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</a> <ul id="toc-Classifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stressors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stressors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Stressors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stressors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Management </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Management subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marine_Protected_Area_Networks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_Protected_Area_Networks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Marine Protected Area Networks </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_Protected_Area_Networks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Future approaches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Future_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_efforts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_efforts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 International efforts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-International_efforts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle International efforts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-International_efforts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Global_goals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_goals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Global goals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_goals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_treaties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_treaties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Global treaties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_treaties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Antarctic_Treaty_System" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Antarctic_Treaty_System"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.2 The Antarctic Treaty System </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Antarctic_Treaty_System-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_Targets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_Targets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 National Targets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_Targets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_and_national_efforts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_and_national_efforts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Regional and national efforts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Regional_and_national_efforts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Regional and national efforts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Regional_and_national_efforts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-South_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.1 South Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greater_Caribbean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greater_Caribbean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Greater Caribbean </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greater_Caribbean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3.1 China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philippines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philippines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3.2 Philippines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philippines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Latin America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pacific_Ocean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacific_Ocean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Pacific Ocean </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pacific_Ocean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_Ocean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Ocean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Indian Ocean </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_Ocean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mediterranean_Sea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mediterranean_Sea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.7 Mediterranean Sea </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mediterranean_Sea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.8 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom_and_British_Overseas_Territories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom_and_British_Overseas_Territories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.9 United Kingdom and British Overseas Territories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom_and_British_Overseas_Territories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.9.1 United Kingdom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_Overseas_Territories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_Overseas_Territories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.9.2 British Overseas Territories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_Overseas_Territories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_marine_protected_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_marine_protected_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.10 Notable marine protected areas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_marine_protected_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_protected_areas_as_percentage_of_territorial_waters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_protected_areas_as_percentage_of_territorial_waters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.11 Marine protected areas as percentage of territorial waters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_protected_areas_as_percentage_of_territorial_waters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Assessment </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Assessment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Assessment subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coral_reefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coral_reefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Coral reefs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coral_reefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Fish </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Success_criteria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Success_criteria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Success criteria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Success_criteria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Misconceptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Misconceptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Misconceptions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Misconceptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Criticism </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Criticism subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Land_use_right" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_use_right"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Land use right </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_use_right-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Climate change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Displaced_fishing_effort" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Displaced_fishing_effort"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Displaced fishing effort </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Displaced_fishing_effort-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_critiques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_critiques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4 Other critiques </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_critiques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Marine protected area</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 17 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-17" aria-hidden="true" > 17 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="محمية بحرية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="محمية بحرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE" title="সামুদ্রিক সুরক্ষিত এলাকা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সামুদ্রিক সুরক্ষিত এলাকা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardal_Forol_Warchodedig" title="Ardal Forol Warchodedig – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ardal Forol Warchodedig" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meeresschutzgebiet" title="Meeresschutzgebiet – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Meeresschutzgebiet" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merekaitseala" title="Merekaitseala – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Merekaitseala" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rea_marina_protegida" title="Área marina protegida – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Área marina protegida" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82%D9%87_%D8%AD%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B8%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="منطقه حفاظت‌شده دریایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="منطقه حفاظت‌شده دریایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aire_marine_prot%C3%A9g%C3%A9e" title="Aire marine protégée – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Aire marine protégée" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sg%C3%ACre_ghl%C3%A9idhte_mara" title="Sgìre ghléidhte mara – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Sgìre ghléidhte mara" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EC%96%91%EB%B3%B4%ED%98%B8%EA%B5%AC%EC%97%AD" title="해양보호구역 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해양보호구역" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area_marina_protetta" title="Area marina protetta – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Area marina protetta" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aizsarg%C4%81jam%C4%81_j%C5%ABras_teritorija" title="Aizsargājamā jūras teritorija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Aizsargājamā jūras teritorija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeereservaat" title="Zeereservaat – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zeereservaat" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marint_verneomr%C3%A5de" title="Marint verneområde – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Marint verneområde" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rea_marinha_protegida" title="Área marinha protegida – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Área marinha protegida" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deniz_koruma_alan%C4%B1" title="Deniz koruma alanı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Deniz koruma alanı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khu_b%E1%BA%A3o_t%E1%BB%93n_bi%E1%BB%83n" title="Khu bảo tồn biển – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Khu bảo tồn biển" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1367500#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Marine_reserve" title="Marine reserve">Marine reserve</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_park" title="Marine park">marine park</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">marine conservation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about marine protected areas specifically. For protected regions of environmental or cultural value in general, see <a href="/wiki/Protected_area" title="Protected area">protected area</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_Marine_Protected_Areas_as_of_Nov_2022.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Global_Marine_Protected_Areas_as_of_Nov_2022.png/220px-Global_Marine_Protected_Areas_as_of_Nov_2022.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Global_Marine_Protected_Areas_as_of_Nov_2022.png/330px-Global_Marine_Protected_Areas_as_of_Nov_2022.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Global_Marine_Protected_Areas_as_of_Nov_2022.png/440px-Global_Marine_Protected_Areas_as_of_Nov_2022.png 2x" data-file-width="3111" data-file-height="2187" /></a><figcaption>Marine protected areas as of November 2022 (data from MPAtlas).<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> A marine protected area (MPA) is a <a href="/wiki/Protected_area" title="Protected area">protected area</a> of the world's <a href="/wiki/Sea" title="Sea">seas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">oceans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">estuaries</a> or in the US, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NOS-2">[2]</a> These marine areas can come in many forms ranging from wildlife refuges to research facilities.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> MPAs restrict human activity for a conservation purpose, typically to protect natural or cultural resources.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Such <a href="/wiki/Marine_resources" title="Marine resources">marine resources</a> are protected by local, state, territorial, native, regional, national, or international authorities and differ substantially among and between nations. This variation includes different limitations on development, fishing practices, fishing seasons and catch limits, moorings and bans on removing or disrupting <a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">marine life</a>. MPAs can provide economic benefits by supporting the fishing industry through the revival of fish stocks, as well as job creation and other market benefits via <a href="/wiki/Ecotourism" title="Ecotourism">ecotourism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The value of MPA to mobile species is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> There are a number of global examples of large marine conservation areas. The <a href="/wiki/Papah%C4%81naumoku%C4%81kea_Marine_National_Monument" title="Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument">Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument</a>, is situated in the central Pacific Ocean, around <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, occupying an area of 1.5 million square kilometers.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The area is rich in wild life, including the green turtle and the Hawaiian monkfish, alongside 7,000 other species, and 14 million seabirds.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> In 2017 the <a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands" title="Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a> passed the Marae Moana Act designating the whole of the country's marine <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">exclusive economic zone</a>, which has an area of 1.9 million square kilometers as a zone with the purpose of protecting and conserving the "ecological, biodiversity and heritage values of the Cook Islands marine environment".<a href="#cite_note-:13-9">[9]</a>: 355  Other <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_protected_areas" title="List of largest protected areas">large marine conservation areas</a> include those around Antarctica, New Caledonia, Greenland, Alaska, Ascension Island, and Brazil. As areas of protected <a href="/wiki/Marine_biodiversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biodiversity">marine biodiversity</a> expand, there has been an increase in ocean science funding, essential for preserving <a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">marine resources</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SDKP192-10">[10]</a> In 2020, only around 7.5 to 8% of the global ocean area falls under a conservation designation.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> This area is equivalent to 27 million square kilometres, equivalent to the land areas of Russia and Canada combined, although some argue that the effective conservation zones (ones with the strictest regulations) occupy only 5% of the ocean area (about equivalent to the land area of Russia alone). <a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a> zones, as with their terrestrial equivalents, vary in terms of rules and regulations. Few zones rule out completely any sort of human activity within their area, as activities such as fishing, tourism, and transport of essential goods and services by ship, are part of the fabric of nation states. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Milford_sound_2004.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Milford_sound_2004.jpg/250px-Milford_sound_2004.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Milford_sound_2004.jpg/375px-Milford_sound_2004.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Milford_sound_2004.jpg/500px-Milford_sound_2004.jpg 2x" data-file-width="506" data-file-height="379" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Milford_Sound" title="Milford Sound">Milford Sound</a>, New Zealand is a strict <a href="/wiki/Marine_reserve" title="Marine reserve">marine reserve</a> (Category Ia).</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature" title="International Union for Conservation of Nature">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN) defines a <a href="/wiki/Protected_area" title="Protected area">protected area</a> as:<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-IUCN_2012-13">[13]</a> <blockquote>A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a> and cultural values.</blockquote> This definition is intended to make it more difficult to claim MPA status for regions where exploitation of marine resources occurs. If there is no defined long-term goal for conservation and ecological recovery and extraction of marine resources occurs, a region is not a marine protected area.