individuals ensured that psychoanalysis would evolve into diverse schools of thought. Among these schools are <a href="/wiki/Ego_psychology" title="Ego psychology">ego psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Object_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Object relations">object relations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_psychoanalysis" title="Interpersonal psychoanalysis">interpersonal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Lacanian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Relational_psychoanalysis" title="Relational psychoanalysis">relational psychoanalysis</a>. Psychologists such as <a href="/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a> and philosophers including <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> sharply criticized psychoanalysis. Popper argued that psychoanalysis was not <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsifiable</a> (no claim it made could be proven wrong) and therefore inherently not a scientific discipline,<a href="#cite_note-Popper-127">[127]</a> whereas Eysenck advanced the view that psychoanalytic tenets had been contradicted by experimental data. By the end of the 20th century, psychology departments in <a href="/wiki/Higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="Higher education in the United States">American universities</a> mostly had marginalized Freudian theory, dismissing it as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen-128">[128]</a> Researchers such as <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Dam%C3%A1sio" class="mw-redirect" title="António Damásio">António Damásio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Sacks" title="Oliver Sacks">Oliver Sacks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_LeDoux" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph LeDoux">Joseph LeDoux</a>; and individuals in the emerging field of <a href="/wiki/Neuro-psychoanalysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuro-psychoanalysis">neuro-psychoanalysis</a> have defended some of Freud's ideas on scientific grounds.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Existential-humanistic">Existential-humanistic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Existential_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential psychology">Existential psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic psychology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of_Needs.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of_Needs.svg/220px-Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of_Needs.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of_Needs.svg/330px-Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of_Needs.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of_Needs.svg/440px-Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of_Needs.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Psychologist <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a> in 1943 posited that humans have a hierarchy of needs, and it makes sense to fulfill the basic needs first before higher-order needs can be met.<a href="#cite_note-honolulu-130">[130]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic psychology</a>, which has been influenced by existentialism and phenomenology,<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> stresses <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a> and <a href="/wiki/Self-actualization" title="Self-actualization">self-actualization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Oxford_University_Press_2015-132">[132]</a> It emerged in the 1950s as a movement within academic psychology, in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> The humanistic approach seeks to view the whole person, not just fragmented parts of the personality or isolated cognitions.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Humanistic psychology also focuses on personal growth, <a href="/wiki/Self-concept" title="Self-concept">self-identity</a>, death, aloneness, and freedom. It emphasizes subjective meaning, the rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than pathology. Some founders of the humanistic school of thought were American psychologists <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a>, who formulated a <a href="/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs" title="Maslow's hierarchy of needs">hierarchy of human needs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Carl Rogers</a>, who created and developed <a href="/wiki/Client-centered_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Client-centered therapy">client-centered therapy</a>. Later, <a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">positive psychology</a> opened up humanistic themes to scientific study. Positive psychology is the study of factors which contribute to human happiness and well-being, focusing more on people who are currently healthy. In 2010, Clinical Psychological Review published a special issue devoted to positive psychological interventions, such as <a href="/wiki/Gratitude_journal" title="Gratitude journal">gratitude journaling</a> and the physical expression of gratitude. It is, however, far from clear that positive psychology is effective in making people happier.<a href="#cite_note-Ehrenreich-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-Singal-136">[136]</a> Positive psychological interventions have been limited in scope, but their effects are thought to be somewhat better than <a href="/wiki/Placebo" title="Placebo">placebo</a> effects. The American Association for Humanistic Psychology, formed in 1963, declared: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Humanistic psychology is primarily an orientation toward the whole of psychology rather than a distinct area or school. It stands for respect for the worth of persons, respect for differences of approach, open-mindedness as to acceptable methods, and interest in exploration of new aspects of human behavior. As a "third force" in contemporary psychology, it is concerned with topics having little place in existing theories and systems: e.g., love, creativity, self, growth, organism, basic need-gratification, self-actualization, higher values, being, becoming, spontaneity, play, humor, affection, naturalness, warmth, ego-transcendence, objectivity, autonomy, responsibility, meaning, fair-play, transcendental experience, peak experience, courage, and related concepts.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a></blockquote> Existential psychology emphasizes the need to understand a client's total orientation towards the world. Existential psychology is opposed to reductionism, behaviorism, and other methods that objectify the individual.<a href="#cite_note-Oxford_University_Press_2015-132">[132]</a> In the 1950s and 1960s, influenced by philosophers <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist <a href="/wiki/Rollo_May" title="Rollo May">Rollo May</a> helped to develop existential psychology. <a href="/wiki/Existential_therapy" title="Existential therapy">Existential psychotherapy</a>, which follows from existential psychology, is a therapeutic approach that is based on the idea that a person's inner conflict arises from that individual's confrontation with the givens of existence. Swiss psychoanalyst <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Binswanger" title="Ludwig Binswanger">Ludwig Binswanger</a> and American psychologist <a href="/wiki/George_Kelly_(psychologist)" title="George Kelly (psychologist)">George Kelly</a> may also be said to belong to the existential school.<a href="#cite_note-Hergenhahn3-138">[138]</a> Existential psychologists tend to differ from more "humanistic" psychologists in the former's relatively neutral view of human nature and relatively positive assessment of anxiety.<a href="#cite_note-Hergenhahn4-139">[139]</a> Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths and narratives; meaning can be deepened by the acceptance of free will, which is requisite to living an <a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">authentic</a> life, albeit often with anxiety with regard to death.<a href="#cite_note-Hergenhahn-140">[140]</a> Austrian existential psychiatrist and <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a> survivor <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Frankl" title="Viktor Frankl">Viktor Frankl</a> drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic power from reflections upon his own <a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">internment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Frankl-141">[141]</a> He created a variation of existential psychotherapy called <a href="/wiki/Logotherapy" title="Logotherapy">logotherapy</a>, a type of <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialist</a> analysis that focuses on a will to meaning (in one's life), as opposed to Adler's <a href="/wiki/Nietzsche" class="mw-redirect" title="Nietzsche">Nietzschean</a> doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Will_to_power" title="Will to power">will to power</a> or Freud's <a href="/wiki/Pleasure_principle_(psychology)" title="Pleasure principle (psychology)">will to pleasure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Themes">Themes</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personality">Personality</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality psychology</a></div> Personality psychology is concerned with enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. Theories of personality vary across different psychological schools of thought. Each theory carries different assumptions about such features as the role of the unconscious and the importance of childhood experience. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of the <a href="/wiki/Id,_ego,_and_super-ego" class="mw-redirect" title="Id, ego, and super-ego">id, ego, and super-ego</a>.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> By contrast, <a href="/wiki/Trait_theorist" class="mw-redirect" title="Trait theorist">trait theorists</a> have developed taxonomies of personality constructs in describing personality in terms of key traits. Trait theorists have often employed statistical data-reduction methods, such as <a href="/wiki/Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">factor analysis</a>. Although the number of proposed traits has varied widely, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a>'s early biologically based model suggests at least three major trait constructs are necessary to describe human personality, <a href="/wiki/Extraversion_and_introversion" title="Extraversion and introversion">extraversion–introversion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuroticism" title="Neuroticism">neuroticism</a>-stability, and <a href="/wiki/Psychoticism" title="Psychoticism">psychoticism</a>-normality. <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Cattell" title="Raymond Cattell">Raymond Cattell</a> empirically derived a theory of <a href="/wiki/16_personality_factors" class="mw-redirect" title="16 personality factors">16 personality factors</a> at the primary-factor level and up to eight broader second-stratum factors.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Since the 1980s, the <a href="/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits" title="Big Five personality traits">Big Five</a> (<a href="/wiki/Openness_to_experience" title="Openness to experience">openness to experience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conscientiousness" title="Conscientiousness">conscientiousness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extraversion_and_introversion" title="Extraversion and introversion">extraversion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agreeableness" title="Agreeableness">agreeableness</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neuroticism" title="Neuroticism">neuroticism</a>) emerged as an important trait theory of personality.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Dimensional models of personality are receiving increasing support, and a version of dimensional assessment has been included in the <a href="/wiki/DSM-V" class="mw-redirect" title="DSM-V">DSM-V</a>. However, despite a plethora of research into the various versions of the "Big Five" personality dimensions, it appears necessary to move on from static conceptualizations of personality structure to a more dynamic orientation, acknowledging that personality constructs are subject to learning and change over the lifespan.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> An early example of personality assessment was the <a href="/wiki/Woodworth_Personal_Data_Sheet" title="Woodworth Personal Data Sheet">Woodworth Personal Data Sheet</a>, constructed during World War I. The popular, although psychometrically inadequate, <a href="/wiki/Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator" title="Myers–Briggs Type Indicator">Myers–Briggs Type Indicator</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> was developed to assess individuals' "personality types" according to the <a href="/wiki/Psychological_Types" title="Psychological Types">personality theories of Carl Jung</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Minnesota_Multiphasic_Personality_Inventory" title="Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory">Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory</a> (MMPI), despite its name, is more a dimensional measure of psychopathology than a personality measure.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> <a href="/wiki/California_Psychological_Inventory" title="California Psychological Inventory">California Psychological Inventory</a> contains 20 personality scales (e.g., independence, tolerance).<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> The <a href="/wiki/International_Personality_Item_Pool" title="International Personality Item Pool">International Personality Item Pool</a>, which is in the public domain, has become a source of scales that can be used personality assessment.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unconscious_mind">Unconscious mind</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Unconscious_mind#Psychology" title="Unconscious mind">Unconscious mind § Psychology</a></div> Study of the unconscious mind, a part of the psyche outside the individual's awareness but that is believed to influence conscious thought and behavior, was a hallmark of early psychology. In one of the first psychology experiments conducted in the United States, <a href="/wiki/C.S._Peirce" class="mw-redirect" title="C.S. Peirce">C.S. Peirce</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Jastrow" title="Joseph Jastrow">Joseph Jastrow</a> found in 1884 that research subjects could choose the minutely heavier of two weights even if consciously uncertain of the difference.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Freud popularized the concept of the unconscious mind, particularly when he referred to an uncensored intrusion of unconscious thought into one's speech (a <a href="/wiki/Freudian_slip" title="Freudian slip">Freudian slip</a>) or to his efforts <a href="/wiki/The_Interpretation_of_Dreams" title="The Interpretation of Dreams">to interpret dreams</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> His 1901 book <a href="/wiki/The_Psychopathology_of_Everyday_Life" title="The Psychopathology of Everyday Life">The Psychopathology of Everyday Life</a> catalogs hundreds of everyday events that Freud explains in terms of unconscious influence. <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Janet" title="Pierre Janet">Pierre Janet</a> advanced the idea of a subconscious mind, which could contain autonomous mental elements unavailable to the direct scrutiny of the subject.<a href="#cite_note-Kihlstrom1999-157">[157]</a> The concept of unconscious processes has remained important in psychology. Cognitive psychologists have used a "filter" model of attention. According to the model, much information processing takes place below the threshold of consciousness, and only certain stimuli, limited by their nature and number, make their way through the filter. Much research has shown that subconscious <a href="/wiki/Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">priming</a> of certain ideas can covertly influence thoughts and behavior.<a href="#cite_note-Kihlstrom1999-157">[157]</a> Because of the unreliability of self-reporting, a major hurdle in this type of research involves demonstrating that a subject's conscious mind has not perceived a target stimulus. For this reason, some psychologists prefer to distinguish between <a href="/wiki/Implicit_memory" title="Implicit memory">implicit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">explicit</a> memory. In another approach, one can also describe a <a href="/wiki/Subliminal_stimulus" class="mw-redirect" title="Subliminal stimulus">subliminal stimulus</a> as meeting an objective but not a subjective threshold.<a href="#cite_note-BanksFarber-158">[158]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Automaticity" title="Automaticity">automaticity</a> model of <a href="/wiki/John_Bargh" title="John Bargh">John Bargh</a> and others involves the ideas of automaticity and unconscious processing in our understanding of <a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">social behavior</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Barghs-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-KihlstromJuggernaut-160">[160]</a> although there has been dispute with regard to replication.<a href="#cite_note-Doyen2012-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Some experimental data suggest that the <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_free_will" title="Neuroscience of free will">brain begins to consider taking actions</a> before the mind becomes aware of them.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> The influence of unconscious forces on people's choices bears on the philosophical question of free will. John Bargh, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Wegner" title="Daniel Wegner">Daniel Wegner</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ellen_Langer" title="Ellen Langer">Ellen Langer</a> <a href="/wiki/Illusion_of_control" title="Illusion of control">describe free will as an illusion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Barghs-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-KihlstromJuggernaut-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motivation">Motivation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">Motivation</a></div> Some psychologists study motivation or the subject of why people or lower animals initiate a behavior at a particular time. It also involves the study of why humans and lower animals continue or terminate a behavior. Psychologists such as William James initially used the term motivation to refer to intention, in a sense similar to the concept of <a href="/wiki/Will_(philosophy)" title="Will (philosophy)">will</a> in European philosophy. With the steady rise of Darwinian and Freudian thinking, instinct also came to be seen as a primary source of motivation.<a href="#cite_note-ForgasEtAl-165">[165]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Drive_theory" title="Drive theory">drive theory</a>, the forces of instinct combine into a single source of energy which exerts a constant influence. Psychoanalysis, like biology, regarded these forces as demands originating in the nervous system. Psychoanalysts believed that these forces, especially the sexual instincts, could become entangled and transmuted within the psyche. Classical psychoanalysis conceives of a struggle between the pleasure principle and the <a href="/wiki/Reality_principle" title="Reality principle">reality principle</a>, roughly corresponding to id and ego. Later, in <a href="/wiki/Beyond_the_Pleasure_Principle" title="Beyond the Pleasure Principle">Beyond the Pleasure Principle</a>, Freud introduced the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Death_drive" title="Death drive">death drive</a>, a compulsion towards aggression, destruction, and <a href="/wiki/Repetition_compulsion" title="Repetition compulsion">psychic repetition of traumatic events</a>.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> Meanwhile, behaviorist researchers used simple dichotomous models (pleasure/pain, reward/punishment) and well-established principles such as the idea that a thirsty creature will take pleasure in drinking.<a href="#cite_note-ForgasEtAl-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-GodsilEtAl-167">[167]</a> <a href="/wiki/Clark_Hull" class="mw-redirect" title="Clark Hull">Clark Hull</a> formalized the latter idea with his <a href="/wiki/Drive_reduction_theory_(learning_theory)" title="Drive reduction theory (learning theory)">drive reduction</a> model.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Hunger, thirst, fear, sexual desire, and thermoregulation constitute fundamental motivations in animals.<a href="#cite_note-GodsilEtAl-167">[167]</a> Humans seem to exhibit a more complex set of motivations—though theoretically these could be explained as resulting from desires for belonging, positive self-image, self-consistency, truth, love, and control.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Motivation can be modulated or manipulated in many different ways. Researchers have found that <a href="/wiki/Eating" title="Eating">eating</a>, for example, depends not only on the organism's fundamental need for <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a>—an important factor causing the experience of hunger—but also on circadian rhythms, food availability, food palatability, and cost.<a href="#cite_note-GodsilEtAl-167">[167]</a> Abstract motivations are also malleable, as evidenced by such phenomena as goal contagion: the adoption of goals, sometimes unconsciously, based on inferences about the goals of others.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> Vohs and <a href="/wiki/Roy_Baumeister" title="Roy Baumeister">Baumeister</a> suggest that contrary to the need-desire-fulfillment cycle of animal instincts, human motivations sometimes obey a "getting begets wanting" rule: the more you get a reward such as self-esteem, love, drugs, or money, the more you want it. They suggest that this principle can even apply to food, drink, sex, and sleep.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_psychology">Development psychology</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental psychology</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baby_with_book.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Baby_with_book.jpg/220px-Baby_with_book.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Baby_with_book.jpg/330px-Baby_with_book.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Baby_with_book.jpg/440px-Baby_with_book.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Developmental psychologists engage a child with a book and then make observations based on how the child interacts with the object.</figcaption></figure> Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why the thought processes, emotions, and behaviors of humans change over the course of their lives.<a href="#cite_note-Crain-173">[173]</a> Some credit Charles Darwin with conducting the first systematic study within the rubric of developmental psychology, having published in 1877 a short paper detailing the development of innate forms of communication based on his observations of his infant son.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> The main origins of the discipline, however, are found in the work of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a>. Like Piaget, developmental psychologists originally focused primarily on the development of cognition from infancy to adolescence. Later, developmental psychology extended itself to the study cognition over the life span. In addition to studying cognition, developmental psychologists have also come to focus on affective, behavioral, moral, social, and neural development. Developmental psychologists who study children use a number of research methods. For example, they make observations of children in natural settings such as preschools<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> and engage them in experimental tasks.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful. Developmental researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of infants.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study aging and processes throughout the life span, including old age.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> These psychologists draw on the full range of psychological theories to inform their research.<a href="#cite_note-Crain-173">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genes_and_environment">Genes and environment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioural genetics</a></div> All researched psychological traits are influenced by both <a href="/wiki/Genes" class="mw-redirect" title="Genes">genes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">environment</a>, to varying degrees.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> These two sources of influence are often confounded in observational research of individuals and families. An example of this confounding can be shown in the transmission of <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a> from a depressed mother to her offspring. A theory based on environmental transmission would hold that an offspring, by virtue of their having a problematic rearing environment managed by a depressed mother, is at risk for developing depression. On the other hand, a hereditarian theory would hold that depression risk in an offspring is influenced to some extent by genes passed to the child from the mother. Genes and environment in these simple transmission models are completely confounded. A depressed mother may both carry genes that contribute to depression in her offspring and also create a rearing environment that increases the risk of depression in her child.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> Behavioral genetics researchers have employed methodologies that help to disentangle this confound and understand the nature and origins of individual differences in behavior.<a href="#cite_note-Behavior_Genetics-98">[98]</a> Traditionally the research has involved <a href="/wiki/Twin_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Twin studies">twin studies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adoption_study" title="Adoption study">adoption studies</a>, two designs where genetic and environmental influences can be partially un-confounded. More recently, gene-focused research has contributed to understanding genetic contributions to the development of psychological traits. The availability of <a href="/wiki/Microarray" title="Microarray">microarray</a> <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Genome_sequencing" class="mw-redirect" title="Genome sequencing">genome sequencing</a> technologies allows researchers to measure participant DNA variation directly, and test whether individual genetic variants within genes are associated with psychological traits and <a href="/wiki/Psychopathology" title="Psychopathology">psychopathology</a> through methods including <a href="/wiki/Genome-wide_association_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Genome-wide association studies">genome-wide association studies</a>. One goal of such research is similar to that in <a href="/wiki/Positional_cloning" class="mw-redirect" title="Positional cloning">positional cloning</a> and its success in <a href="/wiki/Huntington%27s" class="mw-redirect" title="Huntington's">Huntington's</a>: once a causal gene is discovered biological research can be conducted to understand how that gene influences the phenotype. One major result of genetic association studies is the general finding that psychological traits and psychopathology, as well as complex medical diseases, are highly <a href="/wiki/Polygenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polygenic">polygenic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> where a large number (on the order of hundreds to thousands) of genetic variants, each of small effect, contribute to individual differences in the behavioral trait or propensity to the disorder. Active research continues to work toward understanding the genetic and environmental bases of behavior and their interaction. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline of psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_psychology_disciplines" class="mw-redirect" title="List of psychology disciplines">List of psychology disciplines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Subfields_of_psychology" title="Subfields of psychology">Subfields of psychology</a></div> Psychology encompasses many subfields and includes different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychological_testing">Psychological testing</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_statistics" title="Social statistics">social statistics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francis_Galton_1850s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Francis_Galton_1850s.jpg/220px-Francis_Galton_1850s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Francis_Galton_1850s.jpg/330px-Francis_Galton_1850s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Francis_Galton_1850s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="543" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a>, a pioneer of the experimental psychology field</figcaption></figure> Psychological testing has ancient origins, dating as far back as 2200 BC, in the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">examinations for the Chinese civil service</a>. Written exams began during the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (202 BC – AD 220). By 1370, the Chinese system required a stratified series of tests, involving essay writing and knowledge of diverse topics. The system was ended in 1906.<a href="#cite_note-Gregory_2011-187">[187]</a>: 41–2  In Europe, mental assessment took a different approach, with theories of <a href="/wiki/Physiognomy" title="Physiognomy">physiognomy</a>—judgment of character based on the face—described by Aristotle in 4th century BC Greece. Physiognomy remained current through the Enlightenment, and added the doctrine of phrenology: a study of mind and intelligence based on simple assessment of neuroanatomy.<a href="#cite_note-Gregory_2011-187">[187]</a>: 42–3  When experimental psychology came to Britain, Francis Galton was a leading practitioner. By virtue of his procedures for measuring reaction time and sensation, he is considered an inventor of modern mental testing (also known as <a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">psychometrics</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Gregory_2011-187">[187]</a>: 44–5  James McKeen Cattell, a student of Wundt and Galton, brought the idea of psychological testing to the United States, and in fact coined the term "mental test".<a href="#cite_note-Gregory_2011-187">[187]</a>: 45–6  In 1901, Cattell's student <a href="/wiki/Clark_Wissler" title="Clark Wissler">Clark Wissler</a> published discouraging results, suggesting that mental testing of Columbia and Barnard students failed to predict academic performance.<a href="#cite_note-Gregory_2011-187">[187]</a>: 45–6  In response to 1904 orders from the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Education_(France)" title="Ministry of National Education (France)">Minister of Public Instruction</a>, One example of an observational study was run by Arthur Bandura. This observational study focused on children who were exposed to an adult exhibiting aggressive behaviors and their reaction to toys versus other children who were not exposed to these stimuli. The result shows that children who had seen the adult acting aggressively towards a toy, in turn, were aggressive towards their own toy when put in a situation that frustrated them.<a href="#cite_note-:0-188">[188]</a> psychologists <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Binet" title="Alfred Binet">Alfred Binet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Simon" title="Théodore Simon">Théodore Simon</a> developed and elaborated a new test of intelligence in 1905–1911. They used a range of questions diverse in their nature and difficulty. Binet and Simon introduced the concept of <a href="/wiki/Mental_age" title="Mental age">mental age</a> and referred to the lowest scorers on their test as <a href="/wiki/Idiot" title="Idiot">idiots</a>. <a href="/wiki/Henry_H._Goddard" title="Henry H. Goddard">Henry H. Goddard</a> put the Binet-Simon scale to work and introduced classifications of mental level such as imbecile and feebleminded. In 1916, (after Binet's death), Stanford professor <a href="/wiki/Lewis_M._Terman" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis M. Terman">Lewis M. Terman</a> modified the Binet-Simon scale (renamed the <a href="/wiki/Stanford%E2%80%93Binet_Intelligence_Scales" title="Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales">Stanford–Binet scale</a>) and introduced the <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">intelligence quotient</a> as a score report.<a href="#cite_note-Gregory_2011-187">[187]</a>: 50–56  Based on his test findings, and reflecting the racism common to that era, Terman concluded that intellectual disability "represents the level of intelligence which is very, very common among Spanish-Indians and Mexican families of the Southwest and also among negroes. Their dullness seems to be racial."<a href="#cite_note-Guthrie1998Chapter3-189">[189]</a> Following the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests, which was developed by psychologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Yerkes" title="Robert Yerkes">Robert Yerkes</a> in 1917 and then used in World War 1 by industrial and organizational psychologists for large-scale employee testing and selection of military personnel.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> Mental testing also became popular in the U.S., where it was applied to schoolchildren. The federally created National Intelligence Test was administered to 7 million children in the 1920s. In 1926, the <a href="/wiki/College_Entrance_Examination_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="College Entrance Examination Board">College Entrance Examination Board</a> created the <a href="/wiki/Scholastic_Aptitude_Test" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholastic Aptitude Test">Scholastic Aptitude Test</a> to standardize college admissions.<a href="#cite_note-Gregory_2011-187">[187]</a>: 61  The results of intelligence tests were used to argue for segregated schools and economic functions, including the preferential training of Black Americans for manual labor. These practices were criticized by Black intellectuals such a <a href="/wiki/Horace_Mann_Bond" title="Horace Mann Bond">Horace Mann Bond</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allison_Davis_(anthropologist)" title="Allison Davis (anthropologist)">Allison Davis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Guthrie1998Chapter3-189">[189]</a> Eugenicists used mental testing to justify and organize compulsory sterilization of individuals classified as mentally retarded (now referred to as <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a>).<a href="#cite_note-GuthrieChapter4-46">[46]</a> In the United States, tens of thousands of men and women were sterilized. Setting a precedent that has never been overturned, the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed the constitutionality of this practice in the 1927 case <a href="/wiki/Buck_v._Bell" title="Buck v. Bell">Buck v. Bell</a>.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> Today mental testing is a routine phenomenon for people of all ages in Western societies.<a href="#cite_note-Gregory_2011-187">[187]</a>: <span title="Page: 2
Quotation: "From birth to old age, we encounter tests at almost every turning point in life. ... Tests are used in almost every nation on earth for counseling, selection, and placement. Testing occurs in settings as diverse as schools, civil service, industry, medical clinics, and counseling centers. Most persons have taken dozens of tests and thought nothing of it. Yet, by the time the typical individual reaches retirement age, it is likely that psychological test results will have helped to shape his or her destiny."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">2  Modern testing aspires to criteria including standardization of procedure, <a href="/wiki/Reliability_(psychometrics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reliability (psychometrics)">consistency of results</a>, output of an interpretable score, statistical norms describing population outcomes, and, ideally, <a href="/wiki/Test_validity" title="Test validity">effective prediction</a> of behavior and life outcomes outside of testing situations.<a href="#cite_note-Gregory_2011-187">[187]</a>: 4–6  Psychological testing is regularly used in forensic contexts to aid legal judgments and decisions.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> Developments in psychometrics include work on test and scale <a href="/wiki/Reliability_(statistics)" title="Reliability (statistics)">reliability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Test_validity" title="Test validity">validity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> Developments in <a href="/wiki/Item-response_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Item-response theory">item-response theory</a>,<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> <a href="/wiki/Structural_equation_modeling" title="Structural equation modeling">structural equation modeling</a>,<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> and bifactor analysis<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> have helped in strengthening test and scale construction. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mental_health_care">Mental health care</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical psychology</a></div> The provision of psychological health services is generally called clinical psychology in the U.S. Sometimes, however, members of the school psychology and counseling psychology professions engage in practices that resemble that of clinical psychologists. Clinical psychologists typically include people who have graduated from doctoral programs in clinical psychology. In Canada, some of the members of the abovementioned groups usually fall within the larger category of <a href="/wiki/Professional_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional psychology">professional psychology</a>. In Canada and the U.S., practitioners get bachelor's degrees and doctorates; doctoral students in clinical psychology usually spend one year in a predoctoral internship and one year in postdoctoral internship. In Mexico and most other Latin American and European countries, psychologists do not get bachelor's and doctoral degrees; instead, they take a three-year professional course following high school.<a href="#cite_note-HallHurley-87">[87]</a> Clinical psychology is at present the largest specialization within psychology.<a href="#cite_note-StrickerWidiger-197">[197]</a> It includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychological distress, dysfunction, and/or <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a>. Clinical psychologists also try to promote subjective well-being and personal growth. Central to the practice of clinical psychology are psychological assessment and psychotherapy although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration.<a href="#cite_note-brain-198">[198]</a> Credit for the first psychology clinic in the United States typically goes to <a href="/wiki/Lightner_Witmer" title="Lightner Witmer">Lightner Witmer</a>, who established his practice in Philadelphia in 1896. Another modern psychotherapist was <a href="/wiki/Morton_Prince" title="Morton Prince">Morton Prince</a>, an early advocate for the establishment of psychology as a clinical and academic discipline.<a href="#cite_note-StrickerWidiger-197">[197]</a> In the first part of the twentieth century, most mental health care in the United States was performed by psychiatrists, who are medical doctors. Psychology entered the field with its refinements of mental testing, which promised to improve the diagnosis of mental problems. For their part, some psychiatrists became interested in using <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a> and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Psychodynamic_psychotherapy" title="Psychodynamic psychotherapy">psychodynamic psychotherapy</a> to understand and treat the mentally ill.<a href="#cite_note-Tomes2008-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> Psychotherapy as conducted by psychiatrists blurred the distinction between psychiatry and psychology, and this trend continued with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Community_mental_health_service" title="Community mental health service">community mental health facilities</a>. Some in the clinical psychology community adopted <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral therapy">behavioral therapy</a>, a thoroughly non-psychodynamic model that used behaviorist learning theory to change the actions of patients. A key aspect of behavior therapy is empirical evaluation of the treatment's effectiveness. In the 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive-behavior_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive-behavior therapy">cognitive-behavior therapy</a> emerged with the work of <a href="/wiki/Albert_Ellis" title="Albert Ellis">Albert Ellis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Beck" title="Aaron Beck">Aaron Beck</a>. Although there are similarities between behavior therapy and cognitive-behavior therapy, cognitive-behavior therapy required the application of cognitive constructs. Since the 1970s, the popularity of cognitive-behavior therapy among clinical psychologists increased. A key practice in behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapy is exposing patients to things they fear, based on the premise that their responses (fear, panic, anxiety) can be deconditioned.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> Mental health care today involves psychologists and social workers in increasing numbers. In 1977, National Institute of Mental Health director <a href="/wiki/Bertram_S._Brown" title="Bertram S. Brown">Bertram Brown</a> described this shift as a source of "intense competition and role confusion."<a href="#cite_note-Tomes2008-41">[41]</a> Graduate programs issuing doctorates in clinical psychology emerged in the 1950s and underwent rapid increase through the 1980s. The PhD degree is intended to train practitioners who could also conduct scientific research. The PsyD degree is more exclusively designed to train practitioners.<a href="#cite_note-HallHurley-87">[87]</a> Some clinical psychologists focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury. This subspecialty is known as <a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuropsychology" title="Clinical neuropsychology">clinical neuropsychology</a>. In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession. The emerging field of disaster psychology (see <a href="/wiki/Crisis_intervention" title="Crisis intervention">crisis intervention</a>) involves professionals who respond to large-scale traumatic events.