<a href="#cite_note-IUCN_2012-13">[13]</a> "Marine protected area (MPA)" is a term for protected areas that include <a href="/wiki/Marine_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine environment">marine environment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. Other definitions by the IUCN include (2010):<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <blockquote>Any area of the intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment.</blockquote> United States Executive Order 13158 in May 2000 established MPAs, defining them as:<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <blockquote>Any area of the marine environment that has been reserved by federal, state, tribal, territorial, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of the natural and cultural resources therein.</blockquote> The <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity</a> defined the broader term of marine and coastal protected area (MCPA):<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <blockquote>Any defined area within or adjacent to the marine environment, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by legislation or other effective means, including custom, with the effect that its marine and/or coastal biodiversity enjoys a higher level of protection than its surroundings.</blockquote> An apparently unique extension of the meaning is used by <a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a> to refer to protected areas on the Great Lakes of North America.<a href="#cite_note-NOS-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> The form of marine protected areas trace the origins to the World Congress on National Parks in 1962. In 1976, a process was delivered to the excessive rights to every <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">sovereign state</a> to establish marine protected areas at over 200 nautical miles. Over the next two decades, a scientific body of evidence marked the utility in the designation of marine protected areas. In the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/1992_Earth_Summit" class="mw-redirect" title="1992 Earth Summit">1992 Earth Summit</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>, an international target was established with the encompassment of ten percent of the world's marine protected areas. On 28 October 2016 in <a href="/wiki/Hobart" title="Hobart">Hobart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Convention_for_the_Conservation_of_Antarctic_Marine_Living_Resources" title="Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources">Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources</a> agreed to establish the first <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctic</a> and largest marine protected area in the world encompassing 1.55 million km2 (600,000 sq mi) in the <a href="/wiki/Ross_Sea" title="Ross Sea">Ross Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Other large MPAs are in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Oceans</a>, in certain <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">exclusive economic zones</a> of Australia and overseas territories of <a href="/wiki/French_overseas_departments_and_territories" class="mw-redirect" title="French overseas departments and territories">France</a>, the <a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">United Kingdom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">United States</a>, with major (990,000 square kilometres (380,000 sq mi) or larger) new or expanded MPAs by these nations since 2012—such as <a href="/wiki/Natural_Park_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Natural Park of the Coral Sea">Natural Park of the Coral Sea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Remote_Islands_Marine_National_Monument" title="Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument">Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument</a>, Coral Sea Commonwealth Marine Reserve and <a href="/wiki/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Marine Protected Area</a>. When counted with MPAs of all sizes from many other countries, as of April 2023 there are more than 16,615 MPAs, encompassing 7.2% of the world's oceans (26,146,645 km2), with less than half of that area – encompassing 2.9% of the world's oceans – assessed to be fully or highly protected according to the MPA Guide Framework.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classifications">Classifications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Classifications">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Salomons_Atoll_in_the_Chagos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Salomons_Atoll_in_the_Chagos.jpg/220px-Salomons_Atoll_in_the_Chagos.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Salomons_Atoll_in_the_Chagos.jpg/330px-Salomons_Atoll_in_the_Chagos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Salomons_Atoll_in_the_Chagos.jpg/440px-Salomons_Atoll_in_the_Chagos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Chagos_Archipelago" title="Chagos Archipelago">Chagos Archipelago</a> was declared the world's largest marine reserve in April 2010 with an area of 250,000 square miles until March 2015 when It was declared illegal by the Permanent Court of Arbitration.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></figcaption></figure> Several types of compliant MPA can be distinguished: <ul><li>A totally marine area with no significant terrestrial parts.</li> <li>An area containing both marine and terrestrial components, which can vary between two extremes; those that are predominantly maritime with little land (for example, an <a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">atoll</a> would have a tiny island with a significant maritime population surrounding it), or that is mostly terrestrial.</li> <li>Marine ecosystems that contain land and <a href="/wiki/Intertidal" class="mw-redirect" title="Intertidal">intertidal</a> components only. For example, a <a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">mangrove forest</a> would contain no open sea or ocean marine environment, but its river-like marine ecosystem nevertheless complies with the definition.</li></ul> IUCN offered seven <a href="/wiki/IUCN_Protected_Area_Management_Categories" class="mw-redirect" title="IUCN Protected Area Management Categories">categories of protected area</a>, based on management objectives and four broad governance types. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Cat </th> <th><a href="/wiki/IUCN" class="mw-redirect" title="IUCN">IUCN</a> <a href="/wiki/Protected_Area_Management_Categories" class="mw-redirect" title="Protected Area Management Categories">Protected Area Management Categories</a>: </th></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Ia</div> </td> <td>Strict nature reserve A <a href="/wiki/Marine_reserve" title="Marine reserve">marine reserve</a> usually connotes "maximum protection", where all resource removals are strictly prohibited. In countries such as <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a>, marine reserves allow for low-risk removals to sustain local communities. </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Ib</div> </td> <td>Wilderness area </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">II</div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/National_park" title="National park">National park</a> <a href="/wiki/Marine_park" title="Marine park">Marine parks</a> emphasize the protection of ecosystems but allow light human use. A marine park may prohibit fishing or extraction of resources, but allow recreation. Some marine parks, such as those in <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, are zoned and allow activities such as fishing only in low risk areas. </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">III</div> </td> <td>Natural monuments or features Established to protect historical sites such as shipwrecks and cultural sites such as aboriginal fishing grounds. </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">IV</div> </td> <td>Habitat/species management area Established to protect a certain species, to benefit <a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">fisheries</a>, rare <a href="/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat (ecology)">habitat</a>, as spawning/nursing grounds for <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, or to protect entire ecosystems. </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">V</div> </td> <td>Protected seascape Limited active management, as with protected landscapes. </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">VI</div> </td> <td>Sustainable use of natural resources </td></tr></tbody></table> Related <a href="/wiki/Protected_area" title="Protected area">protected area</a> categories include the following; <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> (WHS) – an area exhibiting extensive natural or cultural history. Maritime areas are poorly represented, however, with only 46 out of over 800 sites.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_and_the_Biosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Man and the Biosphere">Man and the Biosphere</a> – <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> program that promotes "a balanced relationship between humans and the <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>". Under article 4, biosphere reserves must "encompass a mosaic of ecological systems", and thus combine terrestrial, coastal, or marine ecosystems. In structure they are similar to Multiple-use MPAs, with a core area ringed by different degrees of protection.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Convention" title="Ramsar Convention">Ramsar site</a> – must meet <a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Classification_System_for_Wetland_Type" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramsar Classification System for Wetland Type">certain criteria for the definition of "Wetland"</a> to become part of a global system. These sites do not necessarily receive protection, but are indexed by importance for later recommendation to an agency that could designate it a protected area.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></li></ul> While "area" refers to a single contiguous location, terms such as "network", "system", and "region" that group MPAs are not always consistently employed."System" is more often used to refer to an individual MPA, whereas "region" is defined by the <a href="/wiki/World_Conservation_Monitoring_Centre" title="World Conservation Monitoring Centre">World Conservation Monitoring Centre</a> as:<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <blockquote>A collection of individual MPAs operating cooperatively, at various spatial scales and with a range of protection levels that are designed to meet objectives that a single reserve cannot achieve.</blockquote> At the 2004 <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity</a>, the agency agreed to use "network" on a global level, while adopting system for national and regional levels. The network is a mechanism to establish regional and local systems, but carries no authority or mandate, leaving all activity within the "system".<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Teal_Waves.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Teal_Waves.jpg/220px-Teal_Waves.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Teal_Waves.jpg/330px-Teal_Waves.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Teal_Waves.jpg/440px-Teal_Waves.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1170" data-file-height="1257" /></a><figcaption>Hawaiian waves crashing against rocks on shore.</figcaption></figure> No take zones (NTZs), are areas designated in a number of the world's MPAs, where all forms of exploitation are prohibited and severely limits human activities. These no take zones can cover an entire MPA, or specific portions. For example, the 1,150,000 square kilometres (440,000 sq mi) <a href="/wiki/Papah%C4%81naumoku%C4%81kea_Marine_National_Monument" title="Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument">Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument</a>, the world's largest MPA (and largest protected area of any type, land or sea), is a 100% no take zone.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Related terms include; specially protected area (SPA), <a href="/wiki/Special_Area_of_Conservation" title="Special Area of Conservation">Special Area of Conservation</a> (SAC), the United Kingdom's marine conservation zones (MCZs),<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> or area of special conservation (ASC) etc. which each provide specific restrictions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stressors">Stressors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Stressors">edit</a>]</div> Stressors that affect oceans include the impact of <a href="/wiki/Extractive_industries" class="mw-redirect" title="Extractive industries">extractive industries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a>, and changes to the ocean's chemistry (<a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidification</a>) resulting from elevated <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> levels, due to our <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> (see also <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">effects of climate change on oceans</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:0-26">[26]</a> MPAs have been cited as the ocean's single greatest hope for increasing the resilience of the marine environment to such stressors.<a href="#cite_note-:0-26">[26]</a> Well-designed and managed MPAs developed with input and support from interested stakeholders can conserve biodiversity and protect and restore <a href="/wiki/Fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries">fisheries</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economics">Economics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Economics">edit</a>]</div> MPAs can help sustain local economies by supporting fisheries and tourism. For example, <a href="/wiki/Apo_Island" title="Apo Island">Apo Island</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> made protected one quarter of their reef, allowing fish to recover, jump-starting their economy. This was shown in the film, Resources at Risk: Philippine Coral Reef.<a href="#cite_note-Christie,_P._2007-27">[27]</a> A 2016 report by the <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Development_and_Strategy" title="Center for Development and Strategy">Center for Development and Strategy</a> found that programs like the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Marine_Sanctuary" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Marine Sanctuary">United States National Marine Sanctuary</a> system can develop considerable economic benefits for communities through <a href="/wiki/Public%E2%80%93private_partnership" title="Public–private partnership">Public–private partnerships</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Joint-Value_Creation_Between_Marine_Protected_Areas_and_the_Private_Sector-28">[28]</a> They can be self-financed through a surrounding "conservation finance area" in which a limited number licenses are granted to benefit from the spillover of the marine protected area.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Management">edit</a>]</div> Typical MPAs restrict <a href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">fishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petrochemicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemicals">oil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">gas</a> mining and/or <a href="/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">tourism</a>. Other restrictions may limit the use of <a href="/wiki/Ultrasonics" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultrasonics">ultrasonic</a> devices like <a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">sonar</a> (which may confuse the guidance system of <a href="/wiki/Cetaceans" class="mw-redirect" title="Cetaceans">cetaceans</a>), development, construction and the like. Some fishing restrictions include "no-take" zones, which means that no fishing is allowed. Less than 1% of US MPAs are no-take. Ship transit can also be restricted or banned, either as a preventive measure or to avoid direct disturbance to individual species. The degree to which environmental regulations affect shipping varies according to whether MPAs are located in <a href="/wiki/Territorial_waters" title="Territorial waters">territorial waters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">exclusive economic zones</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/High_seas" class="mw-redirect" title="High seas">high seas</a>. The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea" title="United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea">law of the sea</a> regulates these limits. Most MPAs have been located in territorial waters, where the appropriate government can enforce them. However, MPAs have been established in exclusive economic zones and in <a href="/wiki/International_waters" title="International waters">international waters</a>. For example, Italy, France and Monaco in 1999 jointly established a cetacean sanctuary in the <a href="/wiki/Ligurian_Sea" title="Ligurian Sea">Ligurian Sea</a> named the <a href="/wiki/Pelagos_Sanctuary_for_Mediterranean_Marine_Mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagos Sanctuary for Mediterranean Marine Mammals">Pelagos Sanctuary for Mediterranean Marine Mammals</a>. This sanctuary includes both national and international waters. Both the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">CBD</a> and <a href="/wiki/IUCN" class="mw-redirect" title="IUCN">IUCN</a> recommended a variety of management systems for use in a protected area system. They advocated that MPAs be seen as one of many "nodes" in a network of protected areas.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The following are the most common management systems: <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asinara-Island01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Asinara-Island01.jpg/220px-Asinara-Island01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Asinara-Island01.jpg/330px-Asinara-Island01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Asinara-Island01.jpg/440px-Asinara-Island01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1811" data-file-height="1019" /></a><figcaption>Asinara, Italy is listed by WDPA as both a marine reserve and a national marine park, and as such could be labelled 'multiple-use'.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></figcaption></figure> Seasonal and temporary management—Activities, most critically fishing, are restricted seasonally or temporarily, e.g., to protect spawning/nursing grounds or to let a rapidly reducing species recover. Multiple-use MPAs—These are the most common and arguably the most effective. These areas employ two or more protections. The most important sections get the highest protection, such as a no take zone and are surrounded with areas of lesser protections. Multiple-use MPAs can make use of very diverse fisheries regulations to balance fisheries extraction with nature protection.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Community involvement and related approaches—Community-managed MPAs empower local communities to operate partially or completely independent of the governmental jurisdictions they occupy. Empowering communities to manage resources can lower conflict levels and enlist the support of diverse groups that rely on the resource such as subsistence and commercial fishers, scientists, recreation, tourism businesses, youths and others. Mistrust between fishermen and regulating authorities is of central importance there, and needs to be addressed. Recent evidence from regions like Scandinavia, Spain, Portugal or Canada reveals success stories based on the tested cooperation between marine scientists and fishermen in jointly managing coastal marine reserves.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_Protected_Area_Networks">Marine Protected Area Networks</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Marine Protected Area Networks">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marine_Protected_Area_Network" title="Marine Protected Area Network">Marine Protected Area Network</a></div> Marine Protected Area Networks or MPA networks have been defined as "A group of MPAs that interact with one another ecologically and/or socially form a network".<a href="#cite_note-Christie,_P._2007-27">[27]</a> These networks are intended to connect individuals and MPAs and promote education and cooperation among various administrations and user groups. "MPA networks are, from the perspective of resource users, intended to address both environmental and socio-economic needs, complementary ecological and social goals and designs need greater research and policy support".<a href="#cite_note-Christie,_P._2007-27">[27]</a> Filipino communities connect with one another to share information about MPAs, creating a larger network through the social communities' support.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Emerging or established MPA networks can be found in <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_marine_reserves#Commonwealth_marine_reserve_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth marine reserves">Australia</a>, Belize, the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden" title="Gulf of Aden">Gulf of Aden</a> and Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-Christie,_P._2007-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Future_approaches">Future approaches</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Future approaches">edit</a>]</div> To be truly representative of the ocean and its range of marine resources, <a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">marine conservation</a> parks should encompass the great variety of ocean geological and geographical terrains, as these, in turn, influence the biosphere around them.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] As time progresses it would be strategically advantageous to develop parks that include oceanic features such as <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">ocean ridges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">ocean trenches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Island_arc" title="Island arc">island arc</a> systems, ocean <a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">seamounts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">ocean plateaus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">abyssal plains</a>, which occupy half the earth's surface. Another factor that will influence the development of marine conservation areas is ownership. Who owns the world's oceans?<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Approximately 64% of the world's oceans are "<a href="/wiki/International_waters" title="International waters">international waters</a>" and subject to regulations such as the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_sea" title="Law of the sea">Law of the Sea</a> and the governance of UN bodies such as the <a href="/wiki/International_Seabed_Authority" title="International Seabed Authority">International Seabed Authority</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The remaining 36% of the ocean is under the governance of individual countries within their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Some individual national EEZ's <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone#Rankings_by_area" title="Exclusive economic zone">cover very large areas</a>, such as France and USA (>11 million km2), and Australia, Russia, UK, and Indonesia (>6 million km2). Some states have very small land areas but extremely large EEZ's such as Kiribati, the Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and Cook Islands who have individual EEZ areas of between 1.9 and 3.5 million km2. The national EEZ's are the ones where governance is easier, and agreements to create marine parks are within national jurisdictions, such as is the case with Marae Moana and the Cook Islands.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] One alternative to imposing MPAs on an indigenous population is through the use of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Protected_Areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Protected Areas">Indigenous Protected Areas</a>, such as those in Australia. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_efforts">International efforts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: International efforts">edit</a>]</div> The 17th <a href="/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature" title="International Union for Conservation of Nature">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN) General Assembly in <a href="/wiki/San_Jose,_California" title="San Jose, California">San Jose</a>, California, the 19th IUCN assembly and the fourth World Parks Congress all proposed to centralise the establishment of protected areas. The <a href="/wiki/Earth_Summit_2002" title="Earth Summit 2002">World Summit on Sustainable Development</a> in 2002 called for <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">the establishment of marine protected areas consistent with international laws and based on scientific information, including representative networks by 2012.<a href="#cite_note-Wells13-36">[36]</a></blockquote> The Evian agreement, signed by <a href="/wiki/G8" title="G8">G8 Nations</a> in 2003, agreed to these terms. The Durban Action Plan, developed in 2003, called for regional action and targets to establish a network of protected areas by 2010 within the jurisdiction of regional <a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">environmental protocols</a>.It recommended establishing protected areas for 20 to 30% of the world's oceans by the goal date of 2012. The <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity</a> considered these recommendations and recommended requiring countries to set up marine parks controlled by a central organization before merging them. The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a> agreed to the terms laid out by the convention, and in 2004, its member nations committed to the following targets;<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <ul><li>By 2006 complete an area system gap analysis at national and regional levels.</li> <li>By 2008 address the less represented marine ecosystems, accounting for those beyond national jurisdiction in accordance.</li> <li>By 2009 designate the protected areas identified through the gap analysis.</li> <li>By 2012 complete the establishment of a comprehensive and ecologically representative network.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bunaken_Marine_Park.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bunaken_Marine_Park.JPG/220px-Bunaken_Marine_Park.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bunaken_Marine_Park.JPG/330px-Bunaken_Marine_Park.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bunaken_Marine_Park.JPG/440px-Bunaken_Marine_Park.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="2136" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bunaken_National_Park" title="Bunaken National Park">Bunaken National Park</a>, Indonesia is officially listed as both a marine reserve and a national marine park.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></figcaption></figure> <blockquote>"The establishment by 2010 of terrestrial and by 2012 for marine areas of comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologically representative national and regional systems of protected areas that collectively, inter alia through a global network, contribute to achieving the three objectives of the Convention and the 2010 target to significantly reduce the current late of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a> at the global, regional, national, and sub-national levels and contribute to poverty reduction and the pursuit of <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">sustainable development</a>."<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_goals">Global goals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Global goals">edit</a>]</div> The UN later endorsed another decision, Decision VII/15, in 2006: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Effective conservation of 10% of each of the world's ecological regions by 2010. – <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a> Decision VII/15<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></blockquote> The 10% conservation goal is also found in <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_14" title="Sustainable Development Goal 14">Sustainable Development Goal 14</a> (which is part of the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity</a>) and which sets this 10% goal to a later date (2020). In 2017, the UN held the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Ocean_Conference" title="United Nations Ocean Conference">United Nations Ocean Conference</a> aiming to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. In that 2017 conference, it was clear that just between 3.6 and 5.7% of the world's oceans were protected, meaning another 6.4 to 4.3% of the world's oceans needed to be protected within 3 years.<a href="#cite_note-news.nationalgeographic.com-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The 10% protection goal is described as a "baby step" as 30% is the real amount of ocean protection scientists agree on that should be implemented.<a href="#cite_note-news.nationalgeographic.com-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_treaties">Global treaties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Global treaties">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea" title="United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Antarctic_Treaty_System">The Antarctic Treaty System</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The Antarctic Treaty System">edit</a>]</div> On 7 April 1982, the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CAMLR Convention) came into force after discussions began in 1975 between parties of the then-current <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Antarctic Treaty">Antarctic Treaty</a> to limit large-scale exploitation of <a href="/wiki/Krill" title="Krill">krill</a> by commercial fisheries. The Convention bound contracting nations to abide by previously agreed upon Antarctic territorial claims and peaceful use of the region while protecting ecosystem integrity south of the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Convergence" title="Antarctic Convergence">Antarctic Convergence</a> and <a href="/wiki/60th_parallel_south" title="60th parallel south">60 S latitude</a>. In so doing, it also established a commission of the original signatories and acceding parties called the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) to advance these aims through protection, scientific study, and rational use, such as harvesting, of those marine resources. Though separate, the Antarctic Treaty and CCAMLR, make up part the broader system of international agreements called the Antarctic Treaty System. Since 1982, the CCAMLR meets annually to implement binding conservations measures like the creation of 'protected areas' at the suggestion of the convention's scientific committee. In 2009, the CCAMLR created the first 'high-seas' MPA entirely within international waters over the southern shelf of the <a href="/wiki/South_Orkney_Islands" title="South Orkney Islands">South Orkney Islands</a>. This area encompasses 94,000 square kilometres (36,000 sq mi) and all fishing activity including transshipment, and dumping or discharge of waste is prohibited with the exception of scientific research endeavors.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> On 28 October 2016, the CCAMLR, composed of 24 member countries and the European Union at the time, agreed to establish the world's largest marine park encompassing 1.55 million km2 (600,000 sq mi) in the Ross Sea after several years of failed negotiations. Establishment of the Ross Sea MPA required unanimity of the commission members and enforcement will begin in December 2017. However, due to a sunset provision inserted into the proposal, the new marine park will only be in force for 35 years.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_Targets">National Targets</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: National Targets">edit</a>]</div> Many countries have established national targets, accompanied by action plans and implementations. The UN Council identified the need for countries to collaborate with each other to establish effective regional conservation plans. Some national targets are listed in the table below<a href="#cite_note-Wells15-45">[45]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Country </th> <th>Plan of action </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/American_Samoa" title="American Samoa">American Samoa</a> </td> <td>20% of reefs to be protected by 2010 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> – <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a> </td> <td>19 marine protected areas by 2010 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a> </td> <td>20% of the marine ecosystem protected for fishery replenishment by 2010. 20% of coastal and marine habitats by 2015. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a> </td> <td>20% of <a href="/wiki/Bioregion" title="Bioregion">bioregions</a>. 30% of <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a>. 60% of <a href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">turtle nesting sites</a>. 30% of <a href="/wiki/Manatee" title="Manatee">Manatee distribution</a>. 60% of <a href="/wiki/American_crocodile" title="American crocodile">American crocodile nesting</a>. 80% of <a href="/wiki/Breed" title="Breed">breeding areas</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td> <td>25% of the <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_Economic_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Exclusive Economic Zone">EEZ</a> to be marine conservation or protected areas by 2025, and 30% by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> </td> <td>29% of marine areas by 2017.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> </td> <td>22% of land habitat, including: <dl><dd>15% of the insular shelf</dd></dl> <dl><dd>25% of <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd>25% of <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetlands</a></dd></dl> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a> </td> <td>20% of marine and coastal by 2020. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a> </td> <td>30% of shoreline ecosystems by 2020. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a> </td> <td>30% of reefs by 2015. 30% of water managed by marine protected areas by 2020. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> </td> <td>38% of water managed by the marine protected network. (no set date) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a> </td> <td>25% of nearby marine resources by 2020. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a> </td> <td>30% of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> </td> <td>100,000 km2 by 2010. 200,000 km2 by 2020. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a> </td> <td>30% of marine areas by 2030 (in the Irish government’s Programme for Government of 2020, aligned with the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 and Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework) <a href="#cite_note-NPWSIreland-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-GovIrl-49">[49]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> </td> <td>10% of Manx waters as 'effectively managed, ecologically representative and well-connected protected areas and <a href="/wiki/Other_effective_area-based_conservation_measures" title="Other effective area-based conservation measures">other effective area-based conservation measures</a>' by 2020. As of June 2016, approximately 3% of Manx waters were protected as a <a href="/wiki/Marine_Nature_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine Nature Reserve">Marine Nature Reserve</a>, with additional areas subject to seasonal or temporary protection.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> </td> <td>20% of marine habitats by 2020. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> </td> <td>100,000 km2 by 2012. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a> </td> <td>30% of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> </td> <td>20% of marine environment by 2010. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">North Mariana Islands</a> </td> <td>30% of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a> </td> <td>30% of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> </td> <td>Marine protected area system established by 2015. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> </td> <td>10% fully protected by 2020. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> </td> <td>Creation of MPA network. (no set date) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> </td> <td>10% of exclusive economic zone by 2020 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/St._Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Vincent and the Grenadines">St. Vincent and the Grenadines</a> </td> <td>20% of marine areas by 2020. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> </td> <td>10% of marine area by 2010; 20% by 2020. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> </td> <td>Establish an ecologically coherent network of marine protected areas by 2012. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> – <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> </td> <td>29 MPAs covering 18% of state marine area with 243 square kilometres (94 sq mi) at maximum protection. </td></tr></tbody></table> The prevalent practice of area-based targets was criticized in 2019 by a group of environmental scientists because politicians tended to protect parts of the oceans where little fishing happened to meet the goals. The lack of fishing in these areas made them easy to protect, but it also had little positive impact.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regional_and_national_efforts">Regional and national efforts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Regional and national efforts">edit</a>]</div> The marine protected area network is still in its infancy. As of October 2010, approximately 6,800 MPAs had been established, covering 1.17% of global ocean area. Protected areas covered 2.86% of exclusive economic zones (EEZs).<a href="#cite_note-iucn.org-52">[52]</a> MPAs covered 6.3% of territorial seas.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Many prohibit the use of harmful fishing techniques yet only 0.01% of the ocean's area is designated as a "no take zone".<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> This coverage is far below the projected goal of 20%-30%<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Those targets have been questioned mainly due to the cost of managing protected areas and the conflict that protections have generated with human demand for marine goods and services.<a href="#cite_note-MoraAndSale2011-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Africa">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_Africa">South Africa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: South Africa">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_areas_of_South_Africa" title="Marine protected areas of South Africa">Marine protected areas of South Africa</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_areas_of_South_Africa&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <div class="mw-kartographer-container thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 300px;"><a class="mw-kartographer-map notheme" style="width: 300px; height: 300px;" data-mw-kartographer="mapframe" data-style="osm-intl" data-width="300" data-height="300" data-zoom="4" data-lat="-31.513" data-lon="23.621" data-overlays="["_2f15c71206980d9c4e8d9398e06b3fefd90e1651"]" href="/wiki/Special:Map/4/-31.513/23.621/en"><img src="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,4,-31.513,23.621,300x300.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Marine_protected_area&groups=_2f15c71206980d9c4e8d9398e06b3fefd90e1651" width="300" height="300" decoding="async" srcset="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,4,-31.513,23.621,300x300@2x.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Marine_protected_area&groups=_2f15c71206980d9c4e8d9398e06b3fefd90e1651 2x" alt="Map" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Marine protected areas of South Africa<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></div></div></div> The <a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_areas_of_South_Africa" title="Marine protected areas of South Africa">marine protected areas of South Africa</a> are in an area of coastline or ocean within the <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">exclusive economic zone</a> (EEZ) of the Republic of <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> that is protected in terms of specific legislation for the benefit of the environment and the people who live in and use it.<a href="#cite_note-Marine_protected_areas_of_South_Africa_Protecting_the_ocean-61">[61]</a> An MPA is a place where marine life can thrive under less pressure than unprotected areas. They are like underwater parks, and this healthy environment can benefit neighbouring areas.<a href="#cite_note-Marine_protected_areas_of_South_Africa_SAAMBR-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Marine_protected_areas_of_South_Africa_Fact_sheet_3-63">[63]</a> There are a total of 42 marine protected areas in the South African EEZ, after consolidation, with a total area of 15.5% of its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The target was to have 10% of the oceanic waters protected by 2020. All but one of the MPAs are in the exclusive economic zone off continental South Africa, and one is off the <a href="/wiki/Prince_Edward_Islands" title="Prince Edward Islands">Prince Edward Islands</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a>. Without the large Prince Edward Islands MPA, South Africa has 41 MPAs covering 5.4% of its continental EEZ. This achieves United Nations <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_14#Target_14.5:_Conserve_coastal_and_marine_areas" title="Sustainable Development Goal 14">Sustainable Development Goal 14.5</a> for conservation of marine and coastal areas, and the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity</a> (CBD) Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_and_community_conserved_area#Legislation" title="Indigenous and community conserved area">Aichi Target 11</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Marine_protected_areas_of_South_Africa_WIOSAP_2021-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Marine_protected_areas_of_South_Africa_Fielding_2021-65">[65]</a> People can take part in a wide range of non-consumptive activities in all of South Africa's MPAs, and some parts of some MPAs are zoned for limited consumptive activities.<a href="#cite_note-Marine_protected_areas_of_South_Africa_Fact_sheet_3-63">[63]</a> Some of these activities require a permit, which is a form of taxation.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greater_Caribbean">Greater Caribbean</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Greater Caribbean">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Location_Caribbean.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Location_Caribbean.png/300px-Location_Caribbean.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Location_Caribbean.png/450px-Location_Caribbean.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Location_Caribbean.png/600px-Location_Caribbean.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="326" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> region; the UNEP–defined region also includes the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>. This region is encompassed by the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Barrier_Reef_System" title="Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System">Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System</a> proposal, and the Caribbean challenge.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GulfofMexico3D.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/GulfofMexico3D.jpg/220px-GulfofMexico3D.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/GulfofMexico3D.jpg/330px-GulfofMexico3D.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/GulfofMexico3D.jpg/440px-GulfofMexico3D.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2451" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> region (in 3D) is encompassed[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] by the "Islands in the Stream" proposal.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Greater Caribbean</a> subdivision encompasses an area of about 5,700,000 square kilometres (2,200,000 sq mi) of ocean and 38 nations. The area includes island countries like the <a href="/wiki/Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, and the majority of <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Convention_for_the_Protection_and_Development_of_the_Marine_Environment_of_the_Wider_Caribbean_Region" title="Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region">Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region</a> (better known as the Cartagena Convention) was established in 1983. A protocol involving protected areas was ratified in 1990. As of 2008, the region hosted about 500 MPAs. <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a> are the best represented. Two networks are under development, the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Barrier_Reef_System" title="Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System">Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System</a> (a long <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">barrier reef</a> that borders the coast of much of Central America), and the "Islands in the Stream" program (covering the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Wells33-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Asia">edit</a>]</div> Southeast Asia is a global epicenter for marine diversity. 12% of its coral reefs are in MPAs. The Philippines have some the world's best coral reefs and protect them to attract international tourism. Most of the Philippines' MPAs are established to secure protection for its coral reef and <a href="/wiki/Sea_grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea grass">sea grass</a> habitats. Indonesia has MPAs designed for tourism and relies on tourism as a main source of income.<a href="#cite_note-Christie,_P._2007-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: China">edit</a>]</div> China has developed its unique MPA management system, which divides MPAs into two main categories: Marine Natural Reserves (MNRs) and Special Marine Protected Areas (SMPAs).<a href="#cite_note-:02-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-69">[69]</a> As of 2016, China has designated 267 MPAs, including 160 MNRs and 107 SMPAs, covering nearly 4% of the sea area.<a href="#cite_note-:02-67">[67]</a> MNRs are the no-take areas under comprehensive protection that prohibit any kind of resource exploitation.<a href="#cite_note-:2-69">[69]</a> Unlike such traditional MPAs, SMPAs have been established in China since 2002.<a href="#cite_note-:02-67">[67]</a> SMPAs allow the use of marine resources in a supervised and sustainable way, aiming at reducing local development conflicts caused by MNRs (such as the survival of coastal fishermen) and greater matching of national economic development strategies.<a href="#cite_note-:02-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-69">[69]</a> Depending on local ecological considerations, SMPAs will subdivide into different functional zones. Areas with rare and endangered species or damaged and fragile environments are strict no-take areas and <a href="/wiki/Ecological_restoration" title="Ecological restoration">ecological restoration</a> areas, while other areas will be considered sustainable resource use zone for current use and reserved zone for future use.<a href="#cite_note-:2-69">[69]</a> Despite all the efforts, as China constructs MPA based on administrative hierarchy (national, provincial, municipal, and county), there exist problems of fragmentized division and inconsistent enforcement of MPAs.<a href="#cite_note-:2-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philippines">Philippines</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Philippines">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> host one of the most highly biodiverse regions, with 464 reef-building coral species. Due to overfishing, destructive fishing techniques, and rapid coastal development, these are in rapid decline. The country has established some 600 MPAs. However, the majority are poorly enforced and are highly ineffective. However, some have positively impacted reef health, increased fish biomass, decreased coral bleaching and increased yields in adjacent fisheries. One notable example is the MPA surrounding Apo Island.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Latin America">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> has designated one large MPA system. As of 2008, 0.5% of its marine environment was protected, mostly through the use of small, multiple-use MPAs.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-71">[71]</a> Mexico designed a Marine Strategy that goes from the years 2018–2021.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pacific_Ocean">Pacific Ocean</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Pacific Ocean">edit</a>]</div> Governments in the "South Pacific network" (ranging from <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a> to <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>) adopted the <a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements#Marine_environment_–_global_conventions" title="List of international environmental agreements">Lima convention</a> and action plan in 1981. An MPA-specific protocol was ratified in 1989. The permanent commission on the exploitation and conservation on the marine resources of the South Pacific promotes the exchange of studies and information among participants.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-71">[71]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tall_Cliffs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Tall_Cliffs.jpg/220px-Tall_Cliffs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Tall_Cliffs.jpg/330px-Tall_Cliffs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Tall_Cliffs.jpg/440px-Tall_Cliffs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1170" data-file-height="1650" /></a><figcaption>Cliffs in Hawaii overlooking central Pacific Ocean</figcaption></figure> The region is currently running one comprehensive cross-national program, the Tropical Eastern Pacific Marine Corridor Network, signed in April 2004. The network covers about 211,000,000 square kilometres (81,000,000 sq mi).<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-71">[71]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Marae_Moana" title="Marae Moana">Marae Moana</a> Conservation Park in <a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands" title="Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a> has many stakeholders within its governance structure, including a variety of Government Ministries, NGOs, traditional landowners, and society representatives.<a href="#cite_note-:13-9">[9]</a> The Marae Moana conservation area is managed through a spatial zoning principle, whereby specific designations are given to specific zones, though these designations may change over time. For example, some areas may allow fishing, whilst fishing may be prohibited in other areas. The "North Pacific network" covers the western coasts of Mexico, Canada, and the U.S. The "Antigua Convention" and an action plan for the north Pacific region were adapted in 2002. Participant nations manage their own national systems.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-71">[71]</a> In 2010–2011, the State of California completed hearings and actions via the state Department of Fish and Game to establish new MPAs.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_Ocean">Indian Ocean</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Indian Ocean">edit</a>]</div> In exchange for some of its <a href="/wiki/Government_debt" title="Government debt">national debt</a> being written off, the <a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> designates two new marine protected areas in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, covering about 210,000 square kilometres (81,000 sq mi). It is the result of a financial deal, brokered in 2016 by <a href="/wiki/The_Nature_Conservancy" title="The Nature Conservancy">The Nature Conservancy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> In 2021 <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> announced the creation of 2 national marine parks in size of 740,000 square kilometers. With those parks 45% of the Australian marine territory will be protected.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Ten countries in the Western Indian Ocean have launched the "Great Blue Wall" initiative, which seeks to create a network of linked MPAs throughout the region. These are generally expected to be under <a href="/wiki/IUCN_protected_area_categories" title="IUCN protected area categories">IUCN category IV</a> protection, which allows for local fishing but prohibits industrial exploitation.