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client (usually an individual, couple, family, or small group). Typically, these approaches encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential–humanistic, and systems or family therapy. There has been a growing movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of the major therapies have equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong <a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_relationship" title="Therapeutic relationship">therapeutic alliance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an <a href="/wiki/Integrative_Psychotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrative Psychotherapy">eclectic therapeutic orientation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> Diagnosis in clinical psychology usually follows the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> The study of mental illnesses is called <a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal psychology</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/School_psychology" title="School psychology">School psychology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Figural_Relationships.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Figural_Relationships.svg/220px-Figural_Relationships.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Figural_Relationships.svg/330px-Figural_Relationships.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Figural_Relationships.svg/440px-Figural_Relationships.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="268" data-file-height="185" /></a><figcaption>An item from a cognitive abilities test used in <a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">educational psychology</a></figcaption></figure> Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Educational psychologists can be found in preschools, schools of all levels including post secondary institutions, community organizations and learning centers, Government or private research firms, and independent or private consultant.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> The work of developmental psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Bruner" title="Jerome Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a> has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices. Educational psychology is often included in teacher education programs in places such as North America, Australia, and New Zealand. School psychology combines principles from educational psychology and clinical psychology to understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_giftedness" title="Intellectual giftedness">gifted</a> students; to facilitate <a href="/wiki/Prosocial_behavior" title="Prosocial behavior">prosocial behaviors</a> in adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe, supportive, and effective learning environments. School psychologists are trained in educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive training in research.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Work">Work</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organizational_behavior" title="Organizational behavior">Organizational behavior</a></div> Industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology involves research and practices that apply psychological theories and principles to organizations and individuals' work-lives.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> In the field's beginnings, industrialists brought the nascent field of psychology to bear on the study of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_management" title="Scientific management">scientific management</a> techniques for improving workplace efficiency. The field was at first called economic psychology or business psychology; later, industrial psychology, employment psychology, or psychotechnology.<a href="#cite_note-Koppes-213">[213]</a> An influential early study examined workers at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant in Cicero, Illinois from 1924 to 1932. Western Electric experimented on factory workers to assess their responses to changes in illumination, breaks, food, and wages. The researchers came to focus on workers' responses to observation itself, and the term <a href="/wiki/Hawthorne_effect" title="Hawthorne effect">Hawthorne effect</a> is now used to describe the fact that people's behavior can change when they think they are being observed.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> Although the Hawthorne research can be found in psychology textbooks, the research and its findings were weak at best.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> The name industrial and organizational psychology emerged in the 1960s. In 1973, it became enshrined in the name of the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Industrial_and_Organizational_Psychology" title="Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology">Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology</a>, Division 14 of the American Psychological Association.<a href="#cite_note-Koppes-213">[213]</a> One goal of the discipline is to optimize human potential in the workplace. Personnel psychology is a subfield of I/O psychology. Personnel psychologists apply the methods and principles of psychology in selecting and evaluating workers. Another subfield, <a href="/wiki/Organizational_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Organizational psychology">organizational psychology</a>, examines the effects of work environments and management styles on worker motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> Most I/O psychologists work outside of academia, for private and public organizations and as consultants.<a href="#cite_note-Koppes-213">[213]</a> A psychology consultant working in business today might expect to provide executives with information and ideas about their industry, their target markets, and the organization of their company.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> Organizational behavior (OB) is an allied field involved in the study of human behavior within organizations.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> One way to differentiate I/O psychology from OB is that I/O psychologists train in university psychology departments and OB specialists, in business schools. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_and_intelligence">Military and intelligence</h3></div> One role for <a href="/wiki/Military_psychology" title="Military psychology">psychologists in the military</a> has been to evaluate and counsel soldiers and other personnel. In the U.S., this function began during World War I, when Robert Yerkes established the School of Military Psychology at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Oglethorpe,_Georgia" title="Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia">Fort Oglethorpe</a> in Georgia. The school provided psychological training for military staff.<a href="#cite_note-Tomes2008-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> Today, U.S. Army psychologists perform psychological screening, clinical psychotherapy, <a href="/wiki/Suicide_prevention" title="Suicide prevention">suicide prevention</a>, and treatment for post-traumatic stress, as well as provide prevention-related services, for example, smoking cessation.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> The United States Army's Mental Health Advisory Teams implement psychological interventions to help combat troops experiencing mental problems.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> Psychologists may also work on a diverse set of campaigns known broadly as psychological warfare. Psychological warfare chiefly involves the use of propaganda to influence enemy soldiers and civilians. This so-called black propaganda is designed to seem as if it originates from a source other than the Army.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> The <a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a>'s <a href="/wiki/MKULTRA" class="mw-redirect" title="MKULTRA">MKULTRA</a> program involved more individualized efforts at <a href="/wiki/Brainwashing" title="Brainwashing">mind control</a>, involving techniques such as hypnosis, torture, and covert involuntary administration of <a href="/wiki/LSD" title="LSD">LSD</a>.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> The U.S. military used the name <a href="/wiki/Psychological_Operations_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological Operations (United States)">Psychological Operations</a> (PSYOP) until 2010, when these activities were reclassified as Military Information Support Operations (MISO), part of <a href="/wiki/Information_Operations_(United_States)" title="Information Operations (United States)">Information Operations</a> (IO).<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> Psychologists have sometimes been involved in assisting the interrogation and torture of suspects, staining the records of the psychologists involved.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health,_well-being,_and_social_change">Health, well-being, and social change</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_issues" class="mw-redirect" title="Social issues">Social issues</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health psychology</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_change">Social change</h4></div> An example of the contribution of psychologists to social change involves the research of <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_B._Clark" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth B. Clark">Kenneth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mamie_Phipps_Clark" title="Mamie Phipps Clark">Mamie Phipps Clark</a>. These two African American psychologists studied segregation's adverse psychological impact on Black children. Their research findings played a role in the desegregation case <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> (1954).<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> The impact of psychology on social change includes the discipline's broad influence on teaching and learning. Research has shown that compared to the "whole word" or "whole language" approach, the phonics approach to reading instruction is more efficacious.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medical_applications">Medical applications</h4></div> Medical facilities increasingly employ psychologists to perform various roles. One aspect of health psychology is the <a href="/wiki/Psychoeducation" title="Psychoeducation">psychoeducation</a> of patients: instructing them in how to follow a medical regimen. Health psychologists can also educate doctors and conduct research on patient compliance.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> Psychologists in the field of public health use a wide variety of interventions to influence human behavior. These range from public relations campaigns and outreach to governmental laws and policies. Psychologists study the composite influence of all these different tools in an effort to influence whole populations of people.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Worker_health,_safety_and_wellbeing">Worker health, safety and wellbeing</h4></div> Psychologists work with organizations to apply findings from psychological research to improve the health and well-being of employees. Some work as external consultants hired by organizations to solve specific problems, whereas others are full-time employees of the organization. Applications include conducting surveys to identify issues and designing interventions to make work healthier. Some of the specific health areas include: <ul><li>Accidents and injuries: A major contribution is the concept of <a href="/wiki/Safety_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Safety climate">safety climate</a>, which is employee shared perceptions of the behaviors that are encouraged (e.g., wearing safety gear) and discouraged (not following safety rules) at work.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> Organizations with strong safety climates have fewer <a href="/wiki/Work_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Work accidents">work accidents</a> and injuries.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">Cardiovascular disease</a>: Cardiovascular disease has been related to lack of <a href="/wiki/Job_control_(workplace)" title="Job control (workplace)">job control</a>.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a></li> <li>Mental health: Exposure to <a href="/wiki/Occupational_stress" title="Occupational stress">occupational stress</a> is associated with mental health disorder.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musculoskeletal_disorder" title="Musculoskeletal disorder">Musculoskeletal disorder</a>: These are injuries in bones, nerves and tendons due to overexertion and repetitive strain. They have been linked to job satisfaction and workplace stress.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a></li> <li>Physical health symptoms: Occupational stress has been linked to physical symptoms such as digestive distress and headache.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_violence" title="Workplace violence">Workplace violence</a>: Violence prevention climate is related to being physically assaulted and psychologically mistreated at work.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a></li></ul> Interventions that improve climates are a way to address accidents and violence. Interventions that reduce stress at work or provide employees with tools to better manage it can help in areas where stress is an important component. Industrial psychology became interested in worker fatigue during World War I, when government ministers in Britain were concerned about the impact of fatigue on workers in munitions factories but not other types of factories.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kreis-242">[242]</a> In the U. K. some interest in worker <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">well-being</a> emerged with the efforts of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Samuel_Myers" title="Charles Samuel Myers">Charles Samuel Myers</a> and his National Institute of Industrial Psychology (NIIP) during the inter-War years.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> In the U. S. during the mid-twentieth century industrial psychologist <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Kornhauser" title="Arthur Kornhauser">Arthur Kornhauser</a> pioneered the study of occupational mental health, linking industrial working conditions to mental health as well as the spillover of an unsatisfying job into a worker's personal life.<a href="#cite_note-Zickar-244">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> Zickar accumulated evidence to show that "no other industrial psychologist of his era was as devoted to advocating management and labor practices that would improve the lives of working people."<a href="#cite_note-Zickar-244">[244]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Occupational_health_psychology">Occupational health psychology</h4></div> As interest in the worker health expanded toward the end of the twentieth century, the field of <a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">occupational health psychology</a> (OHP) emerged. OHP is a branch of psychology that is interdisciplinary.<a href="#cite_note-Schonfeld-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC-246">[246]</a> OHP is concerned with the health and safety of workers.<a href="#cite_note-Schonfeld-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC-246">[246]</a> OHP addresses topic areas such as the impact of occupational stressors on physical and mental health, mistreatment of workers (e.g., bullying and violence), work-family balance, the impact of <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_unemployment" title="Involuntary unemployment">involuntary unemployment</a> on physical and mental health, the influence of psychosocial factors on safety and accidents, and interventions designed to improve/protect worker health.<a href="#cite_note-Schonfeld-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> OHP grew out of <a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">health psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">industrial and organizational psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">occupational medicine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Everly-248">[248]</a> OHP has also been informed by disciplines outside psychology, including <a href="/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">industrial engineering</a>, sociology, and economics.<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_methods">Research methods</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Psychological_research" title="Psychological research">Psychological research</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">List of psychological research methods</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychological_research" title="Quantitative psychological research">Quantitative psychological research</a> lends itself to the statistical testing of hypotheses. Although the field makes abundant use of <a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_experiments" class="mw-redirect" title="Randomized controlled experiments">randomized and controlled experiments</a> in laboratory settings, such research can only assess a limited range of short-term phenomena. Some psychologists rely on less rigorously controlled, but more <a href="/wiki/Ecological_validity" title="Ecological validity">ecologically valid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Field_experiments" class="mw-redirect" title="Field experiments">field experiments</a> as well. Other research psychologists rely on statistical methods to glean knowledge from population data.<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> The statistical methods research psychologists employ include the <a href="/wiki/Pearson_product%E2%80%93moment_correlation_coefficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient">Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">analysis of variance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multiple_linear_regression" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple linear regression">multiple linear regression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logistic_regression" title="Logistic regression">logistic regression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structural_equation_modeling" title="Structural equation modeling">structural equation modeling</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_linear_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical linear modeling">hierarchical linear modeling</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">measurement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operational_definition" title="Operational definition">operationalization</a> of important <a href="/wiki/Construct_(psychology)" title="Construct (psychology)">constructs</a> is an essential part of these research designs. Although this type of psychological research is much less abundant than quantitative research, some psychologists conduct <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative research</a>. This type of research can involve interviews, questionnaires, and first-hand observation.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> While hypothesis testing is rare, virtually impossible, in qualitative research, qualitative studies can be helpful in theory and hypothesis generation, interpreting seemingly contradictory quantitative findings, and understanding why some interventions fail and others succeed.<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Controlled_experiments">Controlled experiments</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flowchart_of_Phases_of_Parallel_Randomized_Trial_-_Modified_from_CONSORT_2010.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Flowchart_of_Phases_of_Parallel_Randomized_Trial_-_Modified_from_CONSORT_2010.png/220px-Flowchart_of_Phases_of_Parallel_Randomized_Trial_-_Modified_from_CONSORT_2010.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Flowchart_of_Phases_of_Parallel_Randomized_Trial_-_Modified_from_CONSORT_2010.png/330px-Flowchart_of_Phases_of_Parallel_Randomized_Trial_-_Modified_from_CONSORT_2010.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Flowchart_of_Phases_of_Parallel_Randomized_Trial_-_Modified_from_CONSORT_2010.png/440px-Flowchart_of_Phases_of_Parallel_Randomized_Trial_-_Modified_from_CONSORT_2010.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Flowchart of the four phases, enrollment, intervention allocation, follow-up, and data analysis, of a parallel randomized trial of two groups modified from the <a href="/wiki/Consolidated_Standards_of_Reporting_Trials" title="Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials">CONSORT 2010 Statement</a><a href="#cite_note-Schulz-2010-254">[254]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Milgram_experiment_v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Milgram_experiment_v2.svg/220px-Milgram_experiment_v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Milgram_experiment_v2.svg/330px-Milgram_experiment_v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Milgram_experiment_v2.svg/440px-Milgram_experiment_v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="635" /></a><figcaption>The experimenter (E) orders the teacher (T), the subject of the experiment, to give what the latter believes are painful electric shocks to a learner (L), who is actually an actor and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/confederate" class="extiw" title="wikt:confederate">confederate</a>. The subject believes that for each wrong answer, the learner was receiving actual electric shocks, though in reality there were no such punishments. Being separated from the subject, the confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with the electro-shock generator, which played pre-recorded sounds for each shock level etc.<a href="#cite_note-ObedStudy-255">[255]</a></figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/True_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="True experiment">true experiment</a> with random assignment of research participants (sometimes called subjects) to rival conditions allows researchers to make strong inferences about causal relationships. When there are large numbers of research participants, the random assignment (also called random allocation) of those participants to rival conditions ensures that the individuals in those conditions will, on average, be similar on most characteristics, including characteristics that went unmeasured. In an experiment, the researcher alters one or more variables of influence, called <a href="/wiki/Independent_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent variable">independent variables</a>, and measures resulting changes in the factors of interest, called <a href="/wiki/Dependent_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Dependent variable">dependent variables</a>. Prototypical experimental research is conducted in a laboratory with a carefully controlled environment. A <a href="/wiki/Quasi-experimental_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Quasi-experimental design">quasi-experiment</a> is a situation in which different conditions are being studied, but random assignment to the different conditions is not possible. Investigators must work with preexisting groups of people. Researchers can use common sense to consider how much the nonrandom assignment threatens the study's <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">validity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> For example, in research on the best way to affect reading achievement in the first three grades of school, school administrators may not permit educational psychologists to randomly assign children to phonics and whole language classrooms, in which case the psychologists must work with preexisting classroom assignments. Psychologists will compare the achievement of children attending phonics and whole language classes and, perhaps, statistically adjust for any initial differences in reading level. Experimental researchers typically use a <a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">statistical hypothesis testing</a> model which involves making predictions before conducting the experiment, then assessing how well the data collected are consistent with the predictions. These predictions are likely to originate from one or more abstract scientific <a href="/wiki/Hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypotheses">hypotheses</a> about how the phenomenon under study actually works.<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_types_of_studies">Other types of studies</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Video_recall" title="Video recall">Video recall</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">Surveys</a> are used in psychology for the purpose of measuring <a href="/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)" title="Attitude (psychology)">attitudes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trait_theory" title="Trait theory">traits</a>, monitoring changes in <a href="/wiki/Mood_(psychology)" title="Mood (psychology)">mood</a>, and checking the validity of experimental manipulations (checking research participants' perception of the condition they were assigned to). Psychologists have commonly used paper-and-pencil surveys. However, surveys are also conducted over the phone or through e-mail. Web-based surveys are increasingly used to conveniently reach many subjects. <a href="/wiki/Observational_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Observational studies">Observational studies</a> are commonly conducted in psychology. In <a href="/wiki/Cross-sectional_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-sectional studies">cross-sectional</a> observational studies, psychologists collect data at a single point in time. The goal of many cross-sectional studies is the assess the extent factors are correlated with each other. By contrast, in <a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Longitudinal studies">longitudinal studies</a> psychologists collect data on the same sample at two or more points in time. Sometimes the purpose of longitudinal research is to study trends across time such as the stability of traits or age-related changes in behavior. Because some studies involve endpoints that psychologists cannot ethically study from an experimental standpoint, such as identifying the causes of depression, they conduct longitudinal studies a large group of depression-free people, periodically assessing what is happening in the individuals' lives. In this way psychologists have an opportunity to test causal hypotheses regarding conditions that commonly arise in people's lives that put them at risk for depression. Problems that affect longitudinal studies include <a href="/wiki/Selection_bias#Attrition" title="Selection bias">selective attrition</a>, the type of problem in which bias is introduced when a certain type of research participant disproportionately leaves a study. One example of an observational study was run by Arthur Bandura. This observational study focused on children who were exposed to an adult exhibiting aggressive behaviors and their reaction to toys versus other children who were not exposed to these stimuli. The result shows that children who had seen the adult acting aggressively towards a toy, in turn, were aggressive towards their own toy when put in a situation that frustrated them.<a href="#cite_note-:0-188">[188]</a> <a href="/wiki/Exploratory_data_analysis" title="Exploratory data analysis">Exploratory data analysis</a> includes a variety of practices that researchers use to reduce a great many variables to a small number overarching factors. In <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce#Modes_of_inference" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce's three modes of inference</a>, exploratory data analysis corresponds to <a href="/wiki/Abduction_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abduction (logic)">abduction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">Meta-analysis</a> is the technique research psychologists use to integrate results from many studies of the same variables and arriving at a grand average of the findings.<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Direct_brain_observation/manipulation">Direct brain observation/manipulation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EEG_cap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/EEG_cap.jpg/220px-EEG_cap.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/EEG_cap.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="423" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroencephalogram">EEG</a> recording setup</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Multi-Layer_Neural_Network-Vector.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Multi-Layer_Neural_Network-Vector.svg/220px-Multi-Layer_Neural_Network-Vector.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Multi-Layer_Neural_Network-Vector.svg/330px-Multi-Layer_Neural_Network-Vector.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Multi-Layer_Neural_Network-Vector.svg/440px-Multi-Layer_Neural_Network-Vector.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="957" data-file-height="567" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">Artificial neural network</a> with two layers, an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons in the human brain</figcaption></figure> A classic and popular tool used to relate mental and neural activity is the <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroencephalogram">electroencephalogram</a> (EEG), a technique using amplified electrodes on a person's scalp to measure voltage changes in different parts of the brain. <a href="/wiki/Hans_Berger" title="Hans Berger">Hans Berger</a>, the first researcher to use EEG on an unopened skull, quickly found that brains exhibit signature "brain waves": electric oscillations which correspond to different states of consciousness. Researchers subsequently refined statistical methods for synthesizing the electrode data, and identified unique brain wave patterns such as the <a href="/wiki/Delta_wave" title="Delta wave">delta wave</a> observed during non-REM sleep.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> Newer <a href="/wiki/Functional_neuroimaging" title="Functional neuroimaging">functional neuroimaging</a> techniques include <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> and <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">positron emission tomography</a>, both of which track the flow of blood through the brain. These technologies provide more localized information about activity in the brain and create representations of the brain with widespread appeal. They also provide insight which avoids the classic problems of subjective self-reporting. It remains challenging to draw hard conclusions about where in the brain specific thoughts originate—or even how usefully such localization corresponds with reality. However, neuroimaging has delivered unmistakable results showing the existence of correlations between mind and brain. Some of these draw on a systemic <a href="/wiki/Neural_network_(biology)" title="Neural network (biology)">neural network</a> model rather than a localized function model.<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a> Interventions such as <a href="/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation" title="Transcranial magnetic stimulation">transcranial magnetic stimulation</a> and drugs also provide information about brain–mind interactions. <a href="/wiki/Psychopharmacology" title="Psychopharmacology">Psychopharmacology</a> is the study of drug-induced mental effects. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_simulation">Computer simulation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Computational_cognition" title="Computational cognition">Computational cognition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graph_theory" title="Graph theory">Graph theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Network_theory" title="Network theory">Network theory</a></div> Computational modeling is a tool used in <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">mathematical psychology</a> and cognitive psychology to simulate behavior.<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a> This method has several advantages. Since modern computers process information quickly, simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for high statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visualize hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that could not be directly observed in a human. Computational neuroscience uses mathematical models to simulate the brain. Another method is symbolic modeling, which represents many mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic systems">dynamic systems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stochastic_process" title="Stochastic process">stochastic</a> modeling. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Animal_studies">Animal studies</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MorrisWaterMaze.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/MorrisWaterMaze.jpg/220px-MorrisWaterMaze.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/MorrisWaterMaze.jpg/330px-MorrisWaterMaze.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/MorrisWaterMaze.jpg/440px-MorrisWaterMaze.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>A rat undergoing a <a href="/wiki/Morris_water_navigation_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Morris water navigation test">Morris water navigation test</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral neuroscience</a> to study the role of the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Spatial_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Spatial learning">spatial learning</a> and memory</figcaption></figure> Animal experiments aid in investigating many aspects of human psychology, including perception, emotion, learning, memory, and thought, to name a few. In the 1890s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to demonstrate classical conditioning. Non-human primates, cats, dogs, pigeons, and rats and other rodents are often used in psychological experiments. Ideally, controlled experiments introduce only one independent variable at a time, in order to ascertain its unique effects upon dependent variables. These conditions are approximated best in laboratory settings. In contrast, human environments and genetic backgrounds vary so widely, and depend upon so many factors, that it is difficult to control important <a href="/wiki/Variable_(research)" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable (research)">variables</a> for human subjects. There are pitfalls, however, in generalizing findings from animal studies to humans through animal models.<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> Comparative psychology is the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history, adaptive significance, and development of behavior. Research in this area explores the behavior of many species, from insects to primates. It is closely related to other disciplines that study animal behavior such as <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a> Research in comparative psychology sometimes appears to shed light on human behavior, but some attempts to connect the two have been quite controversial, for example the <a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a> of <a href="/wiki/E.O._Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="E.O. Wilson">E.O. Wilson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> Animal models are often used to study neural processes related to human behavior, e.g. in cognitive neuroscience. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qualitative_research">Qualitative research</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phineas_gage_-_1868_skull_diagram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Phineas_gage_-_1868_skull_diagram.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="234" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="165" data-file-height="234" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Phineas_P._Gage" class="mw-redirect" title="Phineas P. Gage">Phineas P. Gage</a> survived an accident in which a large iron rod was driven completely through his head, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe, but the injury altered his personality and behavior.<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a></figcaption></figure> Qualitative research is often designed to answer questions about the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals. Qualitative research involving first-hand observation can help describe events as they occur, with the goal of capturing the richness of everyday behavior and with the hope of discovering and understanding phenomena that might have been missed if only more cursory examinations are made. <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_psychological_research" title="Qualitative psychological research">Qualitative psychological research</a> methods include interviews, first-hand observation, and participant observation. Creswell (2003) identified five main possibilities for qualitative research, including narrative, phenomenology, <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">case study</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grounded_theory" title="Grounded theory">grounded theory</a>. Qualitative researchers<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> sometimes aim to enrich our understanding of symbols, subjective experiences, or social structures. Sometimes <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermeneutic">hermeneutic</a> and critical aims can give rise to quantitative research, as in <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Erich Fromm</a>'s application of psychological and sociological theories, in his book <a href="/wiki/Escape_from_Freedom" title="Escape from Freedom">Escape from Freedom</a>, to understanding why many ordinary Germans supported Hitler.<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> Just as <a href="/wiki/Jane_Goodall" title="Jane Goodall">Jane Goodall</a> studied chimpanzee social and family life by careful observation of chimpanzee behavior in the field, psychologists conduct <a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_observation" title="Naturalistic observation">naturalistic observation</a> of ongoing human social, professional, and family life. Sometimes the participants are aware they are being observed, and other times the participants do not know they are being observed. Strict ethical guidelines must be followed when covert observation is being carried out. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Program_evaluation">Program evaluation</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Program_evaluation" title="Program evaluation">Program evaluation</a> involves the systematic collection, analysis, and application of information to answer questions about projects, policies and programs, particularly about their effectiveness.<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a><a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> In both the public and private sectors, stakeholders often want to know the extent which the programs they are funding, implementing, voting for, receiving, or objecting to are producing the intended effects. While program evaluation first focuses on effectiveness, important considerations often include how much the program costs per participant, how the program could be improved, whether the program is worthwhile, whether there are better alternatives, if there are unintended outcomes, and whether the program goals are appropriate and useful.<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_issues">Contemporary issues</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metascience">Metascience</h3></div> Metascience involves the application of scientific methodology to study science itself. The field of <a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">metascience</a> has revealed problems in psychological research. Some psychological research has suffered from <a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">bias</a>,<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> problematic <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">reproducibility</a>,<a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Misuse_of_statistics" title="Misuse of statistics">misuse of statistics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a> These findings have led to calls for reform from within and from outside the scientific community.<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Confirmation_bias">Confirmation bias</h4></div> In 1959, statistician Theodore Sterling examined the results of psychological studies and discovered that 97% of them supported their initial hypotheses, implying possible <a href="/wiki/Publication_bias" title="Publication bias">publication bias</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Theodore-278">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lehrer-279">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> Similarly, Fanelli (2010)<a href="#cite_note-Fanelli-281">[281]</a> found that 91.5% of psychiatry/psychology studies confirmed the effects they were looking for, and concluded that the odds of this happening (a positive result) was around five times higher than in fields such as <a href="/wiki/Space_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Space science">space science</a> or <a href="/wiki/Geoscience" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoscience">geosciences</a>. Fanelli argued that this is because researchers in "softer" sciences have fewer constraints to their conscious and unconscious biases. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Replication">Replication</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Replication_crisis#In_psychology" title="Replication crisis">Replication crisis § In psychology</a></div> A <a href="/wiki/Replication_crisis" title="Replication crisis">replication crisis</a> in psychology has emerged. Many notable findings in the field have not been replicated. Some researchers were even accused of publishing fraudulent results.<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a> Systematic efforts, including efforts by the <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility_Project" title="Reproducibility Project">Reproducibility Project</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Open_Science" title="Center for Open Science">Center for Open Science</a>, to assess the extent of the problem found that as many as two-thirds of highly publicized findings in psychology failed to be replicated.<a href="#cite_note-auto-285">[285]</a> Reproducibility has generally been stronger in cognitive psychology (in studies and journals) than social psychology<a href="#cite_note-auto-285">[285]</a> and subfields of <a href="/wiki/Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">differential psychology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> Other subfields of psychology have also been implicated in the replication crisis, including clinical psychology,<a href="#cite_note-DuncanKeller2011-288">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a> developmental psychology,<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a><a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> and a field closely related to psychology, <a href="/wiki/Educational_research" title="Educational research">educational research</a>.<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a> Focus on the replication crisis has led to other renewed efforts in the discipline to re-test important findings.