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mediterranean_Sea">Mediterranean Sea</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Mediterranean Sea">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Natura_2000" title="Natura 2000">Natura 2000</a> <a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">ecological MPA network</a> in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> included MPAs in the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic">North Atlantic</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>. The member states had to define NATURA 2000 areas at sea in their <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_Economic_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Exclusive Economic Zone">Exclusive Economic Zone</a>. Two assessments, conducted thirty years apart, of three Mediterranean MPAs, demonstrate that proper protection allows commercially valuable and slow-growing red coral (<a href="/wiki/Corallium_rubrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Corallium rubrum">Corallium rubrum</a>) to produce large colonies in shallow water of less than 50 metres (160 ft). Shallow-water colonies outside these decades-old MPAs are typically very small. The MPAs are <a href="/wiki/Banyuls" class="mw-redirect" title="Banyuls">Banyuls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carry-le-Rouet" title="Carry-le-Rouet">Carry-le-Rouet</a> and Scandola, off the island of <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sd-79">[79]</a> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Science_Commission" title="Mediterranean Science Commission">Mediterranean Science Commission</a> proposed the creation of eight large, international, MPAs ("CIESM Marine Peace Parks") with the dual benefits of protecting unique oceanographic features and mitigating trans-frontier conflicts <a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></li> <li>WWF together with other partners<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> proposed the creation of <a href="/wiki/MedPan" class="mw-redirect" title="MedPan">MedPan</a> (Mediterranean Network of Marine Protected Areas Managers) which aims to protect 10% of the surface of the Mediterranean by 2020.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></li></ul> A 2018 study published in <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a> found that trawling is more intense inside official EU marine sanctuaries and that endangered fish species such as sharks and rays are more common outside them.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_System_of_Marine_Protected_Areas" title="United States National System of Marine Protected Areas">United States National System of Marine Protected Areas</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Marine_Sanctuary" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Marine Sanctuary">United States National Marine Sanctuary</a></div>As of June 2020, 26% of U.S. waters (including the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a>) were in an MPA. Only 3% of US waters are no-take MPAs. Almost all of the no-take zones are located in two large MPAs in the remote Pacific Ocean, <a href="/wiki/Papah%C4%81naumoku%C4%81kea_Marine_National_Monument" title="Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument">Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Remote_Islands_Marine_National_Monument" title="Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument">Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NOAA-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom_and_British_Overseas_Territories">United Kingdom and British Overseas Territories</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: United Kingdom and British Overseas Territories">edit</a>]</div> Near half of England's seas are MPAs. Those MPAs only ban in specific places some of the most damaging activities.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> In 2020, Greenpeace revealed that in 2019 the UK legally allowed industrial boats to fish in the Marine protected area. This point is related to the concern of overfishing, while fishing is an object to the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Trade_negotiation_between_the_UK_and_the_EU" title="Trade negotiation between the UK and the EU">trade negotiations between the EU and the UK</a>. Result of those negotiations might replace <a href="/wiki/Common_Fisheries_Policy" title="Common Fisheries Policy">Common Fisheries Policy</a> in the UK. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: United Kingdom">edit</a>]</div> There are a number of marine protected areas around the <a href="/wiki/Coastline_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Coastline of the United Kingdom">coastline of the United Kingdom</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/Marine_Conservation_Zone" title="Marine Conservation Zone">Marine Conservation Zones</a> in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, and <a href="/wiki/Marine_Protected_Areas_in_Scotland" title="Marine Protected Areas in Scotland">Marine Protected Areas</a> in Scotland.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> They are to be found in inshore and offshore waters.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> In June 2020, a review led by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Benyon" title="Richard Benyon">Richard Benyon</a> <a href="/wiki/Member_of_parliament" title="Member of parliament">MP</a>, stated that nearly 50 areas around the UK coastline should become Highly Protected Marine Areas (HPMAs). This would see the banning of dredging, sewage dumping, drilling, offshore wind-turbine construction and catch-and-release sea fishing.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="British_Overseas_Territories">British Overseas Territories</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: British Overseas Territories">edit</a>]</div> The United Kingdom is also creating marine protected reserves around several <a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">British Overseas Territories</a>. The UK is responsible for 6.8 million square kilometres of ocean around the world, larger than all but four other countries.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> In 2016 the UK government established the Blue Belt Programme to enhance the protection and management of the marine environment.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Chagos_Marine_Protected_Area" title="Chagos Marine Protected Area">Chagos Marine Protected Area</a> in the Indian Ocean was established in 2010 as a "no-take-zone". With a total surface area of 640,000 square kilometres (250,000 sq mi), it was the world's largest contiguous marine reserve.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> In March 2015, the UK announced the creation of a marine reserve around the <a href="/wiki/Pitcairn_Islands" title="Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a> in the Southern Pacific Ocean to protect its special biodiversity. The area of 830,000 square kilometres (320,000 sq mi) surpassed the Chagos Marine Protected Area as the world's largest contiguous marine reserve,<a href="#cite_note-NatGeo20150318-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> until the August 2016 expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Papah%C4%81naumoku%C4%81kea_Marine_National_Monument" title="Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument">Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument</a> in the United States to 1,510,000 square kilometres (580,000 sq mi). In January 2016, the UK government announced the intention to create a marine protected area around <a href="/wiki/Ascension_Island" title="Ascension Island">Ascension Island</a>. The protected area will be 234,291 square kilometres (90,460 sq mi), half of which will be closed to fishing.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The eventual marine park covered 100% of the EEZ.<a href="#cite_note-AscensionMPA-97">[97]</a> On 13 November 2020 it was announced that the 687,247 square kilometres (265,348 sq mi) of the waters surrounding the <a href="/wiki/Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a> and neighboring islands will become a Marine Protection Zone. The move will make the zone the largest no-take zone in the Atlantic and the fourth largest on the planet.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_marine_protected_areas">Notable marine protected areas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Notable marine protected areas">edit</a>]</div>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vlmpa_jan2019.jpg_5100x3300_q85_crop_subsampling-2_upscale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Vlmpa_jan2019.jpg_5100x3300_q85_crop_subsampling-2_upscale.jpg/220px-Vlmpa_jan2019.jpg_5100x3300_q85_crop_subsampling-2_upscale.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Vlmpa_jan2019.jpg_5100x3300_q85_crop_subsampling-2_upscale.jpg/330px-Vlmpa_jan2019.jpg_5100x3300_q85_crop_subsampling-2_upscale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Vlmpa_jan2019.jpg_5100x3300_q85_crop_subsampling-2_upscale.jpg/440px-Vlmpa_jan2019.jpg_5100x3300_q85_crop_subsampling-2_upscale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5100" data-file-height="3300" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Bowie_Seamount" title="Bowie Seamount">Bowie Seamount Marine Protected Area</a> off the <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Coast" title="British Columbia Coast">coast of British Columbia</a>, Canada.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef_Marine_Park" title="Great Barrier Reef Marine Park">Great Barrier Reef Marine Park</a> in <a href="/wiki/Queensland,_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Queensland, Australia">Queensland</a>, Australia.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Ligurian_Sea_Cetacean_Sanctuary" title="Ligurian Sea Cetacean Sanctuary">Ligurian Sea Cetacean Sanctuary</a> in the seas of Italy, <a href="/wiki/Monaco" title="Monaco">Monaco</a> and France.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Dry_Tortugas_National_Park" title="Dry Tortugas National Park">Dry Tortugas National Park</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Keys" title="Florida Keys">Florida Keys</a>, USA.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Papah%C4%81naumoku%C4%81kea_Marine_National_Monument" title="Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument">Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_Islands_Protected_Area" title="Phoenix Islands Protected Area">Phoenix Islands Protected Area</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kiribati" title="Kiribati">Kiribati</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands_National_Marine_Sanctuary" title="Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary">Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary</a> in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, USA.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithMiller2003-101">[101]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Chagos_Marine_Protected_Area" title="Chagos Marine Protected Area">Chagos Marine Protected Area</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Wadden_Sea" title="Wadden Sea">Wadden Sea</a> bordering the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> in the Netherlands, Germany, and Denmark.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Ascension_Island_Marine_Protected_Area" title="Ascension Island Marine Protected Area">Ascension Island Marine Protected Area</a>, which encompasses 100% the island's <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_Economic_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Exclusive Economic Zone">Exclusive Economic Zone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AscensionMPA-97">[97]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_protected_areas_as_percentage_of_territorial_waters">Marine protected areas as percentage of territorial waters</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Marine protected areas as percentage of territorial waters">edit</a>]</div> The following shows a list of countries and their marine protected areas as percentage of their territorial waters (click "show" to expand).<a href="#cite_note-WorldBankData-103">[103]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: center; font-size: 85%; width: auto; table-layout: fixed;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Country </th> <th>MPA in % of territorial waters in 2022 </th></tr> <tr> <td>Albania </td> <td>2.80 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Algeria </td> <td>0.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>American Samoa </td> <td>8.70 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Andorra </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Angola </td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Antigua and Barbuda </td> <td>0.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Argentina </td> <td>11.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Armenia </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Aruba </td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Australia </td> <td>44.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Austria </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Azerbaijan </td> <td>0.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bahamas, The </td> <td>7.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bahrain </td> <td>21.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bangladesh </td> <td>5.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Barbados </td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Belarus </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Belgium </td> <td>38.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Belize </td> <td>11.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Benin </td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bermuda </td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bhutan </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bolivia </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bosnia and Herzegovina </td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Botswana </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Brazil </td> <td>26.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>British Virgin Islands </td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Brunei Darussalam </td> <td>0.20 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bulgaria </td> <td>8.10 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Burkina Faso </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Burundi </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cabo Verde </td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cambodia </td> <td>1.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cameroon </td> <td>10.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Canada </td> <td>9.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cayman Islands </td> <td>0.01 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Central African Republic </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Chad </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Channel Islands </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Chile </td> <td>41.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>China </td> <td>5.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Colombia </td> <td>17.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Comoros </td> <td>0.04 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Congo, Dem. Rep. </td> <td>0.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Congo, Rep. </td> <td>3.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Costa Rica </td> <td>29.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Côte d'Ivoire </td> <td>0.01 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Croatia </td> <td>9.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cuba </td> <td>3.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Curaçao </td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cyprus </td> <td>8.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Czechia </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Denmark </td> <td>18.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Djibouti </td> <td>0.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dominica </td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dominican Republic </td> <td>17.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ecuador </td> <td>19.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Egypt, Arab Rep. </td> <td>5.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>El Salvador </td> <td>0.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Equatorial Guinea </td> <td>0.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Eritrea </td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Estonia </td> <td>18.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Eswatini </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ethiopia </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Faroe Islands </td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fiji </td> <td>0.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Finland </td> <td>12.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>France </td> <td>49.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>French Polynesia </td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gabon </td> <td>28.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gambia, The </td> <td>0.06 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Georgia </td> <td>0.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Germany </td> <td>45.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ghana </td> <td>0.10 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gibraltar </td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Greece </td> <td>4.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Greenland </td> <td>4.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Grenada </td> <td>0.01 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Guam </td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Guatemala </td> <td>0.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Guinea </td> <td>0.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Guinea-Bissau </td> <td>9.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Guyana </td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Haiti </td> <td>1.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Honduras </td> <td>4.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hong Kong SAR, China </td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hungary </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Iceland </td> <td>0.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>India </td> <td>0.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Indonesia </td> <td>3.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Iran, Islamic Rep. </td> <td>0.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Iraq </td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ireland </td> <td>2.33 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Isle of Man </td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Israel </td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Italy </td> <td>10.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jamaica </td> <td>0.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Japan </td> <td>13.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jordan </td> <td>1.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kazakhstan </td> <td>50.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kenya </td> <td>0.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kiribati </td> <td>11.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Korea, Dem. People's Rep. </td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Korea, Rep. </td> <td>2.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kosovo </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kuwait </td> <td>1.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kyrgyz Republic </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lao PDR </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Latvia </td> <td>16.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lebanon </td> <td>0.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lesotho </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Liberia </td> <td>0.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Libya </td> <td>0.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Liechtenstein </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lithuania </td> <td>25.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Luxembourg </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Macao SAR, China </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Madagascar </td> <td>0.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Malawi </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Malaysia </td> <td>5.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Maldives </td> <td>0.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mali </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Malta </td> <td>7.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Marshall Islands </td> <td>0.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mauritania </td> <td>4.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mauritius </td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mexico </td> <td>21.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Micronesia, Fed. Sts. </td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Moldova </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Monaco </td> <td>99.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mongolia </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Montenegro </td> <td>0.06 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Morocco </td> <td>0.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mozambique </td> <td>2.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Myanmar </td> <td>0.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Namibia </td> <td>1.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nauru </td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nepal </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Netherlands </td> <td>26.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>New Caledonia </td> <td>96.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>New Zealand </td> <td>30.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nicaragua </td> <td>3.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Niger </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nigeria </td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>North Macedonia </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Northern Mariana Islands </td> <td>33.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Norway </td> <td>9.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Oman </td> <td>0.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pakistan </td> <td>0.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Palau </td> <td>100.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Panama </td> <td>26.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Papua New Guinea </td> <td>0.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Paraguay </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Peru </td> <td>8.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Philippines </td> <td>1.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Poland </td> <td>22.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Portugal </td> <td>16.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Puerto Rico </td> <td>1.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Qatar </td> <td>2.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Romania </td> <td>23.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Russian Federation </td> <td>2.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rwanda </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Samoa </td> <td>0.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>San Marino </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>São Tomé and Príncipe </td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Saudi Arabia </td> <td>2.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Senegal </td> <td>1.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Serbia </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Seychelles </td> <td>32.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sierra Leone </td> <td>1.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Singapore </td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sint Maarten (Dutch part) </td> <td>8.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Slovak Republic </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Slovenia </td> <td>2.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Solomon Islands </td> <td>0.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>South Africa </td> <td>15.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>South Sudan </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Spain </td> <td>12.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sri Lanka </td> <td>0.01 </td></tr> <tr> <td>St. Kitts and Nevis </td> <td>4.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>St. Lucia </td> <td>0.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>St. Martin (French part) </td> <td>96.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>St. Vincent and the Grenadines </td> <td>0.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sudan </td> <td>16.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Suriname </td> <td>1.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sweden </td> <td>15.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Switzerland </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Syrian Arab Republic </td> <td>0.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tajikistan </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tanzania </td> <td>3.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Thailand </td> <td>4.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Timor-Leste </td> <td>1.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Togo </td> <td>0.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tonga </td> <td>0.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Trinidad and Tobago </td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tunisia </td> <td>1.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Turkiye </td> <td>1.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Turkmenistan </td> <td>3.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Turks and Caicos Islands </td> <td>0.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tuvalu </td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Uganda </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ukraine </td> <td>9.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>United Arab Emirates </td> <td>11.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>United Kingdom </td> <td>44.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>United States </td> <td>19.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Uruguay </td> <td>0.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Uzbekistan </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vanuatu </td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Venezuela, RB </td> <td>4.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Viet Nam </td> <td>0.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Virgin Islands (U.S.) </td> <td>0.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>West Bank and Gaza </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Yemen, Rep. </td> <td>0.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Zambia </td> <td>no data </td></tr> <tr> <td>Zimbabwe </td> <td>no data </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Assessment">Assessment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Assessment">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anguilla_Prickly-Pear.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Anguilla_Prickly-Pear.jpg/220px-Anguilla_Prickly-Pear.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Anguilla_Prickly-Pear.jpg/330px-Anguilla_Prickly-Pear.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Anguilla_Prickly-Pear.jpg/440px-Anguilla_Prickly-Pear.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Prickly_Pear_Cays" title="Prickly Pear Cays">Prickly Pear Cays</a> are a marine protected area, roughly six miles from Road Bay, <a href="/wiki/Anguilla" title="Anguilla">Anguilla</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Leeward_Islands" title="Leeward Islands">Leeward Islands</a> of the Caribbean.</figcaption></figure> Managers and scientists use <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">geographic information systems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a> to map and analyze MPAs. NOAA Coastal Services Center compiled an "Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs". The report focuses on GIS tools with the highest utility for MPA processes.<a href="#cite_note-mpa.gov-104">[104]</a> Remote sensing uses advances in <a href="/wiki/Aerial_photography" title="Aerial photography">aerial photography</a> <a href="/wiki/Image_capture" class="mw-redirect" title="Image capture">image capture</a>, pop-up archival satellite tags, <a href="/wiki/Earth_observation_satellite#Environmental_monitoring" title="Earth observation satellite">satellite</a> <a href="/wiki/Satellite_imagery" title="Satellite imagery">imagery</a>, acoustic data, and <a href="/wiki/Radar_imagery" class="mw-redirect" title="Radar imagery">radar imagery</a>. Mathematical models that seek to reflect the complexity of the natural setting may assist in planning harvesting strategies and sustaining fishing grounds.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Other techniques such as on-site monitoring sensors, <a href="/wiki/Crowdsensing" title="Crowdsensing">crowdsensing</a> via local people, research and sampling endeavors, autonomous ships and underwater robots (<a href="/wiki/Unmanned_underwater_vehicle" title="Unmanned underwater vehicle">UAV</a>) could also be used and developed.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">additional citation(s) needed</a>] Such data can then be used for assessing <a href="/wiki/Marine_protection" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine protection">marine protection</a>-quality and -extents. In 2021, 43 expert scientists published the first scientific framework version that – via integration, <a href="/wiki/Scientific_review" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific review">review</a>, clarifications and <a href="/wiki/Standardization#Environmental_protection" title="Standardization">standardization</a> – enables coherent evaluation of levels of protection of marine protected areas and serve as a guide for improving, planning and monitoring these such as in efforts towards the 30%-protection-goal adopted as part of the Convention on Biological Diversity's "Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework" in December 2022,<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> the "Global Deal For Nature"<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> and the UN's <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_14" title="Sustainable Development Goal 14">Sustainable Development Goal 14</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coral_reefs">Coral reefs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Coral reefs">edit</a>]</div> Coral reef systems have been in decline worldwide. Causes include overfishing, pollution and <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidification</a>. As of 2013 30% of the world's reefs were severely damaged. Approximately 60% will be lost by 2030 without enhanced protection.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Marine reserves with "no take zones" are the most effective form of protection.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Only about 0.01% of the world's coral reefs are inside effective MPAs.<a href="#cite_note-MoraScience2006-114">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fish">Fish</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Fish">edit</a>]</div> MPAs can be an effective tool to maintain fish populations; see <a href="/wiki/Refuge_(ecology)" title="Refuge (ecology)">refuge (ecology)</a>. The general concept is to create overpopulation within the MPA. The fish expand into the surrounding areas to reduce crowding, increasing the population of unprotected areas.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> This helps support local fisheries in the surrounding area, while maintaining a healthy population within the MPA. Such MPAs are most commonly used for coral reef ecosystems. One example is at Goat Island Bay in New Zealand, established in 1977. Research gathered at Goat Bay documented the spillover effect. "Spillover and larval export—the drifting of millions of eggs and larvae beyond the reserve—have become central concepts of marine conservation". This positively impacted commercial fishermen in surrounding areas.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Another unexpected result of MPAs is their impact on predatory marine species, which in some conditions can increase in population. When this occurs, prey populations decrease. One study showed that in 21 out of 39 cases, "trophic cascades", caused a decrease in herbivores, which led to an increase in the quantity of plant life. This occurred in the Malindi Kisite and Watamu Marian National Parks in Kenya; the Leigh Marine Reserve in New Zealand; and Brackett's Landing Conservation Area in the US.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Success_criteria">Success criteria</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Success criteria">edit</a>]</div> Both <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">CBD</a> and <a href="/wiki/IUCN" class="mw-redirect" title="IUCN">IUCN</a> have criteria for setting up and maintaining MPA networks, which emphasize four factors:<a href="#cite_note-Wells17-118">[118]</a> <ul><li>Adequacy—ensuring that the sites have the size, shape, and distribution to ensure the success of selected species.</li> <li>Representability—protection for all of the local environment's biological processes</li> <li>Resilience—the resistance of the system to natural disaster, such as a tsunami or flood.</li> <li>Connectivity—maintaining population links across nearby MPAs.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Misconceptions">Misconceptions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Misconceptions">edit</a>]</div> Misconceptions about MPAs include the belief that all MPAs are no-take or no-fishing areas. Less than 1 percent of US waters are no-take areas. MPA activities can include consumption fishing, diving and other activities. Another misconception is that most MPAs are federally managed. Instead, MPAs are managed under hundreds of laws and jurisdictions. They can exist in state, commonwealth, territory and tribal waters. Another misconception is that a federal mandate dedicates a set percentage of ocean to MPAs. Instead the mandate requires an evaluation of current MPAs and creates a public resource on current MPAs.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Criticism">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Land_use_right">Land use right</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Land use right">edit</a>]</div> Some existing and proposed MPAs have been criticized by indigenous populations and their supporters, as impinging on land usage rights. For example, the proposed Chagos Protected Area in the Chagos Islands is contested by <a href="/wiki/Chagossians" title="Chagossians">Chagossians</a> deported from their homeland in 1965 by the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</a> as part of the creation of the <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" title="British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a> (BIOT). According to <a href="/wiki/United_States_diplomatic_cables_leak" title="United States diplomatic cables leak">leaked diplomatic cables</a>,<a href="#cite_note-[http://www.indybay.org/newsitems/2010/12/23/18667425.php]-120">[120]</a> the UK proposed that the BIOT become a "marine reserve" with the aim of preventing the former inhabitants from returning to their lands and to protect the joint UK/US military base on <a href="/wiki/Diego_Garcia" title="Diego Garcia">Diego Garcia</a> Island. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Climate change">edit</a>]</div> Oceans are the primary <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sink</a> and have been greatly affected by global warming, especially in recent years. The ability of existing MPA designs to cope with changes in marine biodiversity due to ocean acidification, sea level rise, <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a> increase, oxygen reduction, and other marine environmental issues remains questionable.<a href="#cite_note-:03-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Despite differences in species adaptations, warming has affected the habitats of some marine species, such as corals, to move from lower to higher latitudes.<a href="#cite_note-:03-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-122">[122]</a> If MPA assumes a relatively stable ecological environment within the area as before, it may become ineffective when the range of species distribution changes or becomes extensive.<a href="#cite_note-:22-123">[123]</a> Hence, there's need to incorporate the climate change adaptation to the framework. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Displaced_fishing_effort">Displaced fishing effort</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Displaced fishing effort">edit</a>]</div> Many fisheries scientists and managers have argued that no-take MPAs may not benefit biodiversity because they displace fishing effort outside the MPA.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> However, work accounting for displaced fishing effort has suggested that even when the same total amount of fish are caught across the seascape, MPAs can lead to a net biodiversity gain, if sensitive species are present,<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> even when the bycatch species do not fully overlap the distribution of the fished species.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> However, there are other potential undesirable impacts of displaced fishing effort such as increased cost to fishers.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_critiques">Other critiques</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Other critiques">edit</a>]</div> Other critiques include: their cost (higher than that of passive management), conflicts with human development goals, inadequate scope to address factors such as <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> and invasive species.<a href="#cite_note-MoraAndSale2011-57">[57]</a> In Scotland, environmental groups have criticised the government for failing to enforce fishing rules around MPAs.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/48px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/64px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/48px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/64px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /><a 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Spots</a>: marine areas rich in biodiversity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Important_marine_mammal_area" title="Important marine mammal area">Important marine mammal area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_sea" title="Law of the sea">Law of the sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_park" title="Marine park">Marine park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_spatial_planning" title="Marine spatial planning">Marine spatial planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Protection_Area" title="Special Protection Area">Special Protection Area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specially_Protected_Areas_of_Mediterranean_Importance" title="Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance">Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Marine_Sanctuary" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Marine Sanctuary">United States National Marine Sanctuary</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output 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Biological Conservation. 284: 110049. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023BCons.28410049E">2023BCons.28410049E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biocon.2023.110049">10.1016/j.biocon.2023.110049</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0006-3207">0006-3207</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Conservation&rft.atitle=The+biodiversity+benefits+of+marine+protected+areas+in+well-regulated+fisheries&rft.volume=284&rft.pages=110049&rft.date=2023-08-01&rft.issn=0006-3207&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.biocon.2023.110049&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023BCons.28410049E&rft.aulast=Erm&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft.au=Balmford%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Holden%2C+Matthew+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.biocon.2023.110049&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarine+protected+area" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErmBalmfordKrueckTakashina2024" class="citation journal cs1">Erm, Philip; Balmford, Andrew; Krueck, Nils C.; Takashina, Nao; Holden, Matthew H. 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Journal of Applied Ecology. 61 (4): 621–632. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024JApEc..61..621E">2024JApEc..61..621E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1365-2664.14595">10.1111/1365-2664.14595</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8901">0021-8901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Ecology&rft.atitle=Marine+protected+areas+can+benefit+biodiversity+even+when+bycatch+species+only+partially+overlap+fisheries&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=621-632&rft.date=2024-02-04&rft.issn=0021-8901&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1365-2664.14595&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2024JApEc..61..621E&rft.aulast=Erm&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft.au=Balmford%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Krueck%2C+Nils+C.&rft.au=Takashina%2C+Nao&rft.au=Holden%2C+Matthew+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbesjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2F1365-2664.14595&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarine+protected+area" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Dort2023" class="citation thesis cs1">Van Dort, Rebekah (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://researchspace.auckland.ac.nz/handle/2292/63216">Does displacement of fishing effort from marine protected areas impact the wider environment? A review and case study for displacement within the Hauraki Gulf</a> (Thesis thesis). ResearchSpace@Auckland.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Does+displacement+of+fishing+effort+from+marine+protected+areas+impact+the+wider+environment%3F+A+review+and+case+study+for+displacement+within+the+Hauraki+Gulf&rft.degree=Thesis&rft.inst=ResearchSpace%40Auckland&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Van+Dort&rft.aufirst=Rebekah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearchspace.auckland.ac.nz%2Fhandle%2F2292%2F63216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarine+protected+area" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theferret.scot/fines-fishermen-prosecution/">"Fines to rogue fishermen fall and illegal fishing escapes prosecution"</a>. The Ferret. 2019-10-06. Retrieved 2019-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Ferret&rft.atitle=Fines+to+rogue+fishermen+fall+and+illegal+fishing+escapes+prosecution&rft.date=2019-10-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheferret.scot%2Ffines-fishermen-prosecution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarine+protected+area" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWellsSheppardvan_LavierenBarnard2008" class="citation book cs1">Wells, Sue; Sheppard, V.; van Lavieren, H.; Barnard, N.; Kershaw, F.; Corrigan, C.; Teleki, K.; Stock, P.; Adler, E. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nationalregional08well">National and Regional Networks of Marine Protected Areas:A Review of Progress</a>. Master Evaluation for the UN Effort. <a href="/wiki/World_Conservation_Monitoring_Centre" title="World Conservation Monitoring Centre">World Conservation Monitoring Centre</a> The Americas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789280729757" title="Special:BookSources/9789280729757"><bdi>9789280729757</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2009-03-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=National+and+Regional+Networks+of+Marine+Protected+Areas%3AA+Review+of+Progress&rft.series=Master+Evaluation+for+the+UN+Effort&rft.pub=World+Conservation+Monitoring+Centre+The+Americas&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9789280729757&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=Sue&rft.au=Sheppard%2C+V.&rft.au=van+Lavieren%2C+H.&rft.au=Barnard%2C+N.&rft.au=Kershaw%2C+F.&rft.au=Corrigan%2C+C.&rft.au=Teleki%2C+K.&rft.au=Stock%2C+P.&rft.au=Adler%2C+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnationalregional08well&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarine+protected+area" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithMiller2003" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Smith, D.; Miller, K.A. (2003). Norton, S.F. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080929103135/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4759">"Safe Harbors for our Future: An Overview of Marine Protected Areas"</a>. Diving for Science. Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences (22nd Annual Scientific Diving Symposium). Archived from the original on September 29, 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diving+for+Science&rft.atitle=Safe+Harbors+for+our+Future%3A+An+Overview+of+Marine+Protected+Areas&rft.volume=Proceedings+of+the+American+Academy+of+Underwater+Sciences&rft.issue=22nd+Annual+Scientific+Diving+Symposium&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Miller%2C+K.A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.rubicon-foundation.org%2F4759&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarine+protected+area" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustralian_Government2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Environment,_Water,_Heritage_and_the_Arts_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (Australia)">Australian Government, Department of the Environment and Water Resources</a> (May 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.environment.gov.au/indigenous/publications/pubs/ipa-growing-up-strong.pdf">Growing up strong: The first 10 years of Indigenous Protected Areas in Australia</a> (PDF). Canberra: Australian Government. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0642553522" title="Special:BookSources/978-0642553522"><bdi>978-0642553522</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2008-05-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Growing+up+strong%3A+The+first+10+years+of+Indigenous+Protected+Areas+in+Australia&rft.place=Canberra&rft.pub=Australian+Government&rft.date=2007-05&rft.isbn=978-0642553522&rft.aulast=Australian+Government&rft.aufirst=Department+of+the+Environment+and+Water+Resources&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.environment.gov.au%2Findigenous%2Fpublications%2Fpubs%2Fipa-growing-up-strong.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarine+protected+area" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_protected_area&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Marine_protected_areas" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Marine protected areas">Marine protected areas</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://regeneration.org/nexus/marine-protected-areas">Marine Protected Areas</a> by Project Regeneration</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mpatlas.org/">Marine Protection Atlas</a> - an online tool from the <a href="/wiki/Marine_Conservation_Institute" title="Marine Conservation Institute">Marine Conservation Institute</a> that provides information on the world's protected areas and global MPA campaigns. Information comes from a variety of sources, including the <a href="/wiki/World_Database_on_Protected_Areas" title="World Database on Protected Areas">World Database on Protected Areas</a> (WDPA), and many regional and national databases.</li> <li>Marine protected areas - viewable via <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.protectedplanet.net/">Protected Planet</a>, an online interactive search engine hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme's World Conservation Monitoring Center (<a href="/wiki/UNEP-WCMC" class="mw-redirect" title="UNEP-WCMC">UNEP-WCMC</a>).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/Template:Marine_protected_areas" title="Template:Marine protected areas"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Marine_protected_areas" title="Template talk:Marine protected areas"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Marine_protected_areas" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Marine protected areas"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Marine_protected_areas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Marine protected areas</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Marine protected areas by nation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_protected_areas" title="List of marine protected areas">List of marine protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_marine_parks" title="Australian marine parks">Australia</a></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Protected_Areas_of_Canada" title="Marine Protected Areas of Canada">MPAs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Marine_Conservation_Area" title="National Marine Conservation Area">NMCAs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Marine_Protected_Areas_of_Italy" title="List of Marine Protected Areas of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_areas_of_South_Africa" title="Marine protected areas of South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Conservation_Zone" title="Marine Conservation Zone">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Protected_Areas_in_Scotland" title="Marine Protected Areas in Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Marine_Sanctuary" title="National Marine Sanctuary">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_protected_areas_of_Alaska" title="List of marine protected areas of Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_protected_areas_of_California" title="List of marine protected areas of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_protected_areas_of_Hawaii" title="List of marine protected areas of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_protected_areas_of_Oregon" title="List of marine protected areas of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_protected_areas_of_Washington" title="List of marine protected areas of Washington">Washington</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International marine conservation organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature" title="International Union for Conservation of Nature">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature" title="World Wide Fund for Nature">World Wide Fund for Nature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biodiversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biodiversity">Marine biodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_ecoregion" title="Marine ecoregion">Marine ecoregion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Marine protected area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_area" title="Protected area">Protected area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> Categories: <a href="/wiki/Category:Marine_protected_areas" title="Category:Marine protected areas">Marine protected areas</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Marine_protected_areas" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Marine protected areas">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Global_thinking.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fishery_science_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fishery_science_topics" title="Template:Fishery science topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a 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fisheries">wild fisheries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_science" title="Fisheries science">Fisheries science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics_of_fisheries" title="Population dynamics of fisheries">Population dynamics of fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifting_baseline" title="Shifting baseline">Shifting baseline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_stocks" title="Fish stocks">Fish stock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_mortality" title="Fish mortality">Fish mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condition_index_in_fish" title="Condition index in fish">Condition index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_assessment" title="Stock assessment">Stock assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_measurement" title="Fish measurement">Fish measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_weight_in_fish" title="Standard weight in fish">Standard weight in fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_counter" title="Fish counter">Fish counter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_storage_tag" title="Data storage tag">Data storage tag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catch_per_unit_effort" title="Catch per unit effort">Catch per unit effort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otolith_microchemical_analysis" title="Otolith microchemical analysis">Otolith microchemical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_acoustics" title="Fisheries acoustics">Fisheries acoustics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_tag" title="Acoustic tag">Acoustic tag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coded_wire_tag" title="Coded wire tag">Coded wire tag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GIS_and_aquatic_science" title="GIS and aquatic science">GIS and aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pop-up_satellite_archival_tag" title="Pop-up satellite archival tag">Pop-up satellite archival tag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EcoSCOPE" title="EcoSCOPE">EcoSCOPE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_class_structure" title="Age class structure">Age class structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrographic_containment" title="Hydrographic containment">Hydrographic containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Match/mismatch" title="Match/mismatch">Match/mismatch hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Climate change and fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">Aquatic ecosystems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioeconomics_(fisheries)" title="Bioeconomics (fisheries)">Bioeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EconMult" title="EconMult">EconMult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FishBase" title="FishBase">FishBase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Marine_Life" title="Census of Marine Life">Census of Marine Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2" title="OSTM/Jason-2">OSTM/Jason-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fisheries_databases" title="Category:Fisheries databases">Fisheries databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fisheries_and_aquaculture_research_institutes" title="Category:Fisheries and aquaculture research institutes">Institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_science#Notable_contributors" title="Fisheries science">Fisheries scientists</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Barracuda_off_the_Netherland_Antilles.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Great_Barracuda_off_the_Netherland_Antilles.jpg/140px-Great_Barracuda_off_the_Netherland_Antilles.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Great_Barracuda_off_the_Netherland_Antilles.jpg/210px-Great_Barracuda_off_the_Netherland_Antilles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Great_Barracuda_off_the_Netherland_Antilles.jpg/280px-Great_Barracuda_off_the_Netherland_Antilles.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_fisheries" title="Ocean fisheries">Ocean fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_of_fish" title="Diversity of fish">Diversity of fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_fish" title="Coastal fish">Coastal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forage_fish" title="Forage fish">Forage fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">Pelagic fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cod_fisheries" title="Cod fisheries">Cod fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crab_fisheries" title="Crab fisheries">Crab fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eel_life_history" title="Eel life history">Eel fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krill_fishery" title="Krill fishery">Krill fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp#Kelp_in_history_and_culture" title="Kelp">Kelp fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobster_fishing" title="Lobster fishing">Lobster fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrimp_fishery" title="Shrimp fishery">Shrimp fishery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eel_ladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Eel ladder">Eel ladder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_ladder" title="Fish ladder">Fish ladder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_screen" title="Fish screen">Fish screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_migration" title="Fish migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_run" title="Salmon run">Salmon run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardine_run" title="Sardine run">Sardine run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Shoaling and schooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">Marine snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Algal blooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">Dead zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_kill" title="Fish kill">Fish kill</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fisheries_law,_management,_sustainability_and_conservation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_law" title="Fisheries law">Fisheries law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_fishery" title="Sustainable fishery">sustainability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">conservation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_law" title="Fisheries law">Fisheries law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">Exclusive economic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal,_unreported_and_unregulated_fishing" title="Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing">Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea" title="United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Fish_Stocks_Agreement" title="United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement">United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_Convention" title="Fisheries Convention">Fisheries Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnuson%E2%80%93Stevens_Fishery_Conservation_and_Management_Act" title="Magnuson–Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act">Magnuson–Stevens Act</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Yellowfin_tuna_nurp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Yellowfin_tuna_nurp.jpg/140px-Yellowfin_tuna_nurp.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Yellowfin_tuna_nurp.jpg/210px-Yellowfin_tuna_nurp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Yellowfin_tuna_nurp.jpg/280px-Yellowfin_tuna_nurp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1558" data-file-height="1106" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">Fisheries management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_monitoring_control_and_surveillance" title="Fisheries monitoring control and surveillance">Monitoring control and surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vessel_monitoring_system" title="Vessel monitoring system">Vessel monitoring system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishery_Resources_Monitoring_System" title="Fishery Resources Monitoring System">Fishery Resources Monitoring System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catch_reporting" title="Catch reporting">Catch reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_observer" title="Fisheries observer">Fisheries observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catch_share" title="Catch share">Catch share</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individual_fishing_quota" title="Individual fishing quota">Individual fishing quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_landing_size" title="Minimum landing size">Minimum landing size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_fishing" title="Pulse fishing">Pulse fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slot_limit" title="Slot limit">Slot limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Fisheries_Policy" title="Common Fisheries Policy">EU Common Fisheries Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Fishery_MLS" title="European Fishery MLS">EU MLS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Fisheries_Control_Agency" title="European Fisheries Control Agency">European Fisheries Control Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Marine_Fisheries_Service" title="National Marine Fisheries Service">National Marine Fisheries Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_fishery_body" title="Regional fishery body">Regional fishery body</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_fishery_management_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Regional fishery management organisation">Regional fishery management organisation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Sustainability</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_fishery" title="Sustainable fishery">Sustainable fishery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_commercially_important_fish_species" title="List of commercially important fish species">List of commercially important fish species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_seafood" title="Sustainable seafood">Sustainable seafood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">Overfishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing" title="Environmental impact of fishing">Environmental impact of fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_down_the_food_web" title="Fishing down the food web">Fishing down the food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destructive_fishing_practices" title="Destructive fishing practices">Destructive fishing practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Marine_Animal_Populations" title="Future of Marine Animal Populations">Future of Marine Animal Populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sunken_Billions" title="The Sunken Billions">The Sunken Billions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_the_Line_(book)" title="The End of the Line (book)">The End of the Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bycatch" title="Bycatch">Bycatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discards" title="Discards">Discards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incidental_catch" title="Incidental catch">Incidental catch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cetacean_bycatch" title="Cetacean bycatch">Cetacean bycatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turtle_excluder_device" title="Turtle excluder device">Turtle excluder device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrimp-Turtle_Case" title="Shrimp-Turtle Case">Shrimp-Turtle case</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Conservation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Marine protected area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_reserve" title="Marine reserve">Marine reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation_activism" title="Marine conservation activism">Marine conservation activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_conservation" title="Salmon conservation">Salmon conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey_nurse_shark_conservation" title="Grey nurse shark conservation">Grey nurse shark conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_sanctuary" title="Shark sanctuary">Shark sanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Environmental_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="European Environmental Agency">European Environmental Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Fish_and_Wildlife_Service" title="United States Fish and Wildlife Service">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Advocacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/FishAct" title="FishAct">FishAct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Stewardship_Council" title="Marine Stewardship Council">Marine Stewardship Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_Stewardship_Council" title="Aquaculture Stewardship Council">Aquaculture Stewardship Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friend_of_the_Sea" title="Friend of the Sea">Friend of the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SeaChoice" title="SeaChoice">SeaChoice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafood_Watch" title="Seafood Watch">Seafood Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_Conservancy" title="Ocean Conservancy">Ocean Conservancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_Outcomes" title="Ocean Outcomes">Ocean Outcomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceana_(non-profit_group)" title="Oceana (non-profit group)">Oceana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Save_Our_Seas_Foundation" title="Save Our Seas Foundation">Save Our Seas Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Around_Us_(organization)" title="Sea Around Us (organization)">Sea Around Us</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WorldFish" title="WorldFish">WorldFish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defying_Ocean%27s_End" title="Defying Ocean's End">Defying Ocean's End</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_Ecosystem_Research_and_Man%27s_Impact_On_European_Seas" title="Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man's Impact On European Seas">HERMIONE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PROFISH" title="PROFISH">PROFISH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Seafood_Sustainability_Foundation" title="International Seafood Sustainability Foundation">International Seafood Sustainability Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Shepherd_Conservation_Society" title="Sea Shepherd Conservation Society">Sea Shepherd Conservation Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenpeace" title="Greenpeace">Greenpeace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Related issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CalCOFI" title="CalCOFI">CalCOFI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_slaughter" title="Fish slaughter">Fish slaughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_in_fish" title="Mercury in fish">Mercury in fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_culling" title="Shark culling">Shark culling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_finning" title="Shark finning">Shark finning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_threatened_sharks" title="List of threatened sharks">Threatened sharks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_threatened_rays" title="List of threatened rays">Threatened rays</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_fishing" title="Outline of fishing">Outline of fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_fishing_articles" title="Index of fishing articles">Index of fishing articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_fishery_terms" title="Glossary of fishery terms">Glossary of fishery terms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Marine_ecosystems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Marine_ecosystem_topics" title="Template:Marine ecosystem topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Marine_ecosystem_topics" title="Template talk:Marine ecosystem topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Marine_ecosystem_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Marine ecosystem topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Marine_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">Marine ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">Marine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization" title="Iron fertilization">Iron fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Hypothesis">Iron Hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_marine_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Large marine ecosystem">Large marine ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">Marine ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">Marine snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean chemistry">Ocean chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_turbidity" title="Ocean turbidity">Ocean turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_physical-biological_process" title="Oceanic physical-biological process">Oceanic physical-biological process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">Photophore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whale_fall" title="Whale fall">Whale fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Marine_biology" title="Category:Marine biology">more ...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine life forms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Marine_Life" title="Census of Marine Life">Census of Marine Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_fish" title="Coastal fish">Coastal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea communities">Deep sea communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_creature" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea creature">Deep sea creature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea fish">Deep sea fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">Marine invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_larval_ecology" title="Marine larval ecology">Marine larval ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">Marine mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">Marine reptile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_vertebrate" title="Marine vertebrate">Marine vertebrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">Pelagic fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">Seabird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seashore_wildlife" title="Seashore wildlife">Seashore wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">Bay mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_smoker" class="mw-redirect" title="Black smoker">Black smokers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davidson_Seamount#Ecology" title="Davidson Seamount">Davidson Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">Intertidal ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biomes">Marine biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">Rocky shores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">Seagrass meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_reef" title="Sponge reef">Sponge reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pools</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_values_of_mangrove" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological values of mangrove">Ecological values of mangrove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_and_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries and climate change">Fisheries and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_Ecosystem_Research_and_Man%27s_Impact_On_European_Seas" title="Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man's Impact On European Seas">HERMIONE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" 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