<a href="#cite_note-Simmons_et_al._(2011)-299">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a> In response to concerns about publication bias and <a href="/wiki/Data_dredging" title="Data dredging">data dredging</a> (conducting a large number of statistical tests on a great many variables but restricting reporting to the results that were statistically significant), 295 psychology and medical journals have adopted <a href="/wiki/Scholarly_peer_review#Result-blind_peer_review" title="Scholarly peer review">result-blind peer review</a> where studies are accepted not on the basis of their findings and after the studies are completed, but before the studies are conducted and upon the basis of the methodological rigor of their experimental designs and the theoretical justifications for their proposed statistical analysis before data collection or analysis is conducted.<a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a> In addition, large-scale collaborations among researchers working in multiple labs in different countries have taken place. The collaborators regularly make their data openly available for different researchers to assess.<a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a> Allen and Mehler<a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a> estimated that 61 per cent of result-blind studies have yielded <a href="/wiki/Null_result" title="Null result">null results</a>, in contrast to an estimated 5 to 20 per cent in traditional research. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Misuse_of_statistics">Misuse of statistics</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Misuse_of_statistics" title="Misuse of statistics">Misuse of statistics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Misuse_of_p-values" title="Misuse of p-values">Misuse of p-values</a></div> Some critics view <a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing#Criticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">statistical hypothesis testing</a> as misplaced. Psychologist and statistician <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Cohen_(statistician)" title="Jacob Cohen (statistician)">Jacob Cohen</a> wrote in 1994 that psychologists routinely confuse statistical significance with practical importance, enthusiastically reporting great certainty in unimportant facts.<a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a> Some psychologists have responded with an increased use of <a href="/wiki/Effect_size" title="Effect size">effect size</a> statistics, rather than sole reliance on p-values.<a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="WEIRD_bias">WEIRD bias</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"WEIRD" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Weird_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Weird (disambiguation)">Weird (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_psychology" title="Indigenous psychology">Indigenous psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transnational_psychology" title="Transnational psychology">Transnational psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></div> In 2008, Arnett pointed out that most articles in American Psychological Association journals were about U.S. populations when U.S. citizens are only 5% of the world's population. He complained that psychologists had no basis for assuming psychological processes to be universal and generalizing research findings to the rest of the global population.<a href="#cite_note-Arnett2008-307">[307]</a> In 2010, Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan reported a bias in conducting psychology studies with participants from "WEIRD" ("Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic") societies.<a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a><a href="#cite_note-Transnational_Psychology-309">[309]</a> Henrich et al. found that "96% of psychological samples come from countries with only 12% of the world's population" (p. 63). The article gave examples of results that differ significantly between people from WEIRD and tribal cultures, including the <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCller-Lyer_illusion" title="Müller-Lyer illusion">Müller-Lyer illusion</a>. Arnett (2008), <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Altmaier" title="Elizabeth Altmaier">Altmaier</a> and Hall (2008) and Morgan-Consoli et al. (2018) view the Western bias in research and theory as a serious problem considering psychologists are increasingly applying psychological principles developed in WEIRD regions in their research, clinical work, and consultation with populations around the world.<a href="#cite_note-Arnett2008-307">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-AltmaierHall2008-310">[310]</a><a href="#cite_note-MorganC2018-311">[311]</a> In 2018, Rad, Martingano, and Ginges showed that nearly a decade after Henrich et al.'s paper, over 80% of the samples used in studies published in the journal <a href="/wiki/Psychological_Science" title="Psychological Science">Psychological Science</a> employed WEIRD samples. Moreover, their analysis showed that several studies did not fully disclose the origin of their samples; the authors offered a set of recommendations to editors and reviewers to reduce WEIRD bias.<a href="#cite_note-RadMartingano2018-312">[312]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="STRANGE_bias">STRANGE bias</h3></div> Similar to the <a href="#WEIRD">WEIRD</a> bias, starting in 2020, researchers of non-human behavior have started to emphasize the need to document the possibility of the STRANGE (Social background, Trappability and self-selection, Rearing history, Acclimation and habituation, Natural changes in responsiveness, Genetic makeup, and Experience) bias in study conclusions.<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unscientific_mental_health_training">Unscientific mental health training</h3></div> Some observers perceive a gap between scientific theory and its application—in particular, the application of unsupported or unsound clinical practices.<a href="#cite_note-Cards-314">[314]</a> Critics say there has been an increase in the number of mental health training programs that do not instill scientific competence.<a href="#cite_note-Beyerstein2001-315">[315]</a> Practices such as "<a href="/wiki/Facilitated_communication" title="Facilitated communication">facilitated communication</a> for infantile autism"; memory-recovery techniques including <a href="/wiki/Bodywork_(alternative_medicine)" title="Bodywork (alternative medicine)">body work</a>; and other therapies, such as <a href="/wiki/Rebirthing_(breathwork)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rebirthing (breathwork)">rebirthing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reparenting" title="Reparenting">reparenting</a>, may be dubious or even dangerous, despite their popularity.<a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> These practices, however, are outside the mainstream practices taught in clinical psychology doctoral programs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethics">Ethics</h2></div> Ethical standards in the discipline have changed over time. Some famous past studies are today considered unethical and in violation of <a href="/wiki/Guidelines_for_human_subject_research#APA_Ethics_Code" title="Guidelines for human subject research">established codes</a> (e.g., the Canadian Code of Conduct for Research Involving Humans, and the <a href="/wiki/Belmont_Report" title="Belmont Report">Belmont Report</a>). The American Psychological Association has advanced a set of ethical principles and a <a href="/wiki/APA_Ethics_Code" title="APA Ethics Code">code</a> of conduct for the profession.<a href="#cite_note-:1-317">[317]</a> The most important contemporary standards include informed and voluntary consent. After World War II, the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Code" title="Nuremberg Code">Nuremberg Code</a> was established because of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects. Later, most countries (and scientific journals) adopted the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Helsinki" title="Declaration of Helsinki">Declaration of Helsinki</a>. In the U.S., the <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Institutional_Review_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional Review Board">Institutional Review Board</a> in 1966, and in 1974 adopted the <a href="/wiki/National_Research_Act" title="National Research Act">National Research Act</a> (HR 7724). All of these measures encouraged researchers to obtain informed consent from human participants in experimental studies. A number of influential but ethically dubious studies led to the establishment of this rule; such studies included the <a href="/wiki/Walter_E._Fernald_Developmental_Center#Nuclear_medicine_research_in_children" title="Walter E. Fernald Developmental Center">MIT-Harvard Fernald School radioisotope studies</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Thalidomide_scandal" title="Thalidomide scandal">Thalidomide tragedy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis#Willowbrook_State_School_experiments" title="Hepatitis">Willowbrook hepatitis study</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milgram_experiment" title="Milgram experiment">Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience to authority,</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_prison_experiment" title="Stanford prison experiment">Stanford Prison Experiment</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics_with_Humans">Ethics with Humans</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/APA_Ethics_Code" title="APA Ethics Code">ethics code of the American Psychological Association</a> originated in 1951 as "Ethical Standards of Psychologists." This code has guided the formation of licensing laws in most American states. It has changed multiple times over the decades since its adoption, and contains both aspirational principles and binding ethical standards. The APA's Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct consists of five General Principles, which are meant to guide psychologists to higher ethical practice where a particular standard does not apply. Those principles are: A. Beneficence and Nonmaleficence - meaning the psychologists must work to benefit those they work with and "do no harm." This includes awareness of indirect benefits and harms their work might have on others due to personal, social, political, or other factors. B. Fidelity and Responsibility - an awareness of public trust in the profession and adherence to ethical standards and clarification of roles to preserve that trust. This includes managing conflicts of interest, as well as committing some portion of a psychologist's professional time to low-cost or pro bono work. C. Integrity - upholding honesty and accuracy in all psychological practices, including avoiding misrepresentations and fraud. In situations where psychologists would use deception (i.e., certain research), psychologists must consider the necessity, benefits, and harms, and mitigate any harms where possible. D. Justice - an understanding that psychology must be for everyone's benefit, and that psychologists take special care to avoid unjust practices as a result of biases or limitations of expertise. E. Respect for People's Rights and Dignity - the preservation of people's rights when working with psychologists, including confidentially, privacy, and autonomy. Psychologists should consider a multitude of factors, including a need for special safeguards for protected populations (e.g., minors, incarcerated individuals) and awareness of differences based on numerous factors, including culture, race, age, gender, and socioeconomic status. In 1989, the APA revised its policies on advertising and referral fees to negotiate the end of an investigation by the Federal Trade Commission. The 1992 incarnation was the first to distinguish between "aspirational" ethical standards and "enforceable" ones. The APA code was further revised in 2010 to prevent the use of the code to justify violating human rights, which was in response to the participation of APA members in interrogations under the administration of United States President George W. Bush.<a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a> Members of the public have a five-year window to file ethics complaints about APA members with the APA ethics committee; members of the APA have a three-year window.<a href="#cite_note-HandbookJones-319">[319]</a> The Canadian Psychological Association used the APA code until 1986, when it developed its own code drawing from four similar principles: 1) Respect for the Dignity of Persons and Peoples, 2) Responsible Caring, 3) Integrity in Relationships, 4) Responsibility to Society.<a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-321">[321]</a> The European Federation of Psychologist's Associations, have adopted a model code using the principles of the Canadian Code, while also drawing from the APA code.<a href="#cite_note-322">[322]</a><a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a> Universities have ethics committees dedicated to protecting the rights (e.g., voluntary nature of participation in the research, privacy) and well-being (e.g., minimizing distress) of research participants. University ethics committees evaluate proposed research to ensure that researchers protect the rights and well-being of participants; an investigator's research project cannot be conducted unless approved by such an ethics committee.<a href="#cite_note-324">[324]</a> The field of psychology also identifies certain categories of people that require additional or special protection due to particular vulnerabilities, unequal power dynamics, or diminished capacity for informed consent. This list often includes, but is not limited to, children, incarcerated individuals, pregnant women, human fetuses and neonates, institutionalized persons, those with physical or mental disabilities, and the educationally or economically disadvantaged.<a href="#cite_note-325">[325]</a> Some of the ethical issues considered most important are the requirement to practice only within the area of competence, to maintain confidentiality with the patients, and to avoid sexual relations with them. Another important principle is <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a>, the idea that a patient or research subject must understand and freely choose a procedure they are undergoing.<a href="#cite_note-HandbookJones-319">[319]</a> Some of the most common complaints against clinical psychologists include sexual misconduct<a href="#cite_note-HandbookJones-319">[319]</a> and breaches in confidentiality or privacy.<a href="#cite_note-HandbookJones2-326">[326]</a> Psychology ethics apply to all types of human contact in a psychologist's professional capacity, including therapy, assessment, teaching, training, work with research subjects, testimony in courts and before government bodies, consulting, and statements to the public or media pertaining to matters of psychology.<a href="#cite_note-:1-317">[317]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics_with_other_animals">Ethics with other animals</h3></div> Research on other animals is governed by university ethics committees. Research on nonhuman animals cannot proceed without permission of the ethics committee, of the researcher's home institution. Ethical guidelines state that using non-human animals for scientific purposes is only acceptable when the harm (physical or psychological) done to animals is outweighed by the benefits of the research.<a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a> Psychologists can use certain research techniques on animals that could not be used on humans. Comparative psychologist <a href="/wiki/Harry_Harlow" title="Harry Harlow">Harry Harlow</a> drew moral condemnation for <a href="/wiki/Pit_of_despair" title="Pit of despair">isolation experiments</a> on rhesus macaque monkeys at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison" title="University of Wisconsin–Madison">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a> in the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-328">[328]</a> The aim of the research was to produce an animal model of <a href="/wiki/Clinical_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical depression">clinical depression</a>. Harlow also devised what he called a "rape rack", to which the female isolates were tied in normal monkey mating posture.<a href="#cite_note-Blum_2002-329">[329]</a> In 1974, American literary critic <a href="/wiki/Wayne_C._Booth" title="Wayne C. Booth">Wayne C. Booth</a> wrote that, "Harry Harlow and his colleagues go on torturing their nonhuman primates decade after decade, invariably proving what we all knew in advance—that social creatures can be destroyed by destroying their social ties." He writes that Harlow made no mention of the criticism of the morality of his work.<a href="#cite_note-330">[330]</a> Animal research is influential in psychology, while still being debated among academics. The testing of animals for research has led to medical breakthroughs in human medicine. Many psychologists argue animal experimentation is essential for human advancement, but must be regulated by the government to ensure ethicality. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.apa.org/support/about-apa">Frequently asked questions about APA</a> Retrieved on November 28th, 2023. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?scope=Entries&q=psychology&tl=true">"psychology"</a>. Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 23 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.atitle=psychology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fscope%3DEntries%26q%3Dpsychology%26tl%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fernald-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Fernald_3-0">^</a> Fernald LD (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q7p-J4-SWuQC">Psychology: Six perspectives</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200608051654/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q7p-J4-SWuQC&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> 8 June 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (pp.12–15). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. </li> <li id="cite_note-Psychology-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Psychology_4-0">^</a> Hockenbury & Hockenbury. Psychology. Worth Publishers, 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-reference_name_A-5"><a href="#cite_ref-reference_name_A_5-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">Psychoanalysis</a> and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Depth_psychology" title="Depth psychology">depth psychology</a> are most typically associated with theories about the unconscious mind. By contrast, <a href="/wiki/Behaviorist" class="mw-redirect" title="Behaviorist">behaviorists</a> consider such phenomena as <a href="/wiki/Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">classical conditioning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">operant conditioning</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivists</a> explore <a href="/wiki/Implicit_memory" title="Implicit memory">implicit memory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Automaticity" title="Automaticity">automaticity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Subliminal_message" class="mw-redirect" title="Subliminal message">subliminal messages</a>, all of which are understood either to bypass or to occur outside of conscious effort or attention. Indeed, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive-behavioral_therapist" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive-behavioral therapist">cognitive-behavioral therapists</a> counsel their clients to become aware of maladaptive thought patterns, the nature of which the clients previously had not been conscious. </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Neil-6"><a href="#cite_ref-O'Neil_6-0">^</a> O'Neil, H.F.; cited in Coon, D.; Mitterer, J.O. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vw20LEaJe10C">Introduction to psychology: Gateways to mind and behavior</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150918221558/https://books.google.com/books?id=vw20LEaJe10C&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> 18 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (12th ed., pp. 15–16). Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning. </li> <li id="cite_note-APA_mission-7"><a href="#cite_ref-APA_mission_7-0">^</a> "The mission of the APA [American Psychological Association] is to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve people's lives"; APA (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apa.org/about/index.aspx">About APA.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170902193306/http://www.apa.org/about/index.aspx">Archived</a> 2 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved 20 October 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarberowEiduson1971" class="citation journal cs1">Farberow NL, Eiduson B (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00223891.1971.10119654?journalCode=hjpa20">"To petition to join APA as a section of Division 12, the Division of Clinical Psychology"</a>. Journal of Personality Assessment. 35 (3). Taylor & Francis Online: 205–206. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00223891.1971.10119654">10.1080/00223891.1971.10119654</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-3891">0022-3891</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220303041138/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00223891.1971.10119654?journalCode=hjpa20">Archived</a> from the original on 3 March 2022. Retrieved 2 March 2022. <q>Clinical psychology is the practice of psychology, especially as a means of furthering human welfare and knowledge.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+Assessment&rft.atitle=To+petition+to+join+APA+as+a+section+of+Division+12%2C+the+Division+of+Clinical+Psychology&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=205-206&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00223891.1971.10119654&rft.issn=0022-3891&rft.aulast=Farberow&rft.aufirst=NL&rft.au=Eiduson%2C+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F00223891.1971.10119654%3FjournalCode%3Dhjpa20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010–11 Edition, Psychologists, on the Internet at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos056.htm">bls.gov</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120104133612/http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos056.htm">Archived</a> 4 January 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (visited 8 July 2010). </li> <li id="cite_note-OED-10"><a href="#cite_ref-OED_10-0">^</a> Online Etymology Dictionary. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=psychology">"Psychology"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170718053840/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=psychology">Archived</a> 18 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-foo-bar-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-foo-bar_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-foo-bar_11-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaffaele_d'IsaCharles_I._Abramson2023" class="citation journal cs1">Raffaele d'Isa; Charles I. Abramson (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10225565">"The origin of the phrase comparative psychology: an historical overview"</a>. Frontiers in Psychology. 14: 1174115. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2023.1174115">10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1174115</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10225565">10225565</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37255515">37255515</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+origin+of+the+phrase+comparative+psychology%3A+an+historical+overview&rft.volume=14&rft.pages=1174115&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10225565%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37255515&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2023.1174115&rft.au=Raffaele+d%27Isa&rft.au=Charles+I.+Abramson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10225565&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Krstic/marulic.htm">"Classics in the History of Psychology – Marko Marulic – The Author of the Term "Psychology""</a>. Psychclassics.yorku.ca. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170120195046/http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Krstic/marulic.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 20 January 2017. Retrieved 10 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Classics+in+the+History+of+Psychology+%E2%80%93+Marko+Marulic+%E2%80%93+The+Author+of+the+Term+%22Psychology%22&rft.pub=Psychclassics.yorku.ca&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsychclassics.yorku.ca%2FKrstic%2Fmarulic.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-OED_Psychology-13"><a href="#cite_ref-OED_Psychology_13-0">^</a> (Steven Blankaart, p. 13) as quoted in "psychology n." A Dictionary of Psychology. Edited by Andrew M. Colman. Oxford University Press 2009. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t87.e6827">oxfordreference.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190915102145/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199534067.001.0001/acref-9780199534067">Archived</a> 15 September 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-James_1890-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-James_1890_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-James_1890_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames1890" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">James, William</a> (1890). <a href="/w/index.php?title=The_principles_of_psychology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The principles of psychology (page does not exist)">The principles of psychology</a>. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-70625-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-70625-0"><bdi>0-674-70625-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9557883">9557883</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+principles+of+psychology&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1890&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9557883&rft.isbn=0-674-70625-0&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watson1913-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Watson1913_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Watson1913_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Watson1913_15-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1913" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_B._Watson" title="John B. Watson">Watson, John B.</a> (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://commonweb.unifr.ch/artsdean/pub/gestens/f/as/files/4660/33602_123928.pdf">"Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It"</a> (PDF). Psychological Review. 20 (2): 158–177. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0074428">10.1037/h0074428</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/21.11116%2F0000-0001-9182-7">21.11116/0000-0001-9182-7</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160108214211/http://commonweb.unifr.ch/artsdean/pub/gestens/f/as/files/4660/33602_123928.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 8 January 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Review&rft.atitle=Psychology+as+the+Behaviorist+Views+It&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=158-177&rft.date=1913&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F21.11116%2F0000-0001-9182-7&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0074428&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=John+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcommonweb.unifr.ch%2Fartsdean%2Fpub%2Fgestens%2Ff%2Fas%2Ffiles%2F4660%2F33602_123928.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Derek_Russell_Davis" title="Derek Russell Davis">Derek Russell Davis</a> (DRD), "psychology", in Richard L. Gregory (ed.), The Oxford Companion to the Mind, second edition; Oxford University Press, 1987/2004; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866224-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866224-2">978-0-19-866224-2</a> (pp. 763–764). </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> The term "folk psychology" is itself contentious: see Daniel D. Hutto & Matthew Ratcliffe (eds.), Folk Psychology Re-Assessed; Dorndrecht, the Netherlands: Springer, 2007; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5557-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5557-7">978-1-4020-5557-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOkasha2005" class="citation journal cs1">Okasha, Ahmed (2005). "Mental Health in Egypt". The Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences. 42 (2): 116–25. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16342608">16342608</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Israel+Journal+of+Psychiatry+and+Related+Sciences&rft.atitle=Mental+Health+in+Egypt&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=116-25&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16342608&rft.aulast=Okasha&rft.aufirst=Ahmed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/">Aristotle's Psychology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100709122031/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/">Archived</a> 9 July 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Green, C.D. & Groff, P.R. (2003). Early psychological thought: Ancient accounts of mind and soul. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> T.L. Brink. (2008) Psychology: A Student Friendly Approach. "Unit One: The Definition and History of Psychology." pp 9 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/TLBrink_PSYCH01.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120724142236/http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/TLBrink_PSYCH01.pdf">Archived</a> 24 July 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/154874">"Psychology: Definitions, branches, history, and how to become one"</a>. www.medicalnewstoday.com. 1 February 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210320030424/https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/154874">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.medicalnewstoday.com&rft.atitle=Psychology%3A+Definitions%2C+branches%2C+history%2C+and+how+to+become+one&rft.date=2018-02-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.medicalnewstoday.com%2Farticles%2F154874&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/views/natural-harmony-in-taoism-a-cornerstone-of-chinese-society-1516031957">"Natural harmony in Taoism— a cornerstone of Chinese society"</a>. The Financial Express. Retrieved 15 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Financial+Express&rft.atitle=Natural+harmony+in+Taoism%E2%80%94+a+cornerstone+of+Chinese+society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthefinancialexpress.com.bd%2Fviews%2Fviews%2Fnatural-harmony-in-taoism-a-cornerstone-of-chinese-society-1516031957&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HsuehGuo-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HsuehGuo_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HsuehGuo_24-1">b</a> Yeh Hsueh and Benyu Guo, "China", in Baker (ed.), Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology (2012). </li> <li id="cite_note-Paranjpe-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paranjpe_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paranjpe_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paranjpe_25-2">c</a> Anand C. Paranjpe, "From Tradition through Colonialism to Globalization: Reflections on the History of Psychology in India", in Brock (ed.), Internationalizing the History of Psychology (2006). </li> <li id="cite_note-ptraju-26"><a href="#cite_ref-ptraju_26-0">^</a> PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0887061394" title="Special:BookSources/978-0887061394">978-0887061394</a>, pages 35–36 </li> <li id="cite_note-Schwarz_2016-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schwarz_2016_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schwarz_2016_27-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwarzPfister2016" class="citation journal cs1">Schwarz, Katharina A.; Pfister, Roland (2016). "Scientific psychology in the 18th century: A historical rediscovery". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 11 (3). SAGE Publications: 399–407. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1745691616635601">10.1177/1745691616635601</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1745-6916">1745-6916</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27217252">27217252</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6784135">6784135</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+on+Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=Scientific+psychology+in+the+18th+century%3A+A+historical+rediscovery&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=399-407&rft.date=2016&rft.issn=1745-6916&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6784135%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27217252&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1745691616635601&rft.aulast=Schwarz&rft.aufirst=Katharina+A.&rft.au=Pfister%2C+Roland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Horst-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Horst_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horst_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horst_28-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horst_28-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horst_28-4">e</a> Horst U.K. Gundlach, "Germany", in Baker (ed.), Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology (2012). </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Alan Collins, "England", in Baker (ed.), Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology (2012). </li> <li id="cite_note-Henley-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Henley_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Henley_30-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenley_TB2019" class="citation book cs1">Henley TB (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0g9EDwAAQBAJ">Hergenhahn's An introduction to the history of psychology</a> (8th ed.). Boston: Cengage. pp. 143–145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-337-56415-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-337-56415-1"><bdi>978-1-337-56415-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730080359/https://books.google.com/books?id=0g9EDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hergenhahn%27s+An+introduction+to+the+history+of+psychology&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=143-145&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Cengage&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-337-56415-1&rft.au=Henley+TB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0g9EDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leahey_2001-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Leahey_2001_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leahey_2001_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leahey_2001_31-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leahey_2001_31-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leahey_2001_31-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leahey_2001_31-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leahey_2001_31-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeahey2001" class="citation book cs1">Leahey, Thomas (2001). A history of modern psychology (Third ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-017573-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-017573-1"><bdi>978-0-13-017573-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43657139">43657139</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+modern+psychology&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+NJ&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43657139&rft.isbn=978-0-13-017573-1&rft.aulast=Leahey&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Fechner, G. T. (1860). Elemente der Psychophysik. Breitkopf u. Härtel. (Elements of Psychophysics) </li> <li id="cite_note-WundtStanford-33"><a href="#cite_ref-WundtStanford_33-0">^</a> Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wilhelm-wundt/">"Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190808003159/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wilhelm-wundt/">Archived</a> 8 August 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Wozniak, R.H. (1999). Introduction to memory: Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/wozniak.htm">Classics in the history of psychology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190606085744/http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/wozniak.htm">Archived</a> 6 June 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-BenjaminBaker-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BenjaminBaker_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BenjaminBaker_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BenjaminBaker_35-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BenjaminBaker_35-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BenjaminBaker_35-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BenjaminBaker_35-5">f</a> Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr., and David B. Baker, "The Internationalization of Psychology: A History", in Baker (ed.), Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology (2012). </li> <li id="cite_note-Takasuna-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Takasuna_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Takasuna_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Takasuna_36-2">c</a> Miki Takasuna, "Japan", in Baker (ed.), Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology (2012). </li> <li id="cite_note-Goodwin-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Goodwin_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goodwin_37-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goodwin_37-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goodwin_37-3">d</a> C. James Goodwin, "United States", in Baker (ed.), Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology (2012). </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Cecilia Taiana, "Transatlantic Migration of the Disciplines of Mind: Examination of the Reception of Wundt's and Freud's Theories in Argentina", in Brock (ed.), Internationalizing the History of Psychology (2006). </li> <li id="cite_note-SirotkinaSmith-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SirotkinaSmith_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SirotkinaSmith_39-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SirotkinaSmith_39-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SirotkinaSmith_39-3">d</a> Irina Sirotkina and Roger Smith, "Russian Federation", in Baker (ed.), Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology (2012). </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWindholz1997" class="citation journal cs1">Windholz, G. (1997). "Ivan P. Pavlov: An overview of his life and psychological work". American Psychologist. 52 (9): 941–946. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066X.52.9.941">10.1037/0003-066X.52.9.941</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Ivan+P.+Pavlov%3A+An+overview+of+his+life+and+psychological+work&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=941-946&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0003-066X.52.9.941&rft.aulast=Windholz&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tomes2008-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tomes2008_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tomes2008_41-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tomes2008_41-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tomes2008_41-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tomes2008_41-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tomes2008_41-5">f</a> Nancy Tomes, "The Development of Clinical Psychology, Social Work, and Psychiatric Nursing: 1900–1980s", in Wallace & Gach (eds.), History of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology (2008). </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Franz Samuelson, "Organizing for the Kingdom of Behavior: Academic Battles and the Organizational Policies in the Twenties"; Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 21, January 1985. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Hans Pols, "The World as Laboratory: Strategies of Field Research Developed by Mental Hygiene Psychologists in Toronto, 1920–1940" in Theresa Richardson & Donald Fisher (eds.), The Development of the Social Sciences in the United States and Canada: The Role of Philanthropy; Stamford, CT: Ablex Publishing, 1999; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56750-405-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-56750-405-1">1-56750-405-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Sol Cohen, "The Mental Hygiene Movement, the Development of Personality and the School: The Medicalization of American Education"; History of Education Quarterly 23.2, Summer 1983. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Vern L. Bullough, "The Rockefellers and Sex Research"; Journal of Sex Research 21.2, May 1985. "Their importance is hard to overestimate. In fact, in the period between 1914 and 1954, the Rockefellers were almost the sole support of sex research in the United States. The decisions made by their scientific advisers about the nature of the research to be supported and how it was conducted, as well as the topics eligible for research support, shaped the whole field of sex research and, in many ways, still continue to support it." </li> <li id="cite_note-GuthrieChapter4-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GuthrieChapter4_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GuthrieChapter4_46-1">b</a> Guthrie, Even the Rat was White (1998), Chapter 4: "Psychology and Race" (pp. 88–110). "Psychology courses often became the vehicles for eugenics propaganda. One graduate of the Record Office training program wrote, 'I hope to serve the cause by infiltrating eugenics into the minds of teachers. It may interest you to know that each student who takes psychology here works up his family history and plots his family tree.' Harvard, Columbia, Brown, Cornell, Wisconsin, and Northwestern were among the leading academic institutions teaching eugenics in psychology courses." </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Michell, J, (1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oNIcvjpDQeQC&pg=PA143">Measurement in Psychology: A Critical History of a Methodological Concept</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210209105919/https://books.google.it/books?id=oNIcvjpDQeQC&pg=PA143">Archived</a> 9 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p.143 </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Dorwin Cartwright, "Social Psychology in the United States During the Second World War", Human Relations 1.3, June 1948, p. 340; quoted in Cina, "Social Science For Whom?" (1981), p. 269. </li> <li id="cite_note-Schonfeld-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schonfeld_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schonfeld_49-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schonfeld_49-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schonfeld_49-3">d</a> Schonfeld, I.S., & Chang, C.-H. (2017). Occupational health psychology: Work, stress, and health. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Catherine Lutz, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hwVWpV6jBzoC&pg=PA245">Epistemology of the Bunker: The Brainwashed and Other New Subjects of Permanent War</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150919005126/https://books.google.com/books?id=hwVWpV6jBzoC&pg=PA245">Archived</a> 19 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", in Joel Pfister & Nancy Schnog (eds.), Inventing the Psychological: Toward a Cultural History of Emotional Life in America; Yale University Press, 1997; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-06809-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-06809-3">0-300-06809-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Cina, "Social Science For Whom?" (1981), pp. 315–325. </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Herman, "Psychology as Politics" (1993), p. 288. "Had it come to fruition, CAMELOT would have been the largest, and certainly the most generously funded, behavioral research project in U.S. history. With a $4–6 million contract over a period of 3 years, it was considered, and often called, a veritable Manhattan Project for the behavioral sciences, at least by many of the intellectuals whose services were in heavy demand." </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Cocks, Psychotherapy in the Third Reich (1997), pp. 75–77. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Cocks, Psychotherapy in the Third Reich (1997), p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Cocks, Psychotherapy in the Third Reich (1997), pp. 86–87. "For Schultz-Hencke in this 1934 essay, life goals were determined by ideology, not by science. In the case of psychotherapy, he defined health in terms of blood, strong will, proficiency, discipline, (Zucht und Ordnung), community, heroic bearing, and physical fitness. Schultz-Hencke also took the opportunity in 1934 to criticize psychoanalysis for providing an unfortunate tendency toward the exculpation of the criminal." </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Jürgen Brunner, Matthias Schrempf, & Florian Steger, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doctorsonly.co.il/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/2008_4_5.pdf">Johannes Heinrich Schultz and National Socialism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140912165633/http://www.doctorsonly.co.il/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/2008_4_5.pdf">Archived</a> 12 September 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", Israel Journal of Psychiatry & Related Sciences 45.4, 2008. "Bringing these people to a right and deep understanding of every German's duty in the New Germany, such as preparatory mental aid and psychotherapy in general and in particular for persons to be sterilized, and for people having been sterilized, is a great, important and rewarding medical duty." </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Cocks, Psychotherapy in the Third Reich (1997), Chapter 14: "Reconstruction and Repression", pp. 351–375. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kozulin_1984-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kozulin_1984_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kozulin_1984_58-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kozulin_1984_58-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kozulin_1984_58-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kozulin_1984_58-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKozulin1984" class="citation book cs1">Kozulin, Alex (1984). Psychology in Utopia: toward a social history of Soviet psychology. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-11087-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-11087-3"><bdi>0-262-11087-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10122631">10122631</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology+in+Utopia%3A+toward+a+social+history+of+Soviet+psychology&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10122631&rft.isbn=0-262-11087-3&rft.aulast=Kozulin&rft.aufirst=Alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> c.f. Hannah Proctor, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thenewinquiry.com/essays/reason-displaces-all-love/">Reason Displaces All Love</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150527205209/http://thenewinquiry.com/essays/reason-displaces-all-love/">Archived</a> 27 May 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", The New Inquiry, 14 February 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-Chin_1969-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chin_1969_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chin_1969_60-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chin_1969_60-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChinChin1969" class="citation book cs1">Chin, Robert; Chin, Ai-li S. (1969). Psychological research in Communist China, 1949-1966. Cambridge, Mass: M.I.T. Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-03032-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-03032-8"><bdi>978-0-262-03032-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/192767">192767</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychological+research+in+Communist+China%2C+1949-1966&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass&rft.pub=M.I.T.+Press&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F192767&rft.isbn=978-0-262-03032-8&rft.aulast=Chin&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Chin%2C+Ai-li+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.simplypsychology.org/anna-freud.html">"Anna Freud: Theory & Contributions To Psychology"</a>. 24 January 2024. Retrieved 4 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Anna+Freud%3A+Theory+%26+Contributions+To+Psychology&rft.date=2024-01-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.simplypsychology.org%2Fanna-freud.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Hollingworth/Periodicity/">"Classics in the History of Psychology -- Hollingworth (1914) Index"</a>. psychclassics.yorku.ca. Retrieved 6 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=psychclassics.yorku.ca&rft.atitle=Classics+in+the+History+of+Psychology+--+Hollingworth+%281914%29+Index&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpsychclassics.yorku.ca%2FHollingworth%2FPeriodicity%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHollingworth1914" class="citation journal cs1">Hollingworth, Leta Stetter (1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2762962">"Variability as Related to Sex Differences in Achievement: A Critique"</a>. American Journal of Sociology. 19 (4): 510–530. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F212287">10.1086/212287</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9602">0002-9602</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2762962">2762962</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144414476">144414476</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Sociology&rft.atitle=Variability+as+Related+to+Sex+Differences+in+Achievement%3A+A+Critique&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=510-530&rft.date=1914&rft.issn=0002-9602&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144414476%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2762962%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F212287&rft.aulast=Hollingworth&rft.aufirst=Leta+Stetter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2762962&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinberger2020" class="citation web cs1">Weinberger, Jessica (2 March 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.talkspace.com/blog/important-women-in-history-psychology-therapy/">"The Incredible Influence of Women in Psychology"</a>. Talkspace. Retrieved 4 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Talkspace&rft.atitle=The+Incredible+Influence+of+Women+in+Psychology&rft.date=2020-03-02&rft.aulast=Weinberger&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.talkspace.com%2Fblog%2Fimportant-women-in-history-psychology-therapy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.apa.org/about/governance/president/bio-mary-whiton-calkins">"Mary Whiton Calkins: 1905 APA President"</a>. www.apa.org. Retrieved 6 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.apa.org&rft.atitle=Mary+Whiton+Calkins%3A+1905+APA+President&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.apa.org%2Fabout%2Fgovernance%2Fpresident%2Fbio-mary-whiton-calkins&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Karen-Horney">"Karen Horney | German Psychoanalyst & Feminist Psychologist | Britannica"</a>. www.britannica.com. Retrieved 6 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Karen+Horney+%7C+German+Psychoanalyst+%26+Feminist+Psychologist+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FKaren-Horney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psychoanalysis.org.uk/our-authors-and-theorists/melanie-klein">"Melanie Klein | Institute of Psychoanalysis"</a>. psychoanalysis.org.uk. Retrieved 6 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=psychoanalysis.org.uk&rft.atitle=Melanie+Klein+%7C+Institute+of+Psychoanalysis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpsychoanalysis.org.uk%2Four-authors-and-theorists%2Fmelanie-klein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150323101023/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3456300011.html">"Ainsworth, Mary D. Salter - Psychologists and Their Theories for Students | HighBeam Research"</a>. 23 March 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3456300011.html">the original</a> on 23 March 2015. Retrieved 6 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ainsworth%2C+Mary+D.+Salter+-+Psychologists+and+Their+Theories+for+Students+%7C+HighBeam+Research&rft.date=2015-03-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.highbeam.com%2Fdoc%2F1G2-3456300011.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRavo1999" class="citation news cs1">Ravo, Nick (7 April 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1999/04/07/us/mary-ainsworth-85-theorist-on-mother-infant-attachment.html">"Mary Ainsworth, 85, Theorist On Mother-Infant Attachment"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved 6 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Mary+Ainsworth%2C+85%2C+Theorist+On+Mother-Infant+Attachment&rft.date=1999-04-07&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Ravo&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1999%2F04%2F07%2Fus%2Fmary-ainsworth-85-theorist-on-mother-infant-attachment.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaggbloomWarnickWarnickJones2002" class="citation journal cs1">Haggbloom, Steven J.; Warnick, Renee; Warnick, Jason E.; Jones, Vinessa K.; Yarbrough, Gary L.; Russell, Tenea M.; Borecky, Chris M.; McGahhey, Reagan; Powell, John L.; Beavers, Jamie; Monte, Emmanuelle (June 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139">"The 100 Most Eminent Psychologists of the 20th Century"</a>. Review of General Psychology. 6 (2): 139–152. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F1089-2680.6.2.139">10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1089-2680">1089-2680</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145668721">145668721</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+General+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+100+Most+Eminent+Psychologists+of+the+20th+Century&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=139-152&rft.date=2002-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145668721%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1089-2680&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F1089-2680.6.2.139&rft.aulast=Haggbloom&rft.aufirst=Steven+J.&rft.au=Warnick%2C+Renee&rft.au=Warnick%2C+Jason+E.&rft.au=Jones%2C+Vinessa+K.&rft.au=Yarbrough%2C+Gary+L.&rft.au=Russell%2C+Tenea+M.&rft.au=Borecky%2C+Chris+M.&rft.au=McGahhey%2C+Reagan&rft.au=Powell%2C+John+L.&rft.au=Beavers%2C+Jamie&rft.au=Monte%2C+Emmanuelle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1037%2F1089-2680.6.2.139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.apa.org/pi/oema/resources/ethnicity-health/psychologists/clark">"Featured Psychologists: Mamie Phipps Clark, PhD, and Kenneth Clark, PhD"</a>. www.apa.org. Retrieved 6 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.apa.org&rft.atitle=Featured+Psychologists%3A+Mamie+Phipps+Clark%2C+PhD%2C+and+Kenneth+Clark%2C+PhD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.apa.org%2Fpi%2Foema%2Fresources%2Fethnicity-health%2Fpsychologists%2Fclark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeisstein1993" class="citation journal cs1">Weisstein, Naomi (June 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0959353593032005">"Psychology Constructs the Female; or the Fantasy Life of the Male Psychologist (with Some Attention to the Fantasies of his Friends, the Male Biologist and the Male Anthropologist)"</a>. Feminism & Psychology. 3 (2): 194–210. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0959353593032005">10.1177/0959353593032005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0959-3535">0959-3535</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142246296">142246296</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Feminism+%26+Psychology&rft.atitle=Psychology+Constructs+the+Female%3B+or+the+Fantasy+Life+of+the+Male+Psychologist+%28with+Some+Attention+to+the+Fantasies+of+his+Friends%2C+the+Male+Biologist+and+the+Male+Anthropologist%29&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=194-210&rft.date=1993-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A142246296%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0959-3535&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0959353593032005&rft.aulast=Weisstein&rft.aufirst=Naomi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F0959353593032005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBallRutherford2016" class="citation journal cs1">Ball, Laura C.; Rutherford, Alexandra (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0039886">"Naomi Weisstein (1939–2015)"</a>. American Psychologist. 71 (1): 77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0039886">10.1037/a0039886</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1935-990X">1935-990X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26766770">26766770</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Naomi+Weisstein+%281939%E2%80%932015%29.&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=77&rft.date=2016&rft.issn=1935-990X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26766770&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0039886&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=Laura+C.&rft.au=Rutherford%2C+Alexandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.apa.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0039886&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFContent1993" class="citation web cs1">Content, Contributed (14 February 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/1993/02/14/e-kitch-childs/">"E. KITCH CHILDS"</a>. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 6 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chicago+Tribune&rft.atitle=E.+KITCH+CHILDS&rft.date=1993-02-14&rft.aulast=Content&rft.aufirst=Contributed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chicagotribune.com%2F1993%2F02%2F14%2Fe-kitch-childs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimes1970" class="citation news cs1">Times, Robert Reinhold Special to The New York (6 September 1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1970/09/06/archives/women-criticize-psychology-unit-1million-in-reparations-is-demanded.html">"WOMEN CRITICIZE PSYCHOLOGY UNIT"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved 6 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=WOMEN+CRITICIZE+PSYCHOLOGY+UNIT&rft.date=1970-09-06&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Times&rft.aufirst=Robert+Reinhold+Special+to+The+New+York&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1970%2F09%2F06%2Farchives%2Fwomen-criticize-psychology-unit-1million-in-reparations-is-demanded.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.apa.org/pi/women/iampsyched/timeline">"Women in Psychology Timeline"</a>. www.apa.org. Retrieved 6 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.apa.org&rft.atitle=Women+in+Psychology+Timeline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.apa.org%2Fpi%2Fwomen%2Fiampsyched%2Ftimeline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamison2009" class="citation book cs1">Jamison, Kay Redfield (21 January 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3O82iMI7bqwC">An Unquiet Mind: A Memoir of Moods and Madness</a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-49848-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-49848-9"><bdi>978-0-307-49848-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Unquiet+Mind%3A+A+Memoir+of+Moods+and+Madness&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2009-01-21&rft.isbn=978-0-307-49848-9&rft.aulast=Jamison&rft.aufirst=Kay+Redfield&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3O82iMI7bqwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamison2009" class="citation book cs1">Jamison, Kay Redfield (15 September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2i8uUIc99FMC">Nothing Was the Same</a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-27313-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-27313-0"><bdi>978-0-307-27313-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nothing+Was+the+Same&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2009-09-15&rft.isbn=978-0-307-27313-0&rft.aulast=Jamison&rft.aufirst=Kay+Redfield&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2i8uUIc99FMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-blog.zencare.co-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-blog.zencare.co_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-blog.zencare.co_79-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blog.zencare.co/famous-women-in-psychology/">"Famous Women Leaders in Psychology: Past and Present — Zencare Blog"</a>. The Couch: A Therapy & Mental Wellness Blog. 3 March 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Couch%3A+A+Therapy+%26+Mental+Wellness+Blog&rft.atitle=Famous+Women+Leaders+in+Psychology%3A+Past+and+Present+%E2%80%94+Zencare+Blog&rft.date=2021-03-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.zencare.co%2Ffamous-women-in-psychology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeal-Barnett2010" class="citation book cs1">Neal-Barnett, Angela (15 June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n79UzrcgedoC">Soothe Your Nerves: The Black Woman's Guide to Understanding and Overcoming Anxiety, Panic, and Fearz</a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-0363-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-0363-7"><bdi>978-1-4516-0363-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soothe+Your+Nerves%3A+The+Black+Woman%27s+Guide+to+Understanding+and+Overcoming+Anxiety%2C+Panic%2C+and+Fearz&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2010-06-15&rft.isbn=978-1-4516-0363-7&rft.aulast=Neal-Barnett&rft.aufirst=Angela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn79UzrcgedoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.apa.org/pi/women/iampsyched/timeline">"Women in Psychology Timeline"</a>. www.apa.org. Retrieved 4 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.apa.org&rft.atitle=Women+in+Psychology+Timeline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.apa.org%2Fpi%2Fwomen%2Fiampsyched%2Ftimeline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiles-CohenSignore2016" class="citation book cs1">Miles-Cohen, Shari E.; Signore, Caroline (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M_tajwEACAAJ">Eliminating Inequities for Women with Disabilities: An Agenda for Health and Wellness</a>. American Psychological Association. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4338-2253-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4338-2253-7"><bdi>978-1-4338-2253-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eliminating+Inequities+for+Women+with+Disabilities%3A+An+Agenda+for+Health+and+Wellness&rft.pub=American+Psychological+Association&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4338-2253-7&rft.aulast=Miles-Cohen&rft.aufirst=Shari+E.&rft.au=Signore%2C+Caroline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM_tajwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/leadership/shari-miles-cohen">"Shari E. Miles-Cohen, PhD"</a>. www.apa.org. Retrieved 4 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.apa.org&rft.atitle=Shari+E.+Miles-Cohen%2C+PhD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.apa.org%2Fpi%2Fwomen%2Fprograms%2Fleadership%2Fshari-miles-cohen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PickrenFowler-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PickrenFowler_84-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PickrenFowler_84-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PickrenFowler_84-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PickrenFowler_84-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PickrenFowler_84-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PickrenFowler_84-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PickrenFowler_84-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PickrenFowler_84-7">h</a> Wade Pickren & Raymond D. Fowler, "Professional Organizations", in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 1: History of Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-Staeuble-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Staeuble_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Staeuble_85-1">b</a> Irmingard Staeuble, "Psychology in the Eurocentric Order of the Social Sciences: Colonial Constitution, Cultural Imperialist Expansion, Postcolonial Critique" in Brock (ed.), Internationalizing the History of Psychology (2006). </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> For example, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20150406055541/https://www.oregonlegislature.gov/bills_laws/lawsstatutes/2013ors675.html">Oregon State Law, Chapter 675 (2013 edition)</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oregon.gov/obpe/Pages/laws_rules.aspx">Statutes & Rules Relating to the Practice of Psychology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160521020000/http://www.oregon.gov/obpe/Pages/laws_rules.aspx">Archived</a> 21 May 2016 at the Portuguese Web Archive. </li> <li id="cite_note-HallHurley-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HallHurley_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HallHurley_87-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HallHurley_87-2">c</a> Judy E. Hall and George Hurley, "North American Perspectives on Education, Training, Licensing, and Credentialing", in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 8: Clinical Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> T.S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 1st. ed., Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1962. </li> <li id="cite_note-Beveridge_subj-89"><a href="#cite_ref-Beveridge_subj_89-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeveridge2002" class="citation journal cs1">Beveridge, Allan (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1192%2Fpb.26.3.101">"Time to abandon the subjective–objective divide?"</a>. Psychiatric Bulletin. 26 (3): 101–103. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1192%2Fpb.26.3.101">10.1192/pb.26.3.101</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychiatric+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Time+to+abandon+the+subjective%E2%80%93objective+divide%3F&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=101-103&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1192%2Fpb.26.3.101&rft.aulast=Beveridge&rft.aufirst=Allan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1192%252Fpb.26.3.101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peterson_subj-90"><a href="#cite_ref-Peterson_subj_90-0">^</a> Peterson, C. (23 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-good-life/200905/subjective-and-objective-research-in-positive-psychology">"Subjective and objective research in positive psychology: A biological characteristic is linked to well-being"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730080401/https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-good-life/200905/subjective-and-objective-research-in-positive-psychology">Archived</a> 30 July 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Psychology Today. Retrieved 20 April 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-Panksepp_AN-91"><a href="#cite_ref-Panksepp_AN_91-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Jaak_Panksepp" title="Jaak Panksepp">Panksepp, J.</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n0W2QQuZ7IEC">Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150918223340/https://books.google.com/books?id=n0W2QQuZ7IEC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Archived</a> 18 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-Teo_2005-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Teo_2005_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Teo_2005_92-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeo2005" class="citation book cs1">Teo, Thomas (2005). The critique of psychology: from Kant to postcolonial theory. New York: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-25355-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-25355-8"><bdi>978-0-387-25355-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/209833302">209833302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+critique+of+psychology%3A+from+Kant+to+postcolonial+theory&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F209833302&rft.isbn=978-0-387-25355-8&rft.aulast=Teo&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Michela Gallagher & Randy J. Nelson, "Volume Preface", in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 3: Biological Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-ThompsonZola-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ThompsonZola_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ThompsonZola_94-1">b</a> Richard F. Thompson & Stuart M. Zola, "Biological Psychology", in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 1: History of Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-Luria_1973-95"><a href="#cite_ref-Luria_1973_95-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuria1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._R._Luria" class="mw-redirect" title="A. R. Luria">Luria, A. R.</a> (1973). The working brain: an introduction to neuropsychology. Translated by Haigh, Basil. New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-09208-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-09208-X"><bdi>0-465-09208-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/832187">832187</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+working+brain%3A+an+introduction+to+neuropsychology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F832187&rft.isbn=0-465-09208-X&rft.aulast=Luria&rft.aufirst=A.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinel2010" class="citation book cs1">Pinel, John (2010). Biopsychology. New York: Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-83256-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-83256-9"><bdi>978-0-205-83256-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biopsychology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-205-83256-9&rft.aulast=Pinel&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_FrankelTimothy_QuillSusan_McDaniel2003" class="citation book cs1">Richard Frankel; Timothy Quill; Susan McDaniel (2003). The Biopsychosocial Approach: Past, Present, Future. Boydell & Brewer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58046-102-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58046-102-3"><bdi>978-1-58046-102-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Biopsychosocial+Approach%3A+Past%2C+Present%2C+Future&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-58046-102-3&rft.au=Richard+Frankel&rft.au=Timothy+Quill&rft.au=Susan+McDaniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Behavior_Genetics-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Behavior_Genetics_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Behavior_Genetics_98-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGueGottesman2015" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">McGue M, Gottesman II (2015). "Behavior Genetics". The Encyclopedia of Clinical Psychology. pp. 1–11. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118625392.wbecp578">10.1002/9781118625392.wbecp578</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-62539-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-62539-2"><bdi>978-1-118-62539-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Behavior+Genetics&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Clinical+Psychology&rft.pages=1-11&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118625392.wbecp578&rft.isbn=978-1-118-62539-2&rft.aulast=McGue&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Gottesman%2C+II&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Guthrie, Even the Rat was White (1998), Chapter 1: "'The Noble Savage' and Science" (pp. 3–33) </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Guthrie, Even the Rat was White (1998), Chapter 5: "The Psychology of Survival and Education" (pp. 113–134) </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Guthrie, Even the Rat was White (1998), Chapter 2: "Brass Instruments and Dark Skins" (pp. 34–54) </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> J.B. Watson & R. Rayner, "Conditioned emotional responses", Journal of Experimental Psychology 3, 1920; in Hock, Forty Studies (2002), pp. 70–76. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1979" class="citation journal cs1">Harris, B. (February 1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120803155410/http://htpprints.yorku.ca/archive/00000198/01/BHARRIS.HTM#selection-15.0-15.35">"Whatever happened to Little Albert?"</a>. American Psychologist. 34 (2): 151–160. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066X.34.2.151">10.1037/0003-066X.34.2.151</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://htpprints.yorku.ca/archive/00000198/01/BHARRIS.HTM">the original</a> on 3 August 2012 – via History & Theory of Psychology Eprint Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Whatever+happened+to+Little+Albert%3F&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=151-160&rft.date=1979-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0003-066X.34.2.151&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhtpprints.yorku.ca%2Farchive%2F00000198%2F01%2FBHARRIS.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverskeid2007" class="citation journal cs1">Overskeid, Geir (2007). "Looking for Skinner and finding Freud". American Psychologist. 62 (6): 590–595. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.321.6288">10.1.1.321.6288</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066X.62.6.590">10.1037/0003-066X.62.6.590</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17874899">17874899</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Looking+for+Skinner+and+finding+Freud&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=590-595&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.321.6288%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17874899&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0003-066X.62.6.590&rft.aulast=Overskeid&rft.aufirst=Geir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerKonorski1928" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Miller, S.; Konorski, J. (1928). "Sur une forme particulière des reflexes conditionels" [On a particular form of conditional reflexes]. Comptes Rendus des Séances de la Société de Biologie et de Ses Filiales (in French). 99: 1155–1157.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+Rendus+des+S%C3%A9ances+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+de+Biologie+et+de+Ses+Filiales&rft.atitle=Sur+une+forme+particuli%C3%A8re+des+reflexes+conditionels&rft.volume=99&rft.pages=1155-1157&rft.date=1928&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Konorski%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Skinner, B.F. (1932) The Behavior of Organisms[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Chomsky, N. (1959). Review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior. Language, 35, 26–58. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.chomsky.info/articles/1967----.htm">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150929070654/http://www.chomsky.info/articles/1967----.htm">Archived</a> 29 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schlinger_2008-108">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schlinger_2008_108-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schlinger_2008_108-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchlinger,_H.D.2008" class="citation journal cs1">Schlinger, H.D. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200117074401/https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/tpr/vol58/iss3/1/">"The long good-bye: why B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior is alive and well on the 50th anniversary of its publication"</a>. The Psychological Record. 58 (3): 329–337. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF03395622">10.1007/BF03395622</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18114690">18114690</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/tpr/vol58/iss3/1">the original</a> on 17 January 2020. Retrieved 21 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Psychological+Record&rft.atitle=The+long+good-bye%3A+why+B.F.+Skinner%27s+Verbal+Behavior+is+alive+and+well+on+the+50th+anniversary+of+its+publication&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=329-337&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF03395622&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18114690%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Schlinger%2C+H.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopensiuc.lib.siu.edu%2Ftpr%2Fvol58%2Fiss3%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeligman_M.E.P.Maier_S.F.1967" class="citation journal cs1">Seligman M.E.P.; Maier S.F. (1967). "Failure to escape traumatic shock". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 74 (1): 1–9. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.611.8411">10.1.1.611.8411</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0024514">10.1037/h0024514</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6032570">6032570</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Psychology&rft.atitle=Failure+to+escape+traumatic+shock&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-9&rft.date=1967&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.611.8411%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6032570&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0024514&rft.au=Seligman+M.E.P.&rft.au=Maier+S.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOvermier_J.B.Seligman_M.E.P.1967" class="citation journal cs1">Overmier J.B.; Seligman M.E.P. (1967). "Effects of inescapable shock upon subsequent escape and avoidance responding". Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology. 63 (1): 28–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0024166">10.1037/h0024166</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6029715">6029715</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17310110">17310110</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Comparative+and+Physiological+Psychology&rft.atitle=Effects+of+inescapable+shock+upon+subsequent+escape+and+avoidance+responding&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=28-33&rft.date=1967&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17310110%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6029715&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0024166&rft.au=Overmier+J.B.&rft.au=Seligman+M.E.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolman1948" class="citation journal cs1">Tolman, Edward C. (1948). "Cognitive maps in rats and men". Psychological Review. 55 (4): 189–208. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0061626">10.1037/h0061626</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18870876">18870876</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42496633">42496633</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Review&rft.atitle=Cognitive+maps+in+rats+and+men&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=189-208&rft.date=1948&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A42496633%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18870876&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0061626&rft.aulast=Tolman&rft.aufirst=Edward+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Ruben Ardila, "Behavior Analysis in an International Context", in Brock (ed.), Internationalizing the History of Psychology (2006). </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierceCheney2017" class="citation book cs1">Pierce, W. David; Cheney, Carl D. (16 June 2017) [1995]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Behavior-Analysis-and-Learning-A-Biobehavioral-Approach-Sixth-Edition/Pierce-Cheney/p/book/9781138898585">Behavior Analysis and Learning: A Biobehavioral Approach</a> (6 ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 1–622. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138898585" title="Special:BookSources/978-1138898585"><bdi>978-1138898585</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210603031001/https://www.routledge.com/Behavior-Analysis-and-Learning-A-Biobehavioral-Approach-Sixth-Edition/Pierce-Cheney/p/book/9781138898585">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 3 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Behavior+Analysis+and+Learning%3A+A+Biobehavioral+Approach&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1-622&rft.edition=6&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017-06-16&rft.isbn=978-1138898585&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=W.+David&rft.au=Cheney%2C+Carl+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FBehavior-Analysis-and-Learning-A-Biobehavioral-Approach-Sixth-Edition%2FPierce-Cheney%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9781138898585&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apa.org/research/action/glossary.aspx">"American Psychological Association (2013). Glossary of psychological terms"</a>. Apa.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190127022835/https://www.apa.org/research/action/glossary.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 27 January 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Psychological+Association+%282013%29.+Glossary+of+psychological+terms&rft.pub=Apa.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.apa.org%2Fresearch%2Faction%2Fglossary.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Gardner, H. (1985). The mind's new science: A history of the cognitive revolution. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-04635-5 </li> <li id="cite_note-Mandler-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mandler_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mandler_116-1">b</a> Mandler, G. (2007). A history of modern experimental psychology: From James and Wundt to cognitive science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJuslin2013" class="citation cs1">Juslin, Peter (2013). "Availability Heuristic". Encyclopedia of the Mind. SAGE Publications, Inc. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781452257044.n39">10.4135/9781452257044.n39</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-5057-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-5057-2"><bdi>978-1-4129-5057-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Availability+Heuristic&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Mind&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781452257044.n39&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-5057-2&rft.aulast=Juslin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThagard2020" class="citation cs1">Thagard, Paul (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/cognitive-science/">"Cognitive Science"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2020 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210301035552/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/cognitive-science/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 22 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cognitive+Science&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Winter+2020&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Thagard&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2020%2Fentries%2Fcognitive-science%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllport1985" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Allport, G. W (1985). "The Historical Background of Social Psychology". In G. Lindzey and E. Aronson (ed.). The Handbook of Social Psychology. New York: <a href="/wiki/McGraw_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw Hill">McGraw Hill</a>. p. 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Historical+Background+of+Social+Psychology&rft.btitle=The+Handbook+of+Social+Psychology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Allport&rft.aufirst=G.+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Tausig, M., & Fenwick, R. (2011). Work and mental health in social context. New York: Springer. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-0625-9">10.1007/978-1-4614-0625-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Thompson, C. & Mullahy, P. (1951). Psychoanalysis: Evolution and development (3rd ed.). New York: Hermitage House. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Brenner, C. (1974). An elementary textbook of psychoanalysis. Garden City, NY: Anchor. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Moore, B.E.; Fine, B.D. (1968), A Glossary of Psychoanalytic Terms and Concepts, Amer Psychoanalytic Assn, p. 78, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-318-13125-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-318-13125-2">978-0-318-13125-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreud,_S1900" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Freud, S (1900). The Interpretation of Dreams. Vol. IV and V (2nd ed.). Hogarth Press, 1955.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Interpretation+of+Dreams&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Hogarth+Press%2C+1955&rft.date=1900&rft.au=Freud%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreud,_S1915" class="citation book cs1">Freud, S (1915). The Unconscious. Vol. XIV (2nd ed.). Hogarth Press, 1955.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unconscious&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Hogarth+Press%2C+1955&rft.date=1915&rft.au=Freud%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Popper-127"><a href="#cite_ref-Popper_127-0">^</a> Karl Popper, Conjectures and Refutations, London: Routledge and Keagan Paul, 1963, pp. 33–39; from Theodore Schick, ed., Readings in the Philosophy of Science, Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company, 2000, pp. 9–13. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.washington.edu/lynnhank/Popper.doc">Faculty.washington.edu</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326181144/http://faculty.washington.edu/lynnhank/Popper.doc">Archived</a> 26 March 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen-128"><a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2007" class="citation news cs1">Cohen, Patricia (25 November 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/25/weekinreview/25cohen.html?_r=3&ref=education&oref&oref=slogin">"June 2008 study"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20240526001934/https://www.webcitation.org/683GStpl4?url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/25/weekinreview/25cohen.html%3F_r=4">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 23 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=June+2008+study&rft.date=2007-11-25&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2007%2F11%2F25%2Fweekinreview%2F25cohen.html%3F_r%3D3%26ref%3Deducation%26oref%26oref%3Dslogin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> See: <ul><li>Damásio, A. (1994). <a href="/wiki/Descartes%27_Error:_Emotion,_Reason,_and_the_Human_Brain" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain">Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain</a>.</li> <li>Damásio, A. (1996). The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex.</li> <li>Damásio, A. (1999). The feeling of what happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness.</li> <li>Damásio, A. (2003). Looking for Spinoza: Joy, sorrow, and the feeling brain.</li> <li>LeDoux, J.E. (1998). The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life (Touchstone ed.). Simon & Schuster. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-83659-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-83659-9">0-684-83659-9</a></li> <li>Panksepp, J. (1998). Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Sacks, O. (1984). A leg to stand on. New York: Summit Books/Simon and Schuster.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-honolulu-130"><a href="#cite_ref-honolulu_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100211014419/http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/maslow.htm">"Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs"</a>. Honolulu.hawaii.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/maslow.htm">the original</a> on 11 February 2010. Retrieved 10 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Maslow%27s+Hierarchy+of+Needs&rft.pub=Honolulu.hawaii.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhonolulu.hawaii.edu%2Fintranet%2Fcommittees%2FFacDevCom%2Fguidebk%2Fteachtip%2Fmaslow.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenjafield2010" class="citation book cs1">Benjafield, John G. (2010). A History of Psychology: Third Edition. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press. pp. 357–362. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-543021-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-543021-9"><bdi>978-0-19-543021-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Psychology%3A+Third+Edition&rft.place=Don+Mills%2C+ON&rft.pages=357-362&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-543021-9&rft.aulast=Benjafield&rft.aufirst=John+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_University_Press_2015-132">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_University_Press_2015_132-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_University_Press_2015_132-1">b</a> Oxford University Press. (2015). A Dictionary of Psychology, 4th ed. Edited by Andrew M. Colman. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford: Author. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199657681" title="Special:BookSources/9780199657681">9780199657681</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazzaniga2010" class="citation book cs1">Gazzaniga, Michael (2010). Psychological Science. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-93421-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-93421-2"><bdi>978-0-393-93421-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychological+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-393-93421-2&rft.aulast=Gazzaniga&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Rowan, John. (2001). Ordinary Ecstasy: The Dialectics of Humanistic Psychology. London, UK: Brunner-Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-23633-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-23633-9">0-415-23633-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ehrenreich-135"><a href="#cite_ref-Ehrenreich_135-0">^</a> Ehrenreich, B. (2009). Bright-sided: How the relentless promotion of positive thinking has undermined America. New York: Henry Holt. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-8749-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-8749-9">978-0-8050-8749-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Singal-136"><a href="#cite_ref-Singal_136-0">^</a> Singal, J. (2021, June 7). Positive psychology goes to war: How the Army adopted an untested, evidence-free approach to fighting PTSD. Chronicle of Higher Education. </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> A.J. Sutich, American association for humanistic psychology, Articles of association. Palo Alto, CA (mimeographed): August 28, 1963; in Severin (ed.), Humanistic Viewpoints in Psychology (1965), pp. xv–xvi. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hergenhahn3-138"><a href="#cite_ref-Hergenhahn3_138-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHergenhahn,_B.R.2005" class="citation book cs1">Hergenhahn, B.R. (2005). An introduction to the history of psychology. Belmont, California: Thomson Wadsworth. pp. 528–536.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+the+history+of+psychology&rft.place=Belmont%2C+California&rft.pages=528-536&rft.pub=Thomson+Wadsworth&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Hergenhahn%2C+B.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hergenhahn4-139"><a href="#cite_ref-Hergenhahn4_139-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHergenhahn,_B.R.2005" class="citation book cs1">Hergenhahn, B.R. (2005). An introduction to the history of psychology. Belmont, California: Thomson Wadsworth. pp. 546–547.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+the+history+of+psychology&rft.place=Belmont%2C+California&rft.pages=546-547&rft.pub=Thomson+Wadsworth&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Hergenhahn%2C+B.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hergenhahn-140"><a href="#cite_ref-Hergenhahn_140-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHergenhahn,_B.R.2005" class="citation book cs1">Hergenhahn, B.R. (2005). An introduction to the history of psychology. Belmont, California: Thomson Wadsworth. pp. 523–532.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+the+history+of+psychology&rft.place=Belmont%2C+California&rft.pages=523-532&rft.pub=Thomson+Wadsworth&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Hergenhahn%2C+B.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frankl-141"><a href="#cite_ref-Frankl_141-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankl,_V.E.1984" class="citation book cs1">Frankl, V.E. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manssearchforme000fran">Man's search for meaning (rev. ed.)</a>. New York: Washington Square Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manssearchforme000fran/page/86">86</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Man%27s+search+for+meaning+%28rev.+ed.%29&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=Washington+Square+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.au=Frankl%2C+V.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmanssearchforme000fran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Seidner, Stanley S. (10 June 2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.google.com/gview?a=v&q=cache:FrKYAo88ckkJ:www.materdei.ie/media/conferences/a-secular-age-parallel-sessions-timetable.pdf+%22Stan+Seidner%22&hl=en&gl=us">"A Trojan Horse: Logotherapeutic Transcendence and its Secular Implications for Theology"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110501081407/http://docs.google.com/gview?a=v&q=cache%3AFrKYAo88ckkJ%3Awww.materdei.ie%2Fmedia%2Fconferences%2Fa-secular-age-parallel-sessions-timetable.pdf+%22Stan+Seidner%22&hl=en&gl=us">Archived</a> 1 May 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Mater Dei Institute. p 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Carver, C., & Scheier, M. (2004). Perspectives on Personality (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Cattell, R.B. (1995). "The fallacy of five factors in the personality sphere". The Psychologist, May, 207–208. </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCattellNichols1972" class="citation journal cs1">Cattell, Raymond B.; Nichols, K. Ernest (1972). "An Improved Definition, from 10 Researchers, of Second Order Personality Factors in Q Data (with Cross-Cultural Checks)". The Journal of Social Psychology. 86 (2): 187–203. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00224545.1972.9918617">10.1080/00224545.1972.9918617</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=An+Improved+Definition%2C+from+10+Researchers%2C+of+Second+Order+Personality+Factors+in+Q+Data+%28with+Cross-Cultural+Checks%29&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=187-203&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00224545.1972.9918617&rft.aulast=Cattell&rft.aufirst=Raymond+B.&rft.au=Nichols%2C+K.+Ernest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlock1995" class="citation journal cs1">Block, Jack (1995). "A contrarian view of the five-factor approach to personality description". Psychological Bulletin. 117 (2): 187–215. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-2909.117.2.187">10.1037/0033-2909.117.2.187</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7724687">7724687</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Bulletin&rft.atitle=A+contrarian+view+of+the+five-factor+approach+to+personality+description&rft.volume=117&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=187-215&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-2909.117.2.187&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7724687&rft.aulast=Block&rft.aufirst=Jack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Boyle, G.J. (2008). Critique of Five-Factor Model (FFM). In G.J. Boyle, G. Matthews, & D.H. Saklofske. (Eds.), ThBy coe SAGE handbook of personality theory and assessment: Vol. 1 – Personality theories and models. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-4651-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-4651-3">978-1-4129-4651-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucasBaird2004" class="citation journal cs1">Lucas, Richard E.; Baird, Brendan M. (2004). "Extraversion and Emotional Reactivity". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 86 (3): 473–485. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.86.3.473">10.1037/0022-3514.86.3.473</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15008650">15008650</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Extraversion+and+Emotional+Reactivity.&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=473-485&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-3514.86.3.473&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15008650&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Richard+E.&rft.au=Baird%2C+Brendan+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Boyle, G.J. (2011). Changes in personality traits in adulthood. In D. Westen, L. Burton, & R. Kowalski (Eds.), Psychology: Australian and New Zealand 3rd edition (pp. 448–449). Milton, Queensland: Wiley. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-74216-644-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-74216-644-5">978-1-74216-644-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCattellBoyleChant2002" class="citation journal cs1">Cattell, Raymond B.; Boyle, Gregory J.; Chant, David (2002). "Enriched behavioral prediction equation and its impact on structured learning and the dynamic calculus". Psychological Review. 109 (1): 202–205. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-295X.109.1.202">10.1037/0033-295X.109.1.202</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11863038">11863038</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Review&rft.atitle=Enriched+behavioral+prediction+equation+and+its+impact+on+structured+learning+and+the+dynamic+calculus&rft.volume=109&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=202-205&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-295X.109.1.202&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11863038&rft.aulast=Cattell&rft.aufirst=Raymond+B.&rft.au=Boyle%2C+Gregory+J.&rft.au=Chant%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyle1995" class="citation journal cs1">Boyle, Gregory J. (1995). "Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): Some Psychometric Limitations". Australian Psychologist. 30 (1): 71–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1742-9544.1995.tb01750.x">10.1111/j.1742-9544.1995.tb01750.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Myers-Briggs+Type+Indicator+%28MBTI%29%3A+Some+Psychometric+Limitations&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=71-74&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1742-9544.1995.tb01750.x&rft.aulast=Boyle&rft.aufirst=Gregory+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Leslie C. Morey, "Measuring Personality and Psychopathology" in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 2: Research Methods in Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Gough, H.G. (1987) California Psychological Inventory Administrator's Guide. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldbergJohnsonEberHogan2006" class="citation journal cs1">Goldberg, Lewis R.; Johnson, John A.; Eber, Herbert W.; Hogan, Robert; Ashton, Michael C.; Cloninger, C. Robert; Gough, Harrison G. (February 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0092656605000553">"The international personality item pool and the future of public-domain personality measures"</a>. Journal of Research in Personality. 40 (1): 84–96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jrp.2005.08.007">10.1016/j.jrp.2005.08.007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Research+in+Personality&rft.atitle=The+international+personality+item+pool+and+the+future+of+public-domain+personality+measures&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=84-96&rft.date=2006-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jrp.2005.08.007&rft.aulast=Goldberg&rft.aufirst=Lewis+R.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+John+A.&rft.au=Eber%2C+Herbert+W.&rft.au=Hogan%2C+Robert&rft.au=Ashton%2C+Michael+C.&rft.au=Cloninger%2C+C.+Robert&rft.au=Gough%2C+Harrison+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0092656605000553&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Charles Sanders Peirce & Joseph Jastrow, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/small-diffs.htm">On Small Differences in Sensation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190609111346/http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/small-diffs.htm">Archived</a> 9 June 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences 3, 17 October 1884; cited in William P. Banks & Ilya Farber, "Consciousness", in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 4: Experimental Psychology; and in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeberJacoby1994" class="citation journal cs1">Deber, James A; Jacoby, Larry L. (1994). "Unconscious Perception: Attention, Awareness, and Control". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 20 (2): 304–317. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.412.4083">10.1.1.412.4083</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0278-7393.20.2.304">10.1037/0278-7393.20.2.304</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8151275">8151275</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Psychology&rft.atitle=Unconscious+Perception%3A+Attention%2C+Awareness%2C+and+Control&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=304-317&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.412.4083%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8151275&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0278-7393.20.2.304&rft.aulast=Deber&rft.aufirst=James+A&rft.au=Jacoby%2C+Larry+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a> The full text of <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Interpretation_of_Dreams" class="extiw" title="wikisource:The Interpretation of Dreams">The Interpretation of Dreams</a> at Wikisource, a faithful copy of the third edition translated in English by <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Arden_Brill" class="mw-redirect" title="Abraham Arden Brill">Abraham Arden Brill</a> and published in 1913 by <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">The Macmillan Company</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kihlstrom1999-157">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kihlstrom1999_157-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kihlstrom1999_157-1">b</a> John F. Kihlstrom, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iXMQq7wg-qkC&pg=PA424">The Psychological Unconscious</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150919002810/https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=iXMQq7wg-qkC&oi=fnd&pg=PA424">Archived</a> 19 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", in Lawrence Pervin & Oliver John (eds.), Handbook of Personality; New York: Guilford Press, 1999. Also see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~kihlstrm/Pervin3.htm">web version</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161009084438/http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~kihlstrm/Pervin3.htm">Archived</a> 9 October 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-BanksFarber-158"><a href="#cite_ref-BanksFarber_158-0">^</a> William P. Banks & Ilya Farber, "Consciousness", in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 4: Experimental Psychology.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-Barghs-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barghs_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barghs_159-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarghChartrand1999" class="citation journal cs1">Bargh, John A.; Chartrand, Tanya L. (1999). "The unbearable automaticity of being". American Psychologist. 54 (7): 462–479. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066X.54.7.462">10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.462</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5726030">5726030</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=The+unbearable+automaticity+of+being&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=462-479&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0003-066X.54.7.462&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5726030%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bargh&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rft.au=Chartrand%2C+Tanya+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> Also see: John A. Bargh, "The Automaticity of Everyday Life", in Robert S. Wyer Jr. (ed.), The Automaticity of Everyday Life, Advances in Social Cognition, Volume X; Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-1699-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-1699-0">978-0-8058-1699-0</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-KihlstromJuggernaut-160">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KihlstromJuggernaut_160-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-KihlstromJuggernaut_160-1">b</a> John F. Kihlstrom, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~kihlstrm/AutomaticityJuggernaut.htm">The Automaticity Juggernaut—or, Are We Automatons After All?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150310133623/http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~kihlstrm/AutomaticityJuggernaut.htm">Archived</a> 10 March 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", in John Baer, James C. Kaufmna, & Roy F. Baumeister (eds.), Are We Free? Psychology and Free Will; Oxford University Press, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518963-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518963-6">978-0-19-518963-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Doyen2012-161"><a href="#cite_ref-Doyen2012_161-0">^</a> S. Doyen, O. Klein, C. L. Pichon and A. Cleeremans. (2012). Behavioral priming: it's all in the mind, but whose mind? PLoS One, 7, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029081">e29081</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730080405/https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0029081">Archived</a> 30 July 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPashlerHarrisCoburn2011" class="citation web cs1">Pashler, H; Harris, C; Coburn, N (15 September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psychfiledrawer.org/replication.php?attempt=MTU%3D">"Elderly-Related Words Prime Slow Walking"</a>. psychfiledrawer.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161021134108/http://psychfiledrawer.org/replication.php?attempt=MTU=">Archived</a> from the original on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 17 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=psychfiledrawer.org&rft.atitle=Elderly-Related+Words+Prime+Slow+Walking&rft.date=2011-09-15&rft.aulast=Pashler&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Harris%2C+C&rft.au=Coburn%2C+N&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsychfiledrawer.org%2Freplication.php%3Fattempt%3DMTU%253D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoonBrassHeinzeHaynes2008" class="citation journal cs1">Soon, Chun Siong; Brass, Marcel; Heinze, Hans-Jochen; Haynes, John-Dylan (2008). "Unconscious determinants of free decisions in the human brain". Nature Neuroscience. 11 (5): 543–545. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.520.2204">10.1.1.520.2204</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnn.2112">10.1038/nn.2112</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18408715">18408715</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2652613">2652613</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Unconscious+determinants+of+free+decisions+in+the+human+brain&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=543-545&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.520.2204%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2652613%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18408715&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnn.2112&rft.aulast=Soon&rft.aufirst=Chun+Siong&rft.au=Brass%2C+Marcel&rft.au=Heinze%2C+Hans-Jochen&rft.au=Haynes%2C+John-Dylan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumeister2008" class="citation journal cs1">Baumeister, Roy F. (2008). "Free Will in Scientific Psychology". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 3 (1): 14–19. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.476.102">10.1.1.476.102</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1745-6916.2008.00057.x">10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00057.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26158665">26158665</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9630921">9630921</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+on+Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=Free+Will+in+Scientific+Psychology&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=14-19&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.476.102%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9630921%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26158665&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1745-6916.2008.00057.x&rft.aulast=Baumeister&rft.aufirst=Roy+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ForgasEtAl-165">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ForgasEtAl_165-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ForgasEtAl_165-1">b</a> Forgas, Williams, & Laham, "Social Motivation: Introduction and Overview", in Forgas, Williams, & Laham, Social Motivation (2005). </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> Weiner, Human Motivation (2013), Chapter 2, "The Psychoanalytic Theory of Motivation" (pp. 9–84). </li> <li id="cite_note-GodsilEtAl-167">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GodsilEtAl_167-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GodsilEtAl_167-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GodsilEtAl_167-2">c</a> Bill P. Godsil, Matthew R. Tinsley, & Michael S. Fanselow, "Motivation", in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 4: Experimental Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Weiner, Human Motivation (2013), Chapter 3, "Drive Theory" (pp. 85–138). </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <a href="/wiki/E._Tory_Higgins" title="E. Tory Higgins">E. Tory Higgins</a>, Beyond Pleasure and Pain: How Motivation Works; Oxford University Press, 2012; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976582-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976582-9">978-0-19-976582-9</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Shah & Gardner, Handbook of Motivation Science (2008), entire volume.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> Hank Aarts, Ap Dijksterhuis, & Giel Dik, "Goal Contagion: Inferring goals from others' actions—and what it leads to", in Shah & Gardner, Handbook of Motivation Science (2008). "In short, then, the studies presented above indicate that humans are keen to act on the goals of other social beings that are implied in behavioral scenarios or scripts." Also see: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAartsHassinGollwitzer2004" class="citation journal cs1">Aarts; Hassin; Gollwitzer (2004). "Goal Contagion: Perceiving is for Pursuing". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 87 (1): 23–37. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.312.5507">10.1.1.312.5507</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.87.1.23">10.1037/0022-3514.87.1.23</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15250790">15250790</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Goal+Contagion%3A+Perceiving+is+for+Pursuing&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=23-37&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.312.5507%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15250790&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-3514.87.1.23&rft.au=Aarts&rft.au=Hassin&rft.au=Gollwitzer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Kathleen D. Vohs & <a href="/wiki/Roy_F._Baumeister" class="mw-redirect" title="Roy F. Baumeister">Roy F. Baumeister</a>, "Can Satisfaction Reinforce Wanting? A new theory about long-term changes in strength of motivation", in Shah & Gardner, Handbook of Motivation Science (2008). </li> <li id="cite_note-Crain-173">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Crain_173-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crain_173-1">b</a> Crain, W. (2014). Theories of development: Concepts and applications. 6th ed. Edinburgh: Pearson. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0205810468" title="Special:BookSources/978-0205810468">978-0205810468</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.simplypsychology.org/developmental-psychology.html">"Developmental Psychology | Simply Psychology"</a>. www.simplypsychology.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211029174447/https://www.simplypsychology.org/developmental-psychology.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 15 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.simplypsychology.org&rft.atitle=Developmental+Psychology+%7C+Simply+Psychology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.simplypsychology.org%2Fdevelopmental-psychology.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supp.apa.org/psycarticles/supplemental/dev0000795/dev0000795_supp.html">"Supplemental Material for Observer-Rated Environmental Sensitivity Moderates Children's Response to Parenting Quality in Early Childhood"</a>. Developmental Psychology. 2019. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fdev0000795.supp">10.1037/dev0000795.supp</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-1649">0012-1649</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Developmental+Psychology&rft.atitle=Supplemental+Material+for+Observer-Rated+Environmental+Sensitivity+Moderates+Children%27s+Response+to+Parenting+Quality+in+Early+Childhood&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fdev0000795.supp&rft.issn=0012-1649&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupp.apa.org%2Fpsycarticles%2Fsupplemental%2Fdev0000795%2Fdev0000795_supp.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Schonfeld, I. S. (1986). The Genevan and Cattell-Horn conceptions of intelligence compared: The early implementation of numerical solution aids. Developmental Psychology, 22, 204–212. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0012-1649.22.2.204">10.1037/0012-1649.22.2.204</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1278&context=gc_pubs">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414161914/https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1278&context=gc_pubs">Archived</a> 14 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> Hunnius, S., & Bekkering, H. (2010). The early development of object knowledge: A study of infants' visual anticipations during action observation. Developmental Psychology, 46, 446–454. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0016543">10.1037/a0016543</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelReynoldsMcArdleGatz2003" class="citation journal cs1">Finkel, Deborah; Reynolds, Chandra A.; McArdle, John J.; Gatz, Margaret; Pedersen, Nancy L. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0012-1649.39.3.535">"Latent growth curve analyses of accelerating decline in cognitive abilities in late adulthood"</a>. Developmental Psychology. 39 (3): 535–550. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0012-1649.39.3.535">10.1037/0012-1649.39.3.535</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-0599">1939-0599</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12760521">12760521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Developmental+Psychology&rft.atitle=Latent+growth+curve+analyses+of+accelerating+decline+in+cognitive+abilities+in+late+adulthood.&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=535-550&rft.date=2003&rft.issn=1939-0599&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12760521&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0012-1649.39.3.535&rft.aulast=Finkel&rft.aufirst=Deborah&rft.au=Reynolds%2C+Chandra+A.&rft.au=McArdle%2C+John+J.&rft.au=Gatz%2C+Margaret&rft.au=Pedersen%2C+Nancy+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.apa.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1037%2F0012-1649.39.3.535&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoldermanBenyaminDe_LeeuwSullivan2015" class="citation journal cs1">Polderman, Tinca J C.; Benyamin, Beben; De Leeuw, Christiaan A.; Sullivan, Patrick F.; Van Bochoven, Arjen; Visscher, Peter M.; Posthuma, Danielle (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:364460/UQ364460_OA.pdf">"Meta-analysis of the heritability of human traits based on fifty years of twin studies"</a> (PDF). Nature Genetics. 47 (7): 702–709. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fng.3285">10.1038/ng.3285</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25985137">25985137</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205349969">205349969</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Genetics&rft.atitle=Meta-analysis+of+the+heritability+of+human+traits+based+on+fifty+years+of+twin+studies&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=702-709&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205349969%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25985137&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fng.3285&rft.aulast=Polderman&rft.aufirst=Tinca+J+C.&rft.au=Benyamin%2C+Beben&rft.au=De+Leeuw%2C+Christiaan+A.&rft.au=Sullivan%2C+Patrick+F.&rft.au=Van+Bochoven%2C+Arjen&rft.au=Visscher%2C+Peter+M.&rft.au=Posthuma%2C+Danielle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fespace.library.uq.edu.au%2Fview%2FUQ%3A364460%2FUQ364460_OA.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurkheimer2000" class="citation journal cs1">Turkheimer, Eric (2000). "Three Laws of Behavior Genetics and What They Mean". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 9 (5): 160–164. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-8721.00084">10.1111/1467-8721.00084</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2861437">2861437</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Directions+in+Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=Three+Laws+of+Behavior+Genetics+and+What+They+Mean&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=160-164&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-8721.00084&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2861437%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Turkheimer&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTirumalarajuSuchtingEvansGoetzl2020" class="citation journal cs1">Tirumalaraju, Vaishali; Suchting, Robert; Evans, Jonathan; Goetzl, Laura; Refuerzo, Jerrie; Neumann, Alexander; Anand, Deepa; Ravikumar, Rekha; Green, Charles E.; Cowen, Philip J.; Selvaraj, Sudhakar (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2767744#:~:text=A%20Children%20of%20Twins%20study,factors%20between%20mother%20and">"Risk of Depression in the Adolescent and Adult Offspring of Mothers with Perinatal Depression"</a>. JAMA Network Open. 3 (6): e208783. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjamanetworkopen.2020.8783">10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.8783</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7327545">7327545</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32602910">32602910</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JAMA+Network+Open&rft.atitle=Risk+of+Depression+in+the+Adolescent+and+Adult+Offspring+of+Mothers+with+Perinatal+Depression&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=e208783&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7327545%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32602910&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Fjamanetworkopen.2020.8783&rft.aulast=Tirumalaraju&rft.aufirst=Vaishali&rft.au=Suchting%2C+Robert&rft.au=Evans%2C+Jonathan&rft.au=Goetzl%2C+Laura&rft.au=Refuerzo%2C+Jerrie&rft.au=Neumann%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Anand%2C+Deepa&rft.au=Ravikumar%2C+Rekha&rft.au=Green%2C+Charles+E.&rft.au=Cowen%2C+Philip+J.&rft.au=Selvaraj%2C+Sudhakar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjamanetwork.com%2Fjournals%2Fjamanetworkopen%2Ffullarticle%2F2767744%23%3A~%3Atext%3DA%2520Children%2520of%2520Twins%2520study%2Cfactors%2520between%2520mother%2520and&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVisscherBrownMcCarthyYang2012" class="citation journal cs1">Visscher, Peter M.; Brown, Matthew A.; McCarthy, Mark I.; Yang, Jian (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3257326">"Five Years of GWAS Discovery"</a>. The American Journal of Human Genetics. 90 (1): 7–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2011.11.029">10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.11.029</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3257326">3257326</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22243964">22243964</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=Five+Years+of+GWAS+Discovery&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-24&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3257326%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22243964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2011.11.029&rft.aulast=Visscher&rft.aufirst=Peter+M.&rft.au=Brown%2C+Matthew+A.&rft.au=McCarthy%2C+Mark+I.&rft.au=Yang%2C+Jian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3257326&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRipkeNealeCorvinWalters2014" class="citation journal cs1">Ripke, Stephan; Neale, Benjamin M.; Corvin, Aiden; Walters, James T. R.; Farh, Kai-How; Holmans, Peter A.; Lee, Phil; Bulik-Sullivan, Brendan; Collier, David A.; Huang, Hailiang; Pers, Tune H.; Agartz, Ingrid; Agerbo, Esben; Albus, Margot; Alexander, Madeline; Amin, Farooq; Bacanu, Silviu A.; Begemann, Martin; Belliveau, Richard A.; Bene, Judit; Bergen, Sarah E.; Bevilacqua, Elizabeth; Bigdeli, Tim B.; Black, Donald W.; Bruggeman, Richard; Buccola, Nancy G.; Buckner, Randy L.; Byerley, William; Cahn, Wiepke; et al. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4112379">"Biological insights from 108 schizophrenia-associated genetic loci"</a>. Nature. 511 (7510): 421–427. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014Natur.511..421S">2014Natur.511..421S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature13595">10.1038/nature13595</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4112379">4112379</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25056061">25056061</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Biological+insights+from+108+schizophrenia-associated+genetic+loci&rft.volume=511&rft.issue=7510&rft.pages=421-427&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4112379%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25056061&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature13595&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014Natur.511..421S&rft.aulast=Ripke&rft.aufirst=Stephan&rft.au=Neale%2C+Benjamin+M.&rft.au=Corvin%2C+Aiden&rft.au=Walters%2C+James+T.+R.&rft.au=Farh%2C+Kai-How&rft.au=Holmans%2C+Peter+A.&rft.au=Lee%2C+Phil&rft.au=Bulik-Sullivan%2C+Brendan&rft.au=Collier%2C+David+A.&rft.au=Huang%2C+Hailiang&rft.au=Pers%2C+Tune+H.&rft.au=Agartz%2C+Ingrid&rft.au=Agerbo%2C+Esben&rft.au=Albus%2C+Margot&rft.au=Alexander%2C+Madeline&rft.au=Amin%2C+Farooq&rft.au=Bacanu%2C+Silviu+A.&rft.au=Begemann%2C+Martin&rft.au=Belliveau%2C+Richard+A.&rft.au=Bene%2C+Judit&rft.au=Bergen%2C+Sarah+E.&rft.au=Bevilacqua%2C+Elizabeth&rft.au=Bigdeli%2C+Tim+B.&rft.au=Black%2C+Donald+W.&rft.au=Bruggeman%2C+Richard&rft.au=Buccola%2C+Nancy+G.&rft.au=Buckner%2C+Randy+L.&rft.au=Byerley%2C+William&rft.au=Cahn%2C+Wiepke&rft.au=Cai%2C+Guiqing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4112379&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeDecandiaRipkeYang2012" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, S Hong; Decandia, Teresa R.; Ripke, Stephan; Yang, Jian; Sullivan, Patrick F.; Goddard, Michael E.; Keller, Matthew C.; Visscher, Peter M.; Wray, Naomi R. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3327879">"Estimating the proportion of variation in susceptibility to schizophrenia captured by common SNPs"</a>. Nature Genetics. 44 (3): 247–250. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fng.1108">10.1038/ng.1108</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3327879">3327879</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22344220">22344220</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Genetics&rft.atitle=Estimating+the+proportion+of+variation+in+susceptibility+to+schizophrenia+captured+by+common+SNPs&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=247-250&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3327879%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22344220&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fng.1108&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=S+Hong&rft.au=Decandia%2C+Teresa+R.&rft.au=Ripke%2C+Stephan&rft.au=Yang%2C+Jian&rft.au=Sullivan%2C+Patrick+F.&rft.au=Goddard%2C+Michael+E.&rft.au=Keller%2C+Matthew+C.&rft.au=Visscher%2C+Peter+M.&rft.au=Wray%2C+Naomi+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3327879&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullivanDalyO'Donovan2012" class="citation journal cs1">Sullivan, Patrick F.; Daly, Mark J.; O'Donovan, Michael (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4110909">"Genetic architectures of psychiatric disorders: The emerging picture and its implications"</a>. Nature Reviews Genetics. 13 (8): 537–551. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg3240">10.1038/nrg3240</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4110909">4110909</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22777127">22777127</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Genetics&rft.atitle=Genetic+architectures+of+psychiatric+disorders%3A+The+emerging+picture+and+its+implications&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=537-551&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4110909%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22777127&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrg3240&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Patrick+F.&rft.au=Daly%2C+Mark+J.&rft.au=O%27Donovan%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4110909&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_MoorVan_Den_BergVerweijKrueger2015" class="citation journal cs1">De Moor, Marleen H. M.; Van Den Berg, Stéphanie M.; Verweij, Karin J. H.; Krueger, Robert F.; Luciano, Michelle; Arias Vasquez, Alejandro; Matteson, Lindsay K.; Derringer, Jaime; Esko, Tõnu; Amin, Najaf; Gordon, Scott D.; Hansell, Narelle K.; Hart, Amy B.; Seppälä, Ilkka; Huffman, Jennifer E.; Konte, Bettina; Lahti, Jari; Lee, Minyoung; Miller, Mike; Nutile, Teresa; Tanaka, Toshiko; Teumer, Alexander; Viktorin, Alexander; Wedenoja, Juho; Abecasis, Goncalo R.; Adkins, Daniel E.; Agrawal, Arpana; Allik, Jüri; Appel, Katja; et al. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4667957">"Meta-analysis of Genome-wide Association Studies for Neuroticism, and the Polygenic Association with Major Depressive Disorder"</a>. JAMA Psychiatry. 72 (7): 642–50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjamapsychiatry.2015.0554">10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.0554</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4667957">4667957</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25993607">25993607</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JAMA+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Meta-analysis+of+Genome-wide+Association+Studies+for+Neuroticism%2C+and+the+Polygenic+Association+with+Major+Depressive+Disorder&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=642-50&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4667957%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25993607&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Fjamapsychiatry.2015.0554&rft.aulast=De+Moor&rft.aufirst=Marleen+H.+M.&rft.au=Van+Den+Berg%2C+St%C3%A9phanie+M.&rft.au=Verweij%2C+Karin+J.+H.&rft.au=Krueger%2C+Robert+F.&rft.au=Luciano%2C+Michelle&rft.au=Arias+Vasquez%2C+Alejandro&rft.au=Matteson%2C+Lindsay+K.&rft.au=Derringer%2C+Jaime&rft.au=Esko%2C+T%C3%B5nu&rft.au=Amin%2C+Najaf&rft.au=Gordon%2C+Scott+D.&rft.au=Hansell%2C+Narelle+K.&rft.au=Hart%2C+Amy+B.&rft.au=Sepp%C3%A4l%C3%A4%2C+Ilkka&rft.au=Huffman%2C+Jennifer+E.&rft.au=Konte%2C+Bettina&rft.au=Lahti%2C+Jari&rft.au=Lee%2C+Minyoung&rft.au=Miller%2C+Mike&rft.au=Nutile%2C+Teresa&rft.au=Tanaka%2C+Toshiko&rft.au=Teumer%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Viktorin%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Wedenoja%2C+Juho&rft.au=Abecasis%2C+Goncalo+R.&rft.au=Adkins%2C+Daniel+E.&rft.au=Agrawal%2C+Arpana&rft.au=Allik%2C+J%C3%BCri&rft.au=Appel%2C+Katja&rft.au=Bigdeli%2C+Timothy+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4667957&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gregory_2011-187">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gregory_2011_187-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gregory_2011_187-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gregory_2011_187-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gregory_2011_187-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gregory_2011_187-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gregory_2011_187-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gregory_2011_187-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gregory_2011_187-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gregory_2011_187-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregory2011" class="citation book cs1">Gregory, Robert (2011). Psychological testing: history, principles, and applications (Sixth ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-78214-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-78214-7"><bdi>978-0-205-78214-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/620302854">620302854</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychological+testing%3A+history%2C+principles%2C+and+applications&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=Sixth&rft.pub=Allyn+%26+Bacon&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F620302854&rft.isbn=978-0-205-78214-7&rft.aulast=Gregory&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-188">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_188-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_188-1">b</a> Myers, D. G., & DeWall, C. N. (2023). *Psychology in everyday life* (6th ed.). Worth. </li> <li id="cite_note-Guthrie1998Chapter3-189">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guthrie1998Chapter3_189-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guthrie1998Chapter3_189-1">b</a> Guthrie, Even the Rat was White (1998), Chapter 3: "Psychometric Scientism" (pp. 55–87) </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095424949">"Army Alpha and Beta tests"</a>. Oxford Reference. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220119011118/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095424949">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2022. Retrieved 18 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Reference&rft.atitle=Army+Alpha+and+Beta+tests&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110803095424949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerry2012" class="citation journal cs1">Berry, Robert M. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarship.law.nd.edu/ndjlepp/vol12/iss2/3/">"From Involuntary Sterilization to Genetic Enhancement: The Unsettled Legacy of Buck v. Bell"</a>. Notre Dame Journal of Law, Ethics & Public Policy. 12. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043102/http://scholarship.law.nd.edu/ndjlepp/vol12/iss2/3/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Notre+Dame+Journal+of+Law%2C+Ethics+%26+Public+Policy&rft.atitle=From+Involuntary+Sterilization+to+Genetic+Enhancement%3A+The+Unsettled+Legacy+of+Buck+v.+Bell&rft.volume=12&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Berry&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.nd.edu%2Fndjlepp%2Fvol12%2Fiss2%2F3%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeal2018" class="citation journal cs1">Neal, Tess M.S. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/amp0000227">"Forensic psychology and correctional psychology: Distinct but related subfields of psychological science and practice"</a>. American Psychologist. 73 (5): 651–662. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Famp0000227">10.1037/amp0000227</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2286%2FR.I.50913">2286/R.I.50913</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1935-990X">1935-990X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29431456">29431456</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46817929">46817929</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Forensic+psychology+and+correctional+psychology%3A+Distinct+but+related+subfields+of+psychological+science+and+practice.&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=651-662&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2286%2FR.I.50913&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46817929%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Famp0000227&rft.issn=1935-990X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29431456&rft.aulast=Neal&rft.aufirst=Tess+M.S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoi.apa.org%2Fgetdoi.cfm%3Fdoi%3D10.1037%2Famp0000227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory, 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill. </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> Embretson, S.E., & Reise, S.P. (2000). Item Response Theory for Psychologists. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling, 4th ed.New York: Guilford Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> Rodriguez, A., Reise, S. P., & Haviland, M. G. (2016). Evaluating bifactor models: Calculating and interpreting statistical indices. Psychological Methods, 21, 137–150. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/met0000045">http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/met0000045</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200728095730/https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fmet0000045">Archived</a> 28 July 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-StrickerWidiger-197">^ <a href="#cite_ref-StrickerWidiger_197-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-StrickerWidiger_197-1">b</a> George Stricker & Thomas A. Widiger, "Volume Preface", in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 8: Clinical Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-brain-198"><a href="#cite_ref-brain_198-0">^</a> Brain, Christine. (2002). Advanced psychology: applications, issues and perspectives. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-17-490058-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-17-490058-9">0-17-490058-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Nancy_McWilliams" title="Nancy McWilliams">Nancy McWilliams</a> and Joel Weinberger, "Psychodynamic Psychotherapy", in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 8: Clinical Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> W. Edward Craighead & Linda Wilcoxon Craighead, "Behavioral and Cognitive-Behavioral Psychotherapy" in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 8: Clinical Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> Teri L. Elliott, "Disaster Psychology: Keep Clients out of Your Office—Get into the Field!" in Morgan et al. (ed.), Life After Graduate School in Psychology (2005). "...it is the disaster psychologist's role to utilize crisis intervention processes with the goal of preventing natural distress due to the critical event from developing into a more harmful, long-term psychological condition." </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeichsenring,_FalkLeibing,_Eric2003" class="citation journal cs1">Leichsenring, Falk; Leibing, Eric (2003). "The effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy and cognitive behavior therapy in the treatment of personality disorders: A meta-analysis". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 160 (7): 1223–1233. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.160.7.1223">10.1176/appi.ajp.160.7.1223</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12832233">12832233</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=The+effectiveness+of+psychodynamic+therapy+and+cognitive+behavior+therapy+in+the+treatment+of+personality+disorders%3A+A+meta-analysis&rft.volume=160&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1223-1233&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.160.7.1223&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12832233&rft.au=Leichsenring%2C+Falk&rft.au=Leibing%2C+Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReisner,_Andrew2005" class="citation journal cs1">Reisner, Andrew (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200806165820/https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1192&context=tpr">"The common factors, empirically validated treatments, and recovery models of therapeutic change"</a>. The Psychological Record. 55 (3): 377–400. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF03395517">10.1007/BF03395517</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142840311">142840311</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1192&context=tpr">the original</a> on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 21 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Psychological+Record&rft.atitle=The+common+factors%2C+empirically+validated+treatments%2C+and+recovery+models+of+therapeutic+change&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=377-400&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF03395517&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A142840311%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Reisner%2C+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopensiuc.lib.siu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1192%26context%3Dtpr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJensen,_J.P.Bergin,_A.E.Greaves,_D.W.1990" class="citation journal cs1">Jensen, J.P.; Bergin, A.E.; Greaves, D.W. (1990). "The meaning of eclecticism: New survey and analysis of components". Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 21 (2): 124–130. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0735-7028.21.2.124">10.1037/0735-7028.21.2.124</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Professional+Psychology%3A+Research+and+Practice&rft.atitle=The+meaning+of+eclecticism%3A+New+survey+and+analysis+of+components&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=124-130&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0735-7028.21.2.124&rft.au=Jensen%2C+J.P.&rft.au=Bergin%2C+A.E.&rft.au=Greaves%2C+D.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> Palmer, S.; Woolfe, R. (eds.) (1999). Integrative and eclectic counselling and psychotherapy. London: Sage. </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> Clarkson, P. (1996). The eclectic and integrative paradigm: Between the Scylla of confluence and the Charybdis of confusion. In Handbook of Counselling Psychology (R. Woolfe & W.L. Dryden, eds.). London: Sage, pp. 258–283. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8039-8991-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8039-8991-1">0-8039-8991-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldfried,_M.R.Wolfe,_B.E.1998" class="citation journal cs1">Goldfried, M.R.; Wolfe, B.E. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.personal.kent.edu/~dfresco/CRM_Readings/Goldfried_1998.pdf">"Toward a more clinically valid approach to therapy research"</a> (PDF). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 66 (1): 143–150. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.475.7156">10.1.1.475.7156</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-006X.66.1.143">10.1037/0022-006X.66.1.143</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9489268">9489268</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170809053356/http://www.personal.kent.edu/~dfresco/CRM_Readings/Goldfried_1998.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 August 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Consulting+and+Clinical+Psychology&rft.atitle=Toward+a+more+clinically+valid+approach+to+therapy+research&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=143-150&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.475.7156%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9489268&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-006X.66.1.143&rft.au=Goldfried%2C+M.R.&rft.au=Wolfe%2C+B.E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.personal.kent.edu%2F~dfresco%2FCRM_Readings%2FGoldfried_1998.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeligman,_M.E.P.1995" class="citation journal cs1">Seligman, M.E.P. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180721231945/http://www.dearshrink.com/psychotherapy_consumer_report1995_seligman.pdf">"The effectiveness of psychotherapy: The Consumer Reports study"</a> (PDF). American Psychologist. 50 (12): 965–974. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066X.50.12.965">10.1037/0003-066X.50.12.965</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8561380">8561380</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dearshrink.com/psychotherapy_consumer_report1995_seligman.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 21 July 2018. Retrieved 25 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=The+effectiveness+of+psychotherapy%3A+The+Consumer+Reports+study&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=965-974&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0003-066X.50.12.965&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8561380&rft.au=Seligman%2C+M.E.P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dearshrink.com%2Fpsychotherapy_consumer_report1995_seligman.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> Peter E. Nathan & James Langenbucher, "Diagnosis and Classification", in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 8: Clinical Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tuw.edu/program-resources/educational-psychologist/">"What Does An Educational Psychologist Do | Touro University | Psychology"</a>. Touro University WorldWide. 29 July 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210930210235/https://www.tuw.edu/program-resources/educational-psychologist/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2021. Retrieved 30 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Touro+University+WorldWide&rft.atitle=What+Does+An+Educational+Psychologist+Do+%7C+Touro+University+%7C+Psychology&rft.date=2014-07-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tuw.edu%2Fprogram-resources%2Feducational-psychologist%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Association_of_School_Psychologists" class="citation web cs1">National Association of School Psychologists. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080517055058/http://nasponline.org/about_sp/whatis.aspx">"Who are school psychologists?"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nasponline.org/about_sp/whatis.aspx">the original</a> on 17 May 2008. Retrieved 1 June 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Who+are+school+psychologists%3F&rft.au=National+Association+of+School+Psychologists&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnasponline.org%2Fabout_sp%2Fwhatis.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> Truxillo, D. M., Bauer, T. N., & Erdogan, B. (2016). Psychology and work: Perspectives on industrial and organizational psychology. New York: Psychology Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1134705697" title="Special:BookSources/1134705697">1134705697</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koppes-213">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koppes_213-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koppes_213-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koppes_213-2">c</a> Laura L. Koppes, "Industrial-Organizational Psychology", in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 1: History of Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> Yeh Hsueh, "The Hawthorne experiments and the introduction of Jean Piaget in American industrial psychology, 1929–1932"; History of Psychology 5.2, May 2002. </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParsons1974" class="citation journal cs1">Parsons, H. M. (1974). "What happened at Hawthorne?: New evidence suggests the Hawthorne effect resulted from operant reinforcement contingencies". Science. 183 (4128): 922–932. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.183.4128.922">10.1126/science.183.4128.922</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17756742">17756742</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38816592">38816592</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=What+happened+at+Hawthorne%3F%3A+New+evidence+suggests+the+Hawthorne+effect+resulted+from+operant+reinforcement+contingencies&rft.volume=183&rft.issue=4128&rft.pages=922-932&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A38816592%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17756742&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.183.4128.922&rft.aulast=Parsons&rft.aufirst=H.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevittList2011" class="citation journal cs1">Levitt, Steven D.; List, John A. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w15016.pdf">"Was There Really a Hawthorne Effect at the Hawthorne Plant? An Analysis of the Original Illumination Experiments"</a> (PDF). American Economic Journal: Applied Economics. 3 (1): 224–238. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fapp.3.1.224">10.1257/app.3.1.224</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16678444">16678444</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180602152530/http://www.nber.org/papers/w15016.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2 June 2018. Retrieved 9 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Economic+Journal%3A+Applied+Economics&rft.atitle=Was+There+Really+a+Hawthorne+Effect+at+the+Hawthorne+Plant%3F+An+Analysis+of+the+Original+Illumination+Experiments&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=224-238&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Fapp.3.1.224&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16678444%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Levitt&rft.aufirst=Steven+D.&rft.au=List%2C+John+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nber.org%2Fpapers%2Fw15016.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> Myers (2004). Motivation and work. Psychology. New York, NY: Worth Publishers </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> Steven Williams, "Executive Management: Helping Executives Manage Their Organizations through Organizational and Market Research" in Morgan et al. (ed.), Life After Graduate School in Psychology (2005). </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> See also for example Baden Eunson: Behaving – Managing Yourself and Others. <a href="/wiki/S%26P_Global" title="S&P Global">McGraw-Hill</a>, Sidney/New York City 1987, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-0745-2022-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-0745-2022-2">978-0-0745-2022-2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> Moorhead, G., & Griffin, R. W. (2017). Organizational behavior: Managing people and organizations, 12th ed.. Boston: Cengage. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-305-50139-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-305-50139-3">978-1-305-50139-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._Yerkes" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert M. Yerkes">Robert M. Yerkes</a>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/content/4/10/295.full.pdf">Measuring the Mental Strength of an Army</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170120194554/http://www.pnas.org/content/4/10/295.full.pdf">Archived</a> 20 January 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>"; Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4.10, 15 October 1918. </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> Joshua N. Friedlander, "Military Psychology: An Army Clinical Psychologist" in Morgan et al. (ed.), Life After Graduate School in Psychology (2005). </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> Thomas, J.L. (2008). OHP Research and Practice in the US Army: Mental Health Advisory Teams. Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology, 4, 4–5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://sohp-online.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/sohpnewsletterv04-october2008.pdf">[4]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211104142222/https://sohp-online.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/sohpnewsletterv04-october2008.pdf">Archived</a> 4 November 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> Genderson, M.R., Schonfeld, I.S., Kaplan, M.S., & Lyons, M.J. (2009).Suicide associated with military service. Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology, 6, 5–7. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://sohp-online.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/sohpnewsletterv06-may2009.pdf">[5]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170922004626/http://www.sohp-online.org/NewsletterDownloads/SOHPNewsletterV6May2009.pdf">Archived</a> 22 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Cordwainer_Smith" title="Cordwainer Smith">Paul M.A. Linebarger</a>, Psychological Warfare; Washington: Combat Forces Press, 1954. </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> See "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/national/13inmate_ProjectMKULTRA.pdf">Project MKULTRA, the CIA's Program of Research in Behavioral Modification</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110429194235/http://www.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/national/13inmate_ProjectMKULTRA.pdf">Archived</a> 29 April 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>"; Joint Hearing before the Senate Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, United States Senate, Ninety Fifth Congress, First Session, 3 August 1997; and <a href="/wiki/John_D._Marks" title="John D. Marks">John D. Marks</a>, The Search for the Manchurian Candidate, New York: Times Books, 1979. </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> Alfred Paddock, Jr., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA523696">PSYOP: On a Complete Change in Organization, Practice, and Doctrine</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150712195716/http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA523696">Archived</a> 12 July 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", Small Wars Journal 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jul/11/cia-torture-doctors-psychologists-apa-prosecution">US torture report: psychologists should no longer aid military, group says</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161214080507/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jul/11/cia-torture-doctors-psychologists-apa-prosecution">Archived</a> 14 December 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> The Guardian, 11 July 2015 </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> Guthrie, Even the Rat was White (1998), Chapter 7: "Production of Black Psychologists in America" (pp. 155–213). </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> Chall, J. S. (1995). Learning to read: The great debate, 3rd ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace. </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> Marilu Price Berry, "Interdisciplinary Medical Setting: The Multiple Roles of a Health Psychologist" in Morgan et al. (ed.), Life After Graduate School in Psychology (2005). </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> Robiner, W. N., & Seime, R. J. (2008). Psychologists in academic health centers: Traditions and innovations in education, science, and practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 15, 3–6. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10880-008-9091-1">10.1007/s10880-008-9091-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> Monica L. Baskin, "Public Health: Career Opportunities for Psychologists in Public Health", in Morgan et al. (ed.), Life After Graduate School in Psychology (2005). "Prevention strategies of late have largely concentrated on community-based interventions, which have been shown to be effective in changing the health of large populations. Behavioral and social scientists, such as psychologists, are helpful in this arena as we are trained to view individuals as belonging to complex and dynamic social systems, including immediate and extended family systems, acquaintance and friendship networks, neighborhood and community systems, and cultural groups (Schneiderman & Spee4, 2001)." </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> Zohar, D. (2010). "Thirty years of safety climate research: Reflections and future directions". Accident Analysis and Prevention, 42, 1517-1522. </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> Beus, J. M., McCord, M. A., & Zohar, D. (2016). "Workplace safety:A review and research synthesis". Organizational Psychology Review, 6, 352-381. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2041386615626243">10.1177/2041386615626243</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaysDe_BacquerDelangheKittel2005" class="citation journal cs1">Clays, Els; De Bacquer, Dirk; Delanghe, Joris; Kittel, France; Van Renterghem, Lieve; De Backer, Guy (September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16155472/">"Associations between dimensions of job stress and biomarkers of inflammation and infection"</a>. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 47 (9): 878–883. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F01.jom.0000171056.22917.ad">10.1097/01.jom.0000171056.22917.ad</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1854%2FLU-321816">1854/LU-321816</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1076-2752">1076-2752</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16155472">16155472</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Occupational+and+Environmental+Medicine&rft.atitle=Associations+between+dimensions+of+job+stress+and+biomarkers+of+inflammation+and+infection&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=878-883&rft.date=2005-09&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1854%2FLU-321816&rft.issn=1076-2752&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16155472&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F01.jom.0000171056.22917.ad&rft.aulast=Clays&rft.aufirst=Els&rft.au=De+Bacquer%2C+Dirk&rft.au=Delanghe%2C+Joris&rft.au=Kittel%2C+France&rft.au=Van+Renterghem%2C+Lieve&rft.au=De+Backer%2C+Guy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F16155472%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> Brown, A. D., Schultebraucks, K., Qian, M., Li, M., Horesh, D., Siegel, C., Brody, Y., Amer, A. M., Lev-Ari, R. K., Mas, F., Marmar, C. R., & Farmer, J. (2020). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/global-mental-health/article/mental-health-disorders-and-utilization-of-mental-healthcare-services-in-united-nations-personnel/45E0B57C295A276E108B22F3E95694FD">Mental health disorders and utilization of mental healthcare services in United Nations personnel</a>". Global Mental Health, 7. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fgmh.2019.29">10.1017/gmh.2019.29</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> Amiri, S., & Behnezhad, S. (2020). "Is job strain a risk factor for musculoskeletal pain? A systematic review and meta-analysis of 21 longitudinal studies". Public Health, 181, 158-167. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.puhe.2019.11.023">10.1016/j.puhe.2019.11.023</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> Nixon, A. E., Mazzola, J. J., Bauer, J., Krueger, J. R., & Spector, P. E. (2011). "Can work make you sick? A meta-analysis of the relationships between job stressors and physical symptoms". Work & Stress, 25, 1-22. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02678373.2011.569175">10.1080/02678373.2011.569175</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYangCaughlinGazicaTruxillo2014" class="citation journal cs1">Yang, Liu-Qin; Caughlin, David E.; Gazica, Michele W.; Truxillo, Donald M.; Spector, Paul E. (July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0036905">"Workplace mistreatment climate and potential employee and organizational outcomes: A meta-analytic review from the target's perspective"</a>. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. 19 (3): 315–335. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0036905">10.1037/a0036905</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-1307">1939-1307</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24885687">24885687</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Occupational+Health+Psychology&rft.atitle=Workplace+mistreatment+climate+and+potential+employee+and+organizational+outcomes%3A+A+meta-analytic+review+from+the+target%27s+perspective.&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=315-335&rft.date=2014-07&rft.issn=1939-1307&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24885687&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0036905&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Liu-Qin&rft.au=Caughlin%2C+David+E.&rft.au=Gazica%2C+Michele+W.&rft.au=Truxillo%2C+Donald+M.&rft.au=Spector%2C+Paul+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.apa.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0036905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> Hochschild, A. (2011). To End All Wars: A Story of Loyalty and Rebellion, 1914–1918. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-547-75031-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-547-75031-6">978-0-547-75031-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kreis-242"><a href="#cite_ref-Kreis_242-0">^</a> Kreis, S. (1995). Early experiments in British scientific management: the Health of Munitions Workers' Committee, 1915-1920. Journal of Management History (archive), 1, 65-78. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2F13552529510088330">10.1108/13552529510088330</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> Kwiatkowski, R., Duncan, D. C., & Shimmin, S. (2006). "What have we forgotten - and why?" Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 79(2), 183-201. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1348%2F096317905X70832">10.1348/096317905X70832</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Zickar-244">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zickar_244-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zickar_244-1">b</a> Zickar, M. J. (2003). Remembering Arthur Kornhauser: Industrial psychology's advocate for worker well-being. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 363–369. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0021-9010.88.2.363">10.1037/0021-9010.88.2.363</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> Kornhauser, A. (1965). Mental health of the industrial worker. New York: Wiley. </li> <li id="cite_note-CDC-246">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CDC_246-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC_246-1">b</a> Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Occupational Health Psychology (OHP). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/ohp/">[6]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190910090414/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/ohp/">Archived</a> 10 September 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> Houdmont, J., & Leka, S. (2010). An introduction to occupational health psychology. In S. Leka & J. Houdmont (Eds.). Occupational health psychology (pp. 1–30). John Wiley: Hoboken, NJ. </li> <li id="cite_note-Everly-248"><a href="#cite_ref-Everly_248-0">^</a> Everly, G.S., Jr. (1986). An introduction to occupational health psychology. In P.A. Keller & L.G. Ritt (Eds.), Innovations in clinical practice: A source book (Vol. 5, pp. 331–338). Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Exchange. </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> Society for Occupational Health Psychology. Field of OHP. What is occupational health psychology <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.sohp-online.org/field.htm">[7]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192927/http://www.sohp-online.org/field.htm">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> Tetrick, L.E., & Quick, J.C. (2011). Overview of occupational health psychology: Public health in occupational settings. In J.C. Quick & L.E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (2nd ed., pp. 3–20). Washington DC: American Psychological Association. </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> John A. Schinka & Wayne F. Velicer, "Volume Preface" in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 2: Research Methods in Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlasuutari2010" class="citation journal cs1">Alasuutari, Pertti (2010). "The rise and relevance of qualitative research". International Journal of Social Research Methodology. 13 (2): 139–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13645570902966056">10.1080/13645570902966056</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143736805">143736805</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Social+Research+Methodology&rft.atitle=The+rise+and+relevance+of+qualitative+research&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=139-55&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13645570902966056&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143736805%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Alasuutari&rft.aufirst=Pertti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> Schonfeld, I.S., & Mazzola, J.J. (2013). Strengths and limitations of qualitative approaches to research in occupational health psychology. In R. Sinclair, M. Wang, & L. Tetrick (Eds.), Research methods in occupational health psychology: State of the art in measurement, design, and data analysis (pp. 268-289). New York: Routledge. </li> <li id="cite_note-Schulz-2010-254"><a href="#cite_ref-Schulz-2010_254-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchulz,_K.F.Altman,_D.G.Moher,_D.for_the_CONSORT_Group2010" class="citation journal cs1">Schulz, K.F.; Altman, D.G.; Moher, D.; for the CONSORT Group (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2844940">"CONSORT 2010 Statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials"</a>. BMJ. 340 (mar23 1): c332. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.c332">10.1136/bmj.c332</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2844940">2844940</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20332509">20332509</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.atitle=CONSORT+2010+Statement%3A+updated+guidelines+for+reporting+parallel+group+randomised+trials&rft.volume=340&rft.issue=mar23+1&rft.pages=c332&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2844940%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20332509&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.c332&rft.au=Schulz%2C+K.F.&rft.au=Altman%2C+D.G.&rft.au=Moher%2C+D.&rft.au=for+the+CONSORT+Group&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2844940&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ObedStudy-255"><a href="#cite_ref-ObedStudy_255-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilgram1963" class="citation journal cs1">Milgram, Stanley (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.apa.org/journals/abn/67/4/371">"Behavioral Study of Obedience"</a>. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 67 (4): 371–378. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.599.92">10.1.1.599.92</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0040525">10.1037/h0040525</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14049516">14049516</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18309531">18309531</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120717013242/http://content.apa.org/journals/abn/67/4/371">Archived</a> from the original on 17 July 2012. Retrieved 24 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Abnormal+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Behavioral+Study+of+Obedience&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=371-378&rft.date=1963&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.599.92%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18309531%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14049516&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0040525&rft.aulast=Milgram&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcontent.apa.org%2Fjournals%2Fabn%2F67%2F4%2F371&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1981/A1981LC33300001.pdf">Full-text PDF.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110611105753/http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1981/A1981LC33300001.pdf">Archived</a> 11 June 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> Melvin M. Mark, "Program Evaluation" in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 2: Research Methods in Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Roger_E._Kirk" title="Roger E. Kirk">Roger E. Kirk</a>, "Experimental Design" in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 2: Research Methods in Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> John T. Behrens and Chong-Ho Yu, "Exploratory Data Analysis" in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 2: Research Methods in Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> Frank L. Schmidt and John E. Hunter, "Meta-Analysis", Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 2: Research Methods in Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRösler2005" class="citation journal cs1">Rösler, Frank (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150907211752/http://cognitrn.psych.indiana.edu/busey/eegseminar/pdfs/EEGHistoryImpact.pdf">"From Single-Channel Recordings to Brain-Mapping Devices: The Impact of Electroencephalography on Experimental Psychology"</a> (PDF). History of Psychology. 8 (1): 95–117. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F1093-4510.8.1.95">10.1037/1093-4510.8.1.95</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16021767">16021767</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cognitrn.psych.indiana.edu/busey/eegseminar/pdfs/EEGHistoryImpact.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 September 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=From+Single-Channel+Recordings+to+Brain-Mapping+Devices%3A+The+Impact+of+Electroencephalography+on+Experimental+Psychology&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=95-117&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F1093-4510.8.1.95&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16021767&rft.aulast=R%C3%B6sler&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcognitrn.psych.indiana.edu%2Fbusey%2Feegseminar%2Fpdfs%2FEEGHistoryImpact.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoranZaki2013" class="citation journal cs1">Moran, Joseph M.; Zaki, Jamil (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160202031631/http://ssnl.stanford.edu/download/file/fid/518">"Functional Neuroimaging and Psychology: What Have You Done for Me Lately?"</a>. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 25 (6): 834–842. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fjocn_a_00380">10.1162/jocn_a_00380</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23469884">23469884</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12546790">12546790</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ssnl.stanford.edu/download/file/fid/518">the original</a> on 2 February 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cognitive+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Functional+Neuroimaging+and+Psychology%3A+What+Have+You+Done+for+Me+Lately%3F&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=834-842&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12546790%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23469884&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fjocn_a_00380&rft.aulast=Moran&rft.aufirst=Joseph+M.&rft.au=Zaki%2C+Jamil&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fssnl.stanford.edu%2Fdownload%2Ffile%2Ffid%2F518&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCacioppoBerntsonNusbaum2008" class="citation journal cs1">Cacioppo, John T.; Berntson, Gary G.; Nusbaum, Howard C. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141031185051/http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/cbn08.pdf">"Neuroimaging as a New Tool in the Toolbox of Psychological Science"</a> (PDF). Current Directions in Psychological Science. 17 (2): 62–67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8721.2008.00550.x">10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00550.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14565940">14565940</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/cbn08.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 31 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Directions+in+Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=Neuroimaging+as+a+New+Tool+in+the+Toolbox+of+Psychological+Science&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=62-67&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-8721.2008.00550.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14565940%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cacioppo&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rft.au=Berntson%2C+Gary+G.&rft.au=Nusbaum%2C+Howard+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsychology.uchicago.edu%2Fpeople%2Ffaculty%2Fcacioppo%2Fjtcreprints%2Fcbn08.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAueLavelleCacioppo2009" class="citation journal cs1">Aue, Tatjana; Lavelle, Leah A.; Cacioppo, John T. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160109084331/http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/alc09.pdf">"Great expectations: What can fMRI research tell us about psychological phenomena?"</a> (PDF). International Journal of Psychophysiology. 73 (1): 10–16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijpsycho.2008.12.017">10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.12.017</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19232374">19232374</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/alc09.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 9 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Psychophysiology&rft.atitle=Great+expectations%3A+What+can+fMRI+research+tell+us+about+psychological+phenomena%3F&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=10-16&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ijpsycho.2008.12.017&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19232374&rft.aulast=Aue&rft.aufirst=Tatjana&rft.au=Lavelle%2C+Leah+A.&rft.au=Cacioppo%2C+John+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsychology.uchicago.edu%2Fpeople%2Ffaculty%2Fcacioppo%2Fjtcreprints%2Falc09.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> Ron Sun, (2008). The Cambridge Handbook of Computational Psychology. Cambridge University Press, New York. 2008. </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080708190108/http://www.ncabr.org/biomed/FAQ_animal/faq_animal_8.html">"Ncabr.Org: About Biomedical Research: Faq"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncabr.org/biomed/FAQ_animal/faq_animal_8.html">the original</a> on 8 July 2008. Retrieved 1 July 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ncabr.Org%3A+About+Biomedical+Research%3A+Faq&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncabr.org%2Fbiomed%2FFAQ_animal%2Ffaq_animal_8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> Shettleworth, S.J. (2010) Cognition, Evolution and Behavior (2nd Ed), New York: Oxford. </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> Wilson, E.O. (1978) On Human Nature p. x, Cambridge, Ma: Harvard </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Phineas_Gage#References" title="Phineas Gage">Harlow (1868)</a>, Fig. 2, p. 347 Harlow, John Martyn (1868). "Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head." Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society 2:327–347 (Republished in Macmillan 2000). </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> Glaser, B. & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago: Aldine. </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> Fromm, E. (1941). Escape from freedom. New York: Farrar & Rinehart. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7448-0014-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7448-0014-5">0-7448-0014-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> Fitzpatrick, J.L., Sanders, J.R., & Worthen, B.R. (2011). Program evaluation: Alternative approaches and practical guidelines. New York: Pearson Higher Education. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-57935-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-57935-8">978-0-205-57935-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> Administration for Children and Families (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/opre/other_resrch/pm_guide_eval/index.html">The Program Manager's Guide to Evaluation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120825195829/http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/opre/other_resrch/pm_guide_eval/index.html">Archived</a> 25 August 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Chapter 2: What is program evaluation?. </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShackmanThe_Global_Social_Change_Research_Project2017" class="citation journal cs1">Shackman, Gene; The Global Social Change Research Project (2017). "What is Program Evaluation? A Beginners Guide (Presentation Slides)". SSRN Electronic Journal. Elsevier BV. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.3060080">10.2139/ssrn.3060080</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5068">1556-5068</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3060080">3060080</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SSRN+Electronic+Journal&rft.atitle=What+is+Program+Evaluation%3F+A+Beginners+Guide+%28Presentation+Slides%29&rft.date=2017&rft.issn=1556-5068&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D3060080%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.3060080&rft.aulast=Shackman&rft.aufirst=Gene&rft.au=The+Global+Social+Change+Research+Project&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancoMalhotraSimonovits2016" class="citation journal cs1">Franco, Annie; <a href="/wiki/Neil_Malhotra" title="Neil Malhotra">Malhotra, Neil</a>; Simonovits, Gabor (1 January 2016). "Underreporting in Psychology Experiments: Evidence From a Study Registry". Social Psychological and Personality Science. 7 (1): 8–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1948550615598377">10.1177/1948550615598377</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1948-5506">1948-5506</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143182733">143182733</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Psychological+and+Personality+Science&rft.atitle=Underreporting+in+Psychology+Experiments%3A+Evidence+From+a+Study+Registry&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=8-12&rft.date=2016-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143182733%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1948-5506&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1948550615598377&rft.aulast=Franco&rft.aufirst=Annie&rft.au=Malhotra%2C+Neil&rft.au=Simonovits%2C+Gabor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunafò2017" class="citation journal cs1">Munafò, Marcus (29 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F543619a">"Metascience: Reproducibility blues"</a>. Nature. 543 (7647): 619–620. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017Natur.543..619M">2017Natur.543..619M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F543619a">10.1038/543619a</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Metascience%3A+Reproducibility+blues&rft.volume=543&rft.issue=7647&rft.pages=619-620&rft.date=2017-03-29&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F543619a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017Natur.543..619M&rft.aulast=Munaf%C3%B2&rft.aufirst=Marcus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F543619a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStokstad2018" class="citation web cs1">Stokstad, Erik (19 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/research-group-seeks-expose-weaknesses-science-and-they-ll-step-some-toes-if-they-have">"This research group seeks to expose weaknesses in science—and they'll step on some toes if they have to"</a>. Science | AAAS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220318020926/https://www.science.org/content/article/research-group-seeks-expose-weaknesses-science-and-they-ll-step-some-toes-if-they-have">Archived</a> from the original on 18 March 2022. Retrieved 24 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+%7C+AAAS&rft.atitle=This+research+group+seeks+to+expose+weaknesses+in+science%E2%80%94and+they%27ll+step+on+some+toes+if+they+have+to&rft.date=2018-09-19&rft.aulast=Stokstad&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Fresearch-group-seeks-expose-weaknesses-science-and-they-ll-step-some-toes-if-they-have&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStevens2017" class="citation journal cs1">Stevens, Jeffrey R. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5445189">"Replicability and Reproducibility in Comparative Psychology"</a>. Frontiers in Psychology. 8: 862. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2017.00862">10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00862</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1664-1078">1664-1078</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5445189">5445189</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28603511">28603511</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=Replicability+and+Reproducibility+in+Comparative+Psychology&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=862&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5445189%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1664-1078&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28603511&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2017.00862&rft.aulast=Stevens&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5445189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Theodore-278"><a href="#cite_ref-Theodore_278-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArjo_KlamerRobert_M._SolowDonald_N._McCloskey1989" class="citation book cs1">Arjo Klamer; Robert M. Solow; Donald N. McCloskey (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/consequencesofec0000unse/page/173">The Consequences of economic rhetoric</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/consequencesofec0000unse/page/173">173–174</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34286-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34286-5"><bdi>978-0-521-34286-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Consequences+of+economic+rhetoric&rft.pages=173-174&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-521-34286-5&rft.au=Arjo+Klamer&rft.au=Robert+M.+Solow&rft.au=Donald+N.+McCloskey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconsequencesofec0000unse%2Fpage%2F173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lehrer-279"><a href="#cite_ref-Lehrer_279-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehrer2010" class="citation news cs1">Lehrer, Jonah (13 December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2010/12/13/101213fa_fact_lehrer?currentPage=all">"The Truth Wears Off"</a>. The New Yorker. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140712030948/http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2010/12/13/101213fa_fact_lehrer?currentPage=all">Archived</a> from the original on 12 July 2014. Retrieved 10 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=The+Truth+Wears+Off&rft.date=2010-12-13&rft.aulast=Lehrer&rft.aufirst=Jonah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Freporting%2F2010%2F12%2F13%2F101213fa_fact_lehrer%3FcurrentPage%3Dall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSterling1959" class="citation journal cs1">Sterling, Theodore D. (March 1959). "Publication decisions and their possible effects on inferences drawn from tests of significance—or vice versa". Journal of the American Statistical Association. 54 (285): 30–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2282137">10.2307/2282137</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2282137">2282137</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Statistical+Association&rft.atitle=Publication+decisions+and+their+possible+effects+on+inferences+drawn+from+tests+of+significance%E2%80%94or+vice+versa&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=285&rft.pages=30-34&rft.date=1959-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2282137&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2282137%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sterling&rft.aufirst=Theodore+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fanelli-281"><a href="#cite_ref-Fanelli_281-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFanelli2010" class="citation journal cs1">Fanelli, Daniele (2010). Enrico Scalas (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2850928">"'Positive' Results Increase Down the Hierarchy of the Sciences"</a>. PLOS ONE. 5 (4): e10068. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PLoSO...510068F">2010PLoSO...510068F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0010068">10.1371/journal.pone.0010068</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2850928">2850928</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20383332">20383332</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=%27Positive%27+Results+Increase+Down+the+Hierarchy+of+the+Sciences&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e10068&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2850928%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20383332&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0010068&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PLoSO...510068F&rft.aulast=Fanelli&rft.aufirst=Daniele&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2850928&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcus2013" class="citation news cs1">Marcus, Gary (1 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/the-crisis-in-social-psychology-that-isnt">"The Crisis in Social Psychology That Isn't"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180707005800/https://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/the-crisis-in-social-psychology-that-isnt">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2018. Retrieved 19 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=The+Crisis+in+Social+Psychology+That+Isn%27t&rft.date=2013-05-01&rft.aulast=Marcus&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Ftech%2Fannals-of-technology%2Fthe-crisis-in-social-psychology-that-isnt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyerChabris2014" class="citation news cs1">Meyer, Michelle N.; Chabris, Christopher (31 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://slate.com/technology/2014/07/replication-controversy-in-psychology-bullying-file-drawer-effect-blog-posts-repligate.html">"Why Psychologists' Food Fight Matters"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Slate_(magazine)" title="Slate (magazine)">Slate</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190110124115/http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2014/07/replication_controversy_in_psychology_bullying_file_drawer_effect_blog_posts.single.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2019. Retrieved 19 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slate&rft.atitle=Why+Psychologists%27+Food+Fight+Matters&rft.date=2014-07-31&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=Michelle+N.&rft.au=Chabris%2C+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fslate.com%2Ftechnology%2F2014%2F07%2Freplication-controversy-in-psychology-bullying-file-drawer-effect-blog-posts-repligate.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAschwanden2015" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christie_Aschwanden" title="Christie Aschwanden">Aschwanden, Christie</a> (27 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/psychology-is-starting-to-deal-with-its-replication-problem/">"Psychology Is Starting To Deal With Its Replication Problem"</a>. <a href="/wiki/FiveThirtyEight" title="FiveThirtyEight">FiveThirtyEight</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170819103903/https://fivethirtyeight.com/datalab/psychology-is-starting-to-deal-with-its-replication-problem/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2017. Retrieved 19 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=FiveThirtyEight&rft.atitle=Psychology+Is+Starting+To+Deal+With+Its+Replication+Problem&rft.date=2015-08-27&rft.aulast=Aschwanden&rft.aufirst=Christie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffivethirtyeight.com%2Ffeatures%2Fpsychology-is-starting-to-deal-with-its-replication-problem%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-285">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_285-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_285-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOpen_Science_Collaboration2015" class="citation journal cs1">Open Science Collaboration (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.keele.ac.uk/877/1/Open%20Science%20%28Science%20Pre-Print%29.pdf">"Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science"</a> (PDF). Science. 349 (6251): aac4716. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aac4716">10.1126/science.aac4716</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10722%2F230596">10722/230596</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26315443">26315443</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218065162">218065162</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191029123916/http://eprints.keele.ac.uk/877/1/Open%20Science%20(Science%20Pre-Print).pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 29 October 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Estimating+the+reproducibility+of+psychological+science&rft.volume=349&rft.issue=6251&rft.pages=aac4716&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10722%2F230596&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218065162%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26315443&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aac4716&rft.au=Open+Science+Collaboration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.keele.ac.uk%2F877%2F1%2FOpen%2520Science%2520%2528Science%2520Pre-Print%2529.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Earl_B._Hunt" title="Earl B. Hunt">Hunt, Earl B.</a> (2011). Human Intelligence. New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521707817" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521707817"><bdi>978-0521707817</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Intelligence&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=94&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0521707817&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Earl+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumeister2016" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roy_Baumeister" title="Roy Baumeister">Baumeister, Roy</a> (September 2016). "Charting the future of social psychology on stormy seas: Winners, losers, and recommendations". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Experimental_Social_Psychology" title="Journal of Experimental Social Psychology">Journal of Experimental Social Psychology</a>. 66: 153–158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jesp.2016.02.003">10.1016/j.jesp.2016.02.003</a>. <q>...shifting the dominant conceptual paradigm from Freudian psychoanalytic theory to Big Five research has reduced the chances of being wrong but palpably increased the fact of being boring. In making that transition, personality psychology became more accurate but less broadly interesting.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Charting+the+future+of+social+psychology+on+stormy+seas%3A+Winners%2C+losers%2C+and+recommendations&rft.volume=66&rft.pages=153-158&rft.date=2016-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jesp.2016.02.003&rft.aulast=Baumeister&rft.aufirst=Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DuncanKeller2011-288"><a href="#cite_ref-DuncanKeller2011_288-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuncanKeller2011" class="citation journal cs1">Duncan, Laramie E.; Keller, Matthew C. (October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3222234">"A critical review of the first 10 years of candidate gene-by-environment interaction research in psychiatry"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_American_Journal_of_Psychiatry" title="The American Journal of Psychiatry">The American Journal of Psychiatry</a>. 168 (10): 1041–1049. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.2011.11020191">10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11020191</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3222234">3222234</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21890791">21890791</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=A+critical+review+of+the+first+10+years+of+candidate+gene-by-environment+interaction+research+in+psychiatry&rft.volume=168&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1041-1049&rft.date=2011-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3222234%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21890791&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.2011.11020191&rft.aulast=Duncan&rft.aufirst=Laramie+E.&rft.au=Keller%2C+Matthew+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3222234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeichsenringAbbassHilsenrothLeweke2017" class="citation journal cs1">Leichsenring, F.; Abbass, A.; Hilsenroth, M. J.; Leweke, F.; Luyten, P.; Keefe, J. R.; Midgley, N.; Rabung, S.; Salzer, S.; Steinert, C. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1532689/">"Biases in research: Risk factors for non-replicability in psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy research"</a>. Psychological Medicine. 47 (6): 1000–1011. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS003329171600324X">10.1017/S003329171600324X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27955715">27955715</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1872762">1872762</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190706130520/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1532689/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 July 2019. Retrieved 28 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Medicine&rft.atitle=Biases+in+research%3A+Risk+factors+for+non-replicability+in+psychotherapy+and+pharmacotherapy+research&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1000-1011&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1872762%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27955715&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS003329171600324X&rft.aulast=Leichsenring&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Abbass%2C+A.&rft.au=Hilsenroth%2C+M.+J.&rft.au=Leweke%2C+F.&rft.au=Luyten%2C+P.&rft.au=Keefe%2C+J.+R.&rft.au=Midgley%2C+N.&rft.au=Rabung%2C+S.&rft.au=Salzer%2C+S.&rft.au=Steinert%2C+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdiscovery.ucl.ac.uk%2F1532689%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHengartner2018" class="citation journal cs1">Hengartner, Michael P. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5835722">"Raising Awareness for the Replication Crisis in Clinical Psychology by Focusing on Inconsistencies in Psychotherapy Research: How Much Can We Rely on Published Findings from Efficacy Trials?"</a>. Frontiers in Psychology. 9: 256. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2018.00256">10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00256</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5835722">5835722</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29541051">29541051</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=Raising+Awareness+for+the+Replication+Crisis+in+Clinical+Psychology+by+Focusing+on+Inconsistencies+in+Psychotherapy+Research%3A+How+Much+Can+We+Rely+on+Published+Findings+from+Efficacy+Trials%3F&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=256&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5835722%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29541051&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2018.00256&rft.aulast=Hengartner&rft.aufirst=Michael+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5835722&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankBergelsonBergmannCristia2017" class="citation journal cs1">Frank, Michael C.; Bergelson, Elika; Bergmann, Christina; Cristia, Alejandrina; Floccia, Caroline; <a href="/wiki/Judit_Gervain" title="Judit Gervain">Gervain, Judit</a>; Hamlin, J. Kiley; Hannon, Erin E.; Kline, Melissa; Levelt, Claartje; Lew-Williams, Casey; Nazzi, Thierry; Panneton, Robin; Rabagliati, Hugh; Soderstrom, Melanie; Sullivan, Jessica; Waxman, Sandra; Yurovsky, Daniel (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psyarxiv.com/27b43/">"A Collaborative Approach to Infant Research: Promoting Reproducibility, Best Practices, and Theory-Building"</a>. Infancy. 22 (4): 421–435. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Finfa.12182">10.1111/infa.12182</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6879177">6879177</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31772509">31772509</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200227194737/https://psyarxiv.com/27b43/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2020. Retrieved 21 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Infancy&rft.atitle=A+Collaborative+Approach+to+Infant+Research%3A+Promoting+Reproducibility%2C+Best+Practices%2C+and+Theory-Building&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=421-435&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6879177%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31772509&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Finfa.12182&rft.aulast=Frank&rft.aufirst=Michael+C.&rft.au=Bergelson%2C+Elika&rft.au=Bergmann%2C+Christina&rft.au=Cristia%2C+Alejandrina&rft.au=Floccia%2C+Caroline&rft.au=Gervain%2C+Judit&rft.au=Hamlin%2C+J.+Kiley&rft.au=Hannon%2C+Erin+E.&rft.au=Kline%2C+Melissa&rft.au=Levelt%2C+Claartje&rft.au=Lew-Williams%2C+Casey&rft.au=Nazzi%2C+Thierry&rft.au=Panneton%2C+Robin&rft.au=Rabagliati%2C+Hugh&rft.au=Soderstrom%2C+Melanie&rft.au=Sullivan%2C+Jessica&rft.au=Waxman%2C+Sandra&rft.au=Yurovsky%2C+Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsyarxiv.com%2F27b43%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judith_Rich_Harris" title="Judith Rich Harris">Harris, Judith Rich</a> (2009) [1998]. <a href="/wiki/The_Nurture_Assumption" title="The Nurture Assumption">The Nurture Assumption: Why Children Turn Out the Way They Do</a> (2nd ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Free_Press_(publisher)" title="Free Press (publisher)">Free Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1439101650" title="Special:BookSources/978-1439101650"><bdi>978-1439101650</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nurture+Assumption%3A+Why+Children+Turn+Out+the+Way+They+Do&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1439101650&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Judith+Rich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judith_Rich_Harris" title="Judith Rich Harris">Harris, Judith Rich</a> (2006). <a href="/wiki/No_Two_Alike" title="No Two Alike">No Two Alike: Human Nature and Human Individuality</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_%26_Company" title="W. W. Norton & Company">W. W. Norton & Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393329711" title="Special:BookSources/978-0393329711"><bdi>978-0393329711</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+Two+Alike%3A+Human+Nature+and+Human+Individuality&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0393329711&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Judith+Rich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTyson2014" class="citation journal cs1">Tyson, Charlie (14 August 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2014/08/14/almost-no-education-research-replicated-new-article-shows">"Failure to Replicate"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Inside_Higher_Ed" title="Inside Higher Ed">Inside Higher Ed</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191223122645/https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2014/08/14/almost-no-education-research-replicated-new-article-shows">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 19 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Inside+Higher+Ed&rft.atitle=Failure+to+Replicate&rft.date=2014-08-14&rft.aulast=Tyson&rft.aufirst=Charlie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.insidehighered.com%2Fnews%2F2014%2F08%2F14%2Falmost-no-education-research-replicated-new-article-shows&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakelPlucker2014" class="citation journal cs1">Makel, Matthew C.; Plucker, Jonathan A. (2014). "Facts Are More Important Than Novelty". Educational Researcher. 43 (6): 304–316. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3102%2F0013189X14545513">10.3102/0013189X14545513</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145571836">145571836</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Educational+Researcher&rft.atitle=Facts+Are+More+Important+Than+Novelty&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=304-316&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3102%2F0013189X14545513&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145571836%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Makel&rft.aufirst=Matthew+C.&rft.au=Plucker%2C+Jonathan+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirschnerSwellerClark2006" class="citation journal cs1">Kirschner, Paul A.; <a href="/wiki/John_Sweller" title="John Sweller">Sweller, John</a>; Clark, Richard E. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27699659">"Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Educational_Psychologist_(journal)" title="Educational Psychologist (journal)">Educational Psychologist</a>. 41 (2). <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>: 75–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15326985ep4102_1">10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17067829">17067829</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Educational+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Why+Minimal+Guidance+During+Instruction+Does+Not+Work%3A+An+Analysis+of+the+Failure+of+Constructivist%2C+Discovery%2C+Problem-Based%2C+Experiential%2C+and+Inquiry-Based+Teaching&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=75-86&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1207%2Fs15326985ep4102_1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17067829%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kirschner&rft.aufirst=Paul+A.&rft.au=Sweller%2C+John&rft.au=Clark%2C+Richard+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F27699659&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/mathpanel/report/final-report.pdf">Foundations for Success: The Final Report of the National Mathematics Advisory Panel</a> (PDF) (Report). <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Education" title="United States Department of Education">United States Department of Education</a>. 2008. pp. 45–46. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180118012046/https://www2.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/mathpanel/report/final-report.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 18 January 2018. Retrieved 3 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Foundations+for+Success%3A+The+Final+Report+of+the+National+Mathematics+Advisory+Panel&rft.pages=45-46&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+Education&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.ed.gov%2Fabout%2Fbdscomm%2Flist%2Fmathpanel%2Freport%2Ffinal-report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPashlerMcDanielRohrerBjork2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hal_Pashler" title="Hal Pashler">Pashler, Harold</a>; <a href="/wiki/Mark_A._McDaniel" title="Mark A. McDaniel">McDaniel, Mark</a>; Rohrer, Doug; <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Bjork" title="Robert A. Bjork">Bjork, Robert</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1539-6053.2009.01038.x">"Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Psychological_Science_in_the_Public_Interest" title="Psychological Science in the Public Interest">Psychological Science in the Public Interest</a>. 9 (3). <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">SAGE Publications</a>: 105–119. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1539-6053.2009.01038.x">10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26162104">26162104</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2112166">2112166</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Science+in+the+Public+Interest&rft.atitle=Learning+Styles%3A+Concepts+and+Evidence&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=105-119&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2112166%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26162104&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1539-6053.2009.01038.x&rft.aulast=Pashler&rft.aufirst=Harold&rft.au=McDaniel%2C+Mark&rft.au=Rohrer%2C+Doug&rft.au=Bjork%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1539-6053.2009.01038.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simmons_et_al._(2011)-299"><a href="#cite_ref-Simmons_et_al._(2011)_299-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimmonsNelsonSimonsohn2011" class="citation journal cs1">Simmons, Joseph P.; Nelson, Leif D.; Simonsohn, Uri (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0956797611417632">"False-Positive Psychology"</a>. Psychological Science. 22 (11): 1359–1366. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0956797611417632">10.1177/0956797611417632</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22006061">22006061</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=False-Positive+Psychology&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1359-1366&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0956797611417632&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22006061&rft.aulast=Simmons&rft.aufirst=Joseph+P.&rft.au=Nelson%2C+Leif+D.&rft.au=Simonsohn%2C+Uri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F0956797611417632&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStroebeStrack2014" class="citation journal cs1">Stroebe, Wolfgang; Strack, Fritz (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/12588700/postprint_Stroebe_Strack_2014.pdf">"The Alleged Crisis and the Illusion of Exact Replication"</a> (PDF). Perspectives on Psychological Science. 9 (1): 59–71. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1745691613514450">10.1177/1745691613514450</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26173241">26173241</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31938129">31938129</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200615102850/https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/12588700/postprint_Stroebe_Strack_2014.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 21 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+on+Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=The+Alleged+Crisis+and+the+Illusion+of+Exact+Replication&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=59-71&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A31938129%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26173241&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1745691613514450&rft.aulast=Stroebe&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft.au=Strack%2C+Fritz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpure.rug.nl%2Fws%2Ffiles%2F12588700%2Fpostprint_Stroebe_Strack_2014.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAschwanden2018" class="citation journal cs1">Aschwanden, Christie (6 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/psychologys-replication-crisis-has-made-the-field-better/">"Psychology's Replication Crisis Has Made The Field Better"</a>. <a href="/wiki/FiveThirtyEight" title="FiveThirtyEight">FiveThirtyEight</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181220164524/https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/psychologys-replication-crisis-has-made-the-field-better/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2018. Retrieved 19 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=FiveThirtyEight&rft.atitle=Psychology%27s+Replication+Crisis+Has+Made+The+Field+Better&rft.date=2018-12-06&rft.aulast=Aschwanden&rft.aufirst=Christie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffivethirtyeight.com%2Ffeatures%2Fpsychologys-replication-crisis-has-made-the-field-better%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cos.io/initiatives/registered-reports">"Registered Reports"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Open_Science" title="Center for Open Science">Center for Open Science</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210521015044/https://www.cos.io/initiatives/registered-reports">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Registered+Reports&rft.pub=Center+for+Open+Science&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cos.io%2Finitiatives%2Fregistered-reports&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChartierKlineMcCarthyNuijten2018" class="citation cs1">Chartier, Chris; Kline, Melissa; McCarthy, Randy; Nuijten, Michele; Dunleavy, Daniel J.; Ledgerwood, Alison (December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/the-cooperative-revolution-is-making-psychological-science-better">"The Cooperative Revolution Is Making Psychological Science Better"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Psychological_Science#Publications" title="Association for Psychological Science">Observer</a>. 31 (10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181220232024/https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/the-cooperative-revolution-is-making-psychological-science-better">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2018. Retrieved 19 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Observer&rft.atitle=The+Cooperative+Revolution+Is+Making+Psychological+Science+Better&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=10&rft.date=2018-12&rft.aulast=Chartier&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft.au=Kline%2C+Melissa&rft.au=McCarthy%2C+Randy&rft.au=Nuijten%2C+Michele&rft.au=Dunleavy%2C+Daniel+J.&rft.au=Ledgerwood%2C+Alison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychologicalscience.org%2Fobserver%2Fthe-cooperative-revolution-is-making-psychological-science-better&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllenMehler2019" class="citation journal cs1">Allen, Christopher; Mehler, David M. A. (1 May 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6513108">"Open science challenges, benefits and tips in early career and beyond"</a>. PLOS Biology. 17 (5). Public Library of Science (PLoS): e3000246. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.3000246">10.1371/journal.pbio.3000246</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1545-7885">1545-7885</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6513108">6513108</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31042704">31042704</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240061030">240061030</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biology&rft.atitle=Open+science+challenges%2C+benefits+and+tips+in+early+career+and+beyond&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=e3000246&rft.date=2019-05-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6513108%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A240061030%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.3000246&rft.issn=1545-7885&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31042704&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Mehler%2C+David+M.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6513108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> (Erratum: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.3000587">10.1371/journal.pbio.3000587</a>,  <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000587">[8]</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1994" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen, Jacob (1994). "The earth is round (p < .05)". American Psychologist. 49 (12): 997–1003. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066X.49.12.997">10.1037/0003-066X.49.12.997</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:380942">380942</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=The+earth+is+round+%28p+%3C+.05%29&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=997-1003&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0003-066X.49.12.997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A380942%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLeod2019" class="citation web cs1">McLeod, S. A. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.simplypsychology.org/effect-size.html">"McLeod, S. (2019). What does effect size tell you?"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210610201001/https://www.simplypsychology.org/effect-size.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved 10 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=McLeod%2C+S.+%282019%29.+What+does+effect+size+tell+you%3F&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=McLeod&rft.aufirst=S.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.simplypsychology.org%2Feffect-size.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arnett2008-307">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arnett2008_307-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arnett2008_307-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnett2008" class="citation journal cs1">Arnett, J. J. (2008). "The neglected 95%: Why American psychology needs to become less American". American Psychologist. 63 (7): 602–614. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066X.63.7.602">10.1037/0003-066X.63.7.602</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18855491">18855491</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21072349">21072349</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=The+neglected+95%25%3A+Why+American+psychology+needs+to+become+less+American&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=602-614&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A21072349%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18855491&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0003-066X.63.7.602&rft.aulast=Arnett&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-308"><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenrichHeineNorenzayan2010" class="citation journal cs1">Henrich, Joseph; Heine, Steven J.; Norenzayan, Ara (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~henrich/pdfs/WeirdPeople.pdf">"The weirdest people in the world?"</a> (PDF). Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 33 (2–3): 61–83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X0999152X">10.1017/S0140525X0999152X</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-0013-26A1-6">11858/00-001M-0000-0013-26A1-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20550733">20550733</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220918842">220918842</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220404201308/https://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~henrich/pdfs/WeirdPeople.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 4 April 2022. Retrieved 6 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+weirdest+people+in+the+world%3F&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=61-83&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11858%2F00-001M-0000-0013-26A1-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220918842%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20550733&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X0999152X&rft.aulast=Henrich&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Heine%2C+Steven+J.&rft.au=Norenzayan%2C+Ara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.psych.ubc.ca%2F~henrich%2Fpdfs%2FWeirdPeople.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Transnational_Psychology-309"><a href="#cite_ref-Transnational_Psychology_309-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollinsMachizawaRice2019" class="citation book cs1">Collins, L. H.; Machizawa, S.; Rice, J. K. (2019). Transnational Psychology of Women: Expanding International and Intersectional Approaches. Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Association. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4338-3069-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4338-3069-3"><bdi>978-1-4338-3069-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transnational+Psychology+of+Women%3A+Expanding+International+and+Intersectional+Approaches&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.+C.&rft.pub=American+Psychological+Association&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-4338-3069-3&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=L.+H.&rft.au=Machizawa%2C+S.&rft.au=Rice%2C+J.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AltmaierHall2008-310"><a href="#cite_ref-AltmaierHall2008_310-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAltmaierHall2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Altmaier" title="Elizabeth Altmaier">Altmaier, E. M.</a>; Hall, J. E. (2008). Global promise: Quality assurance and accountability in professional psychology. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530608-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530608-8"><bdi>978-0-19-530608-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+promise%3A+Quality+assurance+and+accountability+in+professional+psychology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-530608-8&rft.aulast=Altmaier&rft.aufirst=E.+M.&rft.au=Hall%2C+J.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MorganC2018-311"><a href="#cite_ref-MorganC2018_311-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan-ConsoliInmanBullockNolan2018" class="citation journal cs1">Morgan-Consoli, M. L.; Inman, A. G.; Bullock, M.; Nolan, S. A. (2018). "Framework for competencies for U.S. psychologists engaging internationally". International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation. 7 (3): 174–188. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fipp0000090">10.1037/ipp0000090</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159028411">159028411</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Perspectives+in+Psychology%3A+Research%2C+Practice%2C+Consultation&rft.atitle=Framework+for+competencies+for+U.S.+psychologists+engaging+internationally&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=174-188&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fipp0000090&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159028411%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Morgan-Consoli&rft.aufirst=M.+L.&rft.au=Inman%2C+A.+G.&rft.au=Bullock%2C+M.&rft.au=Nolan%2C+S.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RadMartingano2018-312"><a href="#cite_ref-RadMartingano2018_312-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadMartinganoGinges2018" class="citation journal cs1">Rad, Mostafa Salari; Martingano, Alison Jane; Ginges, Jeremy (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6233089">"Toward a psychology of Homo sapiens: Making psychological science more representative of the human population"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (45): 11401–11405. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018PNAS..11511401R">2018PNAS..11511401R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1721165115">10.1073/pnas.1721165115</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6233089">6233089</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30397114">30397114</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Toward+a+psychology+of+Homo+sapiens%3A+Making+psychological+science+more+representative+of+the+human+population&rft.volume=115&rft.issue=45&rft.pages=11401-11405&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6233089%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018PNAS..11511401R&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30397114&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1721165115&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=Rad&rft.aufirst=Mostafa+Salari&rft.au=Martingano%2C+Alison+Jane&rft.au=Ginges%2C+Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6233089&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPreston2023" class="citation web cs1">Preston, Elizabeth (19 March 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2023/03/animal-behavioral-science-personalities/673432/">"A Cognitive Revolution in Animal Research"</a>. The Atlantic. Retrieved 22 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=A+Cognitive+Revolution+in+Animal+Research&rft.date=2023-03-19&rft.aulast=Preston&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fscience%2Farchive%2F2023%2F03%2Fanimal-behavioral-science-personalities%2F673432%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cards-314"><a href="#cite_ref-Cards_314-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawes1994" class="citation book cs1">Dawes, Robyn (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/houseofcardspsyc00dawerich">House of Cards – Psychology and Psychotherapy Built on Myth</a>. Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-907205-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-907205-9"><bdi>978-0-02-907205-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=House+of+Cards+%E2%80%93+Psychology+and+Psychotherapy+Built+on+Myth&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-02-907205-9&rft.aulast=Dawes&rft.aufirst=Robyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhouseofcardspsyc00dawerich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beyerstein2001-315"><a href="#cite_ref-Beyerstein2001_315-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeyerstein2001" class="citation journal cs1">Beyerstein, Barry L. (Spring 2001). "Fringe Psychotherapies: The Public at Risk". The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine. 5 (2): 70–9. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.462.3147">10.1.1.462.3147</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Scientific+Review+of+Alternative+Medicine&rft.atitle=Fringe+Psychotherapies%3A+The+Public+at+Risk&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=70-9&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.462.3147%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft.aulast=Beyerstein&rft.aufirst=Barry+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srmhp.org/0101/raison-detre.html">"SRMHP: Our Raison d'Être"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070711012403/http://www.srmhp.org/0101/raison-detre.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 July 2007. Retrieved 1 July 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SRMHP%3A+Our+Raison+d%27%C3%8Atre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srmhp.org%2F0101%2Fraison-detre.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-317">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_317-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_317-1">b</a> American Psychological Association. (2016). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.apa.org/ethics/code">[9]</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180206013229/http://www.apa.org/ethics/code2002.html">Archived</a> 6 February 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2010/02/ethics-code">"American Psychological Association amends ethics code to address potential conflicts among professional ethics, legal authority and organizational demands"</a>. APA.org. 24 February 2010. Retrieved 9 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Psychological+Association+amends+ethics+code+to+address+potential+conflicts+among+professional+ethics%2C+legal+authority+and+organizational+demands&rft.pub=APA.org&rft.date=2010-02-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.apa.org%2Fnews%2Fpress%2Freleases%2F2010%2F02%2Fethics-code&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HandbookJones-319">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HandbookJones_319-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HandbookJones_319-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HandbookJones_319-2">c</a> Stanley E. Jones, "Ethical Issues in Clinical Psychology", in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 8: Clinical Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cpa.ca/docs/File/Ethics/CPA_Code_2017_4thEd.pdf">"Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists, Fourth Edition"</a> (PDF). January 2017. Retrieved 9 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Canadian+Code+of+Ethics+for+Psychologists%2C+Fourth+Edition&rft.date=2017-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcpa.ca%2Fdocs%2FFile%2FEthics%2FCPA_Code_2017_4thEd.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPope2011" class="citation book cs1">Pope, Kenneth S. (2011). Barlow, D. H. (ed.). Ethical Issues in Clinical Psychology (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199328710.013.018">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199328710.013.018</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethical+Issues+in+Clinical+Psychology&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199328710.013.018&rft.aulast=Pope&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-322"><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.efpa.eu/sites/default/files/2023-03/model-code-of-ethics.pdf">"Model Code of Ethics"</a> (PDF). European Federation of Psychologists' Associations. 2015. Retrieved 9 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=European+Federation+of+Psychologists%27+Associations&rft.atitle=Model+Code+of+Ethics&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.efpa.eu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2023-03%2Fmodel-code-of-ethics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-323"><a href="#cite_ref-323">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindsay1998" class="citation journal cs1">Lindsay, G (1998). "The first decade of the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists". Canadian Psychology / Psychologie canadienne. 39 (3). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0092313">10.1037/h0092313</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Psychology+%2F+Psychologie+canadienne&rft.atitle=The+first+decade+of+the+Canadian+Code+of+Ethics+for+Psychologists&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0092313&rft.aulast=Lindsay&rft.aufirst=G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-324"><a href="#cite_ref-324">^</a> The American Psychological Society: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apa.org/research/responsible/index.aspx">Responsible Conduct of Research</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181124162156/http://www.apa.org/research/responsible/index.aspx">Archived</a> 24 November 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-325"><a href="#cite_ref-325">^</a> 45 CFR §46.107 </li> <li id="cite_note-HandbookJones2-326"><a href="#cite_ref-HandbookJones2_326-0">^</a> Stanley E. Jones, "Ethical Issues in Clinical Psychology", in Weiner (ed.), Handbook of Psychology (2003), Volume 8: Clinical Psychology. </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherwinChristionsenDuncanErhard2003" class="citation journal cs1">Sherwin, C.M.; Christionsen, S.B.; Duncan, I.J.; Erhard, H.W.; Lay Jr., D.C.; Mench, J.A.; O'Connor, C.E.; Petherick, J.C. (2003). "Guidelines for the Ethical use of animals in the applied ethology studies". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 81 (3): 291–305. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0168-1591%2802%2900288-5">10.1016/s0168-1591(02)00288-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Animal+Behaviour+Science&rft.atitle=Guidelines+for+the+Ethical+use+of+animals+in+the+applied+ethology+studies&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=291-305&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0168-1591%2802%2900288-5&rft.aulast=Sherwin&rft.aufirst=C.M.&rft.au=Christionsen%2C+S.B.&rft.au=Duncan%2C+I.J.&rft.au=Erhard%2C+H.W.&rft.au=Lay+Jr.%2C+D.C.&rft.au=Mench%2C+J.A.&rft.au=O%27Connor%2C+C.E.&rft.au=Petherick%2C+J.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-328"><a href="#cite_ref-328">^</a> Blum 1994, p. 95, Blum 2002, pp. 218–219. Blum 1994, p. 95: "... the most controversial experiment to come out of the Wisconsin laboratory, a device that Harlow insisted on calling the 'pit of despair.'" </li> <li id="cite_note-Blum_2002-329"><a href="#cite_ref-Blum_2002_329-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlum2002" class="citation book cs1">Blum, Deborah (2002). Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the science of affection. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7382-0278-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7382-0278-9"><bdi>0-7382-0278-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50763066">50763066</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Love+at+Goon+Park%3A+Harry+Harlow+and+the+science+of+affection&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Perseus+Pub&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50763066&rft.isbn=0-7382-0278-9&rft.aulast=Blum&rft.aufirst=Deborah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-330"><a href="#cite_ref-330">^</a> Booth, Wayne C. Modern Dogma and the Rhetoric of Assent, Volume 5, of University of Notre Dame, Ward-Phillips lectures in English language and literature, University of Chicago Press, 1974, p. 114. Booth is explicitly discussing this experiment. His next sentence is, "His most recent outrage consists of placing monkeys in 'solitary' for twenty days—what he calls a 'vertical chamber apparatus .... designed on an intuitive basis' to produce 'a state of helplessness and hopelessness, sunken in a well of despair.'" </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Baker, David B. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology. Oxford University Press (Oxford Library of Psychology), 2012. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-536655-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-536655-6">978-0-19-536655-6</a></li> <li>Brock, Adrian C. (ed.). Internationalizing the History of Psychology. New York University Press, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9944-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9944-4">978-0-8147-9944-4</a></li> <li>Cina, Carol. "Social Science for Whom? A Structural History of Social Psychology." Doctoral dissertation, accepted by the State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1981.</li> <li>Cocks, Geoffrey. Psychotherapy in the Third Reich: The Göring Institute, second edition. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56000-904-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-56000-904-7">1-56000-904-7</a></li> <li>Forgas, Joseph P., Kipling D. Williams, & Simon M. Laham. Social Motivation: Conscious and Unconscious Processes. Cambridge University Press, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-83254-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-83254-3">0-521-83254-3</a></li> <li>Guthrie, Robert. Even the Rat was White: A Historical View of Psychology. Second edition. Boston, Allyn and Bacon (Viacon), 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-205-14993-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-205-14993-6">0-205-14993-6</a></li> <li>Herman, Ellen. "Psychology as Politics: How Psychological Experts Transformed Public Life in the United States 1940–1970." Doctoral dissertation accepted by Brandeis University, 1993.</li> <li>Hock, Roger R. <a href="/wiki/Forty_Studies_That_Changed_Psychology" title="Forty Studies That Changed Psychology">Forty Studies That Changed Psychology</a>: Explorations Into the History of Psychological Research. Fourth edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-032263-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-032263-0">978-0-13-032263-0</a></li> <li>Morgan, Robert D., Tara L. Kuther, & Corey J. Habben. Life After Graduate School in Psychology: Insider's Advice from New Psychologists. New York: Psychology Press (Taylor & Francis Group), 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84169-410-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-84169-410-X">1-84169-410-X</a></li> <li>Severin, Frank T. (ed.). Humanistic Viewpoints in Psychology: A Book of Readings. New York: McGraw Hill, 1965. ISBN</li> <li>Shah, James Y., and Wendi L. Gardner. Handbook of Motivation Science. New York: The Guilford Press, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59385-568-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59385-568-0">978-1-59385-568-0</a></li> <li>Wallace, Edwin R., IV, & John Gach (eds.), History of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology; New York: Springer, 2008; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-34708-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-34708-0">978-0-387-34708-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Weiner" title="Bernard Weiner">Weiner, Bernard</a>. Human Motivation. Hoboken, NJ: Taylor and Francis, 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-0711-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-0711-0">978-0-8058-0711-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_B._Weiner" title="Irving B. Weiner">Weiner, Irving B.</a> Handbook of Psychology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-17669-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-17669-9">0-471-17669-9</a> <ul><li>Volume 1: History of Psychology. Donald K. Freedheim, ed. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-38320-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-38320-1">0-471-38320-1</a></li> <li>Volume 2: Research Methods in Psychology. John A. Schinka & Wayne F. Velicer, eds. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-38513-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-38513-1">0-471-38513-1</a></li> <li>Volume 3: Biological Psychology. Michela Gallagher & Randy J. Nelson, eds. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-38403-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-38403-8">0-471-38403-8</a></li> <li>Volume 4: Experimental Psychology. Alice F. Healy & Robert W. Proctor, eds. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-39262-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-39262-6">0-471-39262-6</a></li> <li>Volume 8: Clinical Psychology. George Stricker, Thomas A. Widiger, eds. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-39263-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-39263-4">0-471-39263-4</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBadcock2015" class="citation book cs1">Badcock, Christopher R. (2015). "Nature-Nurture Controversy, History of". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier. pp. 340–344. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.03136-6">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.03136-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nature-Nurture+Controversy%2C+History+of&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=340-344&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.03136-6&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=Badcock&rft.aufirst=Christopher+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCascio2015" class="citation book cs1">Cascio, Wayne F. (2015). "Industrial–Organizational Psychology: Science and Practice". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier. pp. 879–884. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.22007-2">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.22007-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Industrial%E2%80%93Organizational+Psychology%3A+Science+and+Practice&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=879-884&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.22007-2&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=Cascio&rft.aufirst=Wayne+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChryssochoou2015" class="citation book cs1">Chryssochoou, Xenia (2015). "Social Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier. pp. 532–537. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.24095-6">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.24095-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+Psychology&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=532-537&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.24095-6&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=Chryssochoou&rft.aufirst=Xenia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeakin2015" class="citation book cs1">Deakin, Nicholas (2015). "Philosophy, Psychiatry, and Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier. pp. 31–36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.27049-9">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.27049-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philosophy%2C+Psychiatry%2C+and+Psychology&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=31-36&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.27049-9&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=Deakin&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemetriou2015" class="citation book cs1">Demetriou, Andreas (2015). "Intelligence in Cultural, Social and Educational Context". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier. pp. 313–322. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.92147-0">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.92147-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Intelligence+in+Cultural%2C+Social+and+Educational+Context&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=313-322&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.92147-0&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=Demetriou&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGelso2015" class="citation book cs1">Gelso, Charles J. (2015). "Counseling Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier. pp. 69–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.21073-8">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.21073-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Counseling+Psychology&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=69-72&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.21073-8&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=Gelso&rft.aufirst=Charles+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenley2015" class="citation book cs1">Henley, Tracy B. (2015). "Psychology, History of (Early Period)". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier. pp. 406–411. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.03235-9">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.03235-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Psychology%2C+History+of+%28Early+Period%29&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=406-411&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.03235-9&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=Henley&rft.aufirst=Tracy+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnowlandPurserThomas2015" class="citation book cs1">Knowland, Victoria C.P.; Purser, Harry; Thomas, Michael S.C. (2015). "Cross-Sectional Methodologies in Developmental Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 354–360. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.23235-2">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.23235-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cross-Sectional+Methodologies+in+Developmental+Psychology&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=354-360&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.23235-2&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=Knowland&rft.aufirst=Victoria+C.P.&rft.au=Purser%2C+Harry&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Michael+S.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLouw2015" class="citation book cs1">Louw, Dap (2015). "Forensic Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier. pp. 351–356. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.21074-X">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.21074-X</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Forensic+Psychology&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=351-356&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.21074-X&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=Louw&rft.aufirst=Dap&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcWilliams2015" class="citation book cs1">McWilliams, Spencer A. (2015). "Psychology, History of (Twentieth Century)". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier. pp. 412–417. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.03046-4">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.03046-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Psychology%2C+History+of+%28Twentieth+Century%29&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=412-417&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.03046-4&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=McWilliams&rft.aufirst=Spencer+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPe-Pua2015" class="citation book cs1">Pe-Pua, Rogelia (2015). "Indigenous Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier. pp. 788–794. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.24067-1">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.24067-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Indigenous+Psychology&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=788-794&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.24067-1&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=Pe-Pua&rft.aufirst=Rogelia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetersonPetersonAbramsStricker2015" class="citation book cs1">Peterson, Roger L.; Peterson, Donald R.; Abrams, Jules C.; Stricker, George; Ducheny, Kelly (2015). "Training in Clinical Psychology in the United States: Practitioner Model". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 517–523. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.21086-6">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.21086-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Training+in+Clinical+Psychology+in+the+United+States%3A+Practitioner+Model&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=517-523&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.21086-6&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Roger+L.&rft.au=Peterson%2C+Donald+R.&rft.au=Abrams%2C+Jules+C.&rft.au=Stricker%2C+George&rft.au=Ducheny%2C+Kelly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoortinga2015" class="citation book cs1">Poortinga, Ype H. (2015). "Cross-Cultural Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier. pp. 311–317. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.24011-7">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.24011-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220686434">220686434</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cross-Cultural+Psychology&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=311-317&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220686434%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.24011-7&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=Poortinga&rft.aufirst=Ype+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpinathSpinathBorkenau2015" class="citation book cs1">Spinath, Frank M.; Spinath, Birgit; Borkenau, Peter (2015). "Developmental Behavioral Genetics and Education". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 320–325. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.92009-9">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.92009-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Developmental+Behavioral+Genetics+and+Education&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=320-325&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.92009-9&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=Spinath&rft.aufirst=Frank+M.&rft.au=Spinath%2C+Birgit&rft.au=Borkenau%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2015" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Edward E. (2015). "Cognitive Psychology: History". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier. pp. 103–109. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.03028-2">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.03028-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cognitive+Psychology%3A+History&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=103-109&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.03028-2&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Edward+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaerklé2015" class="citation book cs1">Staerklé, Christian (2015). "Political Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier. pp. 427–433. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.24079-8">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.24079-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Political+Psychology&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=427-433&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.24079-8&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=Staerkl%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Psychology <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Psychology&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Psychology">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Psychology&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 Encyclopædia Britannica</a> article "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Psychology">Psychology</a>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Psychology">Psychology</a> at Wikiquote</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apa.org/">American Psychological Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psychologicalscience.org/">Association for Psychological Science</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Psychology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#BFD7FF;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Psychology" title="Template:Psychology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Psychology" title="Template talk:Psychology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Psychology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Psychology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Psychology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#DFEBFF;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">Psychologist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/Basic_science_(psychology)" title="Basic science (psychology)">Basic psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">Abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_science" title="Affective science">Affective science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">Differential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">Psychophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_psychology" title="Theoretical psychology">Theoretical</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Psi-stylized.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="stylized letter psi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Psi-stylized.svg/50px-Psi-stylized.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Psi-stylized.svg/75px-Psi-stylized.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Psi-stylized.svg/100px-Psi-stylized.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="123" data-file-height="124" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">Anomalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coaching_psychology" title="Coaching psychology">Coaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counseling_psychology" title="Counseling psychology">Counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_psychology" title="Critical psychology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_psychology" title="Legal psychology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_psychology" title="Military psychology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_psychology" title="Music psychology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral psychology">Pastoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_psychology" title="School psychology">School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_psychology" title="Sport psychology">Sport and exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicidology" title="Suicidology">Suicidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_psychology" title="Traffic psychology">Traffic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Methodologies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archival_research" title="Archival research">Archival research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavior epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">Content analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interviews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">Psychophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_psychological_research" title="Qualitative psychological research">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychological_research" title="Quantitative psychological research">Quantitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-report_inventory" title="Self-report inventory">Self-report inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">Statistical surveys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">Behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Behavioral engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competence_(polyseme)" title="Competence (polyseme)">Competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">Feelings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Thorndike" title="Edward Thorndike">Edward Thorndike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_B._Watson" title="John B. Watson">John B. Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_L._Hull" title="Clark L. Hull">Clark L. Hull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Lewin" title="Kurt Lewin">Kurt Lewin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Allport" title="Gordon Allport">Gordon Allport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._P._Guilford" title="J. P. Guilford">J. P. Guilford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Carl Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erik Erikson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_O._Hebb" title="Donald O. Hebb">Donald O. Hebb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hilgard" title="Ernest Hilgard">Ernest Hilgard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Harlow" title="Harry Harlow">Harry Harlow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Cattell" title="Raymond Cattell">Raymond Cattell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neal_E._Miller" title="Neal E. Miller">Neal E. Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Bruner" title="Jerome Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_T._Campbell" title="Donald T. Campbell">Donald T. Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_McClelland" title="David McClelland">David McClelland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Festinger" title="Leon Festinger">Leon Festinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George A. Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lazarus" title="Richard Lazarus">Richard Lazarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Schachter" title="Stanley Schachter">Stanley Schachter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Zajonc" title="Robert Zajonc">Robert Zajonc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Brown_(psychologist)" title="Roger Brown (psychologist)">Roger Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg" title="Lawrence Kohlberg">Lawrence Kohlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulric_Neisser" title="Ulric Neisser">Ulric Neisser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Kagan" title="Jerome Kagan">Jerome Kagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Mischel" title="Walter Mischel">Walter Mischel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliot_Aronson" title="Elliot Aronson">Elliot Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ekman" title="Paul Ekman">Paul Ekman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Posner_(psychologist)" title="Michael Posner (psychologist)">Michael Posner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Tversky" title="Amos Tversky">Amos Tversky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_McEwen" title="Bruce McEwen">Bruce McEwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Nisbett" title="Richard E. Nisbett">Richard E. Nisbett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Martin Seligman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Diener" title="Ed Diener">Ed Diener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelley_E._Taylor" title="Shelley E. Taylor">Shelley E. Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Anderson_(psychologist)" title="John Robert Anderson (psychologist)">John Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_C._Kessler" title="Ronald C. Kessler">Ronald C. Kessler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._LeDoux" title="Joseph E. LeDoux">Joseph E. LeDoux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Davidson" title="Richard Davidson">Richard Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Fiske" title="Susan Fiske">Susan Fiske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Baumeister" title="Roy Baumeister">Roy Baumeister</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Psychology_lists" title="Category:Psychology lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_counseling" title="Outline of counseling">Counseling topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_branches_of_psychology" title="List of branches of psychology">Disciplines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychology_organizations" title="List of psychology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Research methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_schools" title="List of psychological schools">Schools of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology" title="Timeline of psychology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_psychology_articles" title="Index of psychology articles">Topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#DFEBFF;"><div> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psychology" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:psychology">Wiktionary definition</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:en:Psychology" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:en:Psychology">Wiktionary category</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Category:Psychology">Wikisource</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/category:Psychology" class="extiw" title="commons:category:Psychology">Wikimedia Commons</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Psychology">Wikiquote</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikinews:Special:Search/Psychology">Wikinews</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Psychology">Wikibooks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_sciences" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_sciences" title="Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_sciences" title="Template talk:Social sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li>Philosophies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics"> economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">social science</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_social_science" title="Quantum social science">Quantum social science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegan_studies" title="Vegan studies">Vegan studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_science_journals" title="List of social science journals">List of social science journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other categorizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">Behavioral sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" title="Category:Social sciences">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Social sciences">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikiversity page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/16px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/24px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Portal:Social_Sciences" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Portal:Social Sciences">Wikiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/19px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/29px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/38px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/12px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/19px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/25px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Psychology at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Psychology">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Psychology" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Psychology">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/21px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/32px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/42px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Psychology_and_psychiatry" class="extiw" title="n:Category:Psychology and psychiatry">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw" title="q:Psychology">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Psychology" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Psychology">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Psychology" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Psychology">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/42px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw" title="v:Psychology">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418" class="extiw" title="d:Q9418">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1081447/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4047704-6">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85108459">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119408497">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119408497">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00571100">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph115948&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX524579">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000047504&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KSH1998004916">Korea</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007546175605171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/008286">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10643036">NARA</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychology&oldid=1257795111">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychology&oldid=1257795111</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Psychology" title="Category:Psychology">Psychology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Behavioural_sciences" title="Category:Behavioural sciences">Behavioural sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Category:Cognitive behavioral therapy">Cognitive behavioral therapy</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_other_archives" title="Category:Webarchive template other archives">Webarchive template other archives</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2019" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from February 2019">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from February 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_intentionally_citing_publications_with_errata" title="Category:Articles intentionally citing publications with errata">Articles intentionally citing publications with errata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_periodical_ignored" title="Category:CS1 errors: periodical ignored">CS1 errors: periodical ignored</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_move-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_May_2021" title="Category:Use dmy dates from May 2021">Use dmy dates from May 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_a_promotional_tone_from_September_2024" title="Category:Articles with a promotional tone from September 2024">Articles with a promotional tone from September 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_a_promotional_tone" title="Category:All articles with a promotional tone">All articles with a promotional tone</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_excerpts" title="Category:Articles with excerpts">Articles with excerpts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_December_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from December 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_October_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from October 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_rewrite_from_September_2024" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from September 2024">Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from September 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_rewrite" title="Category:All articles needing rewrite">All articles needing rewrite</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_Sister_project_links_with_wikidata_namespace_mismatch" title="Category:Pages using Sister project links with wikidata namespace mismatch">Pages using Sister project links with wikidata namespace mismatch</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_Sister_project_links_with_hidden_wikidata" title="Category:Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata">Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 16 November 2024, at 18:03 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychology&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-9j6r5","wgBackendResponseTime":219,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.273","walltime":"3.644","ppvisitednodes":{"value":40749,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":652290,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":71807,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":64,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":945420,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3119.595 1 -total"," 48.14% 1501.869 1 Template:Reflist"," 16.27% 507.468 84 Template:Cite_journal"," 13.75% 428.817 40 Template:R"," 13.33% 415.859 42 Template:R/ref"," 11.22% 349.864 48 Template:Cite_book"," 7.66% 239.018 1 Template:Psychology_sidebar"," 7.60% 237.128 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 5.29% 165.028 43 Template:R/superscript"," 5.20% 162.113 4 Template:Excerpt"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.875","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":22053322,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","400","18.9"],["?","240","11.3"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","220","10.4"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","200","9.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","140","6.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpensiveData","120","5.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","100","4.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","100","4.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","100","4.7"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","60","2.8"],["[others]","440","20.8"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-zw2dd","timestamp":"20241122140439","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Psychology","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Psychology","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q9418","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q9418","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-06T02:05:30Z","dateModified":"2024-11-16T18:03:51Z","headline":"study of mental functions and behaviours"}</script> </body